Indian Activism

In the context of Civil RightsAnd against Termination and Problems on Indian ReservationsPart Two: Last Stand

Indian Activism This Powerpoint is subject to continuous revisions.

Written and Revised by Scott Fritz, Ph.D. on October 6, 2015 at 1:45 pm

Western New Mexico University1Sustaining FiguresIndian leaders with support from traditional Indians and eldersExperience with outside worldMilitary serviceBusinessBridge two worldsExamples to look at:During AllotmentCharles EastmanBlack ElkDuring TerminationRoger JourdainHank AdamsBilly FrankLucy Covington

Sustaining Figures during AllotmentCharles Eastman: LakotaNative American Physician (1858-1939)Early lifeFather fought against U.S. early 1860sFamily fled to Canada, father imprisoned, became Christian, convinced Charles to seek white mans education EducationDartmouth and Boston University medical schoolWorked as doctor for the Bureau of Indian AffairsRecruit students for the Carlisle Indian SchoolHelped form the Society of American IndiansFounded Native American chapters of the YMCA

Charles Eastmans Soul of an Indian, was used by Indian peoples to rediscover themselves during an era of assimilation. Published in 1911.Black ElkOglala Lakota medicine man, second cousin of Crazy HorseLived 1863-1950, fought in Battle of the Little Big HornWhen 9 years old, had vision of the universal spirit and a tree symbolizing life on earth and Indian peoplesInjured at Wounded Knee 1890

Black Elk Continued:Traveled to England with Buffalo Bills Wild West Show in 1887Convert to Catholicism and saw no difference with between God and Wakan TankaRevealed sacred Sioux rituals to John Neihardt in the book Black Elk SpeaksYou have noticed that everything an Indian does is in a circle, and that is because the Power of the World always works in circlesthe Sacred Hoop

Like Charles Eastmans Soul of an Indian, Black Elks sayings was used by Indian peoples to rediscover themselves during an era of assimilation. Published in 1932.Sustaining Figures on the reservationsCharacteristics of Leaders on Reservations: 1950s-1960sUnlike sustaining figuresReservation leadersLack of a formal educationLearned how Washington worked, while trying to protect their peoples rightsHad a difficult time fighting Washington, D.C.Together with sustaining figures, they would pave the way toward self-determinationRoger Jourdain: Red Lake ChippewaOf the Ojibwe of Minnesota Born 1912Experience with outside worldWent to BIA Boarding School in Wisconsin Lumber jack on BIA logging campsAlaska HighwayHelped form Young Mans CouncilChanged constitutionInstead of selected council, elected council1958 -- elected tribal chairman and serve until 1990Led movement to:Revitalize tribal homelands/cultureTribal sovereignty

Roger Jourdain: ContinuedChallenged BIA control of missions and schoolsAcquired money independent of BIAFund tribally-run housing and health facilitiesRe-opened Indian Health Services hospitalBrought running water to reservationSuccessful in preventing Public Law 280 on reservationIssued tribal license platesStates were forced to honor those platesTried to require passports for non-Indians entering reservationInitiated 1967 intertribal boycott of businesses in Bemidji, Minnesota Because of racist comments from a county commissionerHelped form National Tribal Chairmans AssociationHelped create Minnesota Indian Scholarship Program Seneca Reservation and the Kinzua DamSeneca Reservation in Southwest New York, in the Allegany MountainLeader: George Heron: Born 1919, Civilian Conservation Corp,WWII Vet: pharmacist in U.S. NavyPresident of Seneca Nation 1958-1960, 1962-1964Kinzua Dam to generate electricity for profit (i.e. Cash Register Dams), completed 1965Issue: Indian land can be flooded because they do not voteIssue: Corp of Engineers could have flooded the Conewango Valley, but it would flood out whites (who vote)

Leadership on the Seneca Reservation: Kinzua Dam ControversyCornelius Seneca and George Heron rallied his people against the project in late 1950sJohnny Cash wrote song about damHeron failed to stop damGovernment removed 160 familiesAncestral lands on reservation were floodedKinzua Dam flooded graves, including that of Cornplanter (Signer of Treaty of Canandaigua 1794)Cornplanter fought for Great Britain during the Revolutionary WarGarrison Dam: on the Fort Berthold ReservationNorth Dakota, on the Missouri River, composed of the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara tribesPick Sloan Agreement 1944 called for 112 dams to be constructed on the MissouriGarrison Dam proposed, which would flood the Berthold reservation (some 200,000 acres)Leader: Fort Berthhold Tribal Chairman George GillettFailed to stop the dam

Hopi and Peabody Coal Co.Black Mesa (coal underneath) and includes the Navajo and Hopi Reservations, and ancestral burial sitesLawyer for the Hopi John Boyden made deal in 1964 to give lease rights to Peabody Energy for the coalCouncil members did not realize that sale of lease was cheap for Peabody Coal Co.Use aquifer to pump water in coal slurry to electrical generating plan in Laughlin, NVKikmongwi (traditional Hopi) publically protested but lostSpokesman Thomas Banyacya became leader in response to the controversyAttended Sherman Indian School (Riverside, CA)Attended Bacone College, OkPrison: Draft dodger in WWII

Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United StatesDecided in 1955 Southeast Alaska: Aquatic life, forests, elk, moose, deerSalmon People: Tlingit Background: Purchase of Alaska 1867 treaty with RussiaSaid all uncivilized tribes would be subject to laws and regulation of U.S. governmentTongass National Forest,1909Lumber, pulp, and paper industryClear-cut around native villages and burial sitesCase involved destruction of indigenous habitats1947: Alaska Native Brotherhood charged U.S. Forest Service and lumber companies from trespassingStandoff, Indians arrestedWilliam Paul brought suit against U.S. governmentFor Tongass National Forest awarding lumber deal to Ketchikan Pulp Co.

William Paul, Tlingit, b. 1885, lawyer, fought against school segregation, won citizenship and right to vote (before Citizenship Act of 1924), helped establish Alaska Native Brotherhood (est.1912), fought for land rights, brought suit that Tongass National Forest does not own Tlingit lands to Supreme Court

Tee-Hit-Ton case continued:Supreme Court: U.S. could take Indian lands and open it up to developmentIndians in a hunting and fishing state of civilizationTlingit were compensated for lost landsIndian Claims Commission Alaska Natives Claims Settlement ActIn spite of compensation, the land was destroyed

Significance of Tee-Hit-Ton decisionfederal Indian law offers few protections for indigenous habitats in ancestral territory no longer owned or controlled by Indian tribes. (Echo Hawk, 365)Threatens native cultural identity because their mythology, etc. is embedded in natureIndian view of nature vs. Anglo view of natureAnimismHuman domination over natureUN Declaration of Rights of Indigeneous People (2007)must be given the right to own, control and use ancestral territories and be provided effective means to protect the environmental integrity of indigenous habitat. (Echo Hawk, 367)Fish-insSalmon PeopleWhat does the author mean? Tribes primarily in the Pacific NorthwestTribes: Nisqually, (Washington) Salish (Oregon) Tillamook (Oregon)Relied on fishing traditionally for food

Problems Facing Salmon PeopleColumbia River DamsGrand Coulee Dam, 1942Flooded Kettle Falls, fishing area1941 Indians met for Ceremony of TearsDalles Dam, 1957Flooded Celilo FallsPublic Law 280Extended state jurisdiction onto reservationsForced Indians to purchase state-issued fishing licenses Significance: Leads to Red Power Movement and Fishins,

Billy FrankBorn in 1931, Nisqually Indian TribeServed in Marines during WWIIMain Cause: Fishing RightsTreatys in the 1850s guaranteed rights to salmon fishingWas against Washington state laws requiring Indians to purchase fishing licensesAlso critical of environmental impact of clear-cutting of timberWould lead in FishinsFish in traditional areasWould get arrested more than 50 times, went to jail willinglyMarlon Brando supported his causeNisqually took case to court, in U.S. v. Washington (1974)Judge George Boldt found in favor of IndiansBoldt Decision est. 20 Indian tribes in Washington as co-managers of salmon with the stateFrank became chairman of the Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission

Hank AdamsBorn 1943 on the Fort Peck Indian Reservation, Montana (Souix-Assiniboine)Worked as vegetable picker and in the reservation lumber millWent to college, spent time on the Quinault ReservationTreaty Fishing RightsProtested (in general) Public Law 280Sought Native American rights to fish salmon at traditional locations on the Columbia and Niqually riversIn 1964, organized march on Olympia in Washington to protest state attack on Indian treaty fishing rightsRefused to go into Army until fishing rights were restoredEnded up serving in the ArmyHank Adams: ContinuedLeader: Survival of American Indians Association, 1968To protect Indian fishing rightsArrested between 1968-1971 for fishing without license on the Nisqually RiverWorked with larger, pan-Indian groupsDirector of the National Indian Youth CouncilWorked with the American Indian Movement

Red Power Movement: A Growing pan-Indian identity

Red Power: Indians of All TribesFormed in San FranciscoChildren of parents participating in Relocation ProgramFormed around San Francisco Indian Center Occupation of Alcatraz, 1969Abandoned in 1963Sioux protesters occupied site in 1964, couple of hoursSaid Ft. Laramie Treaty of 1868 gave Indians right to claim any unused federal property1969 occupation was led by Mohawk Richard OakesAnglo Hippies visited, Oakes step-daughter fell and died and he left, others leftLasted till 1971, when remaining Indians were removed by policeSignificance: Helped to lead to Indian Self-Determination and Educational Assistance Act of 1975

Red Power Movement: American Indian MovementFounded 1968 in Minneapolis Dennis Banks (Chippewa)Clyde Bellecourt (Chippewa)Formed originally to address poverty, housing, and conducted street patrols against police harassment in MinneapolisLater extend to treaty rights on and off reservationsSought to rediscover traditionsLater joined by:Russell Means (Lakota)John Trudell (Lakota)

Founded by urban Indians whose parents participated in Relocation Program, met at Indian Center

John Trudell, Radio Alcatraz, Russell Means, worked for Cleveland Indian CenterAIM Protests and ActionsAIM participated in Mount Rushmore protests, July 4, 1971Claimed Paha Sapa sacredMount Rushmore violated the 1868 Fort Laramie TreatyTook over Mayflower and painted Plymouth Rock red, Thanksgiving,1971AIMs angered over: Murder of Raymond Yellow Thunder (SD, near Pine Ridge Reservation)AIM led caravan to Gordon, negotiations, murderers were indictedMurder of Richard Oakes Murders went free, Indians angeredMurder of Papago Philip CelayCoroner ruled it a justified homicide Trail of Broken Treaties march, 1972Idea originated at Sun Dance on Rosebud ReservationPlan: Caravans pick up Indians converge in Minneapolis Hank Adams draft 20 Point ProposalSovereignty, expansion of land base, tribal control of reservations, abolition of BIACaravans arrived to Washington D.C.No where to stay, except auditorium of BIA BuildingOfficials tried to remove, protesters stayedSome 400 Indians took over the BIA offices Destroyed furniture, documents, etc.Negotiated between occupiers and government Occupiers left peacefully upon assurances that they not be prosecuted and government address 20 PointsThe following slide illustrates the 20 Points

Hank Adams 20 Points during the BIA takeoverRestore treaty making rights (ended by Congress in 1871);Establish a treaty commission to make new treaties (with sovereign Native Nations);Provide opportunities for Indian leaders to address Congress directly;Review treaty commitments and violations;Have un-ratified treaties reviewed by the Senate;Ensure that all American Indians are governed by treaty relations;Provide relief to Native Nations as compensation for treaty rights violations;Recognize the right of Indians to interpret treaties;Create a Joint Congressional Committee to reconstruct relations with Indians;Restore 110 million acres (450,000 km2) of land taken away from Native Nations by the United States;Restore terminated rights of Native Nations;Repeal state jurisdiction on Native Nations (Public Law 280)Provide Federal protection for offenses against Indians;Abolish the Bureau of Indian Affairs;Create a new office of Federal Indian Relations;Remedy breakdown in the constitutionally prescribed relationships between the United States and Native Nations;Ensure immunity of Native Nations from state commerce regulation, taxes, and trade restrictions;Protect Indian religious freedom and cultural integrity;Establish national Indian voting with local options; free national Indian organizations from governmental controls; andReclaim and affirm health, housing, employment, economic development, and education for all Indian people. (Retrieved September 21, 2011 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Indian_Movement)Standoff at Wounded Knee, 1973AIM took-over village of Wounded Knee on Pine Ridge ReservationWhere 1890 Massacre happenedContext: Increased tensions between Whites and IndiansWesley Bad Heart Bull murdered in Buffalo Gap (west of reservation)Not charged with murder, release on bailAIM led caravan to Custer, riot, Chamber of Commerce burnedAnger over tribal chairman of Pine Ridge Reservation Dick WilsonNepotismSold grazing leases to white ranchers, at too low of a rateGov. award money for taking of Black Hills in 1877, Wilson favored accepting money, even though many wanted Black Hills returned Used Goon Squad to intimidate opponents

Wounded Knee Continued:Tribal supporters of AIM initiate impeachment proceedings against WilsonLaw enforcement including FBI swarmed onto reservation, to protect BIA buildingsAIM caravan to reservation to protect those against WilsonImpeachment proceedings at Calico Community Hall continuedTook over town of Wounded Knee on the Pine Ridge Reservation (chose the site for its symbolic value, i.e. the 1890 massacre) for 71 daysShooting between occupiers and FBI (both sides had gunmen who were killed)Attracted media attentionHank Adams negotiated an end to the standoffAIM members allowed to leave Pine Ridge Russell Means and Dennis Banks charged with murder, but charges dismissed due to prosecutorial misconduct

Wilson, never impeached, ran in elections against Russell Means, Wilson reelected in 1974, lost 1976 election, ultimately died in 1990.American Indian Center of Chicago: A HistoryOrganized in 1953 by Indians in ChicagoAssistance from American Friends Service Committee (Quaker, 1917)Chicago was one of five original relocation cities Board of Directors: Native Americans elected from Chicago Indian communityLocated in same location since 1966Sponsored Powwows for 50 yearsModel for other Indian centers

Mission of Chicago Indian Center: To promote the fellowship among Indian people of all Tribes living in metropolitan Chicago, and to create bonds of understanding and communication between Indians and non-Indians in this city. To advance the general welfare of American Indians into the metropolitan community life; to foster the economic and educational advancement of Indian peoples; to sustain cultural, artistic and avocational pursuits; and to perpetuate Indian cultural values.

Tribes represented: Oneida, Ojibwa, Menominee, Sac and Fox, and Potawatomi of the north woods, Lakota, Navajo, Blackfoot, Papago

Other American Indian CentersSan Francisco: Intertribal Friendship House, est. 1955, renamed Friendship House Association of American IndiansThe mission of Friendship House is to promote healing and wellness in the American Indian community by providing a continuum of substance abuse prevention, treatment, and recovery services that integrate traditional American Indian healing practices and evidence-based substance abuse treatment methods.Stanford American Indian Organization, est. 1970 University studentsMinneapolis: Incorporated in 1974Mission: Provide excellent services that help meet the needs of the American Indian community within a foundation of cultural values.ConclusionSustaining FiguresCharles Eastman, Black ElkTribal LeadershipRoger Jourdain, Billy FrankProblems facing reservationsKinzua Dam, Garrison DamFish-insBilly Frank, Hank AdamsRed Power MovementAlcatraz, AIM, Trail of Broken Treaties, Standoff at Wounded Knee