Immersion en Ligne

8/18/2019 Immersion en Ligne

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PHCU@^QCV@ _D^CQ-FDP_MCH@F^J-PJ^ AH^Q 9?==

A`htr` f` ràm`ram` A^@_D

VM@Q@

_bur l–bnt`htcbh fu tctr` f ̀FBAV@P^ @H QAC@HA@Q F@ I@QVCBH

(Drrëtã fu 9 Db÷t >??5)

_rãs`htã` `t sbut`hu` punlcqu`j`ht pdr

Dmj`f Dhcs AMDÊC

KP^S

Fcràtùr f` tmís` ; Jbhscùr _c`rr` UBLL@_rbe`ssùr, Phcv`rsctã _drcs-Fdupmch`

^dppbrtùrs ; Jbhscùr K`dh-Erdhébcs L@JBCH@

_rbe`ssùr, Phcv`rsctã _drcs 4 _dhtmãbh-Qbrnbhh`Jdfdj` @lcsdn`tm VCQQC@^-F@QNB^F@Q

_rbe`ssùr, @QA_-@P^B_@

Queerdidhts ; Jbhscùr F`hcs IPCBV_rbe`ssùr, Phcv`rsctã _drcs-Fdupmch`

Jbhscùr Jburdf VBP[DHC_rbe`ssùr, ^bu`h Nusch`ss Qambbl

Jbhscùr N`hbct V@[@HDQ FP JBHVA@L

Fcràtùr iãhãrdl, Hbvdabj Irbup`

L–@]_@^C@HA@ F–CJJ@^QCBH

@H LCIH@ FDHQ L@Q@HUC^BHH@J@HVQ JDÂMDHFQ

F@ ^@DLCV@ UC^VP@LL@



>



1

L–@]_@^C@HA@ F–CJJ@^QCBH @H LCIH@ FDHQ

L@Q @HUC^BHH@J@HVQ JDÂMDHFQ F@ ^@DLCV@UC^VP@LL@

^ãsujã f` ld tmís`

L`s r`spbhsdnl`s f` sct`s jdramdhfs am`ram`ht f` plus `h plus ï edvbrcs`r l–cjj`rscbh f` scht`rhdut`s p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih`. L–bnkàtce f` a`tt` ràm`ram` `st f–ãtufc`r l`s èe`tsf`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s f`s sct`s jdramdhfs abjj` vdrcdnl`s dtjbspmãrcqu`s, surl–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` `h lcih`, ld vdlùr p`réu` f` ld vcsct` (mãfbhcqu` `t utclctdcr`) `t sur ld

p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi `h lcih`, hbtdjj`ht l`s abjpbrt`j`hts f`s cht`rhdut`s `hv r̀s l` sct`,ld jdrqu` `t l–beer`. Q–dppuydht sur uh` r`vu` f` lcttãrdtur` dchsc qu` sur f`s chv`stcidtcbhscssu`s f–uh` dhdlys` qudlctdtcv` `xplbrdtbcr`, hbus chtrbfucsbhs l`s nds`s tmãbrcqu`s `tjãtmbfblbicqu`s rãpbhfdht ï a`tt` prbnlãjdtcqu`. Ph jbfíl` abha`ptu`l fãv`lbppã. Cl j`t`h ãvcf`ha` l–èe`t f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s, t`ll`s qu` p`réu`s pdr l`s cht`rhdut`s,hbtdjj`ht l` fãabr `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs, l`s dvdtdrs `t l`s abjjdhf`s f` abhtröl` surl–cjj`rscbh, l–ãvdludtcbh f` ld vcsct` `t sur l` nbuam` ï br`cll`, l–cht`htcbh f–damdt, l–cht`htcbhf` r`vcsct`r l` sct`, l–cht`htcbh f` pr`hfr` abhtdat. L`s r`ldtcbhs fu jbfíl` sbht jbfãrã`s pdrl–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t, l–cjplcadtcbh `hv`rs ld adtãibr c` fu prbfuct, l` lcù `t l` jbj`ht f` ldvcsct`. Dprís ld vdlcfdtcbh f`s ãam`ll`s f` j`sur` sur uh ãamdhtcllbh f` 16? rãpbhfdhts, uhàbllàt` f`s fbhhã`s d ãtã èeàtuã` lbrs f–uh` `xpãrcj`htdtcbh `h lcih` (>== qu`stcbhhdcr`s).= v`rscbhs f–uh sct` bh ãtã abhéu`s. L–dhdlys` jbhtr` uh èe`t scihcecadtce f`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` sur l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh. @hech, f`s cjplcadtcbhs jdhdiãrcdl`s,jãtmbfblbicqu s̀ `t tmãbrcqu`s, dchsc qu` f`s vbc`s eutur`s s`rbht jcs`s `h p`rspàtcv`.

Jbts-alãs ;

Cht`rh`t, dvdtdr, abhtröl` p`réu, `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh, cjj`rscbh, vdlùr p`réu`,`xp`rtcs`, cjplcadtcbh, rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`.



6

L–uhcv`rsctã h–`ht`hf fbhh r̀ duauh` dpprbndtcbh hc cjprbndtcbh dux bpchcbhs ãjcs s̀ fdhs a`tt`

tmís` ; a`s bpchcbhs fbcv`ht ëtr` abhscfãrã`s abjj` prbpr`s ï l`ur dut`ur.



0

^@J@ÂC@J@HVQ

L` prãs`ht trdvdcl fbatbrdl `st l–dnbutcss`j`ht f–uh lbhi prba`ssus f` ldnùr, f`fãt`rjchdtcbh jdcs dussc f` r`habhtr`s. @h abhsãqu`ha`, k` sbumdct` r`j`rac`r tbut`s l`s

p`rsbhh`s quc bht abhtrcnuã ï sbh daabjplcss`j`ht.

F–dnbrf, k` sbumdct` `xprcj`r jd prbebhf` ràbhhdcssdha` `t irdtctuf` ï jbh fcràtùr f`tmís`, l` _rbe`ssùr _c`rr` UBLL@, pbur sd abhecdha`, sbh sbutc`h, sd jbtcvdtcbh, s`s`haburdi`j`hts, s`s prãacùs`s ràbjjdhfdtcbhs `t sbh dppbrt jdhce`st` ï a` trdvdcl. K`r`j`rac` dussc nc`h l` prbe`ssùr qu` l–mbjj` fbht l–daabjpdih`j`ht j–d mbhbrã.

K` sucs ãidl`j`ht pdrtcaulcír`j`ht ràbhhdcssdht du _rbe`ssùr F`hcs IPCBV f` l–chtãrëtqu–cl jdhce`st` ï l–ãidrf f` a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl.

K–`xprcj` tbut` jd irdtctuf` du _rbe`ssùr K`dh-Erdhébcs L@JBCH@ `t _rbe`ssùr` @lcsdn`tmVCQQC@^-F@QNB^F@Q f–dvbcr daa`ptã f–ëtr` j`jnr`s fu kury `t rdppbrtùrs f` a`tt` tmís`.K` r`j`rac` Jbhscùr Jburdf VBP[DHC quc j` edct l–mbhhùr f` pdrtcacp`r ï a` kury f`tmís`.

K` r`j`rac` Jbhscùr N`hbct V@[@HDQ FP JBHVA@L, fcràtùr iãhãrdl f` Hbvdabj, pbur dvbcr daa`ptã f` edcr` pdrtc` f` jbh kury. _lus pdrtcaulcír`j`ht, pbur tbut l–chtãrët qu–cl pbrt` ï jd ràm`ram`. K` sbumdct` luc `xprcj`r jd schaír` ràbhhdcssdha` pbur sbh dcf`, sdfcspbhcnclctã, pbur j–dvbcr edaclctã l–daaís du t`rrdch `t j–dvbcr p`rjcs f` vcvr` uh`

`xpãrc`ha` ̀ hrcamcssdht`.Fdhs ld jëj` lcihã`, k–`xprcj` jd schaír` irdtctuf` `hv`rs Jãldhc` I^DUBV, VbhyN@HC@^-^BLL@V' `t K`dh-_mclcpp` L@JDC^@, f` Hbadabj, quc bht abhéu `t iãrã l`sfãalchdcsbhs fu sct` f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh.

@h pdrdllíl`, k–dc pu nãhãecac`r furdht a`s dhhã`s f–uh adfr` f` trdvdcl stcjuldht du s`ch f`l–uhcv`rsctã _drcs-Fdupmch`. K` tc`hs ï r`j`rac`r l–`hs`jnl` fu ldnbrdtbcr` A^@_D `t plus

pdrtcaulcír`j`ht ï Elbr`ha` _D^@HV, _c`rr` ^BJ@LD@^ `t @rca ADJ_BS. J`rac ï j`sadjdrdf`s f` ld sdll` f`s fbatbrdhts, ld sdll` bu k` j–cjj`ri`dcs p`hfdht f`s mùr`s. L`

nur`du du ebhf ï frbct` `st fãsbrjdcs lcnr`.

J`rac ï tbut`s l`s p`rsbhh`s quc j` sbht amír`s `t quc j–bht dcfãs `t daabjpdihãs fdhs l`sfceeãr`ht`s ãtdp`s f` a`tt` ràm`ram` ï sdvbcr H`srch`, Fbrrd, Jyrcdj, ^bjdch, ^dpmd`l,Amdmcrd, @jhd, Cj`h, [`ch`n, @jhd, Qdlcjd, Qlcj, @vd, Qdhfrch` `t tbus l`s dutr`s.

Vbut` jd irdtctuf` ï jd sőur ^cj, sbh ãpbux [ncnd `t j`s h`vùx J`rc`j `t Sbussè, pburlùrs sbutc`hs `t `haburdi`j`hts. K` r`j`rac` ãidl`j`ht jbh p`tct erír` Ydlcf `t sbh ãpbus`Mãld.

@hech, jd plus schaír` `t prbebhf` ràbhhdcssdha` `t irdtctuf` ï j`s pdr`hts pbur lùrsfãvbu`j`hts, `haburdi`j`hts `t pbur dvbcr su abhaclc`r pdtc`ha` `t fcstdha` tbut du lbhi f`

a`s dhhã`s f` tmís`.. _dpd ! Jdjdh ! K` sucs ec`r f` vbus fãfc`r a`tt` tmís`.



5

QBJJDC^@

LCQV@ F@Q ECIP^@Q........................................................................................................... 44 LCQV@ F@Q VDNL@DP] ...................................................................................................... 4>

CHV^BFPAVCBH I@H@^DL@ .......................................................................................... 46

_D^VC@ C ; LD I@H@Q@ F@ L–@]_@^C@HA@ F–CJJ@^QCBH @H LCIH@ FDHQ

L@Q @HUC^BHH@J@HVQ F@ ^@DLCV@ UC^VP@LL@................................................. 16

CHV^BFPAVCBH D LD _^@JC@^@ _D^VC@ ................................................................. 10

AMD_CV^@ C ; D LD TP@V@ F@ L–@]_@^C@HA@ F@ ABHQBJJDVCBH .............. 1=

CHV^BFPAVCBH FP AMD_CV^@ C .................................................................................. 13

C. L`s ebhf`j`hts tmãbrcqu`s fu abha`pt f–`xpãrc`ha` .................................................... 6?

C.4. L`s brcich`s f` l–dpprbam` `xpãrc`htc`ll` fdhs l` jdrg`tchi ................................. 6?

C.>. L–dpprbam` plurcfcsacplchdcr` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` ; l`s fbjdch`s f–dpplcadtcbh f`l–`xpãrc`htc`l ............................................................................................................................. 6>

C.1. L–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh ............................................................................. 66

CC. Ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh ............................................................ 0?

CC.4. L` röl` f` l–`htr`prcs` fdhs ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s ..................................... 0?

CC.>. L` röl` fu abhsbjjdtùr fdhs ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s ................................ 0=

ABHALPQCBH FP AMD_CV^@ C ....................................................................................... 55

AMD_CV^@ CC ; L–CJJ@^QCBH FDHQ PH @HUC^ BHH@J@HV JDÂMDHF........ 5=

CHV^BFPAVCBH FP AMD_CV^@ CC ................................................................................. 53

C. L–dpprbam` plurcfcsacplchdcr` f` l–cjj`rscbh ............................................................... 9?

C.4. L–cjj`rscbh tàmhcqu` ......................................................................................... 94

C.>. L–cjj`rscbh psyamblbicqu`................................................................................... 91

CC. Cjj`rscbh `t jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l ............................................................................. 90

CC.4. L–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh ............................................................................................... 99CC.>. L` prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh .................................................................................... 93

CC.1. L`s trdkàtbcr`s f` l–cjj`rscbh............................................................................. =4

CC.6. L`s fcj`hscbhs f` l–cjj`rscbh ............................................................................ =1

CCC. L–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` ̀ h lcih` .............................................................................. =5

CCC.4. L–`xpãrc`ha` vcrtu`ll` .......................................................................................... =5

CCC.>. L`s dhtãaãf`hts f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh ..................................................... =9

CCC.1. L–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` ..................................................................... =3

CU. Fcstchiu`r l–cjj`rscbh f` abha`pts prbam`s ............................................................. 3>



9

CU.4. Cjj`rscbh vs. elbw .............................................................................................. 3>

CU.>. Cjj`rscbh vs. tãlãprãs`ha` ................................................................................ 30

CU.1. L–cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` vs. l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`.................................................................................................................................................. 39

ABHALPQCBH FP AMD_CV^@ CC .................................................................................... 4?? L@Q ABJ_BQDHV@Q F@ L–@HUC^BHH@J@HV @]_@^C@HVC@L @H LCIH@ ..... 4?1

CHV^BFPAVCBH FP AMD_CV^@ CCC ............................................................................. 4?6

C. L–dtjbspmír` f` v`ht` ................................................................................................ 4?0

C.4. L–dtjbspmír ̀ f`s pbchts f` v`ht` pmyscqu`s ...................................................... 4?0

C.>. L–dtjbspmír` f`s pbchts f` v`ht` vcrtu`ls ........................................................... 44?

C.1. L` abhtröl` p`réu.................................................................................................. 440

CC. Ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` ....................................................................................................... 4>4

CC.4. Fãechctcbhs f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` ........................................................................ 4>4

CC.>. L`s fbjdch`s f–dpplcadtcbh f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` .............................................. 4>6

CCC. ^ãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `t jdrg`tchi .................................................................................. 4>9

CCC.4. L–dpplcadtcbh f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `h @-jdrg`tchi .......................................... 4>9

CCC.1. l`s abjpbsdht`s ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll`s f`s sct`s jdramdhfs f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` .......... 41>

CCC.6. Vypblbic` f`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` .................................... 416

ABHALPQCBH FP AMD_CV^@ CCC .................................................................................. 41=

ABHALPQCBH F@ LD ^@UP@ F@ LD LCVV@^DVP^@ ............................................. 46? AMD_CV^@ CU ; LD _MDQ@ TPDLCVDVCU@ @V L@Q MS_BVM@Q@Q F@^@AM@ÂM@ ...................................................................................................................... 461

CHV^BFPAVCBH FP AMD_CV^@ CU.............................................................................. 466

D. Ld pmds̀ qudlctdtcv` f` ld ràm`ram` ........................................................................... 460

C. L`s bnkàtces f` l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` .................................................................................. 460

CC. Ld jãtmbfblbic` f` ld pmds` qudlctdtcv` ........................................................................ 469

CC.4. L` jbf` f` abllàt` f`s fbhhã`s ........................................................................ 469

CC.>. Ld jãtmbf` f–dhdlys` ......................................................................................... 40>

CCC. L–dhdlys` f`s rãsultdts .................................................................................................. 40=

CCC.4. L` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l .................................................................................... 40=

CCC.>. L–cjj`rscbh ...................................................................................................... 49>

CCC.1. Ld vdlùr p`réu` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`, uh` vdrcdnl` jãfcdtrca` 2 .............. 495

CCC.6. Ld p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi fu sct` ; L`s abjpbrt`j`hts f`s cht`rhdut`s ......... 4=?

CU. L`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s chfcvcfu`ll`s ̀ t l`s ãlãj`hts mbrs fu abhtröl` fu sct` .................. 4=1

CU.4. L`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s chfcvcfu`ll`s `t l`s ãlãj`hts mbrs fu abhtröl` fu sct` ...... 4=1CU.>. L`s ãlãj`hts mbrs fu abhtröl` fu sct` ; L` lcù `t l` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` ......... 4=0



=

U. L`s tmíj`s cf`htcecãs ..................................................................................................... 4==

UC. Abhaluscbh f` ld sàtcbh ............................................................................................... 43?

D. L` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l `t l`s mypbtmís`s f` ràm`ram` ................................................ 431

C. _rbpbsctcbh f–uh jbfíl` abha`ptu`l ............................................................................... 431

C.4. L`s dx`s f` ld ràm`ram` ....................................................................................... 431

C.>. L` ambcx f`s vdrcdnl`s .......................................................................................... 435

CC. L`s mypbtmís`s f` ràm`ram` .......................................................................................... >?>

CC.4. L` pr`jc`r irbup` f–mypbtmís`s ; l`s mypbtmís`s abha`rhdht l–cjj`rscbh fdhsl–`hvcrbhh`j`ht ̀ xpãrc`htc`l ̀ h lcih` .................................................................................... >?>

CC.>. L` fùxcíj` irbup` f–mypbtmís`s ; L–èe`t jãfcdtùr f` ld vdlùr p`réu` fdhs ldr`ldtcbh cjj`rscbh ‑ rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s ................................................................. >?=

CC.1. L` trbcscíj` irbup` f–mypbtmís`s ; l`s mypbtmís`s abha`rhdht l` röl` f`s

jbfãrdtùrs fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` ............................................................................. >46CCC. Abhaluscbh f` ld sàtcbh ............................................................................................... >>>

ABHALPQCBH FP AMD_CV^@ CU .................................................................................. >>9

ABHALPQCBH F@ LD _^@JC@^@ _D^VC@ ................................................................. >>=

_D^VC@ CC ; JCQ@ @H B@PU^@ F@Q UD^CDNL@Q FP JBFÍL@, V@QV F@QMS_BVMÍQ@Q @V ^@QPLVDVQ ...................................................................................... >>3

CHV^BFPAVCBH F@ LD F@P]C@J@ _D^VC@ ............................................................ >1?

AMD_CV^@ U ; J@VMBFBLBIC@ @V JCQ@ @H B@PU^@ F@Q UD^CDNL@Q FP

JBFÍL@ .............................................................................................................................. >1> D. Ld jcs` `h őuvr` f` ld jãtmbfblbic` fu t`st f`s mypbtmís`s .................................... >11

C. L–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh ....................................................................................................... >16

C.4. L` t`rrdch f–ãtuf` ................................................................................................. >10

C.>. L` pldh f–`xpãrc`ha` ............................................................................................ >10

C.1. Jcs` `h plda` fu pldh f–`xpãrc`ha ̀.................................................................... >15

CC. L` ambcx f` ld jãtmbfblbic` f` l–`hquët` .................................................................. >60

CC.4. L–`hquët` pdr qu`stcbhhdcr`................................................................................ >60

CC.>. L` ambcx fu typ` f` jãfcd f–dfjchcstrdtcbh fu qu`stcbhhdcr` ........................... >65

CC.1. Ld pbpuldtcbh ãtufcã` .......................................................................................... >0?

CCC. L`s chstruj`hts f` j`sur` ...................................................................................... >04

CCC.4. L`s j`sur`s utclcsã`s ......................................................................................... >04

CCC.>. L`s vdrcdnl`s fãp`hfdht`s ................................................................................. >0>

CCC.1. Ld vdrcdnl` jãfcdtrca` ; Ld vdlùr p`réu` ......................................................... >00

CCC.6. L`s vdrcdnl`s jbfãrdtrca`s ................................................................................ >05

CCC.0. L` prbecl f`s Cht`rhdut`s .................................................................................... >09CCC.5. Ld vãrcecadtcbh `xpãrcj`htdl` ............................................................................ >0=



3

CU. Ld vdlcfctã fu pldh `xpãrcj`htdl ............................................................................. >5?

CU.4. Ld vdlcfctã cht`rh` f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh ........................................................... >5?

CU.>. Ld vdlcfctã `xt`rh` f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh ........................................................... >54

U. Ld jãtmbf` f–dhdlys` .................................................................................................. >55

U.4. L–dhdlys` f` vdrcdha` ......................................................................................... >55

U.>. L–dhdlys` f` rãir`sscbh ...................................................................................... >59

U.1. L`s jãtmbf`s f–ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s .............................................................. >5=

UC. Abhaluscbh f` ld sàtcbh .......................................................................................... >96

N. Ld vdlcfdtcbh f`s chstruj`hts f` j`sur` ....................................................................... >90

C. L`s prãdldnl`s dux t`sts f`s mypbtmís`s ...................................................................... >90

C.4. L` ràu`cl f`s fbhhã`s ......................................................................................... >90

C.>. L` ambcx fu sct` fu prã-t`st .................................................................................. >95C.1. L–ãamdhtcllbh ........................................................................................................ >95

C.6. L–èecadactã f`s ãam`ll`s f` j`sur` utclcsã`s ....................................................... >99

CC. L` rãsultdt f`s dhdlys`s f` vdlcfdtcbh f`s j s̀ur`s ..................................................... >=5

CC.4. Ld struatur` ̀ t ld abmãr`ha` cht`rh` f`s chstruj`hts f` j`sur` ......................... >=5

CC.>. Ld vdlcfctã f`s abhstructs .................................................................................... >31

CCC. Abhaluscbh f` ld sàtcbh .......................................................................................... >30

ABHALPQCBH FP AMD_CV^@ U .................................................................................... >35

AMD_CV^@ UC ; L@ ^@QPLVDV F@ L–@]_@^CJ@HVDVCBH ; L@ V@QV F@QMS_BVM@Q@Q ..................................................................................................................... >3=

CHV^BFPAVCBH FP AMD_CV^@ UC.............................................................................. >33

D. Ld prãs`htdtcbh f` ld nds` f`s fbhhã`s l–ãamdhtcllbh echdl ......................................... 1?4

N. L` t`st fu jbfíl` f` ràm`ram` ................................................................................... 1?3

C. L` rdpp`l fu jbfíl` f` ràm`ram` ....................................................................... 1?3

CC. L` t`st fu pr`jc`r irbup` f–mypbtmís`s ; l`s mypbtmís`s abha`rhdht l–cjj`rscbhfdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht ̀ xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih` ........................................................................... 144

CCC. L` t`st fu fùxcíj` irbup` f–mypbtmís`s ; cjj`rscbh ‑ vdlùr p`réu` ‑ abjpbrt`j`hts ̀ h lcih` ......................................................................................................... 140

CU. L` trbcscíj` irbup` f–mypbtmís`s ; l`s mypbtmís`s abha`rhdht l` röl` f`sjbfãrdtùrs fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` ............................................................................. 1>0

ABHALPQCBH FP AMD_CV^@ UC .................................................................................. 111

AMD_CV^@ UCC ; LD FCQQAPQQCBH @V LD JCQ@ @H _@^Q_@AVCU@ F@Q^@QPLVDVQ ........................................................................................................................ 110

CHV^BFPAVCBH FP AMD_CV^@ UCC ............................................................................ 115

D. Ld fcsausscbh f`s prchacpdux rãsultdts ........................................................................ 119C. L` rdpp`l f`s prchacpdux rãsultdts ........................................................................ 119



4?

CC. L`s ̀ ee`ts f`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht ̀ xpãrc`htc`l ̀ h lcih` ............ 11=

CCC. L–èe`t f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih` sur ld vdlùr p`réu` `t l`s abjpbrt`j`hts euturs f`s cht`rhdut`s ............................................................... 164

CU. L–èe`t f`s vdrcdnl`s jbfãrdtrca`s ................................................................... 164

N. L`s abhtrcnutcbhs tmãbrcqu`s, jãtmbfblbicqu`s `t jdhdiãrcdl`s f` ld ràm`ram` ....... 160C. L`s dppbrts tmãbrcqu`s f` ld ràm r̀am` ................................................................ 160

CC. L`s dppbrts jdhdiãrcdux f` ld ràm`ram` ........................................................ 10>

CCC. L`s dppbrts jãtmbfblbicqu`s ........................................................................... 105

A. L`s lcjct`s `t l`s vbc`s eutur`s f` ld ràm`ram` ........................................................... 103

C. L`s lcjct`s f` ld ràm r̀am` ................................................................................... 103

CC. L`s vbc`s eutur`s f` ld ràm`ram` ..................................................................... 151

ABHALPQCBH FP AMD_CV^@ UCC ................................................................................. 155

ABHALPQCBH F@ LD F@P]C@J@ _D^VC@................................................................. 159

ABHALPQCBH I@H@^DL@ ............................................................................................. 15=

NCNLCBI^D_MC@ ............................................................................................................... 191

DHH@]@Q ............................................................................................................................. 139



44

LCQV@ F@Q ECIP^@Q

Eciur` 4 ; @xpãrc`ha` `t jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l (Adró `t Abvd, >??>, p 45?)......................... 65

Eciur` > ; L` jbfíl` f` l–dpprbprcdtcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha` (Adró `t Abvd, >??1 7 p. 04) ........... 51Eciur` 1 ; Cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh (Abvd `t Abvd, >??6) .................. 9=Eciur` 6 ; L` prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh (Adró `t Abvd, >??1, p. 09) .......................................... =?Eciur` 0 ; L` jbfíl` ilbndl f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh (Adró `t Abvd,

>??1, p. 5?) .......................................................................................................................... =4Eciur` 5 ; L`s prchacpdl`s trdkàtbcr`s cf`htcecã`s du aburs f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh

(Dht`nlcdh, Irdcllbt `t J`hadr`llc, >?4?, p. 4?) .................................................................. =1Eciur` 9 ; L–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih` ............. 4?4Eciur` = ; L`s tmíj`s cf`htcecãs ............................................................................................. 4=3

Eciur` 3 ; L` jbfíl` tmãbrcqu` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` `h lcih` ..................................... 43>Eciur` 4? ; L`s dx`s f` ràm`ram` .......................................................................................... 430Eciur` 44 ; L`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s abhscfãrã`s ............................................................. 439Eciur` 4> ; L`s vdrcdnl`s fãp`hfdht`s abhscfãrã`s ................................................................ 433Eciur` 41 ; L`s vdrcdnl`s jãfcdtrca`s abhscfãrã`s ................................................................. >??Eciur` 46 ; L`s vdrcdnl`s jbfãrdtrca`s abhscfãrã`s ............................................................... >?4Eciur` 40 ; Ld r`ldtcbh `htr` l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s p`réu`s `t l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`

jbfíl` abha`ptu`l ............................................................................................................. >?=Eciur` 45 ; L–cjj`rscbh `t ld vdlùr p`réu` fdhs l` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l ............................... >44Eciur` 49 ; L–èe`t f` l–cjj`rscbh sur ld vdlùr p`réu` fdhs l` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l ............. >4>Eciur` 4= ; L–cjj`rscbh `t ld vdlùr p`réu` fdhs l` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l ............................... >46Eciur` 43 ; L–cjplcadtcbh `t l–`xp`rtcs` fdhs l` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l ...................................... >43Eciur` >? ; L` lcù ̀ t l` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` fdhs l` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l ............................... >>4Eciur` >4 ; L` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l f` ld ràm`ram` ; l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`s sct`s f`

rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` ................................................................................................................... >>1Eciur` >> ; L–bnkàtce prchacpdl f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh. ........................................................... >19Eciur` >1 ; L` prba`ssus f–dfjchcstrdtcbh fu qu`stcbhhdcr` .................................................. >6=Eciur` >6 ; L` lc`h v`rs l` qu`stcbhhdcr` MVJL .................................................................... >63Eciur` >0 ; Qamãjdtcsdtcbh f–uh` jãfcdtcbh .......................................................................... >53

Eciur` >5 ; L–chelu`ha` jãfcdtrca` f` ld vdlùr p`réu`.......................................................... >9?Eciur` >9 ; Ld samãjdtcsdtcbh f–uh` jbfãrdtcbh ................................................................... >9>Eciur` >= ; V`st f`s vdrcdnl`s jbfãrdtrca`s ........................................................................... >9>Eciur` >3 ; L` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l f` ld ràm`ram` ; l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`s sct`s f`

rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` ................................................................................................................... 14?Eciur` 1? ; L` jbfíl` struatur`l t`stã .................................................................................... 149



4>

LCQV@ F@Q VDNL@DP]

Vdnl`du 4 ; L`s ràm`ram`s ̀ h jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l ; `xpãrc`ha`s hbh jdramdhf`s ............ 61

Vdnl`du > ; L`s adtãibrc`s f–`xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh ................................................... 6=Vdnl`du 1 ; L`s abjpbsdht`s f` ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha` ................................................... 0>Vdnl`du 6; Fãechctcbhs `t dpplcadtcbhs fu abha`pt f–dpprbprcdtcbh ......................................... 54Vdnl`du 0 ; Ld plurcfcsacplchdrctã fu abha`pt f– « cjj`rscbh · .............................................. 9?Vdnl`du 5 ; L`s fãechctcbhs f` l–cjj`rscbh tàmhcqu` ............................................................. 9>Vdnl`du 9 ; L`s dhtãaãf`hts f` l'`xpãrc`ha` f'cjj`rscbh ̀ h lcih` .......................................... ==Vdnl`du = ; Cjj`rscbh vs. elbw ................................................................................................ 36Vdnl`du 3 ; Cjj`rscbh vs. tãlãprãs`ha` ................................................................................... 39Vdnl`du 4? ; Ld aldsscecadtcbh f`s dttrcnuts dtjbspmãrcqu`s f`s pbchts f` v`ht` trdfctcbhh`ls

........................................................................................................................................... 4?3Vdnl`du 44 ; Ld aldsscecadtcbh f`s dttrcnuts dtjbspmãrcqu`s f`s pbchts f` v`ht` vcrtu`ls ..... 446Vdnl`du 4> ; Vypblbic` f`s sct`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` ï usdi` abjj`racdl ............................. 415Vdnl`du 41 ; L` prbecl f`s chfcvcfus cht`rrbiãs ...................................................................... 404Vdnl`du 46 ; _bura`htdi`s f` actdtcbh f`s abjpbsdht`s ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu

sct` jdramdhf ..................................................................................................................... 454Vdnl`du 40 ; L`s abjpbsdht`s ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll`s r`t`hu`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` jdramdhf

........................................................................................................................................... 45>Vdnl`du 45 ; _bura`htdi`s f` actdtcbh f` l–cjj`rscbh .......................................................... 49>Vdnl`du 49 ; Qyhtmís` f`s fcj`hscbhs f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` ...................... 495Vdnl`du 4= ; L–drtcauldtcbh vdlùr utclctdcr` / vdlùr mãfbhcqu` fdhs l`s v`rndtcj ................ 49=Vdnl`du 43 ; _bura`htdi`s f` actdtcbh f`s abjpbrt`j`hts euturs f`s cht`rhdut`s ................. 4=?

Vdnl`du >? ; Qyhtmís` f`s mypbtmís`s f` ràm`ram` .............................................................. >>5Vdnl`du >4 ; Ld jdhcpuldtcbh f`s ãlãj`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls f` l–ãtuf` ..................................... >6?Vdnl`du >> ; L` pldh edatbrc`l abjpl`t f` l–ãtuf` .................................................................. >6?Vdnl`du >1 ; L` pldh edatbrc`l fu sct` ABI@FCJ Lbc Qa`llc`r ............................................. >6>Vdnl`du >6 ; L` pldh edatbrc`l fu sct` ABI@FCJ (adptur`s f–ãardh) ................................... >66Vdnl`du >0 ; L–ãam`ll` f` Lcg`rt ............................................................................................ >0>Vdnl`du >5 ; L–ãam`ll` _CD (Qtrdzzcãrc, 4336) ....................................................................... >05Vdnl`du >9 ; L`s qu`stcbhs r`ldtcv`s du prbecl f`s cht`rrbiãs ................................................ >0=Vdnl`du >= ; L–ãam`ll` f` ld abhecdha` ï l–ãidrf fu sct` (Iurvc`z `t Gbramcd, >??>) ............ >56Vdnl`du >3 ; L` prbecl f`s p`rsbhh`s cht`rrbiã`s p`hfdht ld pmds` f` prã-t`st ..................... >99Vdnl`du 1? ; V`st f` hbrjdlctã ............................................................................................... >93

Vdnl`du 14 ; Cht`rprãtdtcbh f` l–Dlpmd f` Arbhndam .............................................................. >=4Vdnl`du 1> ; Cht`rprãtdtcbh fu τ f` Kõr`sgbi ......................................................................... >=>Vdnl`du 11 ; L`s chfca`s f–dkust`j`ht r`t`hus pbur l` prã-t`st f`s chstruj`hts f` j`sur` .. >=0Vdnl`du 16 ; _rã-t`st f` l–ãam`ll` f` l–cjj`rscbh .................................................................. >=9Vdnl`du 10 ; _rã-t`st f` l–ãam`ll` f` ld vdlùr p`réu` ............................................................ >==Vdnl`du 15 ; _rã-t`st echdl f` l–ãam`ll` f` ld vdlùr p`réu` ................................................... >=3Vdnl`du 19 ; _rã-t`st f` l–ãam`ll` f` l–cht`htcbh f–damdt ........................................................ >3?Vdnl`du 1= ; _rã-t`st f` l–ãam`ll` fu nbuam` ï br`cll` ............................................................ >3?Vdnl`du 13 ; _rã-t`st f` l–ãam`ll` f` prcs` f` abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu` ................................... >34Vdnl`du 6? ; _rã-t`st f` l–ãam`ll` f` l–cjplcadtcbh ................................................................. >3>Vdnl`du 64 ; _rã-t`st f` l–ãam`ll` f` l–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t .................................................... >3>

Vdnl`du 6> ; L`s chfca`s f–dkust`j`ht fu jbfíl` ilbndl prã-t`stã ........................................ >31Vdnl`du 61 ; Ld vdlcfctã abhv`ri`ht` f`s j`sur`s ................................................................. >36



46

CHV^BFPAVCBH I@H@^DL@



40

CHV^BFPAVCBH I@H@^DL@

Hbus sbjj`s `h >406 sur _dhfbrd, uh` f`s luh`s f–uh` pldhít` iãdht` fdhs l`

systíj` Dlpmd A`htdurc. A` sdt`llct` hdtur`l `st ràbuv`rt f–uh` vãiãtdtcbh dnbhfdht`.

L–mcstbcr` ãvbqu` ld saíh` fu amba `htr` f`s mujdchs fãndrqudht sur _dhfbrd pbur y `xplbct`r

uh jch`rdc rdr` susa`ptcnl` f` rãsbufr` ld arcs` ãh`riãtcqu` sur V`rr`, `t ld pbpuldtcbh

dutbamtbh`, l`s Hd–vcs quc vcv`ht `h pdredct` mdrjbhc` dvà lùr `hvcrbhh`j`ht `t t`ht`ht f`s` fãe`hfr` eda` ï l–chvdscbh f` l–Mbjj`. Ph prbirdjj` `st arãã pdr l`s t`rrc`hs ; Dvdtdr,

quc vd lùr p`rj`ttr` f` abhtröl`r f`s abrps Hd–vc albhãs `t dssbacãs ï f`s iíh`s mujdchs,

pbur s–chsãr`r fdhs ld pbpuldtcbh `t t`ht`r f` hãibac`r dvà `ll`, fdhs ld j`sur` bó l` aldh

Bjdtcadyd `st chstdllã fdhs uh icidht`squ` drnr` jdcsbh sctuã sur uh f`s prchacpdux

ics`j`hts f` a` jch`rdc fãhbjjã Phbntdchcuj. L` p`rsbhhdi` a`htrdl f` l–mcstbcr`, uh

jdrch` pdrdplãicqu` quc, vcd sbh dvdtdr, vd f`vbcr ambcscr sbh adjp dvà pbur `hkù, l` f`stch

f` ld pldhít` 4.

« K–ãtdcs `h cjj`rscbh abjplít`… Dvdtdr ! L` r`hbuv`du fu achãjd spàtdal` ! L`

eclj pburrdct fur`r 0m sdhs edtciu` `t sdhs ld fcj`hscbh fu t`jps ! ... Ld 1F `st ld sùl`

sblutcbh ! · > (Fcfc`r).

Dvdtdr (>??3) `st ld sup`rprbfuatcbh `h 1 fcj`hscbhs f` Kdj`s Adj`rbh. Cl `st

f`v`hu l` plus irbs suaaís du nbx-beeca` f` tbut` l'mcstbcr` fu achãjd, dvà plus f` > jcllcdrfs

f` Fblldrs f` rà`tt`s. Dvdtdr `st uh vbydi` f–dv`htur`, f–datcbh `t f` fãabuv`rt`.

A` suaaís, tburhã irîa` dux tàmhcqu`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, j`t `h saíh` f`s

p`rsbhhdi s̀ `xtrdbrfchdcr`s fdhs f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts charbydnl`s. Jëj` sc l` saãhdrcb `st

ecatce, cl d cjj`riã >?? jcllcbhs f` spàtdtùrs fdhs l` abht`xt` edhtdstcqu` fu eclj.

4 mttp;//er.wcgcp`fcd.bri

> mttp;//www.lcht`rhdut`.abj/mcimtàm/t`jbcihdi`/t`jbcihdi`/>3=14?/cjj`rscbh-abjpl`t`/

http://www.linternaute.com/hightech/temoignage/temoignage/298310/immersion-complete/






45

A` trdvdcl fbatbrdl d pbur bnkàtce f–cf`htcec`r l`s rãdatcbhs prbvbquã`s pdr l`s

`hvcrbhh`j`hts vcrtu`ls p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `t f` abjpr`hfr` l`

pmãhbjíh` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` dchsc qu` l–`hs`jnl` f`s abhsãqu`ha`s quc `h fãabul`ht. @h

èe`t, s–chtãr`ss`r du pmãhbjíh` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` r`vc`ht ï dnbrf`r l–brcich` f`

l–`xpãrc`ha ̀f` abhsbjjdtcbh. Cl s–dict f` abjpr`hfr` abjj`ht l–cht`rhdut` s–cjpríih` f`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct`, abjj`ht cl daaíf` ï l–`xpãrc`ha` fdhs a`t `hs`jnl` f` sbllcactdtcbhs

abjj`racdl`s `t f` fcspbsctces tàmhblbicqu`s. L–`hidi`j`ht `t l–cjplcadtcbh f` l–cht`rhdut`

fdhs l` abht`xt` jdramdhfs, qu–cls sbc`ht ãjbtcbhh`ls, pmyscqu`s, cht`llàtu`ls `t / bu

spcrctu`ls.

Fdhs a` quc suct, hbus j`ttbhs `h ãvcf`ha` l`s rdcsbhs prdtcqu`s `t tmãbrcqu`s quc

kustcec`ht l'ãtuf` f` a` abha`pt `t hbus prãs`htbhs hbtr` prbk`t f` ràm`ram`, f` jdhcír` ï l`

adfr`r pdr rdppbrt ï trbcs pbchts prchacpdux ;

- Dhar`r hbtr` suk`t pdr rdppbrt dux daqucs dhtãrcùrs f` ld lcttãrdtur` `h jdrg`tchi `t `h

systíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh 7

- _bsctcbhh`r hbtr` amdjp f` ràm`ram` dech f` l` sctu`r pdr rdppbrt dux ràm`ram`s

dhtãrcùr`s f` ld fcsacplch` 7

- _rãs`ht`r l`s bnkàtces f` hbtr` ràm`ram` `t sbh chtãrët pbur l`s r`spbhsdnl`s

jdrg`tchi `t l`s am`ramùrs.



49

C. Ld prbnlãjdtcqu` f` ld ràm`ram`

Ubclï 6? dhs qu` l` rãs`du Cht`rh`t `xcst`. Chctcdl`j`ht abhéu ï f`s echs jclctdcr`s, cl

s–`st trdhsebrjã `h uh butcl chfcsp`hsdnl` fdhs l`s datcvctãs qubtcfc`hh`s f`s pdrtcaulc`rs `t

f`s ̀ htr`prcs`s.

F`pucs l–ãaldt`j`ht f` ld null` Cht`rh`t `h >???, l–ãvblutcbh fu pmãhbjíh` r`st`

ebrt`j`ht brc`htã` ï ld mduss`. L`s chstctuts f` abllàt` f–chebrjdtcbh ãabhbjcqu` hbus

p`rj`tt`ht f` s–`h r`hfr` abjpt`. Dchsc, =0 ??? sct`s w`n jdramdhfs sbht rãeãr`haãs `h

Erdha` du pr`jc`r s`j`str` >?44 (E`vdf, >?44). A` amceer` d duij`htã f` 4=0?? pdr rdppbrt ï

>?4?, sbct uh` mduss` f` >4 %. Q`lbh l–ãtuf` f` ld eãfãrdtcbh fu ` -abjj`ra` `t f` ld v`ht` ï

fcstdha` (Jdc >?44), l` amceer` f–deedcr`s f` l–`hs`jnl` f`s sct`s f` v`ht`s `h lcih` d

prbir`ssã f` >?% pdr rdppbrt du jëj` trcj`str` f` >?4?, pbur dtt`chfr` =,= jcllcdrfs f–ùrbs.

F` jëj`, l` hbjnr` f–cht`rhdut`s d erdhamc l` adp f`s 1= jcllcbhs `h Erdha` (> jcllcdrfs fdhs

l` jbhf` 1), sbct plus f` ld jbctcã f` ld pbpuldtcbh (Jãfcdjãtrc` - Bns`rvdtbcr` f`s usdi`s

Cht`rh`t, >?44). A`tt` arbcssdha` `st sbut`hu`, ï ld ebcs pdr ld arãdtcbh f` hbuv`dux sct`s

jdramdhfs `t pdr l` hbjnr` f–dam`tùrs `h lcih`. A`t chtãrët pbur l` Y`n s`jnl` r`htdnl`

pucsqu` ld vdlùr f`s trdhsdatcbhs `h lcih` d abhtchuã ï prbir`ss`r rdpcf`j`ht (+>4%) du

aburs fu 4`r trcj`str` >?44. Qbct =1,1 jcllcbhs f` trdhsdatcbhs rãdlcsã`s (E`vdf, >?44). A`s

chfcadtùrs `xprcj`ht l` röl` chfcsautdnl` f–Cht`rh`t `h tdht qu` adhdl f` abjjuhcadtcbh `t f`

abjj`racdlcsdtcbh. Cht`rh`t s–`st chstdllã abjj` uh` rãdlctã qubtcfc`hh`, f–uh` pdrt pbur l`

abhsbjjdtùr ̀ t f–dutr ̀ pdrt, pbur l`s `htr`prcs`s.

Dhhã`Hbjnr` f–cht`rhdut`s

(jcllcbhs)A.D. (jcllcdrfs f–ùrbs)

>??? 44,3 0,1

>??0 >9,1 =,6

>?4? 1=,>9 14

1

L–Phcbh cht`rhdtcbhdl` f`s tãlãabjjuhcadtcbhs; mttp;//www.ctu.cht/er 6 Qbura` ; Kburhdl fu H`t.

http://www.itu.int/fr






4=

L`s sct`s Y`n sbht f`v`hus l` prchacpdl pbcht f` abhtdat dvà uh irdhf hbjnr` f`

abhsbjjdtùrs. Cls abhstctu`ht l–uh f`s edatùrs alãs f` suaaís pbur l` fãv`lbpp`j`ht f–uh`

`htr`prcs`. @h èe`t, dprís pluscùrs dhhã`s f` prdtcqu` fu w`n, l`s jdhdi`rs h–dpprãm`hf`ht

plus Cht`rh`t uhcqu`j`ht `h t`rj`s f` fcstrcnutcbh bu f–butcl jdrg`tchi jdcs ãidl`j`ht

abjj` uh` datcvctã ï pdrt `htcír` f` l–`htr`prcs`. Ld tbcl` edct fãechctcv`j`ht pdrtc` f` sbh

bridhcsdtcbh `t fbht cl edut dssur`r ld r`htdnclctã (^cvdl, >??=). Vbutèbcs, f–uh sct` f` `-

abjj`ra` ï l–dutr`, bh abhstdt` uh a`rtdch fìrã f` stdhfdrfcsdtcbh (Csdda `t Ubll`, >?44). Ld

jdkbrctã f` a`s pldt`s-ebrj`s jdramdhf`s prbpbs`ht uh f`scih `t f`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s

`stmãtcqu`s `t sbacdl`s ebrt`j`ht dhdlbiu`s. Br fdhs uh abht`xt` bó ld abhaurr`ha` `htr` l`s

sct`s jdramdhfs edct rdi`, f`s èebrts pdrtcaulc`rs sbht hãa`ssdcr`s ï ld jdhcpuldtcbh l`s

edatùrs lcãs ï ld ebrj` `t du abht`hu. L`s fcspbsctces f` fceeãr`hacdtcbh tbuam`ht

pdrtcaulcír`j`ht l` vãau `t ld p`ra`ptcbh f–uh` ̀ xpãrc`ha` brcichdl` sur uh sct` w`n jdramdhf.

A`s fcspbsctces h` sbht plus ndsãs sur l`s strdtãic`s f` prcx, jdcs sur l`s datcbhs `t l`s

cht`rdatcbhs `htr` l–cht`rhdut` `t l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf, a'`st-ï-fcr` l`s tàmhcqu`s quc

p`rj`tt`ht ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh `t ld jcs` `h saíh` l`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs. Cl s–dict fãsbrjdcs

f` rã`hamdht`r ld abhsbjjdtcbh `h lcih`.

@h abhsãqu`ha`, l`s jdhdi`rs f` jdrqu`s fbcv`ht `hrcamcr l` abht`hu f` lùrs

cht`reda`s jdramdhf`s, pbur chact`r l`s abhsbjjdtùrs ï dvbcr f`s rãpbhs`s

abjpbrt`j`htdl`s pbsctcv`s `hv`rs l` sct`, l` prbfuct `t ld jdrqu`. Cl s–dict f–beercr ï

l–cht`rhdut` f`s abht`xt`s `xpãrc`htc`ls fdhs l`squ`ls cl pburrd s–cjj`ri`r `t daaãf`r

pl`ch`j`ht ï l–`xpãrc`ha`. Luc prbpbs`r f` t`ll`s `xpãrc`ha`s, abhstctu` uh l`vc`r

abhaurr`htc`l cjpbrtdht pbur l`s jdrqu`s sur Cht`rh`t.

F` a` edct, pluscùrs qu`stcbhs s` pbs`ht qudht ï l–èecadactã `t ï ld p`rebrjdha` f`s

sct`s w`n jdramdhfs, qu–`ll`s sbc`ht fu pbcht f` vu` f` l–`htr`prcs`, bu f` a`luc fu

abhsbjjdtùr.

Fu pbcht f` vu` f` l–`htr`prcs` ;

Edcr` `h sbrt` qu` l`s cht`rhdut`s vcv`ht uh` `xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` brcichdl`, pldcsdht` `t

sdtcsedcsdht`, abhstctu` uh bnkàtce jdkùr pbur l`s `htr`prcs`s prãs`ht`s sur Cht`rh`t. Eda` ï a`

abhstdt, l`s r`spbhsdnl`s f` sct`s w`n jdramdhfs s` sbht trbuvãs abherbhtãs ï f` hbjnrùx

qu`stcbhh`j`hts. Cls dnbrf`ht l–butcl Cht`rh`t sbus fceeãr`hts dhil`s, hbtdjj`ht ;



43

- Tu`ll`s sbht l`s tàmhcqu`s utclcsã`s pbur djãlcbr`r l–`xpãrc`ha` f`s abhsbjjdtùrs

sur Cht`rh`t pbur s` fceeãr`hac`r pdr rdppbrt ï ld abhaurr`ha` 2 _lus prãacsãj`ht, qu`l

`st l` röl` f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` p`hfdht l` fãrbul`j`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f`

vcsct` `h lcih` 2

- L`s dspàts ebhatcbhh`ls f`s sct`s jdramdhfs prãs`hts sur Cht`rh`t, sbht ld plus pdrt fu

t`jps, cf`htcqu`s. Abjj`ht l`s tàmhcqu`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` abhtrcnu`ht `ll`s ï ld

fceeãr`htcdtcbh f`s cht`reda`s jdramdhf`s `h lcih` `t qu`ls sbht l`s jby`hs jcs `h

őuvr`, pdr l`s sct`s jdramdhfs, pbur jdtãrcdlcs`r l`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` 2

-

L`s i`stcbhhdcr`s f`s sct`s f` `-abjj`ra` am`ram`ht abhstdjj`ht ï duij`ht`r ldr`htdnclctã f`s jdidschs vcrtu`ls `t ï ecfãlcs`r lùrs alc`hts pbur idrdhtcr uh`

p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi pãr`hh`. Tu`ls sbht l`s èebrts ï eburhcr pbur djãlcbr`r l`

abht`hu, tdht du hcv`du ebhatcbhh`l qu–du hcv`du mãfbhcqu` 2

- Ld qu`stcbh f` ld p`rebrjdha` `h lcih` ãtdht tbukbur s du aőur f`s rãel`xcbhs f`s

prbe`sscbhh l̀s `t f`s am`ramùrs, qu`ls r`tburs sur chv`stcss`j`ht l`s `htr`prcs`s

pùv`ht dtt`hfr` suct` ï ld jbnclcsdtcbh f` fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` 2 Tu–`h `st-cl

`h t`rj`s f` tdux f` abhv`rscbh, f` amceer` f–deedcr ̀ , f` r`vcsct`s, `ta. 2

Fu pbcht f` vu` f` l–cht`rhdut` ;

@h daaãfdht ï l–chtãirdlctã bu ï uh` pdrtc` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih`, l–cht`rhdut` h`

fcstchiu` plus ld hbtcbh fu t`jps, cl sunct uh` p`rt` f` ld abhsac`ha` f` sbc `t cl `st abupã f`

sbh `hvcrbhh`j`ht pmyscqu` ; cl plbhi` fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l arã` pdr ld jdrqu`.

L–chfcvcfu s` r`trbuv` dlbrs `h ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh. Ph ãtdt adusã pdr l`s ebhatcbhhdlctãs

cht`rdatcv`s `t l` abht`hu rcam` f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l fu sct` w`n jdramdhf. @h

abhsãqu`ha`, pluscùrs qu`stcbhh`j`hts suricss`ht qudht dux rãdatcbhs s`hsbrc`ll`s, deeàtcv`s

`t abihctcv`s, prbvbquã`s am`z l` abhsbjjdtùr p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` ̀ h lcih`.

- Tu`ll`s sbht l`s abjpbsdht`s fu sct` w`n quc sbht rã`ll`j`ht p`réu`s pdr l`s

abhsbjjdtùrs `t quc abhtrcnu`ht ï ld tmãjdtcsdtcbh `t ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh f`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf 2



>?

- Tu`l `st l–cjpdat f` a`s tàmhcqu`s sur l`s rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t sunkàtcv`s f`s

cht`rhdut`s p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` 2

- L`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, prbvbqu`ht-cls am`z l`s cht`rhdut`s f`s s`hsdtcbhs `t

f`s ãjbtcbhs p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` f–uh sct` jdramdhf 2 A`s stcjuldtcbhs

sbht `ll`s tbukburs pbsctcv`s `t sbht `ll`s scjcldcr`s ï tbus l`s chfcvcfus 2

- Lbrsqu` l`s cht`rhdut`s daaíf`ht du aőur f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, cls sbht s`hsãs s–cjj`ri`r

fdhs l` abht`xt` arã` pdr ld jdrqu`. Daaíf`ht cls tbus ï l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh 2 A`t ãtdt

f–cjj`rscbh `st cl tbukburs abhstdht `t elucf` 2 L–cjj`rscbh `st-`ll` chstdhtdhã` bu

prbir`sscv` 2

- Quct` ï l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`, qu`ls sbht dlbrs l`s

nãhãeca`s `t l`s p`rt`s tcrãs pdr l`s cht`rhdut`s f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` 2 @t qu`ll`s

sbht l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s prbndnl`s f`s cht`rhdut s̀ `hv`rs l` sct`, l` prbfuct

`t ld jdrqu`, abhsãqu`ht`s ï l–cjj`rscbh `t ï l–ãvdludtcbh f` ld vcsct` 2

- @hech, l`s cht`rhdut`s fbcv`ht j`ttr` `h kù lùrs prbpr`s abjpãt`ha`s p`hfdht

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `h lcih`. Tu`ll`s sbht dlbrs l`s vdrcdnl`s chfcvcfu`ll`s

`t l`s vdrcdnl`s mbrs fu abhtröl` fu sct`, quc pburrdc`ht chelu`ha`r l` fãrbul`j`ht f`

l–`xpãrc`ha ̀2

Irîa` du fãv`lbpp`j`ht f`s cht`reda`s mbjj`-jdamch` sur l` Y`n, l`s tàmhblbic`s

f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sbht fãsbrjdcs `jplbyã`s du s`rvca` f`s prbe`sscbhh`ls fu abjj`ra`

ãlàtrbhcqu`, pbur edcr` vcvr` dux cht`rhdut`s f` hbuv`ll`s `xpãrc`ha`s `h lcih`. Qc ld rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` d susactã l–chtãrët f`s am`ramùrs `h systíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh f`pucs f` hbjnrùs`s

dhhã`s. D a` stdf` fu fãv`lbpp`j`ht f`s tàmhblbic`s, cl pdrdct cjpbrtdht f` jcùx f–`h

abjpr`hfr` l`s èe`ts sur ld hdtur` `t sur ld qudlctã f` l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih`. Dlbrs qu` l`s

pr`sarcptcbhs datu`ll`j`ht ebrjulã`s f`jùr`ht prchacpdl`j`ht cssu`s f`s ràm`ram s̀ `h

systíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh, cl f`vc`ht hãa`ssdcr` f–dpprbebhfcr l` trdvdcl f'dfdptdtcbh fdhs ld

ràm`ram` ̀ h jdrg`tchi.



>4

_dr abhsãqu`ht, hbus prbpbsbhs f` ebrjul`r, f` edébh syhtmãtcqu`, hbtr`

prbnlãjdtcqu` f` ràm`ram` f` ld jdhcír` sucvdht` ;

Tu`l `st l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts jdramdhfs f` rãd lctã

vcrtu`ll`, sur ld vdlùr p`réu` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` dchsc qu` sur ld p`rebrjdha`

jdrg`tchi `h lcih` 2

_bur rãpbhfr` ï a`tt` prbnlãjdtcqu`, cl `st hãa`ssdcr` f` scihdl`r qu` ld rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` `st uh` tàmhcqu`, quc p`rj`t ld jbfãlcsdtcbh f–uh `spda` rã`l bu cjdichdcr` arã`

drtcecac`ll`j`ht 7 a'`st ld arãdtcbh f'uh` r`prãs`htdtcbh hujãrcqu` sur uh suppbrt fcictdl, irîa`

ï uh ldhidi` quc p`rj`t ld arãdtcbh `t ld fceeuscbh f` jbhf`s vcrtu`ls `t cht`rdatces sur

Cht`rh`t ; l` U^LJ0. L`s tàmhcqu`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` qu` hbus trdctbhs fdhs a` trdvdcl,

abhscst`ht `h f`s fcspbsctces, quc abhtrcnu`ht ï l–èecadactã `t ï ld qudlctã èeàtcv` f`s sct`s

jdramdhfs. Ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` p`rj`t uh` cht`rdatcbh fcràt` `t chtuctcv` dvà l` prbfuct

(Djdjc `t ^bw`, >???), `ll` dcf` l`s cht`rhdut`s ï abjpr`hfr` bó s` sctu`ht lùrs r`pír`s

p`hfdht lùr hdvcidtcbh.

Ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` p`rj`t ld f`sarcptcbh f` saíh`s `h 1F, l–chs`rtcbh f–bnk`ts, f`

p`rsbhh`s, f` pdysdi`s, l` trdct`j`ht f` l'ãaldcrdi`, f`s t`xtur`s `t f'dutr`s èe`ts. Cl s–dict f`

prbpbs`r uh abht`hu, quc edvbrcs` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih` `t plus pdrtcaulcír`j`ht,

l–cjj`rscbh f` l–cht`rhdut` fdhs l` abht`xt` jdramdhf. _drjc l`s ãlãj`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls

prbpbsãs pdr l`s tàmhcqu`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, l`s dvdtdrs (iucf`r, `hadfr`r `t arã`r uh

fcdlbiu` dvà l` alc`ht), l`s fãabrs `h 1 fcj`hscbhs (s`hsdtcbh f` prbebhfùr, f` prãs`ha` `t

f` prbxcjctã dvà l` prbfuct `h lcih`), f–uh` pdrt `t f–dutr` pdrt l–butcl r`ldtce ï ld jdètrcs` f`

ld vcsct`, hbtdjj`ht ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` (jdètrcs`r l` abht`hu `t abhtröl`r l`

fãrbul`j`ht f` ld vcsct`). Cl s–dict f` sdvbcr sc l`s sct`s jdramdhfs quc fcspbs`ht f` a`s butcls

bht uh cjpdat abjj`racdl abhsãqu`ht, pucsqu` l`s fcspbsctces abjpbs`ht l–`hvcrbhh`j`htjdramdhf fu sct`, s`jnl`ht kbu`r uh röl` cjpbrtdht p`hfdht l–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha`

f–cjj`rscbh `t `h djãlcbr`r ld p`ra`ptcbh.

_`hfdht sbh cjj`rscbh, l–cht`rhdut` pùt p`ra`vbcr l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` f`

fceeãr`ht`s jdhcír`s. Fdhs a`tt` ràm`ram` hbus t`ht`rbhs f–cf`htcec`r l`s èe`ts f`

0 U^JL `st uh ldhidi` f` f`sarcptcbh f'bnk`ts `t f` saíh`s 1F abhéu pbur l` Y`n.U^JL ; Ucrtudl ^`dlcty Jdrgup Ldhidi` (ldhidi` f` jbfãlcsdtcbh f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`)



>>

l–cjj`rscbh sur ld vdlùr p`réu` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`, `t aàc fdhs s`s fcj`hscbhs

mãfbhcqu`s ̀ t utclctdcr`s.

@hech, ï trdv`rs hbtr` prbnlãjdtcqu`, hbus t`ht`rbhs f` sdvbcr sc l–cjj`rscbh djãlcbr`

rã`ll`j`ht ld p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi fu sct` jdramdhf. Cl s–dict dlbrs f` sdvbcr sc l–cjj`rscbh

d uh cjpdat sur achq abjpbrt`j`hts prbndnl`s `hv`rs l` sct`, ld jdrqu` `t l` prbfuct,

hbtdjj`ht, abjjdhf`r uh prbfuct / s`rvca` sur l` sct`, r`jplcr uh ebrjuldcr` p`rj`ttdht

f–ëtr` ràbhtdatã ultãrcùr`j`ht pdr ld jdrqu`, pr`hfr` abhtdat fcràt`j`ht dvà ld jdrqu`,

r`v`hcr sur l` sct` `t `h pdrl`r pbsctcv`j`ht (nbuam`-ï-br`cll`).

A`tt` prbnlãjdtcqu` hbus p`rj`ttrd f` iucf`r `t f–brc`ht`r hbtr` rdcsbhh`j`ht. Vbut

du lbhi f` a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl, cl hbus pdrdèt cjpbrtdht f` hbus chtãr`ss`r hbh sùl`j`ht dux

rãdatcbhs f`s cht`rhdut`s p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`, jdcs ãidl`j`ht dux èe`ts

jdhdiãrcdux f` l–cjj`rscbh ̀ t l`s abhsãqu`ha`s quc ̀ h fãabul`ht.



>1

CC. L` pbsctcbhh`j`ht `t l` adfrdi` f` hbtr` ràm`ram`

A`tt` sàtcbh s` abhsdar` du pbsctcbhh`j`ht `t du adfrdi` f` hbtr` trdvdcl f` ràm`ram`

pdr rdppbrt ï ld lcttãrdtur`.

CC.4. L` pbsctcbhh`j`ht f` ld ràm`ram`

Ld sbacãtã pbstjbf`rh` f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh r`v`hfcqu` f` plus `h plus sbh n`sbch

f–brcichdlctã, f–ãjbtcbh `t f–cjdichdtcbh. Du jëj` jbj`ht, ld arbcssdha` rdpcf` f–Cht`rh`t d

edvbrcsã ld jultcplcadtcbh f`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs. L–damdt `h lcih` `st f`v`hu chfcsp`hsdnl`

pbur f` hbjnrùx abhsbjjdtùrs. Qc l` suaaís f`s sct`s jdramdhfs `st spàtdauldcr`, cl `st

pdrtcaulcír`j`ht abrrãlã dux ãvblutcbhs f`s tàmhblbic`s f` l–chebrjdtcbh `t f` ld

abjjuhcadtcbh. Irîa` ï a`s fãv`lbpp`j`hts, f` plus `h plus f` hbuv`ll`s tàmhcqu`s cssu`s

f`s systíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh, s` r`trbuv`ht dfbptã`s pdr l`s sct`s jdramdhfs `t fbha f` l–` -

jdrg`tchi. Cl s–dict hbtdjj`ht f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`.

Dlbrs qu` l`s abhsbjjdtùrs am`ram`ht ï s–cjj`ri`r fdhs f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts

tmãjdtcsãs pdr l`s jdrqu`s, l`s r`spbhsdnl`s f` sct`s jdramdhfs utclcs`ht f` plus `h plus l`s

fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. A`s fcspbsctces p`rj`tt`ht dux utclcsdtùrs f` vcsudlcs`r,

jdhcpul`r `t cht`rdicr dvà f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `h 1 fcj`hscbhs, ëtr` `h abhtdat p`rsbhhdi`s

vcrtu`ls, vcsct`r l–`spda` f` v`ht` `t abhtröl`r l` fãrbul`j`ht f` ld vcsct`, fdhs l` nut f`

p`rj`ttr` dux cht`rhdut`s f` vcvr` f` hbuv`ll`s `xpãrc`ha`s `h lcih`.

Fdhs a` trdvdcl f` ràm`ram`, hbus hbus dttdrf`rbhs pdrtcaulcír`j`ht sur trbcs ãlãj`hts

prãpbhfãrdhts, quc abjpbs`ht l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht f` v`ht` `h lcih` `t abhstctu`ht l`s

abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` jdramdhf. Cl s–dict hbtdjj`ht f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h

trcfcj`hscbhh`ls, f`s dvdtdrs `t f`s fcspbsctces f` abhtröl` fu fãrbul`j`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha`

(`.i., abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`). L–utclcsdtcbh f`s tàmhcqu`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, p`rj`t f` prbpbs`r sur uh sct` f` `-abjj`ra`, f`s stcjulc duxqu`ls l`s utclcsdtùrs s`rbht plus rãa`ptces.

Qc sct`s w`n jdramdhfs r`prãs`ht`ht datu`ll`j`ht uh jdramã f` 14 jcllcdrfs f–@urbs `h

Erdha`, l–chtãr ët qu` pbrt`ht l`s spãacdlcst`s fu jdrg`tchi fcictdl pbur a`s tàmhcqu`s, h` edct

qu–daarbctr`.

A`tt` sàtcbh s` prbpbs` f` a`rh`r l–bnk`t f` hbtr` ràm`ram`, quc pbrt`

sur l–`xpãrc`ha` vãau` fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts jdramdhfs `h lcih` quc jbnclcs`ht f`s

fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, pdr rdppbrt ï ld lcttãrdtur` `h jdrg`tchi `t a`ll` `h systíj`sf–chebrjdtcbh. L–chtãrët jdrquã f`s prbe`sscbhh`ls fu jdrg`tchi sur Cht`rh`t pbur ld rãdlctã



>6

vcrtu`ll`, s` kustcec` ldri`j`ht pdr ld vdlùr dkbutã` qu` a`s tàmhblbic`s prbaur`ht, ï ld

jdrqu` `t du abhsbjjdtùr. A`tt` tàmhblbic` ãj`ri`ht` (`.i., scjuldtcbh j`htdl`,

vcfãbabheãr`ha`, mbj` achãjd, tãlãvcscbh mdut` fãechctcbh, `ta.), d ãtã abhéu` pbur eburhcr

dux utclcsdtùrs f`s fcspbsctces quc edvbrcs`ht l–clluscbh f` vcvr` uh` `xpãrc`ha` hbh jãfcdtcsã`

fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht crrã`l (Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339). Ld s`hsdtcbh r`ss`htc` ï trdv`rs a`s

butcls `st fãechc` cac abjj` l–cjj`rscbh. _dr dcllùrs, l` fãv`lbpp`j`ht f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts

vcrtu`ls p`rj`t f` arã`r f`s è e`ts pbsctces tdht du hcv`du abihctce qu–ãjbtcbhh`l am`z l`s

cht`rhdut`s (Fdcl`y, >??6). L`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` h–bht pds pbur sùl röl`

f–`hrcamcr l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` (`.i., abhs`cll`rs vcrtu`ls, fãabrs `h 1F, vcfãbs, `ta.), cls

p`rj`tt`ht ãidl`j`ht f–djãlcbr`r l–dttctuf` vcs-ï-vcs fu jdramdhf `t l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`

(Ecbr` `t dl., >??0 7 Kcdhi `t N`hndsdt >??9) dchsc qu` f–chelu`ha`r l`s abjpbrt`j`hts f–damdt

(Csdda `t Ubll`, >?44). A–`st pburqubc, f` hbjnrùs`s ràm`ram`s, hbtdjj`ht `h jdrg`tchi,

bht ãtã j`hã`s a`s f`rhcír`s dhhã`s dech f–`ssdy`r f` rãpbhfr` ï a`s jultcpl`s qu`stcbhs (`.i.,

Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf, >??5 7 >??= 7 Qamjctt `t ^bi`rs, >??= 7 Mbeejdh `t

Hbvdg, >??3).

Qc pluscùrs ràm`ram`s bht ãtufcã l`s èe`ts f` l–dtjbspmír` sur l`s sct`s jdramdhfs

(`.i., ^camdrf, >??0 7 L`jbch`, >??=), hbtr` ràm`ram` abjnch` ï ld ebcs f`s daqucs cssus f` ld

lcttãrdtur` `h jdrg`tchi (`.i., Ecbr` `t dl., >??0 7 Abvd `t Abvd, >??3) `t f` ld lcttãrdtur` `h

systíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh (`.i., Lbjnrdf `t Fcttbh, 4339 7 Qum `t L``, >??0 7 Kcdhi `t N`hndsdt,

>??9 7 Ayr `t dl., >??3).

@h èe`t, l` abha`pt prchacpdl f` hbtr` trdvdcl fbatbrdl `st l` pmãhbjíh` f–cjj`rscbh.

A` abha`pt d edct l–bnk`t f–uh a`rtdch hbjnr` f` trdvdux cssus f` amdj ps fcsacplchdcr`s trís

fcv`rs. A` h–`st qu` f`pucs uh` fczdch` f–dhhã`s, qu` l` jdrg`tchi s–y chtãr`ss`. Qc a`rtdchs

trdvdux trdct`ht f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`s abht`xt`s pmyscqu`s (vcsct` f–uh jusã`, abha`rts,

tmãîtr`, achãjd...) bu fdhs l`s abht`xt`s `h lcih` (sct` w`n aldsscqu` ; Ibbil` @drtm, JQH

_mbtbnlbi...), hbtr` trdvdcl trdct` f` l–cjj`rscbh du s`hs psyamblbicqu` (vs. pmyscqu`) fdhsl`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls `h lcih` `t plus prãacsãj`ht, a`luc f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `h

lcih` f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. F–dutr` pdrt, sc l–dvíh`j`ht f`s sct`s jdramdhfs sur Cht`rh`t d

rdfcadl`j`ht jbfcecã l`s rãdatcbhs `t l`s abjpbrt`j`hts f`s abhsbjjdtùrs. A` trdvdcl

am`ram` ï fãjbhtr`r qu` l`s sct`s jdramdhfs p`rj`tt`ht fãsbrjdcs f` edcr` vcvr` dux

abhsbjjdtùrs f`s `xpãrc`ha`s f–cjj`rscbh brcichdl`s, chbunlcdnl`s `t fceeãr`hacã`s, fbht l`s

abhsãqu`ha`s sur l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s sbht rã`ll`j`ht abhscfãrdnl`s. A`tt` ãtuf`

`st ld pr`jcír`, ï hbtr` abhhdcssdha`, quc dnbrf` l` abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` f`ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sur uh sct` f` abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu`.



>0

CC.>. L` pbsctcbhh`j`ht f` hbtr` ràm`ram` fdhs ld lcttãrdtur` `h jdrg`tchi

A` trdvdcl fbatbrdl `xdjch` l` abha`pt alã f–cjj`rscbh sbus pluscùrs eda`tt`s.

_luscùrs abha`ptudlcsdtcbhs f` l–cjj`rscbh y sbht ãtufcã`s. @ll`s dppdrtc`hh`ht ï f`s amdjps

fcv`rs f` ld lcttãrdtur`. Hbtr` ràm`ram` stcpul` qu` ld abhsbjjdtcbh h–`st pds pdsscv` `t

l–chfcvcfu `st susa`ptcnl` f` s–`hidi`r fdhs uh prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh pbur bptcjcs`r ld

vdlùr f` sbh `xpãrc`ha`. F–uh pbcht f` vu` fcsacplchdcr`, hbtr` trdvdcl fbatbrdl s–chsarct fdhs

l` aburdht iãhãrdl f`s ràm`ram`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s du s`ch f–`hvcrbhh`j`hts abjj`racdux

(`.i., JaGchh`y, >??6 7 Nbrimchc `t dl., >??3). @ll` prãs`ht` l–chtãrët f–ãt`hfr` dux ãamdhi`s

ãlàtrbhcqu`s ld abjprãm`hscbh fu abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh chv`stciuã fdhs f–dutr`s abht`xt`s,

hbtdjj`ht a`luc f`s prbfucts aultur`ls (`.i., Ldfw`ch, >??> 7 Adró `t Abvd, >??1 7 Ebrh`rchb,

M`lj`-Iuczbh ̀ t Ibtt`ldhf, >??=).

Hbtr` ãtuf` s–chtãr`ss` dux pmãhbjíh`s f–cjj`rscbh p`hfdht `t dprís l` prba`ssus

f–damdt, chv`stciuãs fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. Dlbrs qu` l`s ràm`ram`s

dhtãrcùr`s s` sbht chtãr`ssã`s ï f–dutr`s abht`xt`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh, prchacpdl`j`ht

aultur`ls, `ll`s bht pbrtã sur l` lc`h `htr` cjj`rscbh `t sdtcsedatcbh (`.i., Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-

Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf, >??=), tãlãprãs`ha` (Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339), rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s

(Fc`sndam `t K`dhfrdch, >??0), utclctã p`réu` `t edaclctã f–utclcsdtcbh (Didrwdl `t Gdrdmdhhd,

>???), fcv`rtcss`j`ht `t rëv` ãv`cllã (Qcjbh, >??9), hcfcecadtcbh (Abvd `t F`ru`ll`, >?4?), `ta.

Hbus hbus ebadlcs`rbhs sur l–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` `t hbus tîam`rbhs ï `h cf`htcec`r l`s

abhsãqu`ha`s `t l`s èe`ts sur l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` sur uh sct` w`n f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, `h

t`rj`s f` p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi, qu–`ll`s sbc`ht p`ra`ptu`ll`s, r`ldtcbhh`ll`s bu

trdhsdatcbhh`ll`s.

@h èe`t, l–brcichdlctã f` hbtr` ãtuf` h` s–drrët` pds ï sbh abha`pt a`htrdl ;

l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, jdcs chtíir` f`s abha`ptsbrcichdux fdhs ld lcttãrdtur` `h jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l. Cl s–dict hbtdjj`ht f` ld vdlùr

p`réu` quc d ãtã chv`stciuã fdhs f–dutr`s abht`xt`s jdcs kdjdcs abjj` uh` abhsãqu`ha` ï

l–cjj`rscbh. _dr dcllùrs, hbtr` ràm`ram` ãtufc` l`s abj pbrt`j`hts prbndnl`s f`s cht`rhdut`s

`hv`rs l` sct`, l` prbfuct `t ld jdrqu`. L–ãtuf` cf`htcec` achq abjpbrt`j`hts prbndnl`s

abhsãautces ï l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` ; abjjdhf`r uh prbfuct / s`rvca` sur l` sct`, r`jplcr uh

ebrjuldcr` p`rj`ttdht f–ëtr` ràbhtdatã ultãrcùr`j`ht pdr ld jdrqu`, pr`hfr` abhtdat

fcràt`j`ht dvà ld jdrqu`, r`v`hcr sur l` sct` `t `h pdrl`r pbsctcv`j`ht. Vbut du lbhi f` a`tt`ràm`ram`, hbus qudlcecbhs a`s abjpbrt`j`hts f` p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi `h lcih`. @hech,



>5

Cht`rh`t rdss`jnl` uh` pbpuldtcbh l–mãtãrbiíh` f–cht`rhdut`s, a`s f`rhc`rs bht f`s

abjpãt`ha`s `t fceeãr`ha`s chfcvcfu`ll`s cjpbrtdht`s. F–uh` pdrt, hbtr` ràm`ram` pr`hf `h

abjpt` a`s fcspdrctãs pucsqu–`ll` ãtufc` ãidl`j`ht l` hcv`du f–cjplcadtcbh `t f–`xp`rtcs` f`s

alc`hts `h lcih` p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`. F–dutr` pdrt, du vu f` a`s fcspdrctãs, hbus

ãtufcbhs l`s rãdatcbhs `t l`s p`ra`ptcbhs f`s cht`rhdut`s, s`lbh l`s jbj`hts `t l`s lcùx f`

hdvcidtcbh, fdhs l`squ`ls a`s f`rhc`rs vbht vcvr` l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih`.

Dchsc, qu`lqu`s am`ramùrs `h jdrg`tchi s` sbht p`hamãs sur l` suk`t pbur fãechcr a`tt`

hbuv`ll` prdtcqu`, quc fãtburh` l` jdrg`tchi f` s`s dpprbam`s trdfctcbhh`ll`s ndsã`s sur l–ãtdt

f` elux, ld tãlãprãs`ha`, ld sdtcsedatcbh, ld abhecdha`… `h uh jdrg`tchi f` abpr bfuatcbh,

ebhfã sur l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `t l`s ãtdts quc y sbht dssbacãs, hbtdjj`ht

l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt`.

Cl abhvc`ht f` sbulcih`r qu` hbtr` ràm`ram` abjnch` ï ld ebcs ld lcttãrdtur` r`ldtcv` du

pdrdfcij` Q-B-^ (Qtcjulus ‑ Bridhcsj` ‑ ^ãpbhs`) `t l`s trdvdux abhsdarãs dux

pmãhbjíh s̀ f–cjj`rscbh quc ãj`ri`ht p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh (Mblnrbbg `t

Mcrsamjdh, 43=> 7 Drhbulf `t _rca`, 4331 7 Adró `t Abvd, >??1) bó l` abhsbjjdtùr kbu` ï ld

ebcs, l` röl` f` spàtdtùr `t f–datùr. @h èe`t, l`s trdvdux sur l–dtjbspmír` f`s sct`s w`n hbus

bht p`rjcs f–cf`htcec`r l`s abjpbsdht`s fu sct` (di`hts vcrtu`ls, abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `t

`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h 1F) s`lbh lùrs edatùrs f–dppdrt`hdha` (edatùrs sbacdux, f` f`scih `t

f–djncdha`). A'`st-ï-fcr` qu`ls stcjulc, pdrjc aùx quc abjpbs`ht l` sct`, bht uh cjpdat sur

l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`.

Vbutèbcs, sc l–bh s–drrët` du l` pdrdfcij` Q-B-^ hbus h` pdrl`rbhs hbh pds

f–cjj`rscbh (prbpr` ï ld lcttãrdtur` `xpãrc`htc`ll`) jdcs uhcqu`j`ht f–ãjbtcbhs. L–ãtuf` j`t

`h ãvcf`ha` qudtr` fcj`hscbhs r`ss`htc`s pdr l`s rãpbhfdhts p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` quc

p`rj`tt`ht f` abhebrt`r a` rdcsbhh`j`ht, cl s–dict f`s fcj`hscbhs abihctcv`s, s`hsbrc`ll`s,

deeàtcv`s `t sbacdl`s, prbpr`s ï l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh. @h è e`t, ld ràm`ram` edct ãj`ri`r l`

pmãhbjíh` f–cjj`rscbh p`rj`ttdht dchsc f` r`vcsct`r l` pdrdfcij` Q-B-^ `t fãpdss`r l` adfràldsscqu` f`s trdvdux sur l–dtjbspmír`.

CC.1. L` pbsctcbhh`j`ht ãpcstãjblbicqu` f` ld ràm`ram`

Fdhs tbut` abhstruatcbh jãtmbfblbicqu`, uh` rãel`xcbh dutbur fu pbsctcbhh`j`ht

ãpcstãjblbicqu` s'dvír` `ss`htc`ll` 7 hbh pds pbur s–daquctt`r uh` ebcs pbur tbut`s f–uh`

bnlcidtcbh dadfãjcqu`, jdcs dech f` aldrcec`r l` fcsaburs (Jdrtch`t, 433?). @h èe`t, s–cl `xcst`f` hbjnrùs`s edébhs f` edcr` f` ld ràm`ram`, l` rdcsbhh`j`ht fu am`ramùr r`st` fãp`hfdht



>9

f` ld fcv`rsctã f`s stdtuts f`s fbhhã`s, f`s jbf`s f` abllàt`s, f` ld r`ldtcbh `htr` ld tmãbrc` `t

l`s bns`rvdtcbhs `jpcrcqu`s `t f`s arctír`s f` sac`htcecactã f` ld ràm`ram`. A`ld suppbs` f`

fãpdss`r l` hcv`du iãhãrdl f`s alcamãs. Ld ràm`ram` sac`htcecqu` `h i`stcbh d pbur jcsscbh

f–dhdlys`r, f–`xplcqu`r `t f` ebrjdlcs`r l` ebhatcbhh`j`ht f`s `htr`prcs`s, dech f` fãpdss`r l`

amdjp f`s fcsaburs scjplcecadtùrs f` ld lcttãrdtur` (Jcl`s `t Mun`rjdh, >??1).

Vbut` ràm`ram` r`pbs` sur uh `hs`jnl` f–mypbtmís`s. Cl edut dlbrs `h prãacs`r ld

hdtur`, `h iucf`r ld abjprãm`hscbh, ãvdlu`r sd abmãr`ha` cht`rh`, kui`r sd p`rtch`ha` `t sd

vdlcfctã. Ld pbsctcbh ãpcstãjblbicqu` fu am`ramùr h` fbct pds luc fcat`r l` ambcx f` ld hdtur`

f` l'butcl, qudlctdtcv` bu qudhtctdtcv`, jdcs ld edébh fbht cl vd l` j`ttr` `h őuvr` (Vmcãtdrt,

>??9). _dr dcllùrs, l` jdrg`tchi h` abhstctu` pds uh` sac`ha` `h rdcsbh f–uh` ãrbscbh

f–`xci`ha`s sac`htcecqu`s. Qc ld sac`ha` `st adrdatãrcsã` pdr uh` ebrjdlcsdtcbh tbtdl` `t pdr

l–ãldnbrdtcbh f` lbcs `t f` qudsc-lbcs, l` jdrg`tchi h` p`rj`t qu–uh` ebrjdlcsdtcbh pdrtc`ll` `t

l–ãldnbrdtcbh f` lbcs f` t`hfdha`s `t f–mypbtmís s̀ pbhatu`ll`s (Muht, 43=3 7 ^blldhf, >??1).

L` suk`t f` ràm`ram` t`l qu` hbus l–dvbhs fãechc hbus abhfuct ï prcvclãic`r uh`

dpprbam` a`htrã` sur ld hbtcbh f–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh. _dr dcllùrs, l`s mypbtmís`s

qu` hbus ebrjulbhs cac, sbht ebhfã`s sur l–dhdlys` f`s amdjps tmãbrcqu`s jbnclcsãs `t t`stã` s

pbur vdlcfdtcbh lbrs f` l–ãtuf` `jpcrcqu`. Ld pbstur` ãpcstãjblbicqu` f` a`tt` ràm`ram` `st ï

ld ebcs chfuatcv` ̀ t mypbtmãtcab-fãfuatcv`.

Hbtr` trdvdcl abjnch` fùx jãtmbfblbic`s, ï ld ebcs qudlctdtcv` `t qudhtctdtcv`, quc

rãvíl`ht uh f`scih jcxt` am`ramdht ï ãtbee`r l`s rãsultdts f` a` trdvdcl. @h èe`t, jdlirã ld

prãs`ha` f–`htr`tc`hs, a`tt` ràm`ram` h` sdurdct ëtr` abhscfãrã abjj` uhcqu`j`ht chfuatcv`.

F–dnbrf, adr l`s cht`rvc`ws qu` hbus dvbhs rãdlcsãs bht edct l'bnk`t f'uh` prãpdrdtcbh

dpprbebhfc` ï pdrtcr f` fcsausscbhs dvà f`s prbe`sscbhh`ls `t f`s am`ramùrs, abjplãtã`s pdr

f`s chv`stcidtcbhs f` hdtur` ncnlcbirdpmcqu` (Abllch-Ldamduf `t Fuyag, >??4). A`

rdcsbhh`j`ht chfuatce p`rj`t f` pdss`r f`s edcts dux mypbtmís`s . Cl s–dict f–bns`rv`r uh`

rãdlctã abhscfãrã` abjj` bnkàtcv` `t f–`h fãidi`r f`s r`ldtcbhs. @h suct` adr, hbusebrjul`rbhs f`s mypbtmís`s sur ld nds` f` l–dhdlys` f` ld lcttãrdtur` jbnclcsã` `t f` l–dhdlys`

qudlctdtcv`, `t hbus hbus èebra`rbhs f'`h vãrcec`r ld vdlcfctã du trdv`rs f'uh prbtbabl`

jãtmbfblbicqu` qudhtctdtce ; l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh. Ph` t`ll` jãtmbfblbic` `st dsscjclã` ï uh`

fãjdram` pbsctcvcst`.

_dr dcllùrs, l'bppbsctcbh systãjdtcqu` f` a`s fùx ebrj`s f` p`hsã` `st pdrebcs

adrcadturdl` (Fdvcf, Mdtamu`l `t Ldue`r, >??=). L`s rãel`xcbhs sur l` stdtut fu jdrg`tchi `h

tdht qu` fcsacplch` hbus bht abhfucts ï prãacs`r a`tt` pbsctcbh ãpcstãjblbicqu`, quc hbuss`jnl` ld plus dfãqudt` ï hbtr` ràm`ram` `t trdfucsdht hbtr` fãjdram`. Dech f–daarbètr` ld



>=

vdlcfctã f` ld abhhdcssdha` quc `h `st cssu` `t luc abheãr`r uh adrdatír` buv`rt ï ld fcsausscbh

sac`htcecqu`, `t f` ld r`hfr` aujuldnl` dvà f`s rãsultdts f` ràm`ram` dhtãrcùrs (Vmcãtdrt,

>??9). Fdhs a`tt` ràm`ram`, hbus sbumdctbhs jbnclcs`r `h tbut` rciuùr l`s tmãbrc`s f`s dutr`s

fcsacplch`s, qu–cl s–dicss` f` ld psyamblbic` abjpbrt`j`htdl`, f` l–dhdlys` f` abht`hu bu f`

ld stdtcstcqu`, pbur l` fãv`lbpp`j`ht f` hbuv`ll`s abhhdcssdha`s fdhs hbtr` amdjp f`

ràm`ram`, `t pbur l–brc`htdtcbh f` ld rãel`xcbh f`s i`stcbhhdcr`s `t f`s prbe ̀ sscbhh`ls f`

l–Cht`rh`t fdhs l` nut f` p`reàtcbhh`r lùrs datcbhs `h lcih`.



>3

CCC. L` fãrbul`j`ht `t l`s abhtrcnutcbhs dtt`hfu`s f` ld ràm`ram`

L` trbcscíj` vbl`t f` l–chtrbfuatcbh iãhãrdl` s` abhsdar` ï ld prãs`htdtcbh f`s bnkàtces

f` a`tt` ràm`ram` `t f` sbh chtãrët pbur l`s r`spbhsdnl`s jdrg`tchi `t pbur l`s am`ramùrs.

A` trdvdcl fbatbrdl vcs` ï a`rh`r l` abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`, ï cf`htcec`r l`s

abjpbsdht`s f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `t ï `h abjpr`hfr` l–cjpdat ãv`htu`l sur l`s

rãpbhs`s f`s cht`rhdut`s. @tdht fbhhã` ld hdtur` `xplbrdtbcr` f` hbtr` suk`t f` ràm`ram`, hbus

dvbhs bptã fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps ï uh` chv`stcidtcbh f` typ` qudlctdtce fu t`rrdch, `ll` hbus

s`jnl` abhstctu`r uh` jãtmbf` dpprbprcã` pbur abllàt`r f`s fbhhã`s p`rtch`ht`s `t j`ttr` `h

plda` hbtr` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l. Fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps, ld jãtmbfblbic` qudhtctdtcv` ï

trdv`rs uh pldh `xpãrcj`htdl, d ãtã dfbptã` pbur rãpbhfr` ï hbtr` qu`stcbh f` ràm`ram` `t du

t`st f`s mypbtmís`s ãjcs`s.

A` trdvdcl f` ràm`ram` s` prbpbs` f–dppbrt`r trbcs typ`s f` abhtrcnutcbhs ;

- tmãbrcqu`

- jãtmbfblbicqu`s

- jdhdiãrcdl`s

F–uh pbcht f` vu` tmãbrcqu` ;

- A` trdvdcl fbatbrdl abhstctu` f–dnbrf uh prblbhi`j`ht f`s ãtuf`s `t f`s trdvdux

daabjplcs `h jdrg`tchi `t `h systíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh sur l` pmãhbjíh` f–cjj`rscbh

fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls, dech f` t`st`r sd vdlcfctã `xt`rh` fdhs l`

abht`xt` fu `-abjj`ra` `t plus pdrtcaulcír`j`ht a`luc f`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs quc

jbnclcs`ht f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`.

- @hsuct`, f` t`st`r l–cjpdat f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` f`s sct`s w`n sur

l–cjj`rscbh, ld vdlùr p`réu` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` vcsct` `h lcih` `t ld p`rebrjdha`

jdrg`tchi fu sct` (c.`., t`ls qu`, l–cht`htcbh f–damdt, r`jplcr uh ebrjuldcr`, ld prcs` f`

abhtdat, l–cht`htcbh f` r`v`hcr sur l` sct` `t l` nbuam` ï br`cll`).

- _ucs, f–ãt`hfr` dux abjj`ra` sur Cht`rh`t, ld abjprãm`hscbh fu abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh

mdnctu`ll`j`ht chv`stciuã fdhs f–dutr`s abht`xt`s, hbtdjj`ht a`luc f`s prbfucts

aultur`ls `t f` lbcscrs.

F–uh pbcht f` vu` jãtmbfblbicqu`



1?

- Ld ràm`ram` abjnch` fùx jãtmbfblbic`s ; uh` jãtmbfblbic` qudlctdtcv` j`hã`

duprís f` 4= cht`rhdut`s `t uh` ãtuf` qudhtctdtcv` èeàtuã` sur f`s cht`rhdut`s `h

sctudtcbh rã`ll`. L` f`scih jcxt` p`rj`t f–`hrcamcr l`s rãsultdts f` hbtr` ràm`ram`.

- Ld jcs` `h plda` f–uh` `xpãrcj`htdtcbh fbht l–bnkàtce `st l` t`st f`s r`ldtcbhs adusdl`s

fu jbfíl` f` ràm`ram`, fbht l` prchacp` ebhfdj`htdl `st f` edcr` vdrc`r l`s ãlãj`hts

`xpãrc`htc`ls fu sct` w`n jdramdhf `t f–`h j`sur`r l`s abhsãqu`ha`s f` a`s

vdrcdtcbhs.

- L` t`st f`s mypbtmís`s lcã`s dux vdrcdnl`s jãfcdtrca`s `t jbfãrdtrca`s `t l–dpplcadtcbh

f`s jãtmbfblbic`s dfãqudt`s f` jdhcír` scjplcecã` ̀ t abjprãm`hscnl .̀

- L` t`st f–mypbtmís`s d ãtã èeàtuã ï l–dcf` f` jãtmbf`s f–ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s.

F–uh pbcht f` vu` jdhdiãrcdl ;

- Qur l` pldh jdhdiãrcdl, a` trdvdcl f` ràm`ram` p`rj`t f–dppbrt`r f`s ãlãj`hts f`

rãel`xcbh `t f`s pcst`s f–datcbh pbur uh` i`stcbh plus dpprbprcã` f`s fcspbsctces f`

rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, quc p`rj`tt`ht f–`hrcamcr l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `t quc abhstctu`ht uh

l`vc`r abhaurr`htc`l cjpbrtdht.

- Ld ràm`ram` p`rj`ttrd f–cf`htcec`r l`s ãlãj`hts quc abhabur`ht l` plus ï l–ãv`htudlctã

f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`, cl s–dict f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s sur l`squ`ll`s c l

`st cjpbrtdht f–chv`stcr. Cl s–dict hbtdjj`ht f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h 1F, f` ld

abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `t f` l–di`ht vcrtu`l.

- L`s rãsultdts f` a`tt` ãtuf` p`rj`ttrbht dux r`spbhsdnl`s f`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs f`

abha`vbcr f`s pldt`s-ebrj`s quc plda`ht l–cht`rhdut` du a`htr` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, `h

l–cjplcqudht `t `h l–`hidi`dht fdhs l` abht`xt` ; cl s–dict f` prbvbqu`r sbh cjj`rscbh

fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht ̀ xpãrc`htc`l fu sct`.

- L` trdvdcl j`ttrd `h ãvcf`ha` l`s abhfctcbhs hãa`ssdcr`s quc p`rj`tt`ht f–djãlcbr`r

l–`x pãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `t arã`r f` ld vdlùr pbur l`s alc`hts.

- Hbtr` ãtuf` abhtrcnu`rd ï kustcec`r l`s chv`stcss`j`hts èeàtuãs `h jdtcír` f`

ebhatcbhs quc vcs`ht ï r`hebra`r l–cht`rdatcvctã `t l–dttrdatcvctã fu sct` jdramdhf. F`s

chv`stcss`j`hts hãa`ssdcr`s ï l–`hrcamcss`j`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`.

- @hech, ï f`s echs f` acnldi`, ld ràm`ram` prbpbs` f` j`cllùr`s spãacecadtcbhs fu prbecl

f`s cht`rhdut`s quc daaíf`ht l` plus edacl`j`ht ï l–`xpãrc`ha`.



14

CU. Ld struatur` f` ld tmís`

_bur `xpbs`r hbtr` trdvdcl f` ràm`ram` fbatbrdl`, hbus dvbhs edct l` ambcx f` prbaãf`r

`h fùx t`jps dech f–ãaldcr`r l` làtùr. Dchsc fùx pdrtc`s abjpbs`ht a`tt` ràm`ram`, ld

pr`jcír` abjpbrt` qudtr` amdpctr`s quc dnbrf`ht ld hbtcbh iãhãrdl` f–`xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtcbh, qudht ï ld sàbhf`, `ll` s` abjpbs` f` trbcs amdpctr`s quc s–chtãr`ss`ht dux

dspàts jãtmbfblbicqu s̀ ̀ t `jpcrcqu`s f` ld ràm`ram`.

Ld pr`jcír` pdrtc` prbpbs` uh` jcs` ï kbur l`s ebhf`j`hts fu abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh

fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts jdramdhfs f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, f–uh` pdrt `t ld prbpbsctcbh f–uh

jbfíl` abha`ptu`l trdfucsdht l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls `h lcih`,

f–dutr` pdrt.

L` pr`jc`r amdpctr` r`ldt` l`s brcich`s fu abha`pt f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh

dchsc qu` s`s pdrtcauldrctãs fdhs ld p`rspàtcv` fu jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l. A` amdpctr` d pbur

bnkàtces ld aldrcecadtcbh fu abha`pt f–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh. Cl dnbrf` l`s ebhf`j`hts

tmãbrcqu`s f` l–`xpãrc`ha` dchsc qu` röl` f` l–`htr`prcs` `t fu abhsbjjdtùr fdhs sd

prbfuatcbh.

L` fùxcíj` amdpctr` `st fãfcã ï ld hbtcbh f–cjj`rscbh. Cl sbulcih` l`s fceeãr`ha`s

`htr` l`s fceeãr`hts typ`s f–cjj`rscbh, hbtdjj`ht l–cjj`rscbh tàmhcqu` `t l–cjj`rscbh

psyamblbicqu`. A`tt` f`rhcír` hbtcbh abjj` abha`pt a`htrdl f` ld prãs`ht` ràm`ram`.

@hsuct`, hbus hbus chtãr`ss`rbhs ï prãacs`r a` abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh `h l` fcstchiudht f`

abha`pt prbam`s, t`ls qu` l` elbw, ld tãlãprãs`ha`, `ta. L–bnkàtce f` a` amdpctr` `st f`

syhtmãtcs`r l–`hs`jnl` f`s abhhdcssdha`s fãkï daqucs`s sur l` abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh `t f`

kustcec`r hbs pbsctcbhs t̀ hbs ambcx.

L` trbcscíj` amdpctr` f` a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl trdct` f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s f`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l jdramdhf. Fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps, l`s hbtcbhs f–dtjbspmír` f` v`ht`

pmyscqu` `t vcrtu`ll` y sbht dnbrfã`s. @hsuct`, a` amdpctr` s` abha`htr` sur l`s tàmhcqu`s f`rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, s`s ebhf`j`hts `t s`s fbjdch`s f–dpplcadtcbh. @hech, hbus am`ram`rbhs ï

abha`ptudlcs`r ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` fdhs l` abht`xt` f` l–`-jdrg`tchi.

L` qudtrcíj` amdpctr` `t l` f`rhc`r f` ld pr`jcír` pdrtc`, prãs`ht` l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv`

èeàtuã` pbur sbulcih`r l`s spãacecactãs f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` fdhs l` abht`xt` fu

abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu`, abjpdrdtcv`j`ht dux `xpãrc`ha`s f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` fbjdch`

aultur`l.

Ld fùxcíj` pdrtc` f` a`tt` ràm`ram` fãarct ld jãtmbfblbic`, ld jcs` `h őuvr` f`svdrcdnl`s, l` t`st f`s mypbtmís`s `t l`s rãsultdts f` ld pmds` `jpcrcqu`.



1>

L` achqucíj` amdpctr` `xpbs` ld fãjdram` jãtmbfblbicqu` dfbptã` pbur t`st`r l`s

mypbtmís`s f` hbtr` jbfíl`. F–dnbrf hbus kustcecbhs l` ambcx fu f`scih f` ràm`ram` `t l`

jbf` f` abllàt` f`s fbhhã`s. L`s sct`s jdramdhfs quc utclcs`ht f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll`, abhstctu`ht hbtr` t`rrdch f–chv`stcidtcbh. @hsuct`, hbus prãs`htbhs ld prbaãfur`

utclcsã` pbur vdlcf`r l`s ãam`ll`s f` j`sur` f`s vdrcdnl`s f` hbtr` jbfíl`. L–bnk`t `t l`s

abhfctcbhs f–utclcsdtcbh f` ld jbfãlcsdtcbh pdr l`s ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s pbur l` t`st f`s

mypbtmís`s. @hech, a` amdpctr` prãs`ht` l`s rãsultdts abha`rhdht ld vdlcfdtcbh f`s ãam`ll`s f`

j`sur` utclcsã`s

L` scxcíj` amdpctr`, abha`rh` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh prbpr`j`ht fct`, cl p`rj`t l` t`st fu

jbfíl` ̀ t f`s mypbtmís`s prãaãf`jj`ht ãjcs`s.

L` s`ptcíj` `t f`rhc`r amdpctr`, j`t `h p`rspàtcv` l`s rãsultdts dvà lùrs dppbrts,lùrs lcjct`s `t l`s vbc`s f–dpprbebhfcss`j`ht qu` a` pr`jc`r trdvdcl `st susa`ptcnl` f–buvrcr

fdhs f`s ràm`ram`s eutur`s.



11

L@Q @VD_@Q F@ LD ^@AM@ÂM@

AMD_CV^@ UCC ; LD FCQQAPQQCBH @V LD JCQ@@H _@^Q_@AVCU@ F@Q ^@QPLVDVQ

AMD_CV^@ UC ; L@ V@QV F@Q MS_BVM@Q@Q

AMD_CV^@ U ; J@VMBFBLBIC@ @V JCQ@ @HB@PU^@ F@Q UD^CDNL@Q FP JBFÍL@

AMD_CV^@ CU ; LD _MDQ@ TPDLCVDVCU@ @VL@Q MS_BVM@Q@Q F@ ^@AM@ÂM@

AMD_CV^@ CCC ; L@Q ABJ_BQDHV@Q F@L–@HUC^BHH@J@HV @]_@^C@HVC@L @H LCIH@

AMD_CV^@ CC ; L–CJJ@^QCBH FDHQ PH@HUC^BHH@J@HV JDÂMDHF

AMD_CV^@ C ; D LD TP@V@ F@ L–@]_@^C@HA@

F@ ABHQBJJDVCBH

_ ^ @ J C @

^ @ _ D ^ V C @

F @ P ] C @ J @ _ D ^ V C @



16

_D^VC@ C ; LD I@H@Q@ F@

L–@]_@^C@HA@ F–CJJ@^QCBH @H

LCIH@ FDHQ L@Q @HUC^BHH@J@HVQ

F@ ^@DLCV@ UC^VP@LL@



10

CHV^BFPAVCBH D LD _^@JC@^@ _D^VC@

Ld pr`jcír` pdrtc` f` hbtr` ràm`ram` s` abhsdar` ï ld jcs` `h lujcír` f` l–`hs`jnl`

f`s abhhdcssdha`s fãv`lbppã`s dutbur fu pmãhbjíh` f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts

f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `h lcih`, t`l qu–cl `st rã`ll`j`ht vãau pdr l`s cht`rhdut`s.

L` pr`jc`r amdpctr` trdct` f`s brcich`s `t f`s pdrtcauldrctãs f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtcbh. Hbus y prãs`htbhs fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps, l`s ebhf`j`hts tmãbrcqu`s fu

abha`pt f–`xpãrc`ha` `t l` abha`pt f` prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh, fdhs uh

fùxcíj` t`jps. F–uh` jdhcír` iãhãrdl`, a` amdpctr` a` abhsdar` ï l–ãtuf` f` l–ãvblutcbh fu

abha`pt f–`xpãrc`ha ,̀ fdhs uh` p`rspàtcv` mcstbrcqu` ̀ t jdhdiãrcdl`.

L` sàbhf amdpctr` f` a`tt` pr`jcír` pdrtc` s` abhsdar` du abha`pt a`htrdl f` hbtr`

ràm`ram` ; l–cjj`rscbh. Q`s fãechctcbhs s`lbh l`s dpprbam`s prchacpdl`s y sbht dnbrfã`s.

Dchsc, hbus fcstchiubhs `htr` l–cjj`rscbh tàmhcqu` `t l–cjj`rscbh psyamblbicqu`, pbur hbus

abhsdar`r ï ld abha`ptudlcsdtcbh f` a`tt` f`rhcír` fdhs l` jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l. A` amdpctr`

p`rj`t ãidl`j`ht f` jcùx prãacs`r l` abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh `t f–`h fãechcr l`s eda`tt`s prchacpdl`s. @hech, hbus fcsa`rhbhs l–cjj`rscbh f–dutr`s abha`pts prbam`s t`ls qu` l–ãtdt f`

elux, ld tãlãprãs`ha`, `ta.

L` trbcscíj` amdpctr` `st abhsdarã ï l–`xpbsã f`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

`xpãrc`htc`l. Cl s–chtãr`ss` ï l–dtjbspmír` f`s pbchts f` v`ht` `h iãhãrdl `t plus

pdrtcaulcír`j`ht ï l–utclcsdtcbh f`s tàmhcqu`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` fdhs ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh, ld

jcs` `h saíh` `t ld tmãjdtcsdtcbh f`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs, pbur abhalur` sur uh` typblbic`f`s sct`s quc jbnclcs`ht f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`.

A`s trbcs pr`jc`rs amdpctr`s hbus p`rj`tt`ht f` edcr` ãj`ri`r f` ld r`vu` f` lcttãrdtur`,

l`s fcj`hscbhs abhstctutcv`s f` l–cjj`rscbh sur uh sct` w`n quc jbnclcs` f`s fcspbsctces f`

rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. A`tt` r`vu` d pbur bnkàtce f` pbs`r hbtr` adfr` abha`ptu`l quc hbus s`rvcrd

f` ebhfdtcbhs pbur ld suct`.



15

@hech, l` qudtrcíj` amdpctr` `st abhsdarã ï ld r`prãs`htdtcbh fu jbfíl` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`

f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`. _bur a` edcr`, hbus prãs`htbhs

l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` qu` hbus dvbhs èeàtuã` pbur jcùx a`rh`r l`s rãdatcbhs `htrdchã`s pdr l`s

`hvcrbhh`j`hts jdramdhfs f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. A`tt` ãtuf` j`t ãidl`j`ht `h ãvcf`ha` l`

abha`pt f` vdlùr p`réu` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`. @hech, a` amdpctr` prãs`ht` l` jbfíl` ï

t`st`r `t l`s mypbtmís s̀ f` ràm`ram` quc y sbht dssbacã`s.



19


AMD_CV^@ UCC ; FCQQAPQQCBH @V JCQ@ @H_@^Q_@AVCU@ F@Q ^@QPLVDVQ






AMD_CV^@ C ; D LD TP@V@ F@ L–@]_@^C@HA@F@ ABHQBJJDVCBH

_ ^ @ J

C @ ^ @ _ D ^ V C @

F @ P ]

C @ J @ _ D ^ V C @



1=

AMD_CV^@ C ; D LD TP@V@ F@L–@]_@^C@HA@ F@ ABHQBJJDVCBH



13

CHV^BFPAVCBH FP AMD_CV^@ C

Dvdht f` fãv`lbpp`r l`s tàmhcqu`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s, quc r`prãs`ht`ht l–uh f`s pclc`rs f`

a` trdvdcl, hbus dllbhs f–dnbrf prãs`ht`r l` « jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l · dech f–`h abhhdctr` l`s

brcich`s `t f–`h abjpr`hfr` l`s abha`pts. A` trdvdcl fãnut` dlbrs pdr l–ãtuf` f` a`tt` hbuv`ll`

vcscbh fu jdrg`tchi quc hbus p`rj`ttrd f` fãnbuam`r sur l`s hbtcbhs f–« `xpãrc`ha`s ·,

f–« `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh · `t f` « prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s ·. L–dsscjcldtcbh f` a`s

hbtcbhs `st uh dhtãaãf`ht chfcsp`hsdnl` ï ld abha`ptudlcsdtcbh f`s `xpãrc`ha`s `h lcih` fdhs ld

ràm`ram` ̀ h i`stcbh.

L–bnk`t f` a` amdpctr` `st f` s–dhar`r fdhs l`s ràm`ram`s jultcfcsacplchdcr`s dutbur fu

abha`pt f–`xpãrc`ha`. D pdrtcr f–uh` r`vu` f` l–ãtdt f` l–drt `h jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l, l`

adfr` abha`ptu`l f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `st chtrbfuct `t fãv`lbppã pbur r`hfr`

abjpt` f`s bpãrdtcbhs sunkàtcv`s j`hã`s pdr l` abhsbjjdtùr pbur daaãf`r ï l–cjj`rscbh.

Cl `st struaturã dutbur f` trbcs pdrtc`s ;

Fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps, hbus prãs`ht`rbhs l`s ebhf`j`hts tmãbrcqu`s fu abha`pt

f–`xpãrc`ha` `h `xpbsdht sbh brcich`, sbh ãvblutcbh `t sbh dfbptcbh fdhs l`s fceeãr`hts

amdjps f` ràm`ram`.

Fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps, hbus ãtufc`rbhs l`s abha`pts lcãs dux fceeãr`hts amdjps f`

ràm`ram` `t `jplbyãs pdr l`s am`ramùrs pbur l`s qudlcec`r, dchsc qu` l`s abht`xt`s fdhs

l`squ`ls a`s abha`pts sbht utclcsãs. _drjc a`s abha`pts, hbus dnbrf`rbhs prãacsãj`ht l`shbtcbhs f– « `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh ·.

@hech, hbus hbus ebadlcs`rbhs sur ld hbtcbh f` « prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s · `h ãtufcdht

ï ld ebcs l` röl` f` l–`htr`prcs` `t fu alc`ht fdhs l`s pbchts f` v`ht` pmyscqu`s bu ãlàtrbhcqu`s.



6?

C. L`s ebhf`j`hts tmãbrcqu`s fu abha`pt f–`xpãrc`ha`

L–brcich` f` l–cfã` f–`xpãrc`ha` `xtrdbrfchdcr` `st ï ràm`ram`r fdhs l` aburdht

rbjdhtcqu` fu ]UCCC` scíal`. L–`xpãrc`ha` s–`xprcjdct abjj` uh` edébh f` vcvr` quc prcvclãic` l` amdhi`j`ht, ld fcv`rsctã `t l–cjdichdtcbh (Mblnrbbg, 4339) fdhs l` nut f–dvbcr

uh` vc` chtãr`ssdht` bó l–chfcvcfudlctã pùt s–ãpdhbucr `t s–daabjplcr (Adró `t Abvd, >??5d 7

>??5n).

L` t`rj` `xpãrc`htc`l prbvc`ht fu jbt `xpãrc`ha ,̀ `h ldtch « `xp`rc`htcd ·. A–`st l` edct

f–ãprbuv`r qu`lqu` ambs`, qu` hbus pbuvbhs abhscfãr`r abjj` uh ãldricss`j`ht bu uh

`hrcamcss`j`ht f` ld abhhdcssdha`, fu sdvbcr `t f`s dptctuf`s (L` p`tct ^bn`rt, >??6). Fdhs l`

fbjdch` f` ld pmclbsbpmc`, l–`xpãrc`ha` `st prãs`htã` abjj` ãtdht tbut a` quc `st dpprãm`hfã

pdr l`s s`hs `t quc abhstctu` ld jdtcír` f` ld abhhdcssdha` mujdch`. Cl s–dict f` « l–`hs`jnl`

f`s pmãhbjíh`s abhhus `t abhhdcssdnl`s · (Ldrbuss`, >??3). Fun`t (4336, p. 3>) dkbut` qu`

l'`xpãrc`ha` « `st uh` jdhcír` f'ãprbuv`r, f'ëtr` `hvdmc pdr uh ãtdt ãjbtcbhh`l sueecsdjj`ht

ebrt, pbur qu` l–datùr h` s–dppdrtc`hh` pds vrdcj`ht tbut `h fãabuvrdht uh` sunkàtcvctã

p`rsbhh`ll` ·. L'`xpãrc`ha` `st ãidl`j`ht uh` datcvctã abihctcv`, uh` jdhcír` f` abhstrucr` l`

rã`l `t surtbut f` l` vãrcec`r `t f` l'`xpãrcj`ht`r . L–chfcvcfu `ssdc` f'dttrcnu`r fu s`hs ï a`

qu–cl vct `h abhstrucsdht dutbur f` luc uh` rãdlctã quc luc `st prbpr` `t bó cl prbk`tt` sd

p`rsbhhdlctã, sbh cjdichdcr` `t s̀ s edhtdsj`s.

Fdhs a`tt` pr`jcír` sàtcbh, hbus prãs`ht`rbhs suaa`sscv`j`ht, l–brcich` f` l–dpprbam`

`xpãrc`htc`ll`, s`s fbjdch`s f–dpplcadtcbh `t ld fãechctcbh `t l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh.

C.4. L`s brcich`s f` l–dpprbam` `xpãrc`htc`ll` fdhs l` jdrg`tchi

Ld hbtcbh f–`xpãrc`ha` d edct prbir`sscv`j`ht sbh am`jch fdhs l` jbhf` fu jdrg`tchi

ï uh jbj`ht bó ld fãechctcbh f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh s–ãadrt` pdcscnl`j`ht f` ld vcscbh pur`j`ht

utclctdrcst`. Fís 439?, Ndufrclldrf deecrj` qu` ld abhsbjjdtcbh `st fãsbrjdcs f`v`hu` « uh`

datcvctã f` prbfuatcbh f` scihcecadtcbhs `t uh amdjp f–ãamdhi`s syjnblcqu`s ; l`s

abhsbjjdtùrs h` abhsbjj`ht pds l`s prbfucts, jdcs, du abhtrdcr`, abhsbjj`ht l` s`hs f`

a`s prbfucts ·. _dr dcllùrs, l` abhsbjjdtùr h` ràm`ram` plus uhcqu`j`ht l`s nãhãeca`s

tdhicnl`s `t jdtãrc`ls fdhs s`s datcvctãs f` abhsbjjdtcbh, jdcs cl `st ãidl`j`ht `h quët` f–uh

abhebrt pmyscqu` `t psyamcqu`, f` fcv`rtcss`j`ht, f–ãvdscbh, f` pldcscr, f–ãjbtcbhs, f`



64

r`habhtr`s `t f–cht`rdatcbhs. @h èe`t, Adró `t Abvd (>??5d) deecrj`ht qu` l d hbtcbh

f–`xpãrc`ha` `st f`v`hu` uh ãlãj`ht-alã f` abjprãm`hscbh fu abjpbrt`j`ht fu

abhsbjjdtùr `t l` ebhf`j`ht prchacpdl f–uh` hbuv`ll` fãjdram` jdrg`tchi. L` jbfíl`

`xpãrc`htc`l h` s` sunstctu` pds ï l–dpprbam` trdfctcbhh`ll` jdcs ld abjplít`.

L–dpprbam` `xpãrc`htc`ll` s–`st fãv`lbppã` `h jdrg`tchi dvà l–dppdrctcbh f` l–drtcal`

pcbhhc`r f` Mblnrbbg `t Mcrsamjdh fdhs l`s dhhã`s =?. Jdrquã` pdr l`s tmãbrc`s

pbstjbf`rh`s, a`tt` vcscbh s` prbpbs` f` trbuv`r f`s r`ssbura`s pbur « rã-`hamdht`r ·

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh. @h abhsãqu`ha`, `ll` s`jnl` abjplãt`r l`s jbfíl`s

trdfctcbhh`ls f–dhdlys` fu abjpbrt`j`ht fu abhsbjjdtùr quc, abhtrdcr`j`ht ï l–dpprbam`

`xpãrc`htc`ll`, prcvclãic`ht l` röl` f` ld ràm`ram` `t fu trdct`j`ht f–chebrjdtcbh j`ttdht `h

dvdht l–dat` f–damdt.

L`s trdvdux ãtdnlcs p`hfdht l`s dhhã`s 43=? pdr Mblnrbbg `t Mcrsamjdh (43=>)

ldcss`ht `habr` dukburf–muc f` hbjnrùs`s pbsscnclctãs qudht ï l–`xplbrdtcbh `t ld

abjprãm`hscbh fu abjpbrt`j`ht fu abhsbjjdtùr, dutdht fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts

pmyscqu`s qu` fdhs l`s ̀ hvcrbhh`j`hts vcrtu`ls.

_brtdht sur l`s rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t deeàtcv`s f` l–chfcvcfu, a`s trdvdux

abhscfír`ht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh abjj` uh` `xpãrc`ha` p`rsbhh`ll`, sunkàtcv` `t

schiulcír` quc h` pùt `xcst`r qu` am`z uh abhsbjjdtùr quc s–`hidi` ãjbtcbhh`ll`j`ht,

pmyscqu`j`ht `t cht`llàtu`ll`j`ht (Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf, >??=). A`tt`

hbuv`ll` p`ra`ptcbh fu jdrg`tchi s` ebadlcs` prchacpdl`j`ht sur l`s dvdhtdi`s ebhatcbhh`ls f`

ld abhsbjjdtcbh, a'`st-ï-fcr` l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s pmyscqu`s, syjnblcqu`s bu `habr`

spcrctu`ll`s f`s prbfucts `t f`s s`rvca`s.

Abhscfãrã abjj` l–`hs`jnl` f`s tàmhcqu`s a`htrã`s sur l–`xpãrc`ha` fu alc`ht du

pbcht f` v`ht`, l` jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l vcs` ï fãv`lbpp`r ld qudlctã f` l–daau`cl, f`s

chebrjdtcbhs fãlcvrã`s dux alc`hts `t ï abhstrucr` f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts fdhs l`squ`ls l`

abhsbjjdtùr e`rd f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh uh jbj`ht dirãdnl` schbh chbunlcdnl`. L–dpprbam``xpãrc`htc`ll` dhdlys` ld abhsbjjdtcbh abjj` uh ãtdt sunkàtce prcjdcr` prbvbquã pdr l`

syjnblcsj`, l'mãfbhcsj` `t l'`stmãtcsj` fu prbfuct (Nburi`bh-^`hdult, >??=). L`s tàmhcqu`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s bht pbur bnkàtce f` arã`r bu f` ràrã`r f` l–dttrdatcvctã fdhs l`s pbchts f`

v`ht`, jdcs ãidl`j`ht f–`h trdhsebrj`r l`s ebhatcbhhdlctãs pbur p`rj`ttr` dux abhsbjjdtùrs

f–dtt`chfr` l–`hamdht`j`ht. A`s `s pda`s s` prãs`ht`ht dlbrs abjj` f`s lcùx f` lbcscr,

prbaurdht du abhsbjjdtùr fu pldcscr, f`s s`hsdtcbhs `t f`s ãjbtcbhs.

L` jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l `st fãechct abjj` uh` fãalchdcsbh fu jdrg`tchi. Cl vcs` ï prbaur`r du abhsbjjdtùr l`s ãlãj`hts quc luc p`rj`tt`ht f` s` abhstrucr` uh` `xpãrc`ha`



6>

mãfbhcqu` dssbacã` ï l–uhcv`rs f` ld jdrqu` bu dux prbfucts `t / bu s`rvca`s qu'`ll` prbpbs`.

A`tt` `xpãrc`ha` mãfbhcqu` pburrd ëtr` dhtcacpã`, vãau` `t r`jãjbrã` pdr l` abhsbjjdtùr.

@h èe`t, a`tt` hbuv`ll` vcscbh fu jdrg`tchi s` abha`htr` fdvdhtdi` sur l–chfuatcbh

f–`xpãrc`ha` qu` sur l`s tàmhcqu`s prbvbqudht l–dat` f–damdt, « cl h` s–dict pds scjpl`j`ht

f–bridhcs`r, f` iãr`r `t f` j`ttr` ï fcspbsctcbh uh hbuv`du systíj` f–beer`, cl s–dict f–dcf`r l`

abhsbjjdtùr ï trdfucr` l–beer` f` l–`htr`prcs` `h `xpãrc`ha` chtcj` `t sunkàtcv` qu` luc sùl

pùt edcr` dfv`hcr · (Adró `t Abvd, >??5n, p. 444). Ld abhsbjjdtcbh `st dlbrs trdctã` abjj`

uh` `xpãrc`ha` ilbndl` quc pr`hf `h abjpt` ï ld ebcs f`s èe`ts rdtcbhh`ls `t ãjbtcbhh`ls f` ld

abhsbjjdtcbh a'`st-ï-fcr` f`s edhtdsj`s, l`s s`htcj`hts `t l` pldcscr fu abhsbjjdtùr sur l`

pbcht f` v`ht` (Mblnrbbg `t Mcrsamjdh, 43=>). L` jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l `st fbrãhdvdht

abhscfãrã abjj` ld hbuv`ll` pmds` f` fãv`lbpp`j`ht f` ld p`hsã` jdrg`tchi bu `habr`

abjj` uh pdrdfcij` r`ldtcv`j`ht hbuv`du (M t̀z`l `t Ubll`, >??1 7 Qamjctt `t ^bi`rs,

>??= 7 Udhmdjj`, >??=), l` abha`pt f–`xpãrc`ha` d susactã l–dtt`htcbh f` pluscùrs amdjps

fcsacplchdcr`s bó l–chfcvcfu s` trbuv` du a`htr` f` ld rãe l`xcbh.

C.>. L–dpprbam` plurcfcsacplchdcr` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` ; l`s fbjdch`s f–dpplcadtcbh f`

l–`xpãrc`htc`l

L–dpprbam` `xpãrc`htc`ll` d edct l–bnk`t f` pluscùrs trdvdux cssus f` amdjps

fcsacplchdcr`s dussc hbjnrùx qu–mãtãrbalct`s ; l` abjpbrt`j`ht fu abhsbjjdtùr `h

jdrg`tchi (`.i., Mblnrbbg `t Mcrsamjdh, 43=> 7 Qamjctt, 4333 7 Ecls`r, >??> 7 M`tz`l, >??>d 7

Abvd `t Abvd, >??> 7 Icrduf, >??> 7 Adró `t Abvd, >??5 7 Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t

Ibtt`ldhf, >??=), l–ãabhbjc` (`.i., _ch` `t Icljbr`, 4333 7 Yble, 4333 7 Iuptd `t Udkca,

>???), l` f`scih (`.i., Adjpn`ll `t _cst`rjdh, 4335), ld sbacblbic` (`.i., ^ctz`r, 4333 7

Abamby, >??6 7 Lcpbv`tsgy, >??5), `ta.

L–`xpãrc`htc`l s–`st abha`htrã sur l–cjpbrtdha` f`s vdrcdnl`s deeàtcv`s `t

ãjbtcbhh`ll`s abjj` vàtùr fcràtùr f` l–`xpãrc`ha` (Mblnrbbg `t Mcrsamjdh, 43=>).

Ecls`r (>??>) `xplcqu` qu` l–`xpãrc`ha` edct ï ld ebcs dpp`l ï ld spmír` abihctcv` `t deeàtcv`,

`ll` rãsult` f` l–cht`rdatcbh p`rsbhh` ‑ bnk`t ‑ sctudtcbh. A`p`hfdht, l–`xpãrc`htc`l h` s` lcjct`

pds ï ld fcj`hscbh mãfbhcqu` jdcs cl chtíir` ãidl`j`ht ld fcj`hscbh utclctdcr` (`.i., Abtt`t `t

Ucn`rt, 4333 7 N`hdv`ht `t @vrdrf, >??> 7 Ldfw`ch, >??>). L–`xpãrc`ha` abhstctu` dlbrs uh`

hbuv`ll` adtãibrc` f–beer`s quc vc`ht s–dkbut`r dux prbfucts `t s`rvca`s pbur rãpbhfr` dux

hbuv`dux n`sbchs fu abhsbjjdtùr datu`l.



61

Adró `t Abvd (>??5d) `xplcqu`ht qu` tbut` `xpãrc`ha` h–`st pds ebraãj`ht uh`

`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh jdramdhf` bu « `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtùr ·. @h

abhsãqu`ha`, `ll` trbuv` sbh dpplcadtcbh `t sbh nc`h-ebhfã hbh sùl`j`ht fdhs l` abht`xt` f`

jdidschdi` jdcs ãidl`j`ht fdhs f`s fbjdch`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh ï ebrt abht`hu ãjbtcbhh`l

`t bst`htdtbcr`.

L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus prãs`ht` qu`lqu`s `x`jpl`s fdhs l`s fbjdch`s f–dpplcadtcbh f`

l–dpprbam` `xpãrc`htc`ll` hbh jdramdhf`, r`trbuvãs fdhs ld lcttãrdtur` bó l–`xpãrc`ha` edct

dpp`l ï ld ebcs ï ld spmír` abihctcv` `t ï ld spmír` deeàtcv` f` l–chfcvcfu `t rãsult` f`

l–cht`rdatcbh p`rsbhh` ‑ bnk`t ‑ sctudtcbh.

Dutùrs Fbjdch`s ̀ xpãrc`htc`ls

Drhbulf `t _rca` (4331) @xpãrc`ha`s spbrtcv`s ; l` ^detchi

Nburi`rbh ̀ t Ecls`r (4330) @xpãrc`ha`s drtcstcqu`s ; l` tmãîtr`

Ldhfw`ch (>??>) @xpãrc`ha` tburcstcqu` ; vbydi` ï Vcgcfdf

Gbzch`ts (>??>)@xpãrc`ha`s drtcstcqu`s ; e`stcvdl hbrf-djãrcadch « NurhchiJdh ·

Adró `t Abvd (>??1)Abha`rt f` juscqu` aldsscqu` ; l`s abha`rts Fcsabv`ry f`l–Dufctbrcuj f` Jcldh

Jdrcbh (>??1) @xpãrc`ha` f` ld jbf`

Ldfw`ch (>??6) @xpãrc`ha`s spbrtcv`s ; l` tr`ggchi

Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh`t Iduf`jdrcs (>??0,>??5)

@xpãrc`ha` drtcstcqu` ; abha`rt f` juscqu` ^bag, l` irbup` Gyb

Adró `t Abvd (>??5n) @xpãrc`ha` f` kdrfchdi`

Ndfbt `t dl. (>??9) @xpãrc`ha` tburcstcqu` ; vbydi` ï Lds Uìds

Adró, Abvd `t _da` (>??9) Hdvcidtcbh sur Cht`rh`t ; Ibbil` @drtm / JQH Qmbppchi /Ydhdfbb _mbtbnlbi

Qcjbh (>??9)@xpãrc`ha` f` hdvcidtcbh sur Cht`rh`t ; ld ràm`ram`f–chebrjdtcbh

U`rh`tt` (>??=) @xpãrc`ha` spbrtcv` ; l` sure f`s j`rs

Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh`t Ibtt`ldhf (>??=)

@xpãrc`ha` achãjdtbirdpmcqu` ; l`s ecljs f–mbrrùr, frdj`,abjãfc`

Ldfw`ch, Gbl`ha `t Buvry(>??=)

@xpãrc`ha` tãlãvcsu`ll` ; ld Qtdr Dadf`jy

Gbl`ha (>??=) @xpãrc`ha`s f` kùx-vcfãb `h rãs`duFduim`rty, Lc `t Ncbaad(>??=)

@xpãrc`ha`s vcrtu`ll`s

Ndy`t-^bn`rt `t Icrdrf(>??3)

@xpãrc`ha` idstrbhbjcqu`

Vdnl`du 4 ; L`s ràm`ram`s ̀ h jdrg`tchi ̀ xpãrc`htc`l ; ̀ xpãrc`ha`s hbh jdramdhf`s



66

F–dprís a` tdnl`du, l–dpprbam` ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll` s–chtãr`ss` ãidl`j`ht ï f`s fbjdch`s hbh

jdramdhfs. L–`xpãrc`ha` trbuv` trís hdtur`ll`j`ht uh vdst` amdjp f–chv`stcidtcbh fdhs l`

fbjdch` f`s lbcscrs abjj` l`s prdtcqu`s aultur`ll`s, ãfuadtcv`s (`.i., Qum `t L``, >??0) bu

`habr` tburcstcqu`s (`.i., Mblnrbbg `t Mcrsamjdh 43=> 7 Ldfw`ch, >??6). L–dpprbam`

`xpãrc`htc`ll` chtíir` f`s vdrcdnl`s deeàtcv`s, mãfbhcst`s `t syjnblcqu`s. @ll` trbuv` s`s

ebhf`j`hts fdhs l`s arctcqu`s edct`s du adrdatír` pdrtc`l f`s dpprbam`s prchacpdl`j`ht

abihctcv`s fu abjpbrt`j`ht fu abhsbjjdtùr, dpprbam`s `ss`htc`ll`j`ht brc`htã`s sur l`s

prba`ssus fãacscbhh`ls fãldcssdht tbutèbcs l` röl` a`htrdl `t l–bnk`t f` tbut` `xpãrc`ha`. @ll`

j`t dussc l–daa`ht sur l` abjpbrt`j`ht fu abhsbjjdtùr f–dukburf–muc.

C.1. L–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh

L'`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `st f`v`hu` `h qu`lqu`s dhhã`s uh abha`pt cjpbrtdht

f` ld rãel`xcbh sur l` abjpbrt`j`ht fu abhsbjjdtùr (Adró `t Abvd, >??3). L`s `xpãrc`ha`s

beer`ht f`s stcjuldtcbhs s`hsbrc`ll`s, deeàtcv`s, abihctcv`s, abjpbrt`j`htdl`s `t

r`ldtcbhh`ll`s. A`s prdtcqu`s f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh sbht f` plus `h plus dtt`hfu`s pdr f`s

abhsbjjdtùrs ï ld ràm`ram` f–`xpãrc`ha`s fceeãr`hacã`s, brcichdl`s `t mãfbhcqu`s (M`tz`l,

>??>d). L–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh p`rj`t ï l'chfcvcfu f` fbhh`r plus f` abhscstdha` ï

s`s dat`s. L`s prbe`sscbhh`ls fu jdrg`tchi vbht dlbrs am`ram`r ï dcf`r l`s abhsbjjdtùrs ï

prbfucr` lùrs prbpr`s `xpãrc`ha`s (Qamjctt, 4333 7 Qamjctt `t ^bi`rs, >??=), hbtdjj`ht

fdhs l` abjj`ra` (`.i., M`tz`l, >??>d 7 Ecls`r, >??>). Cl s–dict dlbrs f` j`ttr` `h őuvr` f`s

abha`pts jdramdhfs quc edvbrcs`ht l–dat` f` abhsbjjdtcbh ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll`.

C.1.4. Fãechctcbhs

Ld abhsbjjdtcbh `xpãrc`htc`ll` s–dppdr`ht` ï uh jbj`ht f` fcv`rtcss`j`ht furdht

l`qu`l l–datcvctã f` abhsbjjdtcbh `st dnsbrnã` pdsscv`j`ht pdr l` abhsbjjdtùr du trdv`rs

f` s`s s`hs (_ch` `t Icljbr`, 4333). L–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh s` fãechct dlbrs abjj`

uh vãau p`rsbhh`l, prbpr` ï amdqu` chfcvcfu. @ll` `st uhcqu` `t h–bnãct plus dux ríil`s f`

l–`htr`prcs`, jdcs `ll` rãpbhf ï uh` cht`rdatcbh suntcl` `htr` l` abhsbjjdtùr, l` jdidsch `t l`

prbfuct. Cl s–dict f–uh « ãtdt sunkàtce f` abhsac`ha` daabjpdihã f'uh` vdrcãtã f`

scihcecadtcbhs syjnblcqu`s, f` rãpbhs`s mãfbhcst`s `t f` arctír`s `stmãtcqu`s · (Mblnrbbg `t



60

Mcrsamjdh, 43=>, p. 41> 7 U`rh`tt`, >??9). @ll` `st iucfã` pdr ld ràm`ram` f` edhtdcsc`s, f`

s`htcj`hts `t f` pldcscr ( edhtdsc`s ‑ e``lchis ‑ euh). L`s abhsbjjdtùrs sbumdct`ht ëtr`

fcv`rtcs, stcjulãs `t ãjus, cls sbht pdrtcaulcír`j`ht s`hscnl`s dux adrdatãrcstcqu`s syjnblcqu`s

`t `stmãtcqu`s f`s prbfucts, `t plus ilbndl`j`ht, ï lùr vdlùr `xpãrc`htc`ll` (Mblnrbbg, 4333).

F–uh pbcht f` vu` abllàtce, l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh abhstctu` uh` abhstruatcbh

sbacdl` sunkàtcv` `t bnkàtcv`, `ll` `st l` eruct f–uh` cht`rdatcbh rãacprbqu` `htr` uh chfcvcfu

(bu pluscùrs), uh lcù `t uh` prdtcqu` f` abhsbjjdtcbh (Nbuam`t, >??6). L–`xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtcbh dppdrdct abjj` ; l` jbj`ht p`hfdht l`qu`l s` prbfucs`ht f`s ãamdhi s̀

syjnblcqu`s `htr` l–chfcvcfu, l` prbfuct `t l` lcù f` abhsbjjdtcbh (`.i., Ecrdt `t U`hgdtàm,

4333). @ll` suppbs` uh` datcvctã cjdichdcr` fu abhsbjjdtùr, uh ãlbcih`j`ht fu rã`l `t uh`

s`hsdtcbh f–ãvdscbh (Mblnrbbg ̀ t Mcrsamjdh, 43=>).

L–`xpãrc`ha` du s`hs ldri`, s–chtãr`ss` du abjpbrt`j`ht f`s chfcvcfus fdhs l` adfr`

f` lùrs fãjdram`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh. Abhtrdcr`j`ht du jdrg`tchi trdfctcbhh`l, l` jdrg`tchi

`xpãrc`htc`l s` ebadlcs` sur l–`xpãrc`ha` fu abhsbjjdtùr (Qamjctt, 4333). @ll` fãscih` « l`s

eda`tt`s fu abjpbrt`j`ht fu abhsbjjdtùr quc s` rdppbrt`ht dux dspàts jultc-s`hsbrc`ls,

ãjbtcbhh`ls `t cjdichdcr`s f` l'`xpãrc`ha` dvà l`s prbfucts · (Mblnrbbg `t Mcrsamjdh, 43=> 7

Adró `t Abvd, >??9, p. 6). A`tt` `xpãrc`ha` fãp`hf ebrt`j`ht f` ld jdhcír` pdr ldqu`ll` l`

abhsbjjdtùr s` l–dpprbprc`.

L` s`hs fbhhã ï l–`xpãrc`ha` `h jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l `st cssu f–uh` pdrt f–uh`

t`hfdha` ãabhbjcqu`, quc abhscfír` qu` tbut` `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `st ebraãj`ht

fãp`hfdht` f` l–dpprbvcscbhh`j`ht `h prbfucts `t s`rvca`s, `t f–dutr` pdrt f–uh` t`hfdha`

f–brcich` rbjdhtcqu`, quc am`ram` ï trdhsebrj`r l` vãau `h uh `hamdch`j`ht f–ãjbtcbhs

ebrt`s, f–`xpãrc`ha`s chbunlcdnl`s, `xtrdbrfchdcr`s, `t mbrs fu abjjuh (Adró `t Abvd, >??>).

Cl s–dict f–uh adfr` abha`ptu`l pdrtcaulcír`j`ht p`rtch`ht, pucsqu–cl rìrbup` scjultdhãj`ht

l`s fceeãr`hts typ`s f–`xpãrc`ha`s.

Ld eciur` ac-f`ssbus cllustr` tbus l`s hcv`dux f–cht`hsctã f–`xpãrc`ha`. L–`xpãrc`ha` fàbhsbjjdtcbh s` sctu` tbut du lbhi f`s fùx abhtchuujs brfchdcr`/`xtrdbrfchdcr` `t

abhsbjjdtùr (jdramã) / abhsbjjdtcbh (Adró `t Abvd, >??>).



65

@xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtùr

@xpãrc`ha`

`xtrdbrfchdcr`

@xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtcbh

@xpãrc`ha`

brfchdcr`

Eciur` 4 ; @xpãrc`ha` `t jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc l̀ (Adró `t Abvd, >??>, p 45?)

L–`xpãrc`ha` h` pr`hf ebrj` fdhs l–`sprct f–uh abhsbjjdtùr, qu` lbrsqu–cl s–`hidi`

ãjbtcbhh`ll`j`ht, pmyscqu`j`ht, cht`llàtu`ll`j`ht `t spcrctu`ll`j`ht (Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-

Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf, >??=). A–`st l` adrdatír` s`hsã f` l–chfcvcfu quc fbhh` fu s`hs ï

l–`xpãrc`ha`. L` abhsbjjdtùr am`ram` fbha ï vcvr` f`s `xpãrc`ha`s dutm`htcqu`s `t hbh f`s

`xpãrc`ha`s prbirdjjã`s bu « jdrg`tã`s ·, dech f` l`s cht`rp`ll`r f–uh` jdhcír` p`rsbhh`ll`

(Icljbr` `t _ch`, >??9). Fís lbrs, l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh r`prãs`ht` l–`hs`jnl` f`s

abhsãqu`ha`s pbsctcv`s `t hãidtcv`s qu` l` abhsbjjdtùr r`tcr` f` l–usdi` f–uh nc`h bu

s`rvca` (Ecls`r, >??>). L` abhsbjjdtùr ednrcqu` s`s prbpr`s `xpãrc`ha`s irîa` du abht`xt`qu` ld jdrqu` prbfuct.

C.1.>. L`s adrdatãrcstcqu s̀ f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh

Fãechc` abjj` sunkàtcv`, p`rsbhh`ll` `t amdriã` ãjbtcbhh`ll`j`ht, ld abhsbjjdtcbh

`xpãrc`htc`ll` s` fcstchiu`, f` pdrt s`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s, f` l–dat` f–damdt bu `habr` f` ld

scjpl` daqucsctcbh f` nc`h `t s`rvca`s. Ecrdt `t Fmbldgcd (433=, ch Luhdrfb, >??9, p 39) hbt`ht



69

qu` « pbur l` abhsbjjdtùr pbstjbf`rh`, abhsbjj`r h–`st pds uh scjpl` dat` f–dnsbrptcbh,

f` f`struatcbh bu f–utclcsdtcbh f` qu`lqu` ambs`. A` h–`st pds hbh plus l` f`rhc`r jdcllbh f` ld

amdèh` fu prba`ssus ãabhbjcqu` 7 a–`st uh dat` f` prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha` `t f–cf`htctãs bu

f–cjdi`s f` sbc-jëj`… L` jby`h f–`hrcamcr `t f–`hamdht`r ld vc` `st f` p`rj`ttr` f`

jultcpl`s `xpãrc`ha`s, vãau`s ï ld ebcs ãjbtcbhh`ll`j`ht `t rdtcbhh`ll`j`ht, `t utclcsdht tbut`s

l`s fcj`hscbhs f` l–ëtr` mujdch… Ld vc` fbct ëtr` prbfuct` `t arãã`, `h edct, abhstruct` du

trdv`rs f`s jultcpl`s `xpãrc`ha s̀ fdhs l`squ`ll`s l` abhsbjjdtùr s–cjj`ri` ·. L–`xpãrc`ha`

`st dlbrs vu` abjj` uh` quët` f` s`hs `t pbur ëtr` dirãdnl`, a–`st -ï-fcr` pbur p`rj`ttr` du

abhsbjjdtùr f` j`ttr` `h kù l–chtãirdlctã f` s`s s`hs. Ecls`r (>??>) sctu` ld hbtcbh

f–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh fdhs l` amdjp f` l–dhdlys` fu abjpbrt`j`ht f`s

abhsbjjdtùrs `t ld rdttdam` dux jbfíl`s fbjchdhts f–dprís l`s prchacpdl`s

abha`ptudlcsdtcbhs f` ld lcttãrdtur`.

Ecls`r (>??>) `xpbs` l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `t ld

qudlcec` f` ;

- Qunkàtcv`, `ll` fãp`hf f`s rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s qu–`ll` ãv`cll` am`z l`

abhsbjjdtùr.

- @ll` h` s` rãsuj` pds ï l–dat` f–damdt jdcs `hilbn` ãidl`j`ht l`s pãrcbf`s prã `t pbst-

damdt.

- Abjpbrt` uh` fcj`hscbh spãacecqu`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`ll` jdcs ãidl`j`ht uh` fcj`hscbh

ebhatcbhh`ll`, tbut` abhsbjjdtcbh pùt ëtr` abhscfãrã` abjj` uh` `xpãrc`ha`

(Mblnrbbg, >???).

- H` rãsult` pds uhcqu`j`ht f–uh `hidi`j`ht chfcvcfu`l jdcs pùt ëtr` l` rãsultdt f`

l–cht`rdatcbh f` pluscùrs chfcvcfus quc ld prbfucs`ht abhkbcht`j`ht.

- H–`st pds ebraãj`ht pbsctcv`. @ll` pùt ãidl`j`ht ëtr` ãvdluã` pdr l` abhsbjjdtùr f`

jdhcír` hãidtcv`.

- Nc`h qu–ãldnbrã` `t abhstruct` pdr l–`htr`prcs`, `ll` fbct tîam`r f` abhs`rv`r uh` a`rtdch`

dutm`htcactã dech qu` l` abhsbjjdtùr pucss` s` l–dpprbprc`r.

L–dpprbam` `xpãrc`htc`ll` s–`st lãictcj`j`ht dttdamã` ï chtrbfucr` uh` ruptur` pdr

rdppbrt ï uh pdrdfcij` `ss`htc`ll`j`ht utclctdrcst` (Mblnrbbg `t Mcrsamjdh, 43=> 7 Ldfw`ch,

>??>). Vbutèbcs, pbur edcr` f–uh` baadscbh f` abhsbjjdtcbh uh jbj`ht f` pldcscr `t uh`

`xpãrc`ha` irdtcecdht` (Nbhhch, >??>), l` abhsbjjdtùr am`ram` jbchs ï jdxcjcs`r uh prbect

qu–ï r`v`hfcqu`r uh ãpcsbf` mãfbhcst` fdhs uh abht`xt` fbhhã (Dhfrcù, Ndfbt `t Jdaã,



6=

>??6). Ld abhsbjjdtcbh abht`jpbrdch` s` rãsuj` « ï uh` cjj`rscbh fdhs f`s jbj`hts

`xpãrc`htc`ls edcts f` r`habhtr`s `hamdhtã`s, spàtdauldcr`s `t jultc-eda`tt`s · (Ecrdt `t

Fmbldgcd, 433=, p. 44?) ï l–chtãrcùr f` abht`xt`s arã`s pdr l–`htr`prcs` `t fdhs l`squ`ls l`

abhsbjjdtùr pburrd vcvr` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` ld jdrqu`.

L`s `xpãrc`ha`s rãsult`ht f–uh a`rtdch hbjnr` f` sctudtcbhs. Ld jdkbrctã f–`htr` `ll`s

s` prbfucs`ht f` jdhcír` fcràt`, a'`st-ï-fcr` lbrsqu` l`s chfcvcfus ebht lùrs aburs`s, damít`ht

bu abhsbjj`ht f`s prbfucts (Nrdgus, Qamjctt `t [drdhtbh`llb, >??3). @ll`s pùv`ht

ãidl`j`ht s` prbfucr` f` jdhcír` chfcràt`, a'`st-ï-fcr` lbrsqu` l`s chfcvcfus sbht `xpbsãs ï ld

punlcactã, ï f`s adjpdih`s f` abjjuhcadtcbh jdrg`tchi (Nrdgus, Qamjctt `t [drdhtbh`llb,

>??3) `t ï amdqu` jbj`ht bó l` abhsbjjdtùr `st `h abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu` y abjprcs sur

Cht`rh`t. A`s `xpãrc`ha`s fcspbs`ht scjultdhãj`ht f–dttrcnuts utclctdcr`s bu ebhatcbhh`ls

(daqucsctcbh f` prbfucts, f–chebrjdtcbhs `t/bu f` abhhdcssdha`s) `t f–dttrcnuts mãfbhcqu`s `t

syjnblcqu`s. Drhbulf, _rca` `t [chgmdh (>??>) scihdl`ht, fdhs l` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus, qu` l`

prba`ssus f` iãhãrdtcbh f` abhsbjjdtcbh `xpãrc`htc`ll` s` fãplbc` sur uh` pãrcbf` f` t`jps

quc pùt s` fãabjpbs`r `h qudtr` irdhf`s pmds`s suaa`sscv`s ;

_mdsÀdtãibrc` f–`xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtcbh_rba`ssus

4 L–`xpãrc`ha` f–dhtcacpdtcbh Ld ràm`ram`

Ld pldhcecadtcbhL` rëv` ãv`cllã

Nufiãt`r bu edhtdsj`r l–`xpãrc`ha`

> L–`xpãrc`ha ̀f–damdt

L` ambcxL` pdc`j`ht

L–`jpdqu`tdi ̀Ld r`habhtr` f` s`rvca` `t f` l–djncdha`

1 L–`xpãrc`ha` prbpr`j`ht fct`

Ld s`hsdtcbhLd sdtcãtã

Ld sdtcsedatcbh / chsdtcsedatcbhL–crrctdtcbh / elux Ld trdhsebrjdtcbh

6 L–`xpãrc`ha` f` sbuv`hcr

L`s rãacts f–mcstbcr`sL`s fcsausscbhs

L` aldss`j`ht f`s sbuv`hcrsLd hbstdlic`

Vdnl`du > ; L`s adtãibrc`s f–`xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh



63

L–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh pùt ëtr` abhscfãrã` abjj` uh ãvíh`j`ht chfcvcfu`l

bu abjjuh quc cht`rvc`ht `h rãpbhs` ï uh stcjulus. @ll` abhstctu` l` rãsultdt f` l'bns`rvdtcbh,

f` ld pdrtcacpdtcbh fdhs l` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l `t quc abhtrcnu` ï ld abhstruatcbh f` l–cf`htctã

f` l–chfcvcfu (^b`f`r`r, >??=). Cl h` s–dict pds uhcqu`j`ht f` suncr uh ãvãh`j`ht jdcs dussc

f–`h idrf`r l–`jpr`cht` (N`hdv`ht `t @vrdrf, >??>).

Vbutèbcs, l–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha` h–`st hc dcsã, hc systãjdtcqu`. Cl r`quc`rt f`s edaultãs

fbht l` abhsbjjdtùr h` fcspbs` pds chstdhtdhãj`ht `t fdhs tbut`s l`s sctudtcbhs. L` röl`

prbfuatce fu abhsbjjdtùr du trdv`rs f` sd abhstruatcbh f–uh am`z-sbc fdhs l` adfr` f–uh`

`xpãrc`ha` f` jdidschdi` bu f` s`rvca`s, pùt ëtr` ãt`hfu jãtdpmbrcqu`j`ht ï tbut` ebrj`

f–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh (Abvd `t Abvd, >??3). Lbrsqu` l`s abjpãt`ha`s fu

abhsbjjdtùr sbht abjnchã`s dvà l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jcs `h őuvr` pdr ld jdrqu`, hbus

dsscstbhs ï ld ab-arãdtcbh f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh (Kby `t Qm`rry, >??1) quc s` edct

pdr ld abhstruatcbh f–uh am`z-sbc pmyscqu`, j`htdl `t deeàtce.

Dech f` jcùx abjpr`hfr` l` röl` f`s fceeãr`hts prbtdibhcst`s fdhs ld ab-arãdtcbh f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh, hbus dllbhs fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps, prãs`ht`r l` röl` f`

l–`htr`prcs` fdhs ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s `t l–daabjpdih`j`ht fu abhsbjjdtùr `t fdhs

uh fùxcíj` t`jps a`luc fu abhsbjjdtùr ï ld ebcs spàtdtùr `t datùr.



0?

CC. Ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh

L–dpprbam` `xpãrc`htc`ll` suiiír` qu` fùx pdrtc`s cht`rvc`hh`ht fdhs ld prbfuatcbh

f–`xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh (Ecls`r, >??>). Fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`j ps, hbus prãs`ht`rbhs l`

röl` f` l–`htr`prcs` fdhs ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s `t fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps, hbus

prãs`ht`rbhs l` röl` fu abhsbjjdtùr datùr.

CC.4. L` röl` f` l–`htr`prcs` fdhs ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s

Qbus l–chelu`ha` f`s jutdtcbhs ãabhbjcqu`s, pblctcqu`s `t sbacbaultur`ll`s, hbus

dsscstbhs f`pucs f` hbjnrùs`s dhhã`s, du fãv`lbpp`j`ht f` strdtãic`s dxã`s fdvdhtdi` sur

l`s dtt`ht`s, l`s n`sbchs `t l`s fãscrs f`s alc`hts. A`s strdtãic`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s, pr`hh`ht

fãsbrjdcs `h abjpt` l`s abjpbsdht`s deeàtcv`s `t ãjbtcbhh`ll`s f` abhsbjjdtùrs nldsãs

pdr l`s tàmhcqu`s f'dpprbam` cjp`rsbhh`ll`s `t cht`rruptcv`s dchsc qu` pdr uh` beer`

r`ldtcv`j`ht mbjbiíh`. L` amdldhf `st ï ld ràm`ram` f'uh `hrcamcss`j`ht p`rsbhh`l, f'uh`

abharãtcsdtcbh f` s`s rëv`s du jbj`ht f` l'dat` f'damdt (Drhbulf, _rca` `t [chgmdh, >??>). @h

èe`t, fdhs a`tt` p`rspàtcv`, l`s abhsbjjdtùrs fbcv`ht pbuvbcr cht`rdicr dvà l`s prbfucts `t

l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts qu` l`s jdrqu`s prbpbs`ht, fãv`lbpp`r fu lc`h sbacdl dvà l`s v`hfùrs bu

dvà l`s dutr`s alc`hts, abhhdètr` f` hbuv`ll`s ãjbtcbhs `t s`hsdtcbhs. @h rã-`hamdhtdht ldabhsbjjdtcbh, l`s `htr`prcs`s sbht abhscfãrã`s abjj` f`s « j`ttùrs `h saíh` ·

f–`xpãrc`ha`s irdtcecdht`s pbur f`s abhsbjjdtùrs ï ld ràm`ram` f` scihcecadtcbhs, f` s`hs,

f` syjnbl`s, f–mãfbhcsj`s ̀ t f–`stmãtcsj`.

L` pdssdi` f–uh` abhsbjjdtcbh rdtcbhh`ll` ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh, `h plus

f–uh` ãvblutcbh abhaurr`htc`ll` fãedvbrdnl`, d abhtrdcht l`s jdhdi`rs ï dfdpt`r lùr beer`,

f–bó lùr vblbhtã f` r ̀ aburcr du jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l abjj` sbura` f` fceeãr`hacdtcbh, f`

sãfuatcbh `t vbcr` f–dvdhtdi` abhaurr`htc`l (_ch` `t Icljbr`, 4333). _bur qu` l`sabhsbjjdtùrs pucss`ht vcvr` f`s jbj`hts rcam`s `h stcjuldtcbhs `xpãrc`htc`ll`s, cls fbcv`ht

kbu`r uh röl` datce `t pdrtcacp`r pl`ch`j`ht ï l–`xpãrc`ha`. Cl s–dicrd fís lbrs, pbur l–`htr`prcs`,

f` v`hfr` du abhsbjjdtùr f`s `xpãrc`ha`s luc p`rj`ttdht f–`xplbr`r f–dutr`s

« jbc · (Fdjpãrdt , Frdib `t Ldrcv`t, >??>) `t f–brc`ht`r uh` beer` chãfct` v`rs s`s fcj`hscbhs

chtdhicnl`s. _bur y drrcv`r, edcr` dpp`l ï l'cjdichdcr` fu amdldhf `t ï ld abjpbsdht`

syjnblcqu` ̀ t mãfbhcqu` f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh ̀ st chfcsp`hsdnl`.

@h pldédht chfcvcfu du a`htr` fu prba`ssus, l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht f` ld jdrqu` s` abhstruct

dutburs f` s`s dtt`ht`s sunkàtcv`s `t bnkàtcv`s. L–bnkàtce prchacpdl f`s r`spbhsdnl`s `st f`



04

jchcjcs`r ld prbndnclctã f` r`k`t f–uh abha`pt f` fcstrcnutcbh. Cl s–dict f` pdsscbhh`r l`

abhsbjjdtùr `h arãdht am`z luc uh` ãjbtcbh plutöt qu` f` l` edcr` rãelãamcr `t f` pr`hfr` fu

ràul pdr rdppbrt ï sbh prba`ssus f–damdt (M`tz`l, >??>d). Fdhs a`tt` p`rspàtcv`, cl h` s–dict

plus f` j`ttr` `h dvdht l–dttrcnut quc edct ld spãacecactã fu prbfuct bu s`rvca` pdr rdppbrt ï s`s

abhaurr`hts, jdcs f` arã`r f` ld vdlùr `xpãrc`htc`ll` ï trdv`rs l` abht`xt` f` ld

abhsbjjdtcbh. L`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts abjj`racdux sbht dlbrs prbpulsãs du rdhi f` prbfuatùrs

f–`xpãrc`ha`s.

F` hbjnrùs`s ràm`ram`s bht jbhtrã qu` l–chfcvcfu rãdict dux stcjulc ãjcs pdr

l–dtjbspmír` fu pbcht f` v`ht` (`.i., Gbtl`r, 4391-4396 7 Ndg`r, 4336 7 L`jbch`, >??=). L`s

`htr`prcs`s r`p`hs`ht dlbrs lùrs lcùx f` abhtdat dvà l`s alc`hts. L`s `spda`s abjj`racdux

sbht fãsbrjdcs djãhdiãs pbur h` plus ëtr` uhcqu`j`ht utclctdcr`s `t ebhatcbhh`ls (_`tr, >??>),

jdcs pbur arã`r f`s ãjbtcbhs `t f`s s`hsdtcbhs am`z l`s alc`hts. Ld fãjdram` `xpãrc`htc`ll`

j`t du pr`jc`r pldh l` aötã sunkàtce `t s`hsbrc`l f`s pbchts f` v`ht` pbur stcjul`r l`s

chfcvcfus, pbur edcr` f` ld vcsct` f–uh jdidsch uh jbj`ht amdriã ãjbtcbhh`ll`j`ht, uhcqu` `t

plus rcam` f` a`luc qu` l` alc`ht pburrdct vcvr` am`z ld abhaurr`ha`. L`s `hs`cih`s jdhcpul`ht

l`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–dtjbspmír` f` v`ht` pbur iãhãr`r f`s stcjuldtcbhs abihctcv`s,

s`hsbrc`ll`s, ãjbtcbhh`ll`s ̀ t deeàtcv`s am`z l` abhsbjjdtùr.

CC.4.4. L`s abjpbsdht`s f` ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`

_`hfdht l`s f`rhcír`s dhhã`s, l`s prdtcqu`s jdramdhf`s bht sunc uh cjpbrtdht

nbul`v`rs`j`ht quc, f` plus, deeàt`, l–bridhcsdtcbh f` l–dtjbspmír` f`s pbchts f` v`ht`, ï uh

jbj`ht bó l`s hbuv`ll`s tàmhblbic`s `t l`s hbuv`dux adhdux f` fcstrcnutcbh bht abhqucs l`s

mdnctuf`s fu abhsbjjdtùr `t jbfcecã l`s beer`s f` nc`hs `t f` s`rvca`s `h jdidsch (Nbuam`t,

>??6). L`s i`stcbhhdcr`s f` jdrqu` sbht l`s plus abha`rhãs pdr l–djãhdi`j`ht f`s pbchts f`

v`ht` adr, lùr röl` abhscst` ï rãpbhfr` dux hbuv`ll`s dtt`ht`s `t `xci`ha`s fu abhsbjjdtùr pbstjbf`rh` ; cl s–dict f–dcf`r l` alc`ht fdhs l` prba`ssus f` prbfuatcbh f` sctudtcbhs

brcichdl`s schbh `xa`ptcbhh`ll`s. Ld abrãdlcsdtcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s pldcsdht`s `t jãjbrdnl`s ï

tbus l`s pbchts f` r`habhtr` djãlcbr` ld p`ra`ptcbh fu amdldhf f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh `t r`hebra`

sd r`ldtcbh dvà l–`htr`prcs`.

F` hbjnrùx trdvdux r`hf`ht abjpt` f` ld jdhcír` fbht l`s fcstrcnutùrs prbaíf`ht

pbur edcr` f` lùr pbcht f` v`ht` uh lcù f` prbfuatcbh f'`xpãrc`ha s̀ fdhs uh sàtùr f'datcvctã

`t uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht abjj`racdl pdrtcaulc`r (Nbuam`t, >??6). L–`xpãrc`ha` fu abhsbjjdtùr`st f` jbchs `h jbchs uh` cjpbsctcbh f` l–`htr`prcs` `t fu jdramã `t f` plus `h plus uh` ab -



0>

arãdtcbh `htr` l` abhsbjjdtùr `t l` eburhcssùr (Adró `t Abvd, >??9). L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus

prãs`ht` uh chv`htdcr` f`s abjpbsdht`s f` ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s `t l`s jby`hs jcs `h

őuvr` pdr l`s `htr`prcs`s `t jcs `h ãvcf`ha` fdhs ld ràm`ram`.

DutùrL`s abjpbsdht`s f`

ld abprbfuatcbhJby`hs jcs `h őuvr`

Mblnrbbg

(4333)

L–ãvdscbh Edcr` bunlc`r du abhsbjjdtùr sbh `hvcrbhh`j`htfcràt `t l` trdhspbrt`r fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`htcjdichdcr`.

L` fcv`rtcss`j`ht Arã`r uh` ebrt` stcjuldtcbh `stmãtcqu` `t lufcqu`.

L–`xmcnctcbhhcsj ̀_rãs`ht`r l` nc`h f` jdhcír` ï dttcr`r làbhsbjjdtùr. Jdcs a–`st luc quc dhcj` l–`spda` pdrsd jdhcpuldtcbh fu nc`h.

L–ãvdhiãlcsj ̀@fuqu`r l`s abhsbjjdtùrs `h l`s chebrjdht sur l`s

nc`hs `t sur lùr utclcsdtcbh ; uh j`ssdi` jbchsdir`ssce (Ecls`r, >??>).

M`tz`l

(>??>d)

Qurpr`hfr`_rbpbs`r l–chmdnctu`l quc rãusscrd ï arã`r uh` ruptur`dvà sbh ̀ hvcrbhh`j`ht qubtcfc`h.

_rbpbs`r f`l–« `xtrdbrfchdcr` ·

_rbpbs`r uh` cjpr`sscbh f` icidhtcsj`, f`spàtdauldcr` ̀ t f–dutm`htcactã.

^ãv`cll`r l`s chstchatsfu abhsbjjdtùr

Qtcjul`r l`s achq s`hs fu abhsbjjdtùr.

Arã`r uh lc`h dvà l`

abhsbjjdtùr

ãtdnlcr uh` r`ldtcbh p`rsbhh`ll` `t ebrt` dvà l`

abhsbjjdtùr ; uh` vãrctdnl` cht`rdatcbh `htr``htr`prcs` `t abhsbjjdtùr ; ld hbtcbh f` prbxcjctã.

Q` s`rvcr f` a` ï qubcr`hvbc` ld jdrqu`

Kbu`r sur l`s syjnbl`s quc rèlít`ht ld jdrqu`, s`sebhatcbhs ; f–cf`htcecadtcbh, f` r`pãrdi`, f` idrdhtc`,f` p`rsbhhdlcsdtcbh, lufcsj`, f` prdtcactã.

Adró `t Abvd

(>??5d)

L` fãabr, l` f`scih `tld jcs` `h saíh`

_rbvbqu`r uh` stcjuldtcbh pblys`hsbrc`ll`.

Ld pdrtcacpdtcbh datcv`fu abhsbjjdtùr

J`ttr` `h plda` f`s edaclctdtùrs f` tbut` hdtur` quc prãacs`ht l`s röl`s f` amdauh fdhs l`s rctu`ls jcs `h kù dutbur f` l–beer`.

L` rãact, l–mcstbcr` Arã`r f`s sbuv`hcrs sbus ld ebrj` f` prbfucts

fãrcvãs.

Vdnl`du 1 ; L`s abjpbsdht`s f` ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`

F–dprís a` tdnl`du, ld ab-prbfuatcbh f`s `xpãrc`ha`s dvà `t pbur l` abhsbjjdtùr

prãs`ht`ht uh pbcht abjjuh ; ld stcjuldtcbh fu alc`ht `t ld arãdtcbh f–uh` r`ldtcbh datcv` `t

cht`rdatcv` `htr` luc `t l–`htr`prcs`. Cl s–dict f` tmãîtrdlcs`r `t f` j`ttr` `h saíh` ï ld ebcs l`

abhsbjjdtùr `t l–beer` prbpbsã`. Ld jcs` ï fcspbsctcbh f` abht`xt`s `xpãrc`htc`ls pdss` pdr

uh trdvdcl cjpbrtdht sur l` fãabr, l` f`scih f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `t l–djncdha` fu pbcht f`



01

v`ht` ï l–dcf` f–butcls jultcebrj`s (Abvd `t Abvd, >??6). L'ãldnbrdtcbh f` l–dtjbspmír`

jdramdhf` `st rãdlcsã` `h jdhcpuldht f`s vdrcdnl`s vcsu`ll`s, bledatcv`s, tdatcl`s, dufctcv`s `t

sbacdl`s (^cùhc`r, >??>). L`s `xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh sbht dlbrs ab-arãã`s suct` ï ld

r`habhtr` f` sctudtcbhs `t f` abht`xt`s fdhs l`s pbchts f` v`ht` `t `ll`s sbht iãhãrã`s pdr f`s

stcjuldtcbhs abihctcv`s, s`hsbrc`ll`s ̀ t deeàtcv`s am`z l` abhsbjjdtùr.

CC.4.>. L`s abht`xt`s `xpãrc`htc`ls

@h cht`rv`hdht fdhs abprbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh, l`s `htr`prcs`s

abhstrucs`ht hbtdjj`ht f`s abht`xt`s `xpãrc`htc`ls, fãechcs pds Adró `t Abvd (>??5d) abjj`

« uh dss`jnldi` f` stcjulus (prbfucts) `t f` stcjulc (`hvcrbhh`j`ht, datcvctãs) prbpr` ï edcr`dfv`hcr l'`xpãrc`ha`. Ph` aucsch`, uh` rà`tt`, f`s chirãfc`hts quc `jnduj`ht ld aucsch`, uh

abupl` f'djcs... `t vbcac uh abht`xt` prbpr` ï edcr` dfv`hcr uh` `xpãrc`ha` · (Adró `t Abvd,

>??5d, p. 66). A`s dss`jnldi`s s–dkbut`ht dux prbfucts `t dux s`rvca`s prbpbsãs. Cls

abhstctu`ht uh abha`pt hbvdtùr f–beer`s, quc rãpbhf dux n`sbchs fu abhsbjjdtùr datu`l. Ld

jcs` `h plda` f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls `st f`stchã` ï arã`r f`s rãpbhs`s pbsctcv`s du

hcv`du abihctce, ãjbtcbhh`l `t deeàtce am`z uh abhsbjjdtùr ï ld ràm`ram` f–uh hbuv`du

vãau.

J`ttr` `h plda` f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `t f`s abht`xt`s ï ld fcspbsctcbh f`s alc`hts `t fdhs

l`squ`ls cls pburrbht vcvr` l–`xpãrc`ha` spàtdauldcr` f` ld jdrqu`, abhfuct l`s `htr`prcs`s ï

abhstrucr` dutbur `t du s`ch f` lùrs pbchts f` v`ht`, f`s saãhdrcc brcichdux `t fceeãr`hacãs. A`s

saãhdrcc fbcv`ht ëtr` `h abmãr`ha` dvà l–beer`, l` prbfuct bu l` s`rvca` qu` l`s `hs`cih`s

prbpbs`ht `t l` j`ssdi` qu–`ll`s vùl`ht vãmcaul`r. Vbutèbcs, cl drrcv` dux jdrqu`s f–ãambu`r

fdhs ld arãdtcbh f` abht`xt`s `xpãrc`htc`ls èecada`s `t r`htdnl`s (Icljbr` `t _ch`, >??9). _ch`

`t Icljbr` (4333) fr`ss`ht l`s ãtdp`s f` ld arãdtcbh f` abht`xt`s `xpãrc`htc`ls quc s` edct `h

achq t`jps ;

4. _rãvbcr uh tmíj` nc`h fãechc `t fãt`rjch`r a` quc `st rã`ll`j`ht adptcvdht `h j`ttdht `h

saíh` uh` ̀ xpãrc`ha` pdrtcacpdtcv` pbur qu` l` abhsbjjdtùr pucss` s–y ̀ hidi`r 7

>. @ldnbr`r f`s tmíj`s quc s` fãabhhàt`ht `htcír`j`ht fu s`hs f` ld rãdlctã tbut `h

deeàtdht ï l'`xpãrc`ha` l'`spda ,̀ l` t`jps `t ld jdtcír`.

1. L–`spda`, l` t`jps `t ld jdtcír` fbcv`ht ëtr` chtãirãs du abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l `h uh

`hs`jnl` abmãsce `t rãdlcst` 7



06

6. ^`hebra`r l`s tmíj`s fu abht`xt` `h arãdht f`s sctudtcbhs qu` l` abhsbjjdtùr pburrd

s–dpprbprc`r `t ãlcjch`r tbut ãlãj`ht quc pùt l` fcstrdcr` bu l` fãabha`htr`r p`hfdht

l–`xpãrc`ha ̀7

0. ^`pr`hfr` l` adrdatír` `t l` j`ssdi` qu` vùt vãmcaul`r l–`htr`prcs` prbfuatrca` f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` fdhs l` abht`xt`. L`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls fbcv`ht ëtr` `h pdredct`

abmãr`ha` dvà l`s cjdi`s, l`s scih`s `t l`s syjnbl`s prbpbsãs pdr ld jdrqu` jdcs

ãidl`j`ht ab-arããs pdr l` abhsbjjdtùr.

L`s ãtdp`s prãabhcsã`s pdr _ch` `t Icljbr` (4333) hbus djíh`ht ï p`hs`r qu` ld jcs`

`h őuvr` f–uh` strdtãic` `xpãrc`htc`ll` pdr l–`htr`prcs` tburh` dutbur f` trbcs rìcstr`s

f–datcbhs ; l` fãabr, l–chtrciu` `t l–datcbh. @h èe`t, Ecls`r (>??>) `xplcqu` qu` ld jcs` `h saíh`

fu fãabr, ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh fu rãact rdabhtã pdr ld jdrqu`, ld stcjuldtcbh f`s datcbhs `htr` l`

abhsbjjdtùr `t l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf, r`prãs`ht`ht l`s trbcs abhstdht`s fdhs ld

prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s. Ld abjnchdcsbh f` a`s trbcs rìcstr`s abhfuct l`s abhsbjjdtùrs ï

vcvr` f`s `xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh vdlbrcsdht`s ndsã`s sur lùrs abjpãt`ha`s,

abhhdcssdha` ̀ t vãau p`rsbhh`l.

L` fãabr ; cl s–dict fu abhtröl` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` pdr uh` jcs` `h saíh` ï ld ebcs f` ld

jdrqu`, fu prbfuct `t l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf 7 pdr l–di`ha`j`ht `t ld ednrcadtcbh

f–uh fãabr `h mdrjbhc` `t `h pdredct` abmãr`ha` dvà l` rãact f` l–`htr`prcs` (_ch` `t

Icljbr`, 4333). Ph t`l fãabr fbct r`prãs`ht`r ld fãalchdcsbh fu pbsctcbhh`j`ht f`

l–`hs`cih` `t l` abht`xt` fdhs l`qu`l l` prbfuct `st prãs`htã. L–bnkàtce `st f` rã`hamdht`r

l`s abht`xt`s jdramdhfs pdr ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh `t ld sur-stcjuldtcbh pblys`hsbrc`ll` fu

abhsbjjdtùr, f` jdhcír` ï duij`ht`r sd abha`htrdtcbh `t daaãlãr`r sbh cjj`rscbh

fdhs a` jëj` abht`xt` (Adró `t Abvd, >??5n). Ld sur-stcjuldtcbh abha`rh` l–ãv`cl f`s

edaultãs quc luc p`rj`ttrbht f` luc prbaur`r fu pldcscr, uh` kbucssdha` cjjãfcdt` `t uhlc`h dvà `t fdhs l` abht`xt` f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh ï trdv`rs uh` `jpmds` jcs` sur

l–mãfbhcsj` `t sur l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts myp`r -rã`ls (Irdcllbt, >??0). Cl s–dict f` trdvdcll`r

sur ld arãdtcbh f–uh` dtjbspmír` schiulcír` `t uhcqu`, ï trdv`rs ld jdhcpuldtcbh f`

stcjulc s`hsbrc`ls.

L–chtrciu` ; Dprís ld jcs` `h saíh` fu fãabr, l–chtrciu` r`prãs`ht` uh suppbrt f` ld

prbfuatcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha .̀ L` abhtdat dvà l` prbfuct h` fbct pds s` rãsuj`r ï uh`

scjpl` f`sarcptcbh f`s pdrtcauldrctãs fu prbfuct jdcs pdr l–chtrciu`. Cl s–dict fu rãact qu`rdabht` l` prbfuct. Cl chtíir` l`s vdlùrs sur l`squ`ll`s s` plda` ld jdrqu`. A–`st



00

l–mcstbcr` quc vd j`ttr` `h kù l–beer` `t fdhs ldqu`ll` l` abhsbjjdtùr fãabuvrcrd

l–brcich`, ld vc` `t l`s prbk`ts f–dv`hcr fu prbfuct (Ecls`r, >??4). L–chtrciu` dict dlbrs

abjj` uh l`vc`r f` aurcbsctã am`z l` abhsbjjdtùr ï trdv`rs l`qu`l ld jdrqu`

trdhsj`ttrd s`s vdlùrs `t y dssbac`rd s`s syjnbl`s. _dr dcllùrs, l` rãact quc datcbhh` l`s

fcj`hscbhs f` fcv`rtcss`j`ht ; lbrsqu` ld stcjuldtcbh rãsult` f` qu`lqu` ambs` f`

hbuv`du 7 f` l–`xmcnctcbhhcsj` ; lbrsqu` l` prbfuct `st jbhtrã fdhs uh abht`xt` quc

r`hebra` sbh pbsctcbhh`j`ht 7 `t f` l–ãvdhiãlcsj` ; lbrsqu` l` prbfuct `st fbhhã `h

`x`jpl`. L–chtrciu` eburhct du abhsbjjdtùr l`s kustcecadtcbhs f–dutm`htcactã, f` pdrtdi`

`t f` syjnblcsj` f` l–beer` fdhs l` nut f` tcss`r f`s lc`hs dvà l` abhsbjjdtùr.

L–datcbh bu l–cht`rdatcbh ; s` jdhce`st`ht pdr ld r`ldtcbh quc s` arãã` `htr` l`

abhsbjjdtùr, l` prbfuct, l`s v`hfùrs `t l`s dutr`s abhsbjjdtùrs fdhs

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf. Ld prbxcjctã `htr` l`s chfcvcfus `t ld jdrqu` r`hebra`

l–`xpãrc`ha` pdr ld arãdtcbh f–uh ãamdhi` cht`rp`rsbhh`l quc dppbrt` f` ld vdlùr ï

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` jdidschdi` (U`rh`tt`, >??9). Ld abhsbjjdtcbh `st dsscjclã` ï uh` sãrc`

f'cht`rdatcbhs `htr` l` amdldhf `t l` pbcht f` v`ht`, bó l`s alc`hts bht uh abjpbrt`j`ht

`xmcnctcbhhcst` (Mblnrbbg, 4333). Cac, l` abhsbjjdtùr `st pdrtc` pr`hdht` ï ld

prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s f–dutr`s abhsbjjdtùrs, `t fbha f` l–cht`rdatcbh fu

abhsbjjdtùr dvà l` prbfuct. L–ãamdhi` `st f–dutdht plus cht`hs` lbrsqu` l`s chfcvcfus

cht`rdicss`ht dvà tbut`s l`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf ; l` p`rsbhh`l

abjj`racdl quc `htr` fdhs ld r`ldtcbh pdr l` abhs`cl, l–dsscstdha` bu ld v`ht` 7 l`s prbfucts

pdr ld jdhcpuldtcbh, l–`ssdydi`, l–damdt 7 l` jdidsch pdr l` fãplda`j`ht fdhs l`s rdybhs,

ld hdvcidtcbh sur l` sct`, l–dlcih`j`ht sur uh` ecl` f–dtt`ht`. L`s nãhãeca`s f–uh`

`xpãrc`ha` irdtcecdht` sbht fus `h irdhf` pdrtc` dux cht`rdatcbhs `t dux ãamdhi`s `htr`

l`s chfcvcfus ̀ t l`s abjpbsdht`s ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll`s f` l–dtjbspmír` jdramdhf`.

Ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh `t ld tmãjdtcsdtcbh arã`ht l` lc`h `t r`hebra`ht ld r`ldtcbh dvà làlc`ht. A`s datcbhs `hrcamcss`ht l` pbsctcbhh`j`ht f` ld jdrqu` fdhs l` abht`xt` jdramdhf.

L`s fcj`hscbhs lufcqu`s `t mãfbhcst`s p`rj`tt`ht ï l–`hs`cih` f` r`hebra`r sbh dttrdatcvctã `t

deecam`r sd fceeãr`ha` eda` ï ld abhaurr`ha`. L`s `spda`s f` v`ht` h` sbht plus sùl`j`ht f`s

pbchts f` pdssdi` hãa`ssdcr` ï l–daqucsctcbh f` nc`hs, cls s` trdhsebrj`ht `h vàtùrs

f'dttrdatcbh, f` rãt`htcbh `t f` ecfãlcsdtcbh (Nbuam`t, >??6). L` röl` f`s jdrqu`s `st

f–daabjpdih`r l` abhsbjjdtùr ï s`htcr `t ãprbuv`r f`s s`hsdtcbhs, p`hs`r `t s` rdppbrt`r s`s

prbpr`s `xpãrc`ha`s (Qamjctt `t ^bi`rs, >??3). M`tz`l (>??>n) dkbut` qu` « a` quc `st v`hfu,a` h` sbht plus uhcqu`j`ht f`s prbfucts, jdcs a–`st tbut uh `spda` tmãjdtcqu` fbht ld



05

vbadtcbh `st f` abhtrcnu`r ï a` qu` l`s abhsbjjdtùrs fãabuvr`ht uh pù f` rëv`, s–ãvdf`ht

f` lùr qubtcfc`h ·. Ld i`stcbh f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts f` v`ht` dppdrdct fbha abjj` « uh`

drtcauldtcbh p`rjdh`ht` (`t ãvblutcv`) f–uh` abjpbsdht` ebhatcbhh l̀l` f` l'ãamdhi` jdramdhf

(rdtcbhdlcsdtcbh) `t f–uh` abjpbsdht` lufcqu` `t mãfbhcst` f` ld vcsct` · (Nbuam`t, >??6) ï

l–dcf` f` fcspbsctces fcv`rscecãs t`ls qu` l–dpprbam` pblys`hsbrc`ll`, ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh `t ld

tmãjdtcsdtcbh f`s pbchts f` v`ht`.

CC.4.1. L`s prbfucts ̀ xpãrc`htc`ls

L–dhdlys` f` ld ràm`ram` pbrtdht sur l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `t sur l`

abjpbrt`j`ht f`s abhsbjjdtùrs, hbus djíh` ï p`hs`r qu–cl `xcst` uh trbcscíj` l`vc`r

f–datcbh dfbptã pdr l`s `htr`prcs`s fdhs ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s. Cl s–dict fu prbfuct bu

s`rvca`, quc abhstctu` l–dx` a`htrdl f` ld r`ldtcbh `htr` l` abhsbjjdtùr `t ld jdrqu`. @h èe`t,

hbus dsscstbhs f`pucs qu`lqu`s fãa`hhc`s ï uh` duij`htdtcbh abhtchu` f` l–beer`. L`s

jdramãs sbht f` plus `h plus `habjnrãs `t l` abhsbjjdtùr fbct ambcscr pdrjc f`s jcllc`rs f`

prbfucts. Ld jcs` `h plda` f–uh` strdtãic` `xpãrc`htc`ll` brc`htã` v`rs l` prbfuct cjplcqu`

l–cfã` qu` fdhs uh` sbacãtã ldri`j`ht sdtcsedct` f`s n`sbchs f` nds`, j`ttr` `h dvdht ld scjpl`

ebhatcbhhdlctã f`s prbfucts `st f`v`hu ldri`j`ht chsueecsdht. D ld vdlùr ebhatcbhh`ll` f`s

prbfucts, cl edut dkbut`r dukburf–muc uh` vdlùr `xpãrc`htc`ll`, edcr` `h sbrt` qu` ld

abhsbjjdtcbh sbct uh ãamdhi` f` scih`s `t f` s`hs.

Ecls`r (>??>) fcstchiu` fdhs sbh « abhtchuuj f` ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s · fùx

typ`s f` prbfucts ; l`s prbfucts ï abht`hu `xpãrc`htc`l edcnl` (l`s prbfucts f` hdtur` pur`j`ht

ebhatcbhh`ll`s) `t l`s prbfucts ï ebrt abht`hu `xpãrc`htc`l (« pur` · `xpãrc`ha` ; prbfucts

drtcstcqu`s, aultur`ls…). L`s prbfucts ï abht`hu `xpãrc`htc`l pdrtcacp`ht dutdht qu`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu pbcht f` v`ht` fdhs ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s. Dicr sur l` hcv`du

`xpãrc`htc`l f–uh prbfuct chact` ld jdrqu` ï `htr`pr`hfr` uh èebrt f` sãfuatcbh pdrtcaulc`r sur

l–mdnclldi`, l` abht`hu `t l–utclcsdtcbh.

Ph prbfuct ebrt`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l pdrdèt fãabul`r f–uh` strdtãic` pù brc`htã` prbect

(Abvd `t Abvd, >??>), l–`htr`prcs` fbct fcsscjul`r sbh cht`htcbh f` v`hfr` `h am`ramdht ï

abjjuhcqu`r uh j`ssdi` l` jbchs jdramdhf pbsscnl`. Cl fbct p`rj`ttr` du abhsbjjdtùr

f` ;

- Q–ãvdf`r ; stcjul`r sbh cjdichdcr` `t luc p`rj`ttr` f` s–ãamdpp`r f` sbh qubtcfc`h 7

- Q` fcv`rtcr ; pdr ld stcjuldtcbh `stmãtcqu` `t lufcqu` 7



09

- Q–`xpbs`r ; pbur rãpbhfr` ï sbh n`sbch f–dppdrt`hdha ,̀ f–`stcj` `t f–daabjplcss`j`ht 7

- F–dppr`hfr ̀; l` prbfuct fbct dvbcr uh` jcsscbh ãfuadtcv` `t prbaur`r ï l–utclcsdtùr

tbut`s l`s chebrjdtcbhs qu–cl sbumdct`

CC.4.6. L`s fceecaultãs f` jcs` `h őuvr` f–uh` strdtãic` `xpãrc`htc`ll`

Ld jcs` `h plda` f–uh` strdtãic` `xpãrc`htc`ll` prãs`ht` f` hbjnrùs`s fceecaultãs. @h

èe`t, ld fãjdram` `xpãrc`htc`ll` t`ht` f–dicr sur ld prbpr` `xpãrc`ha` fu abhsbjjdtùr `t sur

ld vdlùr qu` a`luc-ac pùt p`ra`vbcr f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh. A`s datcbhs pùv`ht r`hfr` l`

abhsbjjdtùr « prcsbhhc`r · f` ld r`ldtcbh dvà ld jdrqu` (N`hdv`ht `t @vrdrf, >??>) `t

prãs`ht`ht pdr dcllùrs f` hbjnrùs̀ s lcjct`s `t fce ecaultãs f` jcs` `h őuvr`.

d. Ld arãdtcbh f–uh` djncdha` ãjbtcbhh`ll`j`ht dttrdatcv`

L` abhsbjjdtùr `st p`rpãtu`ll`j`ht ï ld ràm`ram` f–chdtt`hfu `t f` surprcs`s

(M`tz`l, >??>d). L`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts prbpbsãs pdr l`s jdrqu`s s–brc`ht`ht f` plus `h plus v`r s

ld trdhsjcsscbh f–ãjbtcbhs `t f` s`hsdtcbhs ï tbus l`s pbchts. _bur iãr`r l–`xpãrc`ha` vãau`,

l`s `htr`prcs`s tmãîtrdlcs`ht `t j`tt`ht `h saíh` l`s pbchts f` v`ht` ï trdv`rs ld jdhcpuldtcbh

f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s f` l–dtjbspmír` jdramdhf`. L`s jdrqu`s am`ram`ht ï

stdhfdrfcs`r l` pmãhbjíh` f` abhsbjjdtcbh ï ld ebcs sur uh typ` f` abjpbrt`j`ht `t sur uh

hcv`du f` qudlctã (Ecls`r, >??>). Mbrjcs lùr röl` ebhatcbhh`l, a`s prdtcqu`s bht pbur bnkàtce

f–daabjpdih`r l` abhsbjjdtùr fdhs l–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha` `h luc p`rj`ttdht f–ãprbuv`r f`s

ãjbtcbhs. Vbutèbcs, s–cl `st pbsscnl` f–y pdrv`hcr pbur a`rtdchs abhsbjjdtùrs `t fdhs

a`rtdchs `hvcrbhh`j`hts jdramdhfs, ld stcjuldtcbh ãjbtcbhh`ll` `t deeàtcv` h–`st pds

iãhãrdl` ï tbus l`s chfcvcfus `t fdhs tbus l`s abht`xt`s. @ll` h–`st hc ãvcf`ht`, hc systãjdtcqu`.

@ll` hãa`ssct` f`s dptctuf`s fbht l` abhsbjjdtùr h` fcspbs` pds hãa`ssdcr`j`ht. Ld

p`ra`ptcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha` `st prbpr` ï amdqu` chfcvcfu, f–bó l–chadpdactã f` l–`htr`prcs` ï

amdll`hi`r abhtchu`ll`j`ht l–ãjbtce `t l–deeàtce f` l–`hs`jnl` f` sd alc`htíl`.

n. Ld survdlbrcsdtcbh fu spàtdal` du fãtrcj`ht f` l–damdt

Qc ld ràm`ram` f` pldcscr, f` stcjuldtcbh `t f–brcichdlctã fdhs ld abhsbjjdtcbh `st

f`v`hu` prcjbrfcdl` am`z l` abhsbjjdtùr, l–`htr`prcs` quc sdurd l` jcùx abjpr`hfr`



0=

abjj`ht l` edcr` daaãf`r ï a`t ãtdt sunkàtce f` abhsac`ha` nãhãecac`rd f–uh dvdhtdi`

abhaurr`htc`l (_ch` `t Icljbr`, 4333 7 J`y`r `t Qamwdi`r, >??97 Abvd `t F`ru`ll`, >?4?).

Dchsc pbur l–dcf`r ï vcvr` pl`ch`j`ht l–`xpãrc`ha`, cl h` sueect pds dux `htr`prcs`s f` sur-

stcjul`r l`s s`hs `t l 'cjdichdcr` fu abhsbjjdtùr pdr uh` jcs` `h saíh` spàtdauldcr` fdhs uh

abht`xt` tmãjdtcsã, `haldvã `t sãaurcsã (Adró `t Abvd, >??5d) jdcs ï l–dcf`r ï prbfucr` s`s

prbpr`s `xpãrc`ha`s. A`tt` sur`hamír` fdhs ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh f`s dtjbspmír`s f` v`ht` pùt

prbvbqu`r fu pldcscr p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` jdidschdi .̀ Vbutèbcs `ll` pùt dj`h`r l`

abhsbjjdtùr ï p`rfr` `h abha`htrdtcbh `t `h `hidi`j`ht kusqu–ï l` fcstrdcr` f` l–dat`

f–damdt. Q`lbh Adró `t Abvd (>??5n, p. 4?0) « cl h–`st pds tbukburs hãa`ssdcr` f` plbhi`r l`

abhsbjjdtùr fdhs uh abht`xt` ̀ xpãrc`htc`l ̀ xtrdvdidht ·.

a. Ld jcs` `h plda` f–uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht `h abhstdht` ãvblutcbh `t dfdptdnl` dux

jbfcecadtcbhs fu jdramã `t f`s dtt`ht`s f`s abhsbjjdtùrs

L` hbjnr` f–`htr`prcs`s quc d ràburs jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l h` a`ss` f–duij`ht`r.

Fdhs a`tt` p`rspàtcv`, uh rcsqu` rã`l f` fcspdrctcbh fdhs ld jdss` f` ld tmãdtrdlcsdtcbh `t f`

ndhdlcsdtcbh f` l–brcichdlctã, pùt s` fãaldr`r. _bur ëtr` èecada`, l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf

fbct ëtr` ãvblutce `t dfdptdnl` dux jbfcecadtcbhs fu jdramã. Ld strdtãic` `xpãrc`htc`ll` fbct s`

fãalch`r f` ld strdtãic` fu jcx jdrg`tchi f` ld jdrqu`, plus pdrtcaulcír`j`ht f` tbus l`s

dttrcnuts dtjbspmãrcqu`s fu pbcht f` v`ht` (fãabr, p`rsbhh`l, prbfuct, djncdha`…)

scjultdhãj`ht pdr ld prcs` abjpt` f`s fãscrs `t f`s n`sbchs f`s abhsbjjdtùrs. L` pbcht f`

v`ht` `st ï ld ebcs uh lcù f` prbfuatcbh f'`xpãrc`ha`s `t f` ràm`ram` f'`xpãrc`ha`s (Nbuam t̀,

>??6). Cl fbct ëtr` `h ãvblutcbh abhstdht` pbur surpr`hfr` l` abhsbjjdtùr ï amdqu` abhtdat

dvà ld jdrqu` `t p`rj`ttr` du alc`ht f–daaãf`r ï l–`xpãrc`ha` `t f–ëtr` datùr sur l` pbcht f`

v`ht`.

CC.>. L` röl` fu abhsbjjdtùr fdhs ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s

L` abhsbjjdtùr abhtr cnu` abhstdjj`ht ï ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s. Qbh

cjplcadtcbh fdhs a`t dat` s–chsarct fdhs uh « pdrdfcij` ãj`ri`ht · f`s jdramãs (_ctt `t dl.,

>??5). L` abhsbjjdtùr `st f`v`hu ï ld ebcs uh abhtrcnutùr `t uh arãdtùr (Y`n`r, >??3). @h

èe`t, ld pbsctcbh a`htrdl` f` l–chfcvcfu fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh chact` l`s

`htr`prcs`s ï pr`hfr` `h abhscfãrdtcbh ld abjpbsdht` ãjbtcbhh`ll`, ebhatcbhh`ll`, `stmãtcqu`,ãpcstãjcqu` `t sbacdl` f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh (Ldc, 4330 7 Mblnrbbg, 4336, 4333 7 Durc`r, @vrdrf



03

`t H–Ibdld, >??6 7 Ibhzdl`z `t dl., >??3). _bur l` amdldhf, l–bnkàtce `st f` pdrtcacp`r

pl`ch`j`ht ï l–dat` f` abhsbjjdtcbh ï trdv`rs ld stcjuldtcbh f`s s`hs `t ld arãdtcbh f`

p`hsã`s `t f` syjnbl`s pdr ld prbfuatcbh syhamrbhcsã` f` rãpbhs`s abihctcv`s `t

ãjbtcbhh`ll`s.

CC.>.4. L`s dtt`ht`s fu abhsbjjdtùr pbstjbf`rh`

L`s prbebhf`s jutdtcbhs f` ld sbacãtã abht`jpbrdch` bht dnbhfdjj`ht chelu`haã l`

abjpbrt`j`ht fu abhsbjjdtùr f–dukburf–muc. @h èe`t, l`s dtt`ht`s `t l`s n`sbchs f`s alc`hts

h` abhvc`hh`ht plus ï ld lbc f` l–beer` `t ld f`jdhf`. Ld abhsbjjdtcbh d prcs uh vcrdi`

strcat`j`ht mãfbhcst` `t lufcqu` (Ecls`r, 4335 7 M`tz`l, 4335).

L` rã`hamdht`j`ht f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh chfcqu` uh` a`rtdch` « lcnãrdtcbh fu kbui

rdtcbhdlcst` `t deecrj` uh` r`v`hfcadtcbh s`hsudlcst` · (Adró `t Abvd, >??=, p. 1). L` fãscr f`

kbucssdha` cjjãfcdt` `h rdppbrt dvà ld abhsbjjdtcbh, arã` f` hbuv`dux n`sbchs sdhs trbp

s` sbuac`r f` a` quc vc`ht dprís (Abvd, >??=). @h èe`t, a` typ` f` abhsbjjdtùrs edvbrcs` l`s

sbura`s f–brcichdlctã `t f` pldcscr prbaurãs pdr l–`xpãrc`ha`. Dchsc, l`s abhsbjjdtùrs h` sbht

plus abhscfãrãs abjj` f`s pldhcecadtùrs jdcs abjj` f`s rëvùrs (Mcrsamjdh `t Mblnrbbg,

43=3), a` sbht f`s ëtr`s ãjbtcbhh`ls ï ld ràm`ram` f–`xpãrc`ha`s s`hscnl`s (Jdee`sblc, 433?).

L`s prbfucts `t l`s s`rvca`s s`rdc`ht daa`ssbcr`s `t jëj` pdrebcs, tbut d edct sàbhfdcr`s.

Qùl`s l`s `xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh abhstctu`ht f`s echs `h `ll`s-jëj`s (Durc`r `t

_dss`nbcs, >??>). L–`xpãrc`ha` fu abhsbjjdtùr, s–`ht`hf dlbrs abjj` l–`hs`jnl` fu

pmãhbjíh` vãau pdr l` abhsbjjdtùr dvà f`s prbfucts, f`s jdrqu`s, f`s s`rvca`s (Uãzchd,

4333). L–chfcvcfu vùt ëtr` trdhspbrtã pmyscqu`j`ht `t psyamblbicqu`j`ht du aőur f`

l–`xpãrc`ha`, quc ï s`s yùx s` adrdatãrcs` pdr l`s dspàts sucvdhts ;

- L` abhsbjjdtùr h–`st pds sùl`j`ht abhsbjjdtùr ;

L`s chfcvcfus h` sbht pds uhcqu`j`ht f`s dam`tùrs, cls tc`hh`ht fceeãr`hts röl`s fdhs

l–`xpãrc`ha`. Cls cht`rdicss`ht dvà tbut`s l`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–`xpãrc`ha` `ll`-jëj`.

- L` abhsbjjdtùr dict ï l–chtãrcùr f` sctudtcbhs ;



5?

L–chfcvcfu arã` sd prbpr` `xpãrc`ha` fdhs ld abhsbjjdtcbh `h jbf`ldht `t `h

s–dfdptdht ï s`s fceeãr`ht`s eda`tt`s. Cl j`t `h kù s`s abjpãt`ha`s `t s`s adpdactãs pbur

s–dpprbprc`r l–`xpãrc`ha`.

- L` abhsbjjdtùr `st ï ld ràm`ram` f` s`hs ;

L` abhsbjjdtùr pbstjbf`rh` `st uh chfcvcfu quc h` s` abht`ht` plus f` l–ãamdhi`

jdtãrc`l. Cl daabrf` plus f–cjpbrtdha` ï l–dspàt syjnblcqu` `t `stmãtcqu` f`s prbfucts bu

s`rvca`s qu–cl abhsbjj`. L–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh prbaur` l`s p`hsã`s `t l`s

s`htcj`hts qu` l–chfcvcfu ràm`ram`.

- Ld abhsbjjdtcbh h` s` lcjct` pds ï l–damdt ;

Ld abhsbjjdtcbh h` s` lcjct` plus ï qu`lqu`s datcvctãs prã-damdt (ãv`cl fu n`sbch,

ràm`ram` f–chebrjdtcbh, ãvdludtcbh, `ta.), hc jëj` qu`lqu`s datcvctãs pbst -damdt abjj`

l–ãvdludtcbh `t ld sdtcsedatcbh, jdcs ï uh` sãrc` f–dutr`s datcvctãs quc chelu`ha`rbht l`s

fãacscbhs `t datcbhs eutur`s fu abhsbjjdtùr (Uãzchd, 4333). L` abhsbjjdtùr `st datce fdhs

ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s (N`ridfdï, >??5).

CC.>.>. L–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha`

Ld r`ldtcbh `htr` l` abhsbjjdtùr `t l` prbfuct `st uh` r`ldtcbh sunkàtcv` quc am`ram`

prchacpdl`j`ht ï arã`r fu pldcscr, f`s ãjbtcbhs `t f`s s`hsdtcbhs am`z l` abhsbjjdtùr,

`xprcjã `h rãpbhs` ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh. Jdcs pbur l`s ã prbuv`r pl`ch`j`ht,

`habr` edut-cl s–dpprbprc`r l–`xpãrc`ha`.

L–dpprbprcdtcbh `xprcj` l–dat` f` edcr` sc`h, f` s` edcr` ld prbprcãtã f–uh` ambs`,

baaup`r, s–dfkui`r, s–`jpdr`r (L` p`tct ^bn`rt, >??=). L` abha`pt f–dpprbprcdtcbh d susactã

l–chtãrët f` hbjnr ̀ us`s chv`stcidtcbhs fdhs f`s fbjdch`s trís vdrcãs. Q`lbh Q`redty-Idrzbh

(>??1), l–usdi` sbacblbicqu` fu abha`pt f–dpprbprcdtcbh tcr` sbh brcich` f`s trdvdux f` Jdrx.

L–dpprbprcdtcbh s` edct ï trdv`rs l–chtãrcbrcsdtcbh f` sdvbcrs `t f` adpdactãs (Amdh`y, >??9). Cl d

ãtã `hsuct` chtrbfuct `h psyamblbic` iãhãrdl`, `hvcrbhh`j`htdl` pucs fdhs fceeãr`ht`s spmír`s

fu jdrg`tchi.



54

Fdhs l` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus Amdh`y (>??9) edct l–chv`htdcr` f`s fãechctcbhs fu abha`pt

f–dpprbprcdtcbh `t f` s`s dpplcadtcbhs.

Dpprbprcdtcbh… Fãechctcbh f` l'dpprbprcdtcbh

… ̀ t psyamblbic ̀

@hi`hfr`j`ht f` l–chfcvcfu quc s` rãdlcs` fdhs uh` abhtchuctã mcstbrcqu`

f–dpprbprcdtcbh f` sbh mãrctdi` 7 a–`st `h s–dpprbprcdht s`s brcich`s qu`

l–chfcvcfu vd s` abhstrucr`

...f'uh `spda`

p`rsbhh`l

Qystíj` f–`jprcs` pmyscqu` `t psyamblbicqu` sur uh `spda` quc s` trdfuct

`h r`ldtcbhs f` pbss`sscbh `t f–dttdam`j`ht. Cl p`rj`t ï l–chfcvcfu f`

jdtãrcdlcs`r uh` pdrtc` f` sbh uhcv`rs j`htdl fdhs l–`spda` `hvcrbhhdht

dech f` l` edjclcdrcs`r

… f'uh `spda`

jdramdhf

D l'dcf` f` jby`hs lufcqu`s `t ebhatcbhh`ls (rìdrfs, i`st`s,

fãplda`j`hts, …), l'chfcvcfu `xplbr` l'`spda` abjj`racdl `t s` abhstruct

sd prbpr` `xpãrc`ha` fu lcù

… f'uh`

`xpãrc`ha`

Bpãrdtcbhs (abhfuct`s, p`hsã`s, …) jcs`s `h őuvr` pdr l` abhsbjjdtùr

pbur s–cjj`ri`r fdhs uh` `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh plutöt qu` f`

scjpl`j`ht r`habhtr`r f`s prbfucts echcs

… f'uh bnk`t Dfdptdtcbh f–uh` ambs` ï uh usdi` fãechc; chabrpbrdtcbh f'uh bnk`t, fdhssd spmír` p`rsbhh`ll` pbur l` edcr` sc`h, a–`st-ï-fcr` l` p`rsbhhdlcs`r `t

l–dfdpt`r `h suppbrt f` l–`xpr`sscbh f` sbc

… f–uh`

tàmhblbic`

Arãdtcbh f–uh t`rrctbcr` f` lcn`rtã fdhs l–usdi` qubtcfc`h f` ld tàmhblbic`

dech f` edaclct`r sbh chtãirdtcbh fdhs ld spmír` prcvã`

Vdnl`du 6; Fãechctcbhs `t dpplcadtcbhs fu abha`pt f–dpprbprcdtcbh

_bur s–dpprbprc`r l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, l`s am`ramùrs `h psyamblbic`

`hvcrbhh`j`htdl` (`.i., _rbmdhsgy `t dl., 439? 7 Ecsam`r, 433>) `xplcqu`ht qu` l–chfcvcfu fbct

`x`ra`r uh` dutbrctã, uh abhtröl`, uh pbuvbcr (pmyscqu` `t/bu psyamblbicqu`) sur uh lcù (Adró

`t Abvd, >??1). L–dpprbprcdtcbh `st prãs`htã` pdr a`s am`ramùrs abjj` ld fãlcjctdtcbh `t ld

jcs` `h plda` f` erbhtcír`s ecatcv`s f–uh `spda` qu` l–chfcvcfu èeàtu` chabhsac`jj`ht pbur

s` rd ppbrt`r uh` pdrtc` f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf bu `habr` ld abhstruatcbh f–uh am`z-sbc

(Nbhhch, >??>) fdhs a` jëj` abht`xt` jdramdhf.



5>

^ãa`jj`ht, `h sac`ha`s f` i`stcbh `t plus pdrtcaulcír`j`ht `h jdrg`tchi, f`s

am`ramùrs bht chtrbfuct `t fãv`lbppã l` abha`pt f–dpprbprcdtcbh pbur r`hfr` abjpt` f`s

bpãrdtcbhs jcs`s `h őuvr` pdr l` abhsbjjdtùr pbur daaãf`r pl`ch`j`ht ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtcbh plutöt qu` f` s` lcjct`r ï r`habhtr`r f`s prbfucts echcs. A`s am`ramùrs (`.i.,

Dun`rt-Idj`t, 4339 7 Nbhhch, >??> 7 Ldfw`ch, >??> 7 Adró `t Abvd, >??1) fãechcss`ht

l–dpprbprcdtcbh abjj` « uh prba`ssus psyamblbicqu` ebhfdj`htdl f–datcbh `t f–cht`rv`htcbh

sur uh `spda` pbur l` trdhsebrj`r `t l` p`rsbhhdlcs`r 7 a` systíj` f–`jprcs` sur l`s lcùx

`hilbn` l`s ebrj`s `t l`s typ`s f–cht`rv`htcbh sur l–`spda` quc s` trdfucs`ht `h r`ldtcbhs f`

pbss`sscbh `t f–dttdam`j`ht · (Ecsam`r, 433> 7 ch Adró `t Abvd, >??1). _`hfdht a`tt` pmds`, l`

abhsbjjdtùr ràrã` `t trdhsebrj` l–beer` f` l–`htr`prcs`. Ph` `xpãrc`ha` f–dpprbprcdtcbh s`

adrdatãrcs` pdr f`s prba`ssus f` fãabuv`rt`, f`s `rr`j`hts, f`s abhfuct`s f` r`pãrdi` qu`

jdhce`st` l` abhsbjjdtùr pbur trbuv`r f`s pbchts f–dhardi` fdhs sd abhsbjjdtcbh (Abvd `t

Abvd, >??4). _bur l–chfcvcfu, l–dpprbprcdtcbh `st l` prcvclíi` f` kbucr f` pbuvbcr `t

f–dutbhbjc` fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht bó cl s` trbuv` (Abvd `t Abvd, >??6).

d. L–dpprbprcdtcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh

L–dpprbprcdtcbh `st fãechc` pdr Nbhhch (>??>, p. 53) abjj` « uh prba`ssus

psyamblbicqu` ebhfdj`htdl f–datcbhs `t f–cht`rv`htcbhs sur uh `spda` pbur l` trdhsebrj`r `t

l` p`rsbhhdlcs`r ·. L–dpprbprcdtcbh f` l–`spda` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `st uh`

abhfctcbh hãa`ssdcr` pbur l–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha` (Bzadildr -Vbulbus` `t Abvd, >?4?). Qbh

chtãirdtcbh pdr l–chfcvcfu hãa`ssct` f` ld pdrt fu fcstrcnutùr uh rã`xdj`h f` ld jdhcír`

f–djãhdi`r s`s jdidschs (Nbhhch, >??1) `t f`s datcbhs fu abhsbjjdtùr -datùr fdhs ld ab-

arãdtcbh `t ld abhstruatcbh f` sd prbpr` `xpãrc`ha`. A`s ãtdp`s abhtrcnu`ht ï daarbètr` l` fãscr

f–chabrpbrdtcbh `t ï dfdpt`r ld p`ra`ptcbh f` l–bnk`t rã`l dux dtt`ht`s prãdldnl`s (Nruh`l,

Idll`h `t ^bux, >??3). _lus l–chfcvcfu s–dpprbprc` uh `spda` plus cl y j`t f`s bnk`tsjdrquùrs f` sbh `jprcs` sur a`t `spda`. L–`ss`ha` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` datu`ll` `st fdvdhtdi`

plus uh` dpprbprcdtcbh qu–uh` scjpl` pdrtcacpdtcbh (Aurndtbv, >??0). Qdhs dpprbprcdtcbh, a`

h–`st qu` fu fcv`rtcss`j`ht pbur l` abhsbjjdtùr. Cl cihbr` sbh röl` f` abprbfuatùr, cl `st

sùl`j`ht uh` acnl` pdsscv`.

_dr ld jcs` `h kù f` s`s abjpãt`ha`s, l` abhsbjjdtùr `st pbur uh` ldri` pdrt l`

nîtcssùr `t l` ab-arãdtùr f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh (Kby `t Qm`rry, >??1) du trdv`rs

f` ld abhstruatcbh f–uh am`z-sbc jultcfcj`hscbhh`l ; pds scjpl`j`ht pmyscqu` jdcs dusscj`htdl, deeàtce `t spcrctu`l (Adró `t Abvd, >??1).



51

L–dpprbprcdtcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha` `st l` prba`ssus qu` l` alc`ht èeàtu` pbur s` s`htcr

am`z luc. @ll` pùt ãidl`j`ht ëtr` abllàtcv` `t s` jdhce`st` du trdv`rs f` prdtcqu`s

abjpbrt`j`htdl`s spãacecqu`s (Abvd `t Abvd, >??1). L–dpprbprcdtcbh s` rãsuj` ï uh

`hs`jnl` f–bpãrdtcbhs, f` abhfuct`s bu f` prbkàtcbhs qu` l–chfcvcfu èeàtu` f` edébh

acrauldcr` pbur baaup`r l–`spda` `t `htr`r prbir`sscv`j`ht fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha`. Cl s–dict f` ld

hcfcecadtcbh, fu jdrqudi` `t f` l–`xplbrdtcbh.

L` samãjd ac-f`ssbus r`prãs`ht` l`s ãtdp`s f` l–dpprbprcdtcbh ;

Eciur` > ; L` jbfíl` f` l–dpprbprcdtcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha` (Adró `t Abvd, >??1 7 p. 04)

n. Ld hcfcecadtcbh

Ld hcfcecadtcbh `st l–datcbh bu ld jdhcír` f` abhstruatcbh f–uh hcf bu uh dnrc. L`

abhsbjjdtùr struatur` uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht prbpr` ï luc du s`ch jëj` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`. Cl edct

dnstrdatcbh f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht r`stdht fdhs l` nut f` r`vcvr` f`s `xpãrc`ha`s dhtãrcùr`s bu

hbuv`ll`s `h rdppbrt dvà sbh vãau. Ld hcfcecadtcbh abrr`spbhf pbur Ecsam`r (43=1, ch Adró `t

Abvd, >??1. p 6=) « ï f`s ebrj`s f–chstdlldtcbh quc s` rãeír`ht tbukburs plus bu jbchs

`xplcact`j`ht ï ld arãdtcbh f–uh am`z-sbc, `t quc, pdr tbut`s sbrt`s f–drtceca`s `t

f–djãhdi`j`hts, p`rj`tt`ht ï l–chfcvcfu f` edcr` sbh hcf · bó a` hbuv`du am`z-sbc s`

D__^B_^CDVCBH



56

trdhsebrj` `h uh `spda` f` rèui`, f` rãpct `t f` r`plc (Dun`rt-Idj`t, 4335). Ld hcfcecadtcbh

abhscst` ï jdrqu`r uh t`rrctbcr` pdr l`s edcts `t i`st`s bu pdr l–utclcsdtcbh f–bnk`ts (Nbhhch,

>??>) quc p`rj`ttrbht ï l–chfcvcfu f–y ̀ x`ra`r s`s abjpãt`ha`s t̀ s`s abhhdcssdha`s.

Ld hcfcecadtcbh `st ld pmds` f` l–dpprbprcdtcbh furdht ldqu`ll` l–chfcvcfu vd csbl`r ld

pdrtc` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh, fãkï r`habhtrã` ï trdv`rs sbh `xpãrc`ha` dhtãrcùr`,

dech f` t`ht`r f` abhtröl`r a`ll`-ac `t f` s` s`htcr am`z luc (Jbl`s `t ^bmj`r, 4399). Ld

hcfcecadtcbh `st uh` prdtcqu` quc r`pbs` sur ld jcs` `h plda` `t l–cf`htcecadtcbh f` r`pír`s bu f`

pbchts f–dhardi` prãdldnl`s ï l–`xplbrdtcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha`. A`tt` pmds` p`rj`t f` abhstctu`r

uh `spda` stdnl` sur l`qu`l l` abhsbjjdtùr pburrd `x`ra`r uh abhtröl` `t ï pdrtcr fuqu`l cl

pburrd ãt`hfr` sbh amdjp f–datcbh `t chv`stciu`r l` r`st` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`. Vbutèbcs,

l–cf`htcecadtcbh f`s r`pír`s fãp`hf fu typ` `t f` ld hdtur` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`.

a. L–`xplbrdtcbh

L` t`rj` « `xplbrdtcbh · scihcec` l` pdraburs f–uh `spda` `h l–ãtufcdht dvà sbch.

L–`xplbrdtcbh, `st l–ãtdp` p`hfdht ldqu`ll` l–chfcvcfu vd, ï pdrtcr f` sbh « hcf ·, t`ht`r f`

rãdlcs`r a`s datcbhs `t dchsc fãv`lbpp`r sd abhhdcssdha` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` (Nbhhch, >??>). A`tt`

ãtdp` p`rj`t ï l–chfcvcfu f–`x`ra`r uh` jdètrcs` sur l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` (Qcjbh,

>??9). Ecsam`r (43=4) ld fãscih` pdr l–`xplbrdtcbh pmyscqu` fu lcù bó, l–chfcvcfu r`pír` l`

t`rrctbcr ̀ `xpãrc`htc`l ï pdrtcr f–chebrjdtcbhs fcv`rs`s, f` prbfucts bu f–datcvctãs pbur

fãv`lbpp`r f`s « pbchts f–dhardi` `t f` abhtröl` · bu ndlcs`s (Adró `t Abvd, >??1) `t ãt`hf

dchsc sbh amdjp f–datcbh fdhs l–`spda` `xpãrc`htc`l (Gbl`ha, >??=). L–chfcvcfu fãv`lbpp`

dchsc sd abhhdcssdha` fu abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` duqu`l cl `st abherbhtã `t cl ãldric

prbir`sscv`j`ht sbh t`rrctbcr`. L–`xplbrdtcbh p`rj`t dlbrs « f` r`pãr`r, f` r`jdrqu`r, f`

rà`vbcr f`s chebrjdtcbhs fcv`rs`s `t fbha f–djbra`r l–cht`rprãtdtcbh fu lcù · (Ecsam`r, 43=4,

p. 31 ch Adró `t Abvd, >??1). L–`xdj`h f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht abjj`racdl pdr l`s i`st`s, l`rìdrf, ld trdhsebrjdtcbh `t l–`xplbrdtcbh pmyscqu`, sbulcih` l` röl` fu abhsbjjdtùr fdhs ld

ab-arãdtcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, `h luc p`rj`ttdht f` rãfucr` bu f–ãvct`r ld fcstdha` quc l` sãpdr`

fu abht`hu `xpãrc`htc`l. A`tt` pmds` abhstctu` uh` pmds` cht`rjãfcdcr` fdhs l–dpprbprcdtcbh f`

l–`xpãrc`ha`. L` prbfuct h–`st pds `habr` chabrpbrã, jdcs prãpdrã bu chtãirã fdhs uh` jcs` `h

saíh` prãdldnl` ï sd abhsbjjdtcbh pdr f`s rctu`ls f` fãndlldi`, f–`xplbrdtcbh vcsu`ll` bu

tdatcl`, f` pbsctcbhh`j`ht fdhs l–`spda`, `ta. (Nruh`l, Idll`h `t ^bux, >??3).

L–bpãrdtcbh f–`xplbrdtcbh abhstctu` uh` ãtdp` cjpbrtdht` schbh hãa`ssdcr` pbur pdrv`hcr ï edcr` abrps dvà l–`xpãrc`ha`. Ld fãabuv`rt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` `t sbh r`pãrdi` s`



50

fãrbul`ht tdht du hcv`du pmyscqu` qu` j`htdl. L` abhsbjjdtùr `st f` plus `h plus ï l–dcs`

pbur s–buvrcr ï l–`xpãrc`ha` `t ld ràrã`r ï sd prbpr` jdhcír`.

f. L` jdrqudi`

Ld f`rhcír` bpãrdtcbh fu prba`ssus f–dpprbprcdtcbh `st l` jdrqudi`. A` t`rj` scihcec`

l–bpãrdtcbh pdr ldqu`ll` uh chfcvcfu jdrqu` uh t`rrctbcr` bu uh `spda`, pbur l` fcstchiu`r bu l`

r`hfr` ràbhhdcssdnl` du jby`h f–uh r`pír` (L` p`tct ^bn`r, >??=).

L` jdrqudi` abrr`spbhf « ï l–`hs`jnl` f`s r`ldtcbhs `t f`s abhfuct`s ï trdv`rs

l`squ`ll`s l–chfcvcfu pùt chsarcr` fdhs l–`spda` uh adrdatír` p`rsbhh`l · (Ecsam`r, 43=1, p. 66

ch Adró `t Abvd, >??1). A–`st « uh` sbrt` f` nbrhdi` syjnblcqu` · f` l–`spda` jdramdhf

(Ecsam`r, 43=1) bó l` abhsbjjdtùr `xprcj` uh` chsarcptcbh p`rsbhh`ll` fdhs a`t `spda` ; uh`

`jpr`cht` quc p`rj`t ï l–chfcvcfu f` s–dpprbprc`r l` abht`xt` f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh s`lbh s`s

prbpr`s cht`rprãtdtcbhs `t arbydha`s.

Quct` ï l–bpãrdtcbh f–`xplbrdtcbh, lbrsqu` l–chfcvcfu dur d fãabuv`rt qu`lqu` ambs`

fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha`, sbura` f–uh` ãjbtcbh ebrt` cl s`rd dlbrs `h j`sur` f` jdrqu`r a`tt`

`xpãrc`ha` `t ï a` vãau (Adró `t Abvd, >??1). L` jdrqudi` abhstctu` ld pmds` bó l–chfcvcfu

dttrcnu` s`s prbpr`s scihcecadtcbhs `t cht`rprãtdtcbhs ï l–`xpãrc`ha` `h abheãrdht uh s`hs prbpr`

ï ld tbtdlctã bu ï uh` pdrtc` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`. _`hfdht a`tt` ãtdp`, l–chfcvcfu edct usdi` f` sd

arãdtcvctã pbur kbu`r sunkàtcv`j`ht dvà l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` `t fãv`lbpp`r f`s

s`htcj`hts, f`s arbydha`s `t f`s p`hsã`s quc trdfucs`ht l–cht`rprãtdtcbh p`rsbhh`ll` abhfucsdht

ï plda`r l` abht`hu `h jdrqudi`.

L–bpãrdtcbh f` jdrqudi` `st adrdatãrcsã` pdr ld r`ldtcbh `htr` l–ãldnbrdtcbh

f–cjpr`sscbhs r`ldtcv`s ï ld sctudtcbh vãau` pdr l` abhsbjjdtùr `t l–dttrcnutcbh f` s`hs ï

a`tt` jëj` sctudtcbh (Adró `t Abvd, >??1). _`hfdht a`tt` ãtdp`, l–chfcvcfu edct dpp`l ï sbh

cjdichdtcbh `t sd arãdtcvctã quc r`hvbc`ht ï s`s dhtãaãf`hts, ï sbh pdssã, sbh vãau `t ï s`s`xpãrc`ha`s dhtãrcùr`s.



55

ABHALPQCBH FP AMD_CV^@ C

A` pr`jc`r amdpctr` d ù pbur bnkàtce f` prãs`ht`r l`s brcich`s `t l`s spãacecactãs f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh. L` abha`pt f–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh hbus djíh` ï

dfj`ttr` qu` l–chfcvcfu pbstjbf`rh` h–`st plus uhcqu`j`ht uh ëtr` rdtcbhh`l, quc am`ram` ï

jdxcjcs`r s`s prbects utclctdcr`s jdcs uh abhsbjjdtùr-datùr dssbceeã f–ãjbtcbhs, f`

s`hsdtcbhs, f` lc`h sbacdl `t f` spàtdauldcr`. Cl am`ram` ï deecrj`r sbh cf`htctã `t ï rbjpr`

dvà sbh qubtcfc`h, ï tbus l`s pbchts f` abhtdat dvà l`s prbfucts qu–cl damít`.

Dchsc, hbus dvbhs ãtufcã fdhs uh` pr`jcír` sàtcbh l`s ebhf`j`hts tmãbrcqu`s fu

abha`pt f–`xpãrc`ha`, bó hbus hbus chtãr`ssãs dux brcich`s f` l–dpprbam` `xpãrc`htc`ll` `t s`s

fbjdch`s f–dpplcadtcbh, pbur fãnbuam`r sur l`s fceeãr`ht`s fãechctcbhs rdttdamã`s du abha`pt

f–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh.

L–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `st l` rãsultdt f` l–cht`rdatcbh _`rsbhh` ‑ Bnk`t ‑

Qctudtcbh. @ll` abhstctu` fbha l`s rãsultdts f–uh` abprbfuatcbh quc lc` l` abhsbjjdtùr `t

l–`htr`prcs`. @h èe`t, ld jcs` `h plda` uh dss`jnldi` f` stcjulc lcãs du prbfuct `t ïl–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf, hãa`ssct` ld pdrtcacpdtcbh datcv` fu abhsbjjdtùr.

Ld fùxcíj` sàtcbh f` a` amdpctr`, dnbrf` l` röl` f` amdqu` pdrtc` fdhs ld prbfuatcbh

f–`xpãrc`ha`. @ll` s` rdppbrt` f–dnbrf du röl` f` l–`htr`prcs` pucs ï a`luc f` l–chfcvcfu,

hbtdjj`ht p`hfdht l`s bpãrdtcbhs f–dpprbprcdtcbh.

L` pr`jc`r amdpctr` f` a`tt` ràm`ram`, pbs` l`s ebhf`j`hts f` l–`xpãrc`ha` fàbhsbjjdtcbh, pbur fãnbuam`r sur l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh, qu` hbus trdctbhs fdhs l`

fùxcíj` amdpctr`. Adr l`s dpprbam`s fu jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l bu f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh

pbstjbf`rh` (Ecrdt `t Fmbldgcd, 433=) bht chtãirã l` abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh quc, ï l–brcich`, `st

`jpruhtã ï f`s fbjdch`s s`hscnl`j`ht fcstdhts.



59









F@ ABHQBJJDVCBH

_ ^ @ J C @ ^ @ _ D ^ V C @

F @ P ] C @ J @ _ D ^ V C @



5=

AMD_CV^@ CC ; L–CJJ@^QCBH FDHQ

PH @HUC^BHH@J@HV JD^AMDHF



53

CHV^BFPAVCBH FP AMD_CV^@ CC

L` abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh beer` uh` ebrt` sbura` f–chspcrdtcbh du jdrg`tchi. Cl abhtrcnu`

ï ld ebrjdtcbh f–`hvcrbhh`j`hts jdramdhfs spàtdauldcr`s fdhs l`squ`ls l` abhsbjjdtùr

pùt s–cjj`ri`r, ï trdv`rs f`s prdtcqu s̀ f` sãfuatcbh `t f–mdnclldi` (Nbhhch, >??>), du jby`h

f` ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh `t f` ld jcs` `h saíh`. L–dvíh`j`ht f`s sct`s jdramdhfs sur Cht`rh`t d

rdfcadl`j`ht jbfcecã l` abjpbrt`j`ht f`s abhsbjjdtùrs. L`s pbchts f` v`ht`s sbht abhéus

fdhs l` nut f` edcr` vcvr` du abhsbjjdtùr f`s `xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh rã`ll`s bu

vcrtu`ll`s, ï ld ebcs sunkàtcv`s `t bnkàtcv`s. L–cjj`rscbh abhfucrdct ï trdhspbrt`r l`s

abhsbjjdtùrs fdhs uh dcllùrs fceeãr`ht (M`tz`l, >??>) `t ï vcvr` f`s `xpãrc`ha`s brcichdl`s,

chbunlcdnl`s, ̀ xtrdbrfchdcr`s ̀ t fceeãr`hacã`s.

Fdhs a` amdpctr`, hbus dllbhs f–dnbrf trdct`r f` ld plurcfcsacplchdrctã fu abha`pt

f–cjj`rscbh, ï trdv`rs l`s fceeãr`ht`s ebrj`s f` l–cjj`rscbh prãs`ht`s fdhs ld lcttãrdtur`,

hbtdjj`ht tàmhcqu` ̀ t psyamblbicqu`.

Hbus hbus chtãr`ss`rbhs `hsuct`, ï ld abha`ptudlcsdtcbh f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`

jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l, du pmãhbjíh` f–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` `h lcih` `t dux abha`pts f`

elbw `t f` tãlãprãs`ha`.

_ucs, hbus am`ram`rbhs ï prãacs`r l` pmãhbjíh` f–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` `h lcih` `t

hbus alötur`rbhs `hech a` amdpctr`, pdr ld aldrcecadtcbh fu abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh `h rdppbrt dvà

aùx f` elbw `t f` tãlãprãs`ha .̀



9?

C. L–dpprbam` plurcfcsacplchdcr` f` l–cjj`rscbh

L` abha`pt f` l–cjj`rscbh edct l–bnk`t f–uh irdhf hbjnr` f` trdvdux cssus f` amdjps

fcsacplchdcr`s trís fcv`rs. A` h–`st qu` f`pucs `hvcrbh uh` vchitdch` f–dhhã`s, qu` l`jdrg`tchi s–chtãr`ss` ï l–cjj`rscbh. A` t`rj` `st `h èe`t `jplbyã fdhs f` hbjnrùx

fbjdch`s f`pucs nc`h plus lbhit`jps, hbtdjj`ht fdhs l`s jdtmãjdtcqu`s (`.i., Kbudh, >??1),

ld jãfàch` (`.i., Kdg`jdh, Jdard` `t @stbh, >??3), l–dppr`htcssdi` `t l–ãfuadtcbh (`.i.,

U`rh`tt`, >??9 7 Kbmh `t Gyff, >??=), l`s cht`rdatcbhs mbjj` / jdamch` (Eusm `t dl., >??5),

l–dstrbhbjc`, l–bptcqu` (Kdaqu`s `t Kburfdh, 4=16), l–dqudaultur` (`.i., Ldrrdzîndl-Eu`ht`s `t

dl., >??3), `ta.

L` jbt « cjj`rscbh · `st `jpruhtã ï ld pmyscqu` (`.i., Aburvbcsc`r `t Kdqu`t, >?4?) `t

r`hvbc` ï ld hbtcbh f` abrps plbhiã fdhs uh jclcù lcqucf`. L–`hs`jnl` f` a`s trdvdux f`

ràm`ram` s–daabrf` pbur fãechcr l–cjj`rscbh abjj` « l–datcbh f` plbhi`r fdhs uh

`hvcrbhh`j`ht pdrtcaulc`r · (Ldrbuss`, >??3), `t f` s` s`htcr `hvdmc pdr ld sctudtcbh fdhs

ldqu`ll` bh s` r`trbuv`.

L` tdnl`du, ac-f`ssbus, prãs`ht` l`s fceeãr`ht`s scihcecadtcbhs fu t`rj` « cjj`rscbh ·

r`habhtrã`s fdhs ld lcttãrdtur`.

Fbjdch` ^ãeãr`ha` Qcihcecadtcbhs f` l–cjj`rscbh

L–dstrbhbjc`

Fcatcbhhdcr` f`

l'Dadfãjc`

erdhédcs` (4310)

L` t`rj` f–cjj`rscbh s` fct eciurãj`ht f`

l'`htrã` f'uh` pldhít` fdhs l'bjnr` f'uh` dutr`

pldhít`. L'cjj`rscbh f` ld luh` fdhs l'bjnr`

f` ld t`rr`.

L–bptcqu`

Kdaqu`s `t Kburfdh

(4=16)

L` pbcht f'cjj`rscbh `st l` pbcht pdr l`qu`l

uh rdybh lujchùx plbhi` fdhs uh jclcù

qu`labhqu`.

Vdnl`du 0 ; Ld plurcfcsacplchdrctã fu abha`pt f– « cjj`rscbh ·

Vbutèbcs, l–usdi` fu t`rj` « cjj`rscbh · fdhs l`s fãechctcbhs prbpbsã`s ac-f`ssus h`

abhscfír` pds l–chfcvcfu abjj` a`htr` f–chtãrët. Qc l–bh s` plda` fu aötã f` l–ëtr` mujdch, l`

abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh durdct uh` scihcecadtcbh rdfcadl`j`ht fceeãr`ht`. L–cjj`rscbh s`rdct



94

dlbrs fãechc` abjj` uh ãtdt f` abha`htrdtcbh `t f–cjplcadtcbh cht`hs` daabjpdihã` f–uh`

ebrt` stcjuldtcbh s`hsbrc`ll` `t ãjbtcbhh`ll`, fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht arãã drtcecac`ll`j`ht,

qu–cl sbct rã`l bu vcrtu`l.

Cl `st cjpbrtdht f` scihdl`r qu–cl `xcst` fùx ebrj`s f–cjj`rscbh ; l–cjj`rscbh

tàmhcqu` `t l–cjj`rscbh psyamblbicqu` (Ncbaad `t L`vy, 4330 7 Didrwdl `t Gdrdmdhhd,

>??? 7 N`hdybuh, >??1).

C.4. L–cjj`rscbh tàmhcqu`

L–cjj`rscbh tàmhcqu` (bu pmyscblbicqu`, p`ra`ptcv`) (Ncbaad `t L`vy, 4330) `st

r`ldtcv` dux cht`rdatcbhs mbjj` / jdamch`. @ll` r`plda` vcrtu`ll`j`ht uh chfcvcfu fdhs uh

`hvcrbhh`j`ht drtcecac`l, `h ràrãdht l`s stcjulc iãhãrãs pdr a` jëj` `hvcrbhh`j`ht fdhs l`

abht`xt` rã`l, irîa` ï ld stcjuldtcbh abhstdht` `t abhtchu` f`s achq s`hs f` l–chfcvcfu fdhs

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h qu`stcbh. _`hfdht a`tt` cjj`rscbh, l–chfcvcfu h` edct pds f` fcstchatcbh

`htr` ld sctudtcbh rã`ll` `t ld sctudtcbh chfuct` pdr l` systíj` cjj`rsce. Cl s–dict, f–uh ãtdt

daabjpdihã pdr uh` ebrt` p`rturndtcbh spdtcdl` `t t`jpbr`ll`. A` typ` f–cjj`rscbh, `st

r`prãs`htã pdr « ld j`sur` pdr ldqu`ll` uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l sunj`ri` l` systíj`

p`ra`ptce f` l'utclcsdtùr · (Ncbaad `t F l̀dh`y, 4330, p. 09). @ll` pùt ëtr` j`surã` `h ebhatcbh

fu hbjnr` f` s`hs stcjulãs `t fu hbjnr` f` s`hs `xalus pdr l'`hvcrbhh`j`ht pmyscqu`

(Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339).

L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus j`t `h ãvcf`ha` l`s fãechctcbhs f` l–cjj`rscbh tàmhcqu`

trbuvã`s fdhs ld lcttãrdtur` `h systíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh.



9>

Vdnl`du 5 ; L`s fãechctcbhs f` l–cjj`rscbh tàmhcqu`

L–cjj`rscbh tàmhcqu` d lcù ï l–dcf` f` systíj`s cjj`rsces, a'`st-ï-fcr` f–butcls

ãlàtrbhcqu`s abjpl`x`s pbrtãs pdr l–utclcsdtùr `t ràrããs pdr f`s fcspbsctces quc `hidi`ht l`s

suk`ts fdhs f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts vcrtu`ls. L–cjj`rscbh tàmhcqu` bu p`ra`ptcv` s` ebadlcs` sur

ld hbtcbh f` prãs`ha` f` l–utclcsdtùr du s`ch f`s jbhf`s bu f`s `spda`s vcrtu`ls (Vcss`du `t

Hãfãlà, >??1). @ll` `st dsscjclã` ï uh ãtdt psyamblbicqu` adrdatãrcsã pdr ld p`ra`ptcbh f–ëtr`

bu f` s` s`htcr « `hv`lbppã pdr ·, « chalus fdhs · `t « `h cht`rdatcbh dvà · uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht

beerdht uh` abhtchuctã f` stcjulc `t f–`xpãrc`ha` (Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339 7 Yctj`r `t Qchi`r,

433=). _dr dcllùrs, l`s trdvdux `h systíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh bht fãjbhtrã qu` l–cht`rdatcvctã

^ãeãr`ha` Fãechctcbh tàmhcqu`

^m`chiblf (4334)

L–cjj`rscbh `st l–clluscbh f–ëtr` fdhs uh` saíh` iãhãrã` pdr

brfchdtùr. @ll` pùt ëtr` tbtdl` bu pdrtc`ll` s`lbh l`s pãrcpmãrcqu`s

f–cht`rdatcbh utclcsãs.

_cj`ht`l `t V`x`crd

(4331)

L–ãtdt f–uh pdrtcacpdht lbrsqu` pluscùrs f` s`s s`hs sbht csblãs fu

jbhf` `xtãrcùr `t h–`hrìcstr`ht plus qu` f`s chebrjdtcbhs cssu`s f`

l–brfchdtùr.

Qldt`r `t Yclnur

(4339)

Cl y d cjj`rscbh lbrsqu` l` systíj` eburhct uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht quc csbl`

l–utclcsdtùr fu jbhf` rã`l `h stcjuldht s`s jbfdlctãs s`hsbrc`ll`s fdhs

l` jbhf` vcrtu`l.

Fdvc`s (433=)Ph` cjj`rscbh fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l abrr`spbhf ï uh`

spmír` `hv`lbppdht` quc rbjpt tbut abhtdat dvà l` rã`l.

Nurgmdrft, Lburf`dux

`t Euams (4333)

L–cjj`rscbh abrr`spbhf du fìrã `t ï ld qudlctã dvà l`squ`ls

l–cht`reda` fu systíj` abhtröl` l`s `htrã`s s`hsbrc`ll`s pbur amdqu`

jbfdlctã f` p`ra`ptcbh `t f–datcbh.

N`hdybuh (>??1)

Ld s`hsdtcbh f–ëtr` plbhiã fdhs uh jbhf` vcrtu`l `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs,

irîa` ï f`s pãrcpmãrcqu`s spãacdlcsãs, jdrqudht am`z l–utclcsdtùr l`

pdssdi` f` ld rãdlctã (pmyscqu`) ï ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` iãhãrã` pdr

brfchdtùr.

Euams `t dl (>??5)

Ph` ebrt` cht`rdatcvctã `htr` l–utclcsdtùr `t l` systíj` f` rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` fbct abhfucr` ï uh` s`hsdtcbh f` prãs`ha` pmyscqu` fdhs

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l.



91

duij`ht` l–cjj`rscbh tàmhcqu` fdhs l`s uhcv`rs vcrtu`ls (`.i., Qldt`r `t dl. 4336 7 Euams `t dl.

>??5). @h èe`t, L` pmãhbjíh` f` prãs`ha` s–`xprcj` am`z l–utclcsdtùr lbrsqu–cl r`ss`ht uh

s`htcj`ht f–`xcst`ha` fdhs l–`spda` vcrtu`l, `t s` trbuv` sbut`hu pdr uh` ebrt` cht`rdatcbh dvà

l`s abjpbsdht`s f` a`t `hvcrbhh`j`ht, fbht hbtdjj`ht l`s dutr`s utclcsdtùrs, l`s bnk`ts `h

trbcs fcj`hscbhs, l`s sbhs, `ta.

C.>. L–cjj`rscbh psyamblbicqu`

L–cjj`rscbh suiiír` qu` tbut`s l`s r`ssbura`s dtt`htcbhh`ll`s f'uh chfcvcfu sbc`ht

ebadlcsã`s sur uh` tîam` pdrtcaulcír`, rãfucsdht dchsc l` hcv`du f` ld amdri` abihctcv` dssbacã` ï

l'`xãautcbh f–uh` tîam` (Didrwdl `t Gdrdmdhhd, >???). Cl `h rãsult` uh` djplcecadtcbh f`

p`ra`ptcbhs pbsctcv`s p`hfdht l–`xãautcbh f` ld tîam` `t l–cht`rdatcbh fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

jdramdhf.

@vdrcstb `t Gdrdmdhhd (433=) chtrbfucs`ht ld hbtcbh f` amdri` j`htdl`, quc

« r`prãs`ht` ld fceeãr`ha` `htr` l`s r`ssbura`s abihctcv`s dllbuã`s pbur l'`xãautcbh f`s tîam`s

`t a`ll`s utclcsã`s pdr ld tîam` · (Didrwdl `t Gdrdmdhhd, >???, p. 590) . _`hfdht l–cjj`rscbh,

ld amdri` j`htdl` duij`ht`, `h rdcsbh f` ld ebrt` stcjuldtcbh f`s r`ssbura`s abihctcv`s fu

alc`ht lbrs fu trdct`j`ht f`s fbhhã`s, cssu`s f`s datcbhs `t f`s rãdatcbhs dvà l` abht`xt`

jdramdhf.

_dr dcllùrs, l–cjj`rscbh psyamblbicqu` `st fcstchat` f` ld p`ra`ptcbh f` ld s`hsdtcbh

f` prãs`ha`, quc `st sbuv`ht dssbacã` dux `xpãrc`ha`s dttdamã`s dux `hvcrbhh`j`hts vcrtu`ls

(Jdtmwcag `t ^cifbh, >??6, p.1>0). @h èe`t, `ll` trdfuct l` hcv`du f–`hidi`j`ht fdhs uh`

datcvctã `t s` jdhce`st` pdr l` fìrã dvà l`qu`l l–chfcvcfu cihbr` tbut` dutr` sbllcactdtcbh

dtt`htcbhh`ll` `h f`mbrs f` l–datcvctã `ll`-jëj` (Didrwdl t̀ Gdrdmdhhd, >???, p. 591). Ph

chfcvcfu cjj`riã psyamblbicqu`j`ht, `st uh chfcvcfu cjplcquã fdhs l` abht`xt` f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` `t dnsbrnã pdr sbh datcvctã. A`t ãtdt psyamblbicqu` `st iãhãrdl`j`ht j`surã pdr

l'dutb-ãvdludtcbh (Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339).

F–dprís ld lcttãrdtur` `h jdrg`tchi `t sur ld nds` f–ãtuf`s sur l–cjj`rscbh (`.i., Ecrdt

`t Fmbldgcd, 433= 7 Adró `t Abvd, >??5d7 Qamjctt `t ^bi`rs, >??=), l–cjj`rscbh fu

abhsbjjdtùr `st cht`rprãtã` abjj` uh prba`ssus deeàtce, abihctce `t s`hsbrc`l. Qc

l'cjj`rscbh fdhs l'`xpãrc`ha` `st l` abha`pt r`t`hu pdr uh` irdhf` pdrtc` f` ld lcttãrdtur`, cl

edut hbt`r a`p`hfdht qu'cl vbcsch` dvà f–dutr`s abha`pts, hbtdjj`ht, l–ãvdscbh. @h èe ̀ t, cl

`st ï scihdl`r qu` ld s`hsdtcbh f–ãvdscbh « rèlít` uh ãtdt f'cjj`rscbh psyamblbicqu` ·(Jdtmwcag `t ^cifbh, >??6, p.1>0). Vbutèbcs, l–cjj`rscbh `t l–ãvdscbh sbht fùx abha`pts



96

lcãs jdcs fcstchats. L–ãvdscbh `st chfcssbacdnl` f` l–datcvctã f` fcv`rtcss`j`ht bó l–chfcvcfu h`

prët` plus dtt`htcbh ï sbh `hvcrbhh`j`ht fcràt. Jdcs l–cjj`rscbh h` abhstctu` pds ebraãj`ht

uh` rãsultdht` f` l–ãvdscbh. @ll` trdfuct uh` fcspbsctcbh psyamblbicqu` ï vbulbcr ãamdpp`r ï uh

`hvcrbhh`j`ht fãpldcsdht bu dhxcbiíh` (Qcjbh, >??9). Lbrsqu–uh` p`rsbhh` `st

psyamblbicqu`j`ht cjj`riã`, `ll` `st pl`ch`j`ht `hidiã` pdr l'datcvctã qu–`ll` èeàtu`

(Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339). Dchsc, a`rtdch`s sctudtcbhs pùv`ht abhfucr` ï uh` cjj`rscbh fdhs

uh` datcvctã abhfuct` ï f`s echs pur`j`ht utclctdcr`s, quc h` sbht pds hãa`ssdcr`j`ht pldcsdht`s.

Fdhs l` adfr` f` a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl, hbus hbus ebadlcs`rbhs sur l–cjj`rscbh

psyamblbicqu`, pucsqu` l–bnkàtce f` hbtr` ràm`ram` `st f–cf`htcec`r l`s rãdatcbhs

prbvbquã`s pdr l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts vcrtu`ls jdramdhfs, `t f` abjpr`hfr` l` pmãhbjíh`

f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` dchsc qu` l–`hs`jnl` f`s abhsãqu`ha`s quc `h fãabul`ht.

A` amdpctr` d pbur echdlctã f` abjpr`hfr` l` abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh psyamblbicqu` `h

iãhãrdl `t plus pdrtcaulcír`j`ht, l` abha`pt f–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`.



90

CC. Cjj`rscbh `t jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l

L` abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh d edct l–bnk`t f–uh` dtt`htcbh pdrtcaulcír` f`pucs `hvcrbh uh`

vchitdch` f–dhhã`s. L`s dutùrs fu aburdht pbstjbf`rh` (`.i., Ecrdt, >??4 7 Ecrdt `t Fmbldgcd,

433= 7 Ecrdt `t dl., 4330 7 Ecrdt `t Qmultz, 4339 7 Ibulfchi `t dl., >??>), a`htrãs sur l`

rã`hamdht`j`ht f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh pdr ld tmãjdtcsdtcbh f`s `xpãrc`ha`s fu abhsbjjdtùr,

bht dvdhaã a` hbuv`du abha`pt (Adró `t Abvd, >??1). F` hbjnrùx am`ramùrs (`.i., Didrwdl

`t Gdrdmdhhd, >??? 7 Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf, >??= 7 Adró `t Abvd, >??>,

>??1, >??5 d - n) bht pdr ld suct`, brc`htã l`s ãtuf`s sur l–cjj`rscbh f` jdhcír` ï ãaldcr`r

l–`hs`jnl` f` ld abjjuhdutã sac`htcecqu` `t prbe`sscbhh`ll`, sur l–cjpbrtdha` fu pmãhbjíh`

`t f` s`s `hkùx `h t`rj`s f–cjplcadtcbhs tmãbrcqu`s `t jdhdiãrcdl`s.

@h èe`t, l` hbuv`du abhsbjjdtùr `st t`htã f` vcvr` f`s cjj`rscbhs fdhs f`s

`xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh plutöt qu` f–dam`t`r f` scjpl`s prbfucts bu s`rvca`s (Abvd `t

Abvd, >??3 7 _ch` `t Icljbr`, 4333). D a` tctr`, Ecrdt `t Fmbldgcd (433=, p. 35) scihdl`ht qu`

«pbur l` abhsbjjdtùr pbstjbf`rh`, abhsbjj`r h–`st pds uh scjpl` dat` f–dnsbrptcbh, f`

f`struatcbh bu f–utclcsdtcbh f` qu`lqu` ambs`. A` h–`st pds hbh plus l` f`rhc`r jdcllbh f` ld

amdèh` fu prba`ssus ãabhbjcqu` 7 a–`st uh dat` f` prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha` `t f–cf`htctãs bu

f–cjdi`s f` sbc-jëj`. L` jby`h f–`hrcamcr `t f–`hamdht`r ld vc` `st f` p`rj`ttr` f`

jultcpl`s `xpãrc`ha`s, vãau`s ï ld ebcs ãjbtcbhh`ll`j`ht `t rdtcbhh`ll`j`ht, `t utclcsdht tbut`sl`s fcj`hscbhs f` l–ëtr` mujdch. Ld vc` fbct ëtr` prbfuct` `t arãã` `t `h edct, abhstruct` du

trdv`rs f`s jultcpl`s `xpãrc`ha`s fdhs l`squ`ll`s l` abhsbjjdtùr s–cjj`ri` · (ch Luhdrfb,

>??9, p. 39). _dr dcllùrs, ld abhsbjjdtcbh s–`st vu` daquãrcr uh hbuv`du stdtut quc s` rãsuj`

ï « uh` cjj`rscbh fdhs f`s jbj`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls edcts f` r`habhtr`s `hamdhtã`s,

spàtdauldcr`s `t jultc-eda`tt`s · (Ecrdt `t Fmbldgcd, 433=, p. 4?4). L`s dpprbam`s fu

jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l (_ch` `t Icljbr`, 4333 7 Ecls`r, >??>) bu f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh

pbstjbf`rh` (Adró `t Abvd, >??5 d-n), s` sbht vu`s chtãir`r l` abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh quc, `hedct, `st `jpruhtã ï f`s fbjdch`s plus bu jbchs ãlbcihãs (Luhdrfb, >??9) abjj` ld

pãfdibic`, ld lcttãrdtur`, ld psyamblbic` bu ld r`lcicbh (`.i., Adró `t Abvd, >??>), l` tburcsj`

(Ldfw`ch, >??>), l`s datcvctãs drtcstcqu`s (Kby `t Qm`rry, >??1 7 Aburvbcsc`r `t Kdqu`t, >?4?).

L` jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l s–`st fbha ecxã pbur bnkàtce f` « edaclct`r l–cjj`rscbh fu

abhsbjjdtùr fdhs f`s `xpãrc`ha`s · (Abvd `t Abvd, >??3, p. =9) `t jëj` edcr` f` ld

abhsbjjdtcbh abht`jpbrdch` « uh` suct` f–cjj`rscbhs `xtrdbrfchdcr`s · (Adró `t Abvd,

>??>). L` pmãhbjíh` f–cjj`rscbh `st pdssã du fbjdch` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `t

l`s prbe`sscbhh`ls fu jdrg`tchi am`ram`ht ï dcf`r l`s abhsbjjdtùrs ï prbfucr` lùrs prbpr`s



95

`xpãrc`ha`s (Qamjctt `t ^bi`rs, >??=). _bur qu` a`s f`rhc`rs pucss`ht `htr`r fdhs uh

`hamdèh`j`ht f–`xpãrc`ha`s schiulcír`s `t chbunlcdnl`s, bó cls s`rbht « iucfãs · `t

trdhsebrjãs (Adró t̀ Abvd, >??>).

L` prchacp` f–uh` saãhbirdpmc` cjj`rscv` abhscst` ï abup`r l` abhsbjjdtùr f` sbh

jbhf` qubtcfc`h pbur l` plbhi`r fdhs l–datcvctã f` abhsbjjdtcbh `h prbvbqudht am`z luc, uh`

`xpãrc`ha` cht`hs` adrdatãrcsã` pdr uh` duij`htdtcbh f` l–ãjbtcbh `t uh` fcjchutcbh f` sd

fcstdha` arctcqu` `htr` luc `t l` jbhf` f` ld jdrqu` (Aburvbcsc`r `t Kdqu`t, >?4?). Cl s–dict

dlbrs f` tmãîtrdlcs`r `t f` j`ttr` `h saíh` l–`hs`jnl` f` l–beer`. L`s jdrg`tùrs stcjul`ht l`s

rãdatcbhs `t cht`rdatcbhs `htr` l`s abhsbjjdtùrs `t lùr `hvcrbhh`j`ht. A` quc abhfuct l`s

abhsbjjdtùrs ï vcvr` f`s sctudtcbhs pldcsdht`s `t rcam`s ãjbtcbhh`ll`j`ht, pbur daaãf`r du

aőur f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `t fbha ï l–cjj`rscbh. L–cjplcadtcbh fu vcsctùr fdhs

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh, pùt ebhatcbhh`r tdht pdr l`s s`hsdtcbhs qu–cl ãprbuv` du aburs

f` sbh datcvctã qu` pdr l` röl` quc luc `st prbpbsã fdhs ld jcs` `h saíh`.

Qc l–`x pãrc`ha` `st `xtrdbrfchdcr`, l` abhsbjjdtùr `st sunkuiuã. Cl `st dlbrs plus

sdtcsedct ; « A` quc prbaur` l` pldcscr, a–`st l–cjj`rscbh tbtdl` fu abhsbjjdtùr fdhs uh`

`xpãrc`ha` brcichdl` · (Abvd `t Abvd, >??6, p. 1). Cl r`vc`ht dux `htr`prcs`s quc bht chtãirã l`

jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l fdhs lùr fãjdram` strdtãicqu`, f` jdctrcs`r l`s fãt`rjchdhts fu

prba`ssus f'cjj`rscbh fu abhsbjjdtùr (Adró `t Abvd, >??5d), dech f` jcùx rãpbhfr` ï s`s

n`sbchs `t fãscrs `xpãrc`htc`ls.

_dr dcllùrs, l`s ràm`ram`s quc s` sbht chtãr`ssã`s du abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh, bht

cf`htcecã f` hbjnrùs`s abhsãqu`ha`s susactdht l–chtãrët f` hbjnrùx am`ramùrs (`.i.,

Fc`sndam `t K`dhfrdch, >??0). Uãzchd (4333, p. 5>) `xplcqu` qu` l–`xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtcbh « h` s` lcjct` plus ï qu`lqu`s datcvctãs prã-damdt (ãv`cl fu n`sbch, ràm`ram`

f–chebrjdtcbhs, ãvdludtcbh, `ta.), hc jëj` qu`lqu`s datcvctãs pbst-damdt abjj` l–ãvdludtcbh `t

ld sdtcsedatcbh, jdcs `hilbn` uh` sãrc` f–dutr`s datcvctãs quc chelu`ha`ht l`s fãacscbhs `t

datcbhs eutur`s fu abhsbjjdtùr ·. A`p`hfdht, l–cjj`rscbh h` abhstctu` pds uh dat`vblbhtdcr` `t `xãautdnl` f` ld pdrt fu abhsbjjdtùr sur abjjdhf`. Cl edut qu` a` f`rhc`r s–y

chv`stcss`, qu–cl s–`hidi` `t qu–cl cht`rdicss` dvà l` abht`xt` arãã pdr l–`htr`prcs`. Cl h` sueect

pds f` arã`r f`s abht`xt`s `t f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts stcjuldhts. Cl edut ãidl`j`ht qu` l`

abhsbjjdtùr kbu` uh röl` datce fdhs a` tmãîtr` `t qu–cl sbct uh datùr (Abvd `t Abvd, >??3).

_ch` `t Icljbr` (433=, p. 4?4) `xplcqu`ht qu` « l`s abhsbjjdtùrs kbu`ht uh röl` alã fdhs

l–`xãautcbh f` ld p`rebrjdha` bu f` l–ãvíh`j`ht quc sbus-t`hf l–`xpãrc`ha` ·. _bur a` edcr`,

l` abhsbjjdtùr jbnclcs` s`s abjpãt`ha`s `t sbh abrps pbur qu–cl s–cjpríih` f`



99

l–`xpãrc`ha` `t s` l–dpprbprc`. Cl `st ï ld ebcs uh datùr `t uh kbuùr. Cl kbu` dvà l`s jdrqu`s `t

l`s prbfucts bee`rts pdr l`s `htr`prcs`s `t fdhs l`s lcùx jcs ï sd fcspbsctcbh.

CC.4. L–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh

Ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` `h jdrg`tchi hbus p`rj`t f` fãechcr l–cjj`rscbh abjj` uh

ãtdt. @h èe`t, Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf (>??5) fãechcss`ht l–cjj`rscbh abjj`

« l–ãtdt f–datcvctã cht`hs` fdhs l`qu`l l` abhsbjjdtùr s` trbuv` qudhf cl daaíf` pl`ch`j`ht ï

l–`xpãrc`ha ̀·. @ll` s` trdfuct pdr l` hcv`du f–`hidi`j`ht `t s` jdhce`st` pdr l` fìrã dvà

l`qu`l l–chfcvcfu cihbr` tbut` dutr` sbllcactdtcbh dtt`htcbhh`ll` `h f`mbrs f` l–datcvctã `ll` -

jëj` (Didrwdl `t Gdrdmdhhd, >??? 7 Qcjbh, >??9). Adró `t Abvd (>??5n, p. 4?5) dkbut`htqu` l–cjj`rscbh `st « uh jbj`ht `xa`ptcbhh`l p`hfdht l`qu`l a` qu` hbus s`htbhs, a` qu`

hbus sbumdctbhs `t a` qu` hbus p`hsbhs sbht `h tbtdl` mdrjbhc` ·. @ll` `st iãhãrdl`j`ht

dssbacã` ï uh` fcstbrscbh fu t`jps, a–`st ï fcr` ï « l–chadpdactã f` l–chfcvcfu ï ãvdlu`r l`

pdssdi` fu t`jps p`hfdht sbh datcvctã · (Qcjbh, >??9, p. 6). L`s cjj`rscbhs fdhs f`s adfr`s

myp`r-rã`ls jdcs sãaurcsãs abhtrdst`ht dvà l` str`ss vãau qubtcfc`hh`j`ht (Ibulfchi `t dl.,

>??>). Cl s–dict f–uh ãtdt echdl ï dtt`chfr` fdhs l`qu`l l–chfcvcfu edct lcttãrdl`j`ht abrps dvà

l–`xpãrc`ha` (Adr ó `t Abvd, >??1). A`tt` fãechctcbh s–dssbac` ï l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh

psyamblbicqu` quc abrr`spbhf ï ld sctudtcbh fdhs ldqu l̀l` l–chfcvcfu h` prët` plus f–dtt`htcbh ï

sbh `hvcrbhh`j`ht cjjãfcdt, jdcs cl s` abha`htr` uhcqu`j`ht sur sbh datcvctã. L–cjj`rscbh

fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh, pùt s–dpprãm`hf`r abjj` ld jcs` `h sctudtcbh fu

abhsbjjdtùr fdhs uh adfr` tmãjdtcsã, `haldvã `t sãaurcsã (Adró `t Abvd, >??5d).

Adró `t Abvd (>??6) sbulcih`ht qu–cl `st `ss`htc`l qu` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh

rãpbhf` ï a`s trbcs abhfctcbhs pbur qu–cl pucss` s–cjj`ri`r ;

- L` abht`xt` fbct ëtr` tmãjdtcsã ; Ld tmãjdtcsdtcbh `t ld jcs` `h saíh` fu pbcht f`

v`ht` p`rj`tt`ht ï l–chfcvcfu f` fbhh`r fu s`hs ï sd abhsbjjdtcbh.

- L` abht`xt` fbct ëtr` `haldvã ; L–`xpãrc`ha` fbct p`rj`ttr` du abhsbjjdtùr f`

s–ãvdf`r f` sbh qubtcfc`h. a–`st pburqubc cl `st hãa`ssdcr` qu` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht arãã

pdr l–`htr`prcs` jdrqu` uh` ruptur` dvà l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht mdnctu`l f` l–chfcvcfu

abha`rhã.

- L` abht`xt` fbct ëtr` sãaurcsã ; L` abhsbjjdtùr h` fbct pds ëtr` p`rturnã pdr f`s

sbllcactdtcbhs `xtãrcùr`s quc rcsqu`ht f` l` fcstrdcr` p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtcbh. L` abhsbjjdtùr fbct s` s`htcr `h sãaurctã p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha`.



9=

Eciur` 1 ; Cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh (Abvd `t Abvd, >??6)

L–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh pr`hf ebrj` fdhs ld j`sur` bó l'dnsbrptcbh abihctcv` rèlít` uh`

dtt`htcbh `t uh` abha`htrdtcbh tbtdl`. Ld amdri` j`htdl` dssbacã` ï l–datcvctã f`vrdct ëtr` jbchs

cjpbrtdht`, adr l`s r`ssbura`s abihctcv`s deeàtã`s ï ld tîam` sbht plus cjpbrtdht`s. Ld

aurcbsctã suiiír` qu` l–cht`rdatcbh dvà l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf, quc prbvbqu` l'`xactdtcbh

`t l–`htmbuscdsj`, rãfucs` l` edrf`du abihctce dssbacã ï l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh (Didrwdl `t

Gdrdmdhhd, >???, p. 590). L–cjj`rscbh `st fbha `ht`hfu` abjj` uh « s`htcj`ht f` nc`h-

ëtr`, f` fãv`lbpp`j`ht `t f` irdtcecadtcbh · (Adró `t Abvd, >??1, p. 06).

@h rãsujã, lbrs f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh, l–chfcvcfu pdss` pdr f`s pãrcbf`s f`

ebrt` abha`htrdtcbh. Ebrh`rchb `t dl. (>??0) cf`htcec`ht fùx adrdatãrcstcqu`s f` l–ãtdt

f–cjj`rscbh abjjuh`s ï tbus l`s typ`s f–`xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh (c.`., lbcscrs,

`stmãtcqu`s, spbrts, `ta.) ; cl s–dict f–uh` fbunl` abha`htrdtcbh abihctcv` `t deeàtcv` fdhs l`

abht`xt` f` l–`xpãr c`ha`. @ll` s` prbfuct ï trdv`rs uh` bu pluscùrs jdhce`stdtcbhs f` p`hsã`s

`t / bu f–ãjbtcbhs, quc chfuct`s, pdr l–cht`rdatcbh `htr` l` systíj` s`hsbrc`l fu abhsbjjdtùr

`t l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l. @h abhsãqu`ha`, l–chfcvcfu s` r`trbuv` t`ll`j`ht cjplcquã

fdhs uh` datcvctã qu` rc`h f–dutr` h` luc s`jnl` cjpbrtdht. Fdhs a`rtdchs ads, l–`xpãrc`ha`

`ll`-jëj` `st sc kbucsscv` qu` l`s chfcvcfus ld rãdlcs`ht uhcqu`j`ht pbur l` pur pldcscr f` ld

vcvr`, qu`l qu` sbct l` prcx ï pdy`r (Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc, 433?). L–chfcvcfu `st abupã f` sbh`hvcrbhh`j`ht rã`l fcràt, dvà uh` trdhsebrjdtcbh fu t`jps `t uh` p`rt` f` ld abhsac`ha` f`

CHAB^_B^DVCBHF@ Q@HQDVCBHQ

Abht`xt` tmãjdtcsã

Abht`xt` sãaurcsã Abht`xt` ̀ haldvã

CJJ@^QCBH



93

sbc, jëj` sc l–datcvctã h–`xprcj` pds uh `hkù cjpbrtdht `t l`s s`hsdtcbhs f` abhtröl` `t

f–cht`rdatcbh h` sbht pds ebrt`j`ht r`ss`htc`s.

CC.>. L` prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh

L–`xdj`h f` ld lcttãrdtur` `h jdrg`tchi pbrtdht sur l` abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh jbhtr`

qu` pluscùrs ràm`ram`s bht cf`htcecã ld fceeãr`ha` `htr` ; l` prba`ssus `t l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh

(`.i., Adró `t Abvd, >??1). @h èe`t, l–cjj`rscbh pùt ëtr` prãs`htã` abjj` uh prba`ssus

f–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f` elbw bu `xpãrc`ha` `xtrdbrfchdcr` (M`tz`l, >??>d) bu `habr`

`xpãrc`ha` chbunlcdnl` (_ch` `t Icljbr`, 4333). Cl s–dict fu jby`h pdr l`qu`l l`

abhsbjjdtùr drrcv` ï uh nut pdrtcaulc`r ; l` vãau f'uh` `xpãrc`ha` sunkàtcv`, quc aujulã`

dvà f'dutr`s `xpãrc`ha`s sunkàtcv`s, abhtrcnu` ï dtt`chfr` uh bnkàtce ilbndl f` abhstruatcbh

abhtchu` f` l–chfcvcfu (Adró `t Abvd, >??5d).

L–cjj`rscbh r`prãs`ht` dchsc l`s ãtdp`s quc p`rj`tt`ht du abhsbjjdtùr f–dtt`chfr`

l–`xpãrc`ha`, du jbj`ht bó cl cht`rdic dvà l`s abjpbsdht`s fu abht`xt` jdramdhf. Fdhs ld

plupdrt fu t`jps, l–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha` h` abhstctu` pds uh plbhi`bh chstdhtdhã, cl rãsult`

f–uh` dpprbprcdtcbh prbir`sscv` fu abht`xt` f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh. Ph prba`ssus quc j`t `h kù

l`s abjpãt`ha`s chfcvcfu`ll`s sbllcactã`s pdr l–cht`rdatcbh `htr` l` abhsbjjdtùr `t

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l fdhs l`qu`l cl s` trbuv`. Cl s–dict f–uh « prba`ssus psyamblbicqu`

pdr l`qu`l l` abhsbjjdtùr arã` f s̀ r ̀ ldtcbhs f` pbss`sscbh `t f–dttdam`j`ht dvà l`s lcùx du

s`ch f`squ`ls l–`xpãrc`ha` s` fãrbul` · Ebrh`rchb `t dl., >??0 7 p. 65). F–dprís Adró `t Abvd

(>??1, p 54), l–cjj`rscbh h` abhstctu` « pds tbukburs uh plbhi`bh uhcqu` `t tbtdl fu

abhsbjjdtùr ·. @ll` `st fãal`hamã` pdr l`s datcbhs `t l`s cht`rdatcbhs `htr` l` abhsbjjdtùr

`t l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l fdhs l`qu`l cl s` trbuv`. @h prãluf` ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtcbh, `ll` s` adrdatãrcs` pdr f`s bpãrdtcbhs f` prãpdrdtcbh / jbtcvdtcbh. Cl s–dict f`s

bpãrdtcbhs f–dpprbprcdtcbh.



=?

Eciur` 6 ; L` prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh (Adró `t Abvd, >??1, p. 09)

L` jbfíl` f–dpprbprcdtcbh fãv`lbppã pdr Adró `t Abvd (>??1), suiiír` qu` pbur

qu–uh abhsbjjdtùr pucss` daaãf`r ï uh` `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh, cl edut f–dnbrf qu–cl

sbct `h j`sur` f` s` l–dfkui`r. Ld abjnchdcsbh f`s bpãrdtcbhs f` hcfcecadtcbh, f–`xplbrdtcbh `t

f` jdrqudi`, p`rj`t du abhsbjjdtùr f` s` edjclcdrcs`r dvà l–`spda` jdramdhf. Fdhs uh t`l

`spda`, l` abhsbjjdtùr s`rd jcs `h abhecdha` `t e`rd f` hbuv`ll`s fãabuv`rt`s ï abhscfãr`r

abjj` f`s sbura`s f–ãjbtcbhs ebrt`s fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha`. D ld suct` f` a` prba`ssus

f–dpprbprcdtcbh, lbrsqu` l` abhsbjjdtùr d daaís ï tbut bu uh` pdrtc` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, cl s`

trbuv` `h ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh. L–cjj`rscbh abhstctu`rdct dlbrs uh « jbj`ht ebrt, vãau pdr làbhsbjjdtùr `t rãsultdht f–uh prba`ssus pdrtc`l bu abjpl`t f–dpprbprcdtcbh f` sd pdrt ·

(Adró `t Abvd, >??1, p. 5?). L–`hs`jnl` f`s bpãrdtcbhs f–dpprbprcdtcbh `t l–cjj`rscbh sbht

abhh`x`s f` l–ãtdt j`htdl `t pmyscqu` fu abhsbjjdtùr. L`s sãqu`ha`s f–dpprbprcdtcbh

abhfucs`ht ï f`s cjj`rscbhs quc s` trdfucs`ht pdr uh` rãpãtctcbh f` jbj`hts ebrts. @ll`s

p`rj`tt`ht ãidl`j`ht f–dnbutcr ï uh ãtdt stdnl` `t furdnl` fdhs l` t`jps.

Ac-f`ssbus, l` jbfíl` ilbndl fu pmãhbjíh` f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtcbh.

CJJ@^QCBH



=4

Eciur` 0 ; L` jbfíl` ilbndl f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh (Adró `tAbvd, >??1, p. 5?)

CC.1. L`s trdkàtbcr`s f` l–cjj`rscbh

_luscùrs trdvdux f` ràm`ram`s jbhtr`ht qu` l–cjj`rscbh h–`st pds uh pmãhbjíh`

stdnl` `t abhtchu fdhs l` t`jps. @ll` `st r`ss`htc` abjj` uh` suaa`sscbh f` jbj`hts ebrts,

`htràbupãs pdr f`s jbj`hts jbchs cht`hs`s. @h èe`t, cl s–dicrdct f–uh` rãpãtctcbh f` jchc-

ayal`s f–cjj`rscbh bu jcarb-cjj`rscbhs « quc, pdrebcs dvà ld prbir`sscvctã, djíh` ï

l–cjj`rscbh tbtdl`, `t sbuv`ht hbh · (Adró `t Abvd, >??1. p. 5?). Fdhs l`s `xpãrc`ha`s f`

abhsbjjdtcbh, cl y d rdr`j`ht cjj`rscbh tbtdl` fu abhsbjjdtùr fdhs l` abht`xt` f`l–`xpãrc`ha`, jdcs plutöt uh` cjj`rscbh pdrtc`ll` `t prbir`sscv`. L–cjj`rscbh prbir`sscv`

rãsult` f–uh` rãpãtctcbh f–ãtdts chabjpl`ts quc pùv`ht fãnbuam`r sur uh` cjj`rscbh tbtdl`.

_`hfdht l` prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh, l`s bpãrdtcbhs f–dpprbprcdtcbh `t l–cjj`rscbh h` sbht pds

chfãp`hfdht`s f` l–ãtdt j`htdl `t pmyscqu` fu abhsbjjdtùr. @h èe`t, lbrs f` l–cjj`rscbh,

l`s s`hs fu abhsbjjdtùr sbht stcjulãs, a`luc-ac vct f`s jbj`hts ebrts f–ãjbtcbhs abjj` ld

kbc`, ld trcst`ss` bu ld ablír`. Cl prbfuct f`s rãel`xcbhs, dict `t cht`rdict dvà l` abht`xt`

`hvcrbhhdht.

L`s abjpbsdht`s f`l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht ̀ xpãrc`htc`l

Cjj`rscbh ; uh s`htcj`ht f`- nc`h ëtr`- fãv`lbpp`j`ht- irdtcecadtcbh

@tdt pmyscqu`

`t/buj`htdl fuabhsbj-jdtùr

Hcfcecadtcbh

@xplbrdtcbh

Jdrqudi`

^àm`ram` `t cf`htcecadtcbhf` pbcht f–dhardi`

_`ra`ptcbh f` s`hsdtcbhsm sc u`s ̀ t j`htdl s̀

@vdludtcbh `t fãabuv`rt`

Dttrcnutcbh f` s`hs

Bns`rvdtcbh `t f`sarcptcbh

@ldnbrdtcbh f–cjpr`sscbhs



=>

_`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh, l` amdldhf pdss` pdr pluscùrs sctudtcbhs.

Dht`nlcdh `t dl. (>?4?) suiiír`ht l–`xcst`ha` f` trbcs ãtdts abhh`x`s ï l–cjj`rscbh ;

- L–ãj`rscbh abhstctu` l` edct f` sbrtcr f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fdhs l` qu`l l–chfcvcfu ãtdct

plbhiã. L–cjj`rscbh `st uh ãtdt rdr`j`ht p`rjdh`ht, trís sbuv`ht pdrtc`l `t fcsabhtchu.

@h abhsãqu`ha`, l`s pmds`s f–ãj`rscbh sunc`s bu sbumdctã`s sbht r`spbhsdnl`s f`

l–chstdnclctã f` l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh. L–ãj`rscbh `st adusã` pdr uh s`htcj`ht f` jdhqu`

f` abhebrt, f–chdtt`htcbh p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` bu fdhs a`rtdchs ads lbrsqu` l`

abhsbjjdtùr `st fcstrdct f` l–bnk`t `xpãrc`htc`l. L–ãj`rscbh vc`ht `htràbup`r l`

ayal` f–cjj`rscbh.

- Ld sunj`rscbh `st vãau` pdr l`s abhsbjjdtùrs lbrsqu–cls sbht fãstdnclcsãs pdr l`

abht`xt` prbpbsã pdr l–`xpãrc`ha`. L`s chfcvcfus sdtur`ht f`s sbllcactdtcbhs f`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l jcs ï lùr fcspbsctcbh, cls h–daa`pt`ht plus l`s abf`s `h

vciuùr fdhs l` abht`xt` jdramdhf. `h abhsãqu`ha`, l` abhsbjjdtùr vd am`ram`r ï

s–`xtrdcr` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` `t r`trbuv`r s`s `sprcts. Ld sunj`rscbh a usã` pdr ld sur-

stcjuldtcbh fu amdldhf abhfuct fdhs a`rtdch ads du r`k`t tbtdl f` l–`xpãrc`ha`.

- L` r`k`t abrr`spbhf du r`tbur ï l–ãtdt chctcdl f` l–chfcvcfu dvdht l` abjj`ha`j`ht f`

l–`xpãrc`ha`. L`s abhsbjjdtùrs quc h–dfmír`ht pds bu plus ï l–beer` prbpbsã`, s`

j`tt`ht ï l–ãadrt f` l–`xpãrc`ha`. Cl s–dict f–uh` ebrj` f` ndrrcír` psyamblbicqu`

l–`jpëam` f` r`htr`r fdhs l` fcspbsctce. A` nlbadi` pùt dlbrs ëtr` t`jpbrdcr` bu

p`rjdh`ht ; sbct l–chfcvcfu vd prbir`sscv`j`ht dndhfbhh r̀ l–ãtdt f` r`k`t pbur

s–cjj`ri`r fdhs l–beer` 7 sbct cl r`st` fdhs a`t ãtdt tbut du lbhi f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, cl

h–daa`pt` pds l`s jdram` ï sucvr`, h` sdcsct pds l` abha`pt `t h` s–cjj`ri` pds. L`

r`k`t vd dppdrdètr` dprís l`s ãtdts suncs f–ãj`rscbh bu f` sunj`rscbh r`ss`htc.

Qc l–cjj`rscbh abrr`spbhf nc`h ï l–bnkàtce ràm`ramã pdr l`s abha`ptùrs `ti`stcbhhdcr`s f–`hvcrbhh`j`hts abjj`racdux, ld sunj`rscbh, l–ãj`rscbh `t l` r`k`t h` ebht

pds pdrtc` f s̀ ãtdts dtt`hfus (Dht`nlcdh `t dl., >?4?).

L`s ãtdts f` sunj`rscbh, f–ãj`rscbh `t f` r`k`t, abhstctu`ht l`s ãlãj`hts quc

jdtãrcdlcs`ht ld amdèh` f` l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh. Vbutèbcs, sc a`s ãtdts sbht susa`ptcnl`s f–ëtr`

vãaus p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh, cls sbht jbchs prcs `h abhscfãrdtcbh pdr l`

abhsbjjdtùr. L–`xpãrc`ha` `st vãau` abjj` uh` suaa`sscbh f` jbj`hts ebrts, `htràbupãs

pdr f`s jbj`hts jbchs cht`hs`s. Vbutèbcs, l`s ãtdts fãéus pùv`ht ëtr` dsscjclãs ï f`schacf`hts, r`ldtces dux erbhtcír`s f`s jchcs ayal`s, fdhs l` prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh, fbht ld



=1

i`stcbh abhstctu` uh `hkù rã`l pbur l` jdchtc`h f` l–chfcvcfu fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` (_`tr, >??>). Cl

`st dlbrs cjpbsscnl` pbur l`s jdrg`t`rs f` prãvbcr `t f–dhtcacp`r tbus l`s sa`hdrcc pbsscnl`s fu

aötã fu abhsbjjdtùr (_`tr, >??>). Cl abhvc`hfrdct dlbrs, f–djãlcbr`r ld prbfuatcbh

f–`xpãrc`ha` `h prãv`hdht bu `h iãrdht l`s ãtdts f–ãj`rscbh `t f` sunj`rscbh r`ss`htcs pbur

p`rj`ttr ̀ uh r`tbur fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha`. Ld eciur` ac-f`ssbus j`t `h ãvcf`ha` l`s « chacf`hts ·

r`ss`htcs p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh.

Eciur` 5 ; L`s prchacpdl`s trdkàtbcr`s cf`htcecã`s du aburs f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh (Dht`nlcdh, Irdcllbt `t J`hadr`llc, >?4?, p. 4?)

CC.6. L`s fcj`hscbhs f` l–cjj`rscbh

L–cjj`rscbh `st uh ãtdt f` abha`htrdtcbh f`s datcvctãs f` l–chfcvcfu dutbur f–uh`

uhcqu` `xpãrc`ha`, daabjpdihã` `h iãhãrdl f–uh` ebrt` cht`hsctã f–datcvctãs `h aburs. A–`st

`ll` quc fbhh` daaís ï uh` vãrctdnl` `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh. @ll` s` trdfuct pdr f`srãdatcbhs vdrcã`s (hdtur` `t cht`hsctã) du aburs f` l–`xpãrc`ha` (Ebrh`rchb `t dl., >??5). L`s

stcjuldtcbhs sbht ãjcs`s pdr l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `t rãa`ptcbhhã`s

pdr l`s rãa`ptùrs s`hsbrc`ls f`s abhsbjjdtùrs, quc prbfucrbht ï lùr tbur f s̀ rãdatcbhs, f` ld

pdrt fu abhsbjjdtùr, `h rãpbhs` ï a`s sbllcactdtcbhs. L–`hs`jnl` f` a`s rãdatcbhs r`prãs`ht`

l`s fcj`hscbhs f` l–cjj`rscbh. A`s fceeãr`ht`s ebrj`s f` jdhce`stdtcbhs pùv`ht cht`rdicr ï ld

ebcs, `htr` `ll`s `t `ll`s pùv`ht dvbcr f`s pbsctcbhs f` fbjchdha` bu f–bppbsctcbh l`s uh`s pdr

rdppbrt dux dutr`s (Nbuam`t, >??6).

Cjj`rscbh Cjj`rscbhVrdkàtbcr` 4

Cjj`rscbh Cjj`rscbhVrdkàtbcr` > @j`rscbh

Cjj`rscbh Cjj`rscbhVrdkàtbcr` 6 @j`rscbh

Cjj`rscbh ^`k`tVrdkàtbcr` 0 Qunj`rscbh

Cjj`rscbh ^`k`tVrdkàtbcr` 1 Qunj`rscbh @j`rscbh

Cjj`rscbh ^`k`tVrdkàtbcr` 5 Qunj`rscbh @j`rscbh



=6

Fdhs uh` ràm`ram` quc ãtufc` uh` `xpãrc`ha` f` ràm`ram` f–chebrjdtcbh sur Cht`rh`t,

Jdtmwcag `t ^cifbh (>??6) cf`htcec`ht qudtr` fcj`hscbhs f` l–cjj`rscbh ; l` amdll`hi` bee`rt

pdr l–`xpãrc`ha`, l`s abjpãt`ha s̀ sbllcactã`s, ld s`hsdtcbh f–ãvdscbh p`hfdht ld hdvcidtcbh `t

l` s`htcj`ht f` abhtröl`. Cl s–dict uh` aldsscecadtcbh quc h` pr`hf pds `h abjpt` l`s rãdatcbhs

sunkàtcv`s prbvbquã`s p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha`. A`tt` ràm`ram` s–`st ebadlcsã` sur uh typ`

pdrtcaulc`r f–cjj`rscbh, a`luc f–cjj`rscbh tbtdl` bu f–`xpãrc`ha` bptcjdl`.

Q`lbh Fc`sndam `t K`dhfrdch (>??0), l'cjj`rscbh ï ld ebcs spdtcdl` `t sbacdl`. _`hfdht

a`tt` cjj`rscbh, l'chfcvcfu utclcs` uh jby`h f` abjjuhcadtcbh, hbtdjj`ht Cht`rh`t `t h`

pdrvc`ht pds ï p`ra`vbcr bu ï ràbhhdètr` l'`xcst`ha` f`s ãlãj`hts f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

pmyscqu` quc l–`htbur`ht, t`l qu` ld tàmhblbic` `t / bu l–cht`reda` qu–cl jdhcpul`.

Fdhs l` abht`xt` f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` achãjdtbirdpmcqu` (eclj f–mbrrùr), Ebrh`rchb,

M`lj`-Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf (>??5), j`tt`ht `h ãvcf`ha` qudtr` fcj`hscbhs ; deeàtcv`

chfcvcfu`ll`, deeàtcv` abllàtcv`, abihctcv` chfcvcfu`ll` `t ãvdscbh. Vbutèbcs, a`tt`

aldsscecadtcbh s–dttdrf` sur l`s dspàts abllàtces f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh, br l–`xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtcbh `st dvdht tbut uh vãau p`rsbhh`l.

@hech, Ebrh`rchb `t dl. (>??=) bht cf`htcecã achq fcj`hscbhs lcã`s dux jbj`hts ebrts

quc abrr`spbhf`ht dux ãpcsbf`s p`hfdht l`squ`ls chfcvcfus sbht « prcs · f–uh` edébh cht`hs`

fdhs l` abht`xt` f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh ;

- Ld fcj`hscbh abihctcv`, quc ràbuvr` ld iãhãrdtcbh f` p`hsã`s `t ld ebrjdtcbh f`

arbydha`s.

- Ld fcj`hscbh s`hsbrc`ll` / p`ra`ptu`ll`, abrr`spbhf ï ld stcjuldtcbh f`s s`hs

prbvbquã fdhs l` abht`xt` f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh.

- Ld fcj`hscbh deeàtcv`, pbsctcv` bu hãidtcv` ; cl s–dict fu pldcscr bu fãpldcscr r`ss`htc

p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh.

- Ld fcj`hscbh sbacdl` `st r`lcã` ï ld hbtcbh f` pdrtdi` f–`xpãrc`ha` `t f–ãamdhi`.

- Ld fcj`hscbh pmyscqu`, quc j`t `h ãvcf`ha` f`s jdhce`stdtcbhs pmyscqu`s buabjpbrt`j`htdl`s lcã`s dux jbj`hts l`s plus cht`hs`s f` l–`xpãrc`ha`.

L`s fceeãr`ht`s fcj`hscbhs f` l–cjj`rscbh djíh`ht ï f`s s`hsdtcbhs irdtcecdht`s `t

fãnbuam`ht sur uh` `xpãrc`ha` lcttãrdl`j`ht chabrpbrã` pdr l–chfcvcfu (Dht`nlcdh, Irdcllbt `t

J`hadr`llc, >?4?). _dr dcllùrs, l–cjj`rscbh d f`s èe`ts sur l–ãvdludtcbh fu abht`xt`

jdramdhf, fu prbfuct `t f` ld jdrqu` (Edhi `t Nmdthdidr, >?4?). Lbrsqu` l–ãvdludtcbh `st

edvbrdnl`j`ht p`réu`, l–cjj`rscbh abhtrdst` ebrt`j`ht dvà l`s pr`sscbhs duxqu`ll`s l`schfcvcfus sbht abherbhtãs fdhs ld vc` qubtcfc`hh` `t, pdr abhsãqu`ht a`rtdchs abhsbjjdtùrs



=0

r`ss`ht`ht l` fãscr f` prblbhi`r l'`xpãrc`ha` dussc lbhit`jps qu` pbsscnl` (Ibulfchi, Qmdhgdr

`t @llcbtt, >??>). A`p`hfdht, l–`xpãrc`ha` pùt ëtr` hãidtcv`j`ht ãvdluã`, fdhs a` ads,

l–cjj`rscbh r`prãs`ht` uh `hidi`j`ht drtcecac`l fdhs l` abht`xt` abjj`racdl quc beer` uh`

sblutcbh ï aburt t`rj`, fbht l`s cjplcadtcbhs pburrdc`ht `htrdèh`r uh s`htcj`ht f–chsdtcsedatcbh

(Edhi `t Nmdthdidr, >?4?). Ph` chsdtcsedatcbh quc pburrdct abjprbj`ttr` l–`xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtcbh fdhs sd ilbndlctã. A` s`htcj`ht `st f÷ ï uh jdhqu` f'cjj`rscbh quc abhfuct ï

f`s ãvdludtcbhs plus ecdnl`s. Ld ràm`ram` sur l`s abjpbrt`j`hts f`s abhsbjjdtùrs d

fãjbhtrã qu` lbrsqu` l` abhsbjjdtùr `st dtt`cht pdr f`s ayal`s rãpãtctces f'cjj`rscbh

j`htdl` bu fdhs a`rtdch ads pdr l–cjj`rscbh tbtdl`, cl s–`h suct uh` ãvdludtcbh pbsctcv` f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` `t uh` sdtcsedatcbh `hi`hfrã` pdr a`ll`-ac.



=5

CCC. L–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` `h lcih`

Nc`h qu'Cht`rh`t dct fãjbhtrã uh` irdhf` adpdactã f` abjjuhcadtcbh `t f` fceeuscbh f`

l'chebrjdtcbh sur l`s prbfucts `t s`rvca`s, a` « jãfcd d sbuv`ht ãtã ï ld mdutùr f`s dtt`ht`s f`s

abhsbjjdtùrs `h t`rj`s f–`xpãrc`ha` · (Fduim`rty, Lc `t Ncbaad, >??=, p. 09?). @h èe`t, l`

fãv`lbpp`j`ht f`s tàmhblbic`s sur l` w`n, `t hbtdjj`ht l`s tàmhcqu`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`,

bht abhfuct l`s am`ramùrs ï s–cht`rrbi`r sur ld hdtur` f`s `xpãrc`ha`s vãau`s pdr l`s

cht`rhdut`s vcsctdht f`s sct`s abjj`racdux quc jbnclcs`ht a` typ` f` tàmhcqu`s. F`pucs l`s

trdvdux f` Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg (4335), ld p`rtch`ha` f` l–`jplbc f` l–dhdlys` `xpãrc`htc`ll`

(Ecls`r, >??> 7 Adró, Abvd `t _da`, >??9) pbur dnbrf`r l–`xpãrc`ha` fdhs l` abht`xt`

f–Cht`rh`t d ãtã ldri`j`ht fãjbhtrã` (Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, >??3 7 Idrhc`r `t _bhach, >?4?).

CCC.4. L–`xpãrc`ha` vcrtu`ll`

Fdhs l` abht`xt` f–Cht`rh`t, l` jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l s` prbpbs` f` rãpbhfr` ï ld

prbnlãjdtcqu` f` ld quët` f–`xpãrc`ha`s `xtrdbrfchdcr`s (M`tz`l, >??>). @h èe`t, l` Y`n

prbpbs` f` plus `h plus f` sct`s jdramdhfs tmãîtrdlcsãs, tmãjdtcsãs `t jcs `h saíh` pdr l`s

jdrqu`s prãs`ht`s sur ld tbcl`. L` rã`hamdht`j`ht f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh fãpdss` l`s erbhtcír`s

fu abjj`ra` trdfctcbhh`l `t chv`stct l–`-abjj`ra`. L`s jdidschs vcrtu`ls prbpbs`ht

fãsbrjdcs dux abhsbjjdtùrs f` s–cjj`ri`r fdhs f`s `xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh `h

lcih`.

L–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh pbursuct sbh `xpdhscbh `h s–brc`htdht v`rs Cht`rh`t. @h

èe`t, ld pucssdha` qu` abhhdèt Cht`rh`t `h t`rj` tàmhblbic`s jbnclcsã`s, p`rj`t dux

abhsbjjdtùrs f'cht`rdicr dvà f`s prbfucts fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs, f`

r`habhtr`r f`s v`hfùrs `h lcih`, vcvr` f`s jbj`hts rcam`s f` stcjuldtcbh, `ta. Adró `t Abvd

(>??5d, p.61) dkbut`ht qu` « L` fãv`lbpp`j`ht f'Cht`rh`t h'd edct qu'daarbètr` l'usdi` f` aàbha`pt, pucsqu` l'cjj`rscbh fu abhsbjjdtùr fdhs l'`xpãrc`ha` vcrtu`ll` s`jnl` l` nut

ràm`ramã pdr f` hbjnrùx bpãrdtùrs fu Y`n ·. A`s hbuv`ll`s abjpãt`ha`s fu Y`n

jdramdhf bht jcs `h ãvcf`ha` uh` hbuv`ll` ebrj` f'`xpãrc`ha`. Cl s–dict f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtcbh `h lcih` (`.i., Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 4335 7 Al`jbhs, >??3) bu `habr`,

l–`xpãrc`ha` vcrtu`ll` (`.i., Lc, Fduim`rty `t Ncbaad, >??4 7 Fduim`rty, Lc `t Ncbaad, >??=).

L'`xpãrc`ha` vcrtu`ll` r`prãs`ht` f–uh aötã, tbut`s l`s pbsscnclctãs f'datcbhs sur uh bnk`t

(prbfuct) f` jdhcír` cht`rdatcv` `t vcrtu`ll`. Vàmhcqu`j`ht, l`s abhsbjjdtùrs pùv`htdppr`hfr` fdvdhtdi` f–chebrjdtcbhs sur ld ebrj`, ld t`xtur` `t l` ebhatcbhh`j`ht f'uh prbfuct,



=9

`h l` fãpldédht bu `h l–chspàtdht vcsu`ll`j`ht sbus f`s dhil`s fceeãr`hts (Lc, Fduim`rty `t

Ncbaad, >??4 7 Qum `t L``, >??0). F–uh dutr` abtã, l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih` abjpbrt` uh`

fcj`hscbh spãacecqu`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`ll`, `ll` fãp`hf f`s rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s qu–`ll`

ãv`cll` am`z l–utclcsdtùr, `ll` rãsult` f` l–`hidi`j`ht fu abhsbjjdtùr `t `ll` pùt ãidl`j`ht

ëtr` ãvdluã` pdr l` abhsbjjdtùr f` jdhcír` hãidtcv`.

L` abha`pt f'`xpãrc`ha` vcrtu`ll` d vu l` kbur `h rdcsbh f`s fãv`lbpp`j`hts

tàmhblbicqu`s. @h èe`t, l`s prbirís `t nbul`v`rs`j`hts qu` abhhdcss`ht l`s sct`s jdramdhfs,

`xprcj`ht ld vblbhtã f`s datùrs fu w`n f` s–brc`ht`r f` plus `h plus v`rs f`s cht`rdatcbhs

jultc-s`hsbrc`ll`s, hbtdjj`ht pdr l–chabrpbrdtcbh f` vcsu`ls f` mdut` qudlctã, f` sbh stãrãb `t

f` abht`hus rcam`s (Ecbr` `t dl., >??0). A'`st ld hdtur` cht`rdatcv` `t vcvdht` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f`

vcsct` fu sct` quc stcjul` l` prba`ssus j`htdl fu abhsbjjdtùr lbrsqu'cl `st `h lcih` . A–`st uh

prba`ssus quc `hi`hfr` uh ãtdt j`htdl quc fdhs a`rtdchs ads, pùt dtt`chfr` ld kbucssdha`

(Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 4335) bu l–cjj`rscbh tbtdl`. A`t ãtdt sunkàtce f` abhsac`ha`, chelu`ha`

l–`hs`jnl` f`s abhsãqu`ha`s pbsctcv`s `t hãidtcv`s qu` l` abhsbjjdtùr r`tcr` f` l–usdi` f`

a` sct` Cht`rh`t (Jüll`r, >??6). L`s `xpãrc`ha`s vãau`s sur ld tbcl` sbht fbha f` plus `h plus

rcam`s `t s` vùl`ht dussc stcjuldht`s, vbcr` plus qu` ld rãdlctã (Idrhc`r `t _bhach, >?4?).

L`s sct`s f` `-abjj`ra` pùv`ht ëtr` abhscfãrãs abjj` prbfuatùrs f–`xpãrc`ha`

(Ecls`r, >??>). Cls sbht jcs ï fcspbsctcbh f`s jdrqu`s pbur edcr` vcvr` dux cht`rhdut`s f`s

`xpãrc`ha`s f` smbppchi `h lcih`. A`ld r`vc`ht ï j`ttr` `h dvdht l`s dttrcnuts `xpãrc`htc`ls f`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf, fdhs l` nut f` iãhãr`r uh` ãvdludtcbh pbsctcv` f` ld vcsct` fu sct`,

ï trdv`rs ld p`ra`ptcbh f` ld vdlùr utclctdcr` `t f` ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` vãau`

`h lcih`.

CCC.>. L`s dhtãaãf`hts f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh

L`s dhtãaãf`hts f` l–cjj`rscbh abhstctu`ht l`s stcjulc quc `htr`ht `h kù, p`hfdhtl–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih`. Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg (>??3) abhscfír`ht qu` l`s dhtãaãf`hts f`

l–cjj`rscbh abhtrcnu`ht ebrt`j`ht ï sbh ãldnbrdtcbh. A`rtdchs dutùrs (`.i., Fc`sndam `t

K`dhfrdch, >??0 7 Ambc, Gcj `t Gcj >??9) `xplcqu`ht qu` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `st l`

eruct f` l–cht`rdatcbh f` l–cht`rhdut` dvà l–cht`reda` jdramdhf`. @h èe`t, l`s abjpbsdht`s f`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l `h lcih` (c.`., `hvcrbhh`j`ht `h 1F, dvdtdr, l` s`htcj`ht f` abhtröl`,

`ta.), bht f`s èe`ts du hcv`du abihctce fdhs ld prcs` f` abhhdcssdha` f` l'`xcst`ha` f` l–beer`,

du hcv`du deeàtce pdr ld iãhãrdtcbh f–ãjbtcbhs `t du hcv`du abhdtce quc edvbrcs` l`s dttctuf`s



==

pbsctcv`s. L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus, j`t `h ãvcf`ha` l`s ãlãj`hts edvbrdnl`s ï l–`xpãrc`ha`

f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`.

^ãeãr`ha` @hvcrbhh`j`ht ãtufcãL`s dhtãaãf`hts f`

l–cjj`rscbh

Ambc, Gcj `t Gcj (>??9)Cht`reda` f–dppr`htcssdi`

ãlàtrbhcqu`

L–chstruatùr 7 l–cht`reda` 7 l`

abht`hu f` l–cht`reda`

Fdcl`y (>??6) Qct` w`n L` abhtröl` f` ld hdvcidtcbh

J`y`rs-L`vy [mu (>??9)Jdidsch rã`l Ld hdtur` f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

jdramdhf

Fc`sndam ̀ t K`dhfrdch, >??0

Qct` w`n jdramdhf L–`hvcrbhh`j`ht f` rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` 7 l–dvdtdr

Echh`rdh `t [mdhi (>??1)@hvcrbhh`j`ht jãfcdtcsã L–`hvcrbhh`j`ht 7 l–dvdtdr 7 ld

hdtur` f` ld tdam` 7 l` abhtröl`

Luhd, _drrdamcb ̀ t Kudh

(>??>)

Qct` w`n jdramdhf L`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s fu abht`hu 7

l`s tîam`s 7 l` abhtröl` p`réu

_da` (>??6)

Qct` w`n Ld abhtrdcht` t`jpbr`ll` 7 l`

abht`hu 7 ld prbir`sscbh 7 l`

abhtröl`

Vdnl`du 9 ; L`s dhtãaãf`hts f` l'`xpãrc`ha` f'cjj`rscbh `h lcih`

L–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` s` fãal`ham` du abhtdat f`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

vcrtu`l jdramdhf. L–cht`rhdut` dict `t cht`rdict fdhs f`s abht`xt`s vcrtu`ls, tmãjdtcsãs,

`haldvãs `t sãaurcsãs. L`s cht`rdatcbhs dvà l–cht`reda` f`vc`hh`ht plus rdpcf`s, ld abhsac`ha`

fu t`jps fcspdrdèt `t l–chfcvcfu s` s`ht dnsbrnã pdr l–`spda` vcrtu`l.

Cl `st cjpbrtdht f` scihdl`r qu` ld p`ra`ptcbh fu abhtröl` s`jnl` ëtr` uh dhtãaãf`ht

cjpbrtdht p`hfdht ld iãhãrdtcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh. L`s cht`rhdut`s am`ram`ht ï

jdxcjcs`r l` abhtröl` p`hfdht l` fãrbul`j`ht f` ld vcsct`, pbur s` s`htcr lcnr`s p`hfdht ld

tîam` qu–cls sbht `h trdch f–èeàtu`r (Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, >??3). L` abhtröl` rãsult` f`

l–cht`rdatcbh dvà l` sct`, pucsqu` l–cht`hsctã f` l–cjj`rscbh `st abrrãlã` dvà ld p`ra`ptcbh fu

abhtröl` (Y`nst`r, Vr`vchb `t ^ydh 4331). Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg (4335) `xplcqu`ht qu`



=3

l'duij`htdtcbh fu abhtröl` p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` abhtrcnu` ebrt`j`ht ï l–dnsbrptcbh

abihctcv` `t ï l–dtt`htcbh.

CCC.1. L–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`

L`s sct`s Y`n sbht abhéus pbur p`rj`ttr` dux abhsbjjdtùrs f` vcvr` f`s

`xpãrc`ha`s vcrtu`ll`s, irîa` hbtdjj`ht, du fãv`lbpp`j`ht f`s tàmhblbic`s cjj`rscv`s. Ld

ndhdlcsdtcbh f` l–brfchdtùr `t fu jultcjãfcd t`hf ï pbpuldrcs`r l–utclcsdtcbh, f` plus `h plus

erãqu`ht`, f`s butcls cjj`rsces `t cht`rdatces. @h chtãirdht l`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

fdhs l`s sct`s jdramdhfs, l`s prbe`sscbhh`ls f` l–`-jdrg`tchi plbhi`ht l`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs f`s

abht`xt`s `xpãrc`htc`ls `h lcih`. A`s tàmhblbic`s dppbrt`ht plus f` rãdlcsj` ï l–`xpãrc`ha`.

Vbutèbcs, l–cjj`rscbh h` s` rãsuj` pds uhcqu`j`ht du edct f–ëtr` plbhiã fdhs uh abht`xt`

« JaFcsh`yeclcsãs · (Vmbjpsbh, >???, p. 416) fu typ` f–uh pdra f–dttrdatcbhs. @ll` pùt

pr`hfr` ebrj` fdhs f`s abht`xt`s jbchs myp`r rã`ls dvà uh` nbhh` edaclctã cht`rdatcbh dvà

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht abjj`racdl `t uh s`htcj`ht f` fãpdys`j`ht pbur l` vcsctùr (Aburvbcsc`r `t

Kdqu`t, >?4?). Du-f`lï f` a`s dspàts plutöt ebhatcbhh`ls, l`s tàmhblbic`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

fbhh`ht fu s`hs ï l–`xpãrc`ha`, pdr ld prbfuatcbh scjultdhã` `t cht`rdatcv` f` rãpbhs`s

abihctcv`s, ãjbtcbhh`ll` `t deeàtcv`s. @h èe`t, l–`xpãrc`ha` `st ebhfã` sur l–cht`rdatcbh dvà

f`s stcjulc prbfucts pdr l` systíj` f` abhsbjjdtcbh (Qum `t L``, >??0). L–cht`rdatcbh fu

abhsbjjdtùr dvà l` abht`xt` jdramdhf, pùt pr`hfr` ld ebrj` f–uh` dnsbrptcbh

(l–`xpãrc`ha` `st chabrpbrã` pdr l–chfcvcfu) bu f–uh` cjj`rscbh (l–chfcvcfu plbhi` fdhs l`

abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`) (Luhdrfb, >??9).

Fdhs uh` ãtuf` pbrtdht sur l`s kùx `h lcih`, S`` (>??9) j`t `h ãvcf`ha` l`s

abjpbsdht`s f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh ;

- L–chv`stcidtcbh `t ld fãabuv`rt` ; ^`pãr`r f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `t f`s `htctãs qu` ld

plupdrt f`s dutr`s chfcvcfus h` abhhdcss`ht pds

- L` kù f` röl` ; Ld arãdtcbh f'uh p`rsbhhdi` dvà uh` mcstbcr` f` ebhf `t l–cht`rdatcbh

dvà l`s abjpbsdhts f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht pbur arã`r uh` mcstbcr` cjprbvcsã`

- Ld p`rsbhhdlcsdtcbh ; Dvbcr uh chtãrët fdhs ld p`rsbhhdlcsdtcbh f` l'dppdr`ha` f`

l–dvdtdr

- L–ãvdscbh ; L–utclcsdtcbh f` l'`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h lcih` pbur ãvct`r f` p`hs`r dux

prbnlíj`s f` ld vc` rã`ll`.



3?

Fdhs l` abht`xt` fu abjj`ra` `h lcih`, cjj`rscbh abhstctu` uh ãtdt sunkàtce quc s`

rãeír` ï uh ãtdt psyamblbicqu`. L–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` pburrdct s` fãechcr abjj`

uh` sctudtcbh f` lbhiu` bu f` aburt` furã`, abhtchu` bu dlt`rhdtcv`, p`hfdht ldqu`ll`,

l–cht`rhdut` (chfcvcfu) eburhct uh èebrt psyamblbicqu` chvblbhtdcr` quc luc p`rj`t f–`xalur`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht rã`l quc l–`htbur` `t f` s–chtrbfucr` fdhs l–uhcv`rs vcrtu`l arãã pdr ld jdrqu`.

_`hfdht l`s chstdhts cht`hs`s f` ld vcsct` fu sct` jdramdhf, l–cht`rhdut` `s t cjplcquã, dnsbrnã

`t tbtdl`j`ht `hidiã fdhs l` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`, kusqu–ï dtt`chfr`, fdhs a`rtdch ads,

l–`xpãrc`ha` bptcjdl` bu l` l–ãtdt f` elbw.

_dr dcllùrs, Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh (4339) fcstchiu`ht l–cjj`rscbh fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht

vcrtu`l f` l–cjj`rscbh tàmhcqu`, bó l` systíj` p`ra`ptu`l f` l–utclcsdtùr `st abjplít`j`ht

stcjulã pdr l` jbhf` vcrtu`l `t hbh pdr l` jbhf` rã`l. L–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` `st

uh` cjj`rscbh psyamblbicqu` (hbh tàmhcqu`), `ll` fãarct uh ãtdt bó l` abhsbjjdtùr `st

trdhspbrtã, dnsbrnã `t tbtdl`j`ht chv`stc fdhs l` abht`xt` f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh. A`tt`

cjj`rscbh prbvbqu` am`z l–chfcvcfu (cht`rhdut`) f`s s`htcj`hts f–dppdrt`hdha` ï

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h lcih` fceeãr`ht f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht rã`l. L`s s`hsdtcbhs `t l`s ãjbtcbhs

r`ss`htc`s pùv`ht ëtr` pldcsdht`s bu fãpldcsdht`s. L–ãtdt psyamblbicqu` fdhs l`qu`l

l–cht`rhdut` s` trbuv`, fãal`ham` f`s rãdatcbhs quc pùv`ht chelu`ha`r pbsctcv`j`ht bu

hãidtcv`j`ht sbh abjpbrt`j`ht `hv`rs l` sct`, l` prbfuct `t ld jdrqu`.

Qc a`rtdch dutùrs abhscfír`ht l–cjj`rscbh abjj` « l` vãau f–uh` `xpãrc`ha`

sunkàtcv ̀· (Adró `t Abvd, >??5d, p. 60) bu `habr` abjj` l–dhtãaãf`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtcbh (`.i., Ebrh`rchb `t dl., >??=). Fdhs l` adfr` f` a` trdvdcl, `ll` r`prãs`ht` l`

aőur jëj` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`. @h èe`t, ld vcsct` f–uh sct` w`n `st dpprãm`hfã` abjj` uh`

datcvctã f` abhsbjjdtcbh ï pdrt `htcír` du s`hs f–uh` cht`rdatcbh dvà l–bnk`t f`

abhsbjjdtcbh (Idrhc`r `t _bhach, >?4?) `t `h abhsãqu`ha` `ll` vd du-f`lï f`s nãhãeca`s

utclctdcr`s ̀ t abjpbrt` f`s fcj`hscbhs mãfbhcqu`s.

_`hfdht l–cjj`rscbh, f`s ãamdhi`s ãjbtcbhh`ls, deeàtces `t abihctces, p`rj`tt`ht f`fãnbuam`r v`rs uh` `xpãrc`ha` sunkàtcv` ilbndl`, dpp`lã` `xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`.

@ll` pùt ëtr` abhscfãrã` abjj` ld rãsultdht` f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` pbt`htc`ll` (lcã` dux

abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` jdramdhf), f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` p`réu` (lcã` ï l–ãvdludtcbh

f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf `h lcih`, adr tbut`s l`s abjpbsdht s̀ `xpãrc`htc`ll`s f–uh sct` h`

r`htr`ht pds `h kù f` ld jëj` edébh pbur tbus l`s chfcvcfus), f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` vãau`

dssbacã` ï fcv`rs rãdatcbhs abihctcv`s, s`hsbrc`ll`s, ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t sbacdl`s (l` aőur f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`).



34

Qc ld lcttãrdtur` suiiír` qu` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs uh abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l fbhh`

l–daaís ï uh` `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh (Ebrh`rchb `t dl., >??=). L–cjj`rscbh `ll`-

jëj` abhstctu` uh` `xpãrc`ha`. @ll` rèlít` uh jbj`ht schiulc`r p`hfdht l`qu`l a` qu`

r`ss`ht, a` qu` sbumdct` `t a` qu` p`hs` l` abhsbjjdtùr sbht `h tbtdl` mdrjbhc`(Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc, 4339). L` prba`ssus f–djbra`j`ht f` l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh survc`ht

p`hfdht l–cht`rdatcbh ̀ htr` l` abhsbjjdtùr `t l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fdhs l`qu l̀ cl s` trbuv`.

A` trdvdcl fbatbrdl, t`ht` prãacsãj`ht ï jcùx cf`htcec`r l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh

`h lcih`. @h èe`t, a` typ` f–`xpãrc`ha`s vcrtu`ll`s hãa`ssct` ld jcs` `h plda` f`

abjpãt`ha`s p`rsbhh`ll`s f` ld pdrt f` l–cht`rhdut`. Lbrsqu` l–utclcsdtùr `htr` sur l` sct`

jdr amdhf, cl abjj`ha` ï cht`rdicr dvà l`s ãlãj`hts fu sct` `t cl s–cjpríih` f` l–mcstbcr`

qu` rdabht` l` prbfuct `t / bu l` s`rvca`. _lus l` abhsbjjdtùr `st cjj`riã fdhs

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l, plus cl `st susa`ptcnl` f–`xpãrcj`ht`r f`s ãjbtcbhs ebrt`s `t

pdrebcs chmdnctu`ll`s. L–chfcvcfu s` r`trbuv` `htrdch f` vcvr` uh` `xpãrc`ha` cht`hs` ;

l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh ̀ h lcih`.

Ï l–chv`rs`, lbrsqu` l–cht`rhdut` `st edcnl`j`ht cjj`riã, cl `xpãrcj`ht` f`s

ãjbtcbhs f` jbchfr` cht`hsctã. Cl `st dlbrs plus e dcnl`j`ht abhhàtã ï l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

`xpãrc`htc`l `t fdvdhtdi` du jbhf` rã`l (Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf, >??=). Cl

s` sãpdr` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `t r`pr`hf l` fãrbul`j`ht mdnctu`l f` sd vc`.



3>

CU. Fcstchiu`r l–cjj`rscbh f` abha`pts prbam`s

Ld lcttãrdtur` j`t `h ãvcf`ha` ld abjpl`xctã fu abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh. @h èe`t, butr`

s`s fceeãr`ht`s ebrj`s `t typblbic`s, ld ràm`ram` `h jdrg`tchi `h iãhãrdl `t `h jdrg`tchi`xpãrc`htc`l `h pdrtcaulc`r, j`tt`ht `h ãvcf`ha` a`rtdch`s scjcldrctãs quc arã`ht uh` a`rtdch`

djnciüctã dvà ld hbtcbh f–cjj`rscbh. Cl s–dict hbtdjj`ht f`s abha`pts f` elbw `t f`

tãlãprãs`ha`. @h èe`t, l`s ràm`ram`s dhtãrcùr`s jbhtr`ht qu–cl h–`xcst` pds f` abhs`hsus sur

a`s cjprãacscbhs. Hbtr` trdvdcl fbatbrdl hãa`ssct` fbha ld fcstchatcbh `htr` a`s abha`pts.

CU.4. Cjj`rscbh vs. elbw

Ld hbtcbh f` elbw d ãtã chtrbfuct` fdhs l` fbjdch` f` ld psyamblbic` pdr

Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc (439= 7 43=0 7 43==, 4339, >???). @ll` prãs`ht` a`rtdch`s scjcldrctãs dvà ld

hbtcbh f–cjj`rscbh. A` abha`pt rèlít` uh ãtdt f` abhsac`ha` quc brc`ht` l'ãh`ric` psyamcqu`

pbur prbfucr` uh` s`hsdtcbh f` nc`h-ëtr` (Ibulfchi, Qmdhgdr `t @llcbtt, >??>).

L–ãtdt f` elbw `st daabjpdihã f–uh` abha`htrdtcbh cht`hs` f`s datcvctãs dirãdnl`s quc

sbht abhscfãrãs abjj` ãtdht jbchs pãhcnl`s (Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc 433?). Cl `hi`hfr` uh`

cjj`rscbh abjplít` fdhs l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` `t `xci` uh` rã`ll` cjplcadtcbh pdr

l–chfcvcfu. Ph abhsbjjdtùr `h ãtdt f` elbw ãprbuv` uh s`htcj`ht f` nbhmùr, daabjpdihã

f'uh s`htcj`ht f` abhecdha` `t f–uh fãscr f'`xplbrdtcbh. Fdhs a`t ãtdt, uh abhsbjjdtùr pùt

ãidl`j`ht ãprbuv`r uh` fcstbrscbh fdhs ld p`ra`ptcbh fu t`jps, quc s` prbfuct sbuv`ht `h

l'dns`ha` f` abhtrdcht` f` t`jps lbrs f` ld abhfuct` f'uh` datcvctã spãacecqu` quc dppbrt` uh

e``f-ndag pbsctce (Ambu `t Vchi, >??1). Fdhs a` adfr`, l–cjj`rscbh vd p`rj`ttr` l–daaís ï

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` elbw bu `xpãrc`ha` `xtrdbrfchdcr` bu `habr` `xpãrc`ha` chbunlcdnl`. _lus

l–cjj`rscbh `st ebrt` `t plus l–ãtdt f` elbw `st rdpcf`j`ht dtt`cht. L`s `xpãrc`ha`s f` elbw sbht

f`s `xpãrc`ha`s bptcjdl`s `t dirãdnl`s fdhs l`squ`ll`s uh chfcvcfu « abhtröl` s`s datcbhs,

jdètrcs` sbh prbpr` f`stch… hbus r`ss`htbhs uh s`htcj`ht f'ùpmbrc`, uh prbebhf s`htcj`ht

f` kbucssdha` ·. (Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc, 433?). Cl s–dict f` l–cjj`rscbh tbtdl`.

_dr dcllùrs, l` elbw cl abrr`spbhf ï uh typ` pdrtcaulc`r f–`xpãrc`ha` (Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc,

4339) bó cl `xcst` uh` sãqu`ha` struaturã` f–datcvctãs, dvà uh `hs`jnl` f` nuts quc

f`jdhf`ht f`s rãpbhs`s dpprbprcã`s. Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc (43==, p.1>) suppbs` jëj` qu–uh`

sctudtcbh erustrdht` « pùt sbufdch`j`ht f`v`hcr pdsscbhhdht` sc l'bh tbjn` sur l` kust`

ãquclcnr` ·. L` elbw s–chstdll` lbrsqu– « cl `xcst` uh` abhv`ri`ha` `htr` l` hcv`du f–`hkùx



31

(amdll`hi`s) `t l` hcv`du f` abjpãt`ha`s ( sgclls) r`qucs`s `t cl prbfuct uh` s`hsdtcbh f` nc`h-

ëtr` prbv`hdht fu abhtröl` f` ld sctudtcbh · (Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t F` Iduf`jdrcs,

>??0, p. 6=). Butr` l'ãquclcnr` f`s fãecs `t f`s abjpãt`ha`s, l–datcvctã fbct dvbcr f`s bnkàtces

aldcrs. L'`xpãrc`ha` bptcjdl` suiiír` qu` l`s chfcvcfus sbc`ht cjplcquãs fdhs f`s sctudtcbhs

dirãdnl`s. @h èe`t, l–cjj`rscbh tbtdl` `st cjpbsscnl` lbrsqu` l–chfcvcfu h` sdct, hc a` qu–cl

edut edcr` p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha`, hc abjj`ht l` edcr`.

L–`xpãrc`ha` f` elbw s` adrdatãrcs` pdr uh` fcstbrscbh fu t`jps `t l'`xaluscbh f`s

prãbaaupdtcbhs qubtcfc`hh`s ; l–chfcvcfu « p`rf t`jpbrdcr`j`ht ld abhsac`ha` f` sbc 7 sbh

ãh`ric` psyamcqu` s` stcjul` `t l` fãtburh` f` a` quc fbct ëtr` edct · (Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc, 43==,

p. 11). L` elbw s–`xprcj` abjjuhãj`ht am`z tbus l`s chfcvcfus, pdr uh` abha`htrdtcbh

ebadlcsã`, prët` ï uh` euscbh dvà l'datcvctã (Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc, 43==, p. 1>) `t prbpca` ï uh

pldcscr prbebhf (Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 4335 7 >??3). Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc (433?, p.6) prãacs` qu` l`

elbw `st « uh ãtdt sunkàtce fdhs l`qu`l l`s p`rsbhh`s sbht t`ll`j`ht dnsbrnã`s pdr uh` datcvctã

fbhhã` qu` plus rc`h f–dutr` h–d f–cjpbrtdha` `h f`mbrs f` l–datcvctã `ll`-jëj`.

L–`xpãrc`ha` `h `ll`-jëj`, `st sc dirãdnl` qu` l`s p`rsbhh`s rãdlcs`rbht l–datcvctã jëj` ï uh

ab÷t ãl`vã `t pbur l` pur chtãrët f` ld rãdlcs`r ·. Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc ( >???) dkbut` qu` a`t ãtdt

f` elbw s` prbfuct iãhãrdl`j`ht lbrs f`s datcvctãs aultur`ll`s, spbrtcv`s, lufcqu`s bu f` lbcscrs.

Fdhs l` abht`xt` f–Cht`rh`t, a`rtdchs dutùrs `stcj`ht qu` ld hdvcidtcbh `st uh` datcvctã

fdhs ldqu`ll` l–chfcvcfu pùt daaãf`r ï l–`xpãrc`ha` bptcjdl` (`.i., Didrwdl `t Gdrdmdhhd,

>??? 7 Hbvdg, Mbeejdh `t Fumdam`g, >??1 7 Nrcfi`s `t Elbrsm`cj, >??=). @h èe`t, l`s

rãdatcbhs f`s chfcvcfus fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l sbht trís s`jnldnl`s ï a`ll`s j`htcbhhã`s fdhs

l` abht`xt` pmyscqu`. L`s abhsbjjdtùrs pùv`ht dtt`chfr` l–cjj`rscbh tbtdl` qu`lqu` sbct l`

typ` f` l–datcvctã (fcrciã` v`rs uh bnkàtce bu `xpãrc`htc`ll`). Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg (>??3, p.09)

fãechcss`ht l` elbw abjj` « l–ãtdt quc dppdrdèt furdht ld hdvcidtcbh `t quc s` adrdatãrcs` pdr

uh` sãqu`ha` chcht`rrbjpu` f` rãpbhs`s edaclctã`s pdr l–cht`rdatcvctã f` ld jdamch`,

chtrchsíqu`j`ht dirãdnl` `t daabjpdihã` f–uh` p`rt` f` ld abhsac`ha` f` sbc `t f–uhs`htcj`ht f–dutb-r`hebra`j`ht ·. L–ãtdt f` elbw s` trdfuct pdr uh hcv`du ãl`vã f`

abha`htrdtcbh, f` abhtröl`, f` amdll`hi`, f` pldcscr, `t f` aurcbsctã (Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 4335,

>??3 7 Gbuedrcs, >??> 7 Nrcfi`s `t Elbrsm`cj, >??=). Cl s–dict f–uh ãtdt bptcjdl f` jbtcvdtcbh

chtrchsíqu` quc rãsult` f` l–ãquclcnr` `htr` l` fãec p`réu `t l`s abjpãt`ha`s f` l–chfcvcfu,

lbrsqu–`ll`s sbht stcjulã`s ï mdutùr f–uh sùcl arctcqu` (Jdtmwcag `t ^cifbh, >??6). L`s

abhsbjjdtùrs cjj`riãs fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht bhlch` bht uh` ebrt` dtt`htcbh ebadlcsã` `t

l–ãtdt f–`sprct fdhs l`qu`l cls s` trbuv`ht `st `xtrëj`j`ht irdtcecdht.



36

L` elbw `st fbha uh ãtdt (`.i., Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 4335 7 >??3, Mbeejdh, Hbvdg `t

Sbuhi, >???) dlbrs qu` l–cjj`rscbh `st ï ld ebcs uh ãtdt `t uh prba`ssus. L–cjj`rscbh `st uh

abha`pt plus ldri` qu` l` abha`pt f` elbw bó l` prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh abhstctu` l` jby`h

f–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha` bptcjdl`. Vbutèbcs, l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh pùt s–cht`rrbjpr`

rdpcf`j`ht, s–èeàtu`r `h jchc-ayal`s `t pùt jëj` ëtr` ãvdluã` hãidtcv`j`ht pdr l–chfcvcfu.

Tudht du elbw, cl abrr`spbhf ï l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh tbtdl`, f` l–`xpãrc`ha` bptcjdl` (Mbeejdh `t

Hbvdg, 4335 7 >??3) bu `xpãrc`ha` `xtrdbrfchdcr` (Drhbul `t _rca`, 4331) iãhãrdl`j`ht

dssbacã ï f`s ãjbtcbhs pbsctcv`s `t du pldcscr.

Didrwdl `t Gdrdmdhhd (>???) abhscfír`ht l` elbw abjj` uh abha`pt dppdrt`hdht ï uh

abht`xt` plus ldri` f` l'dnsbrptcbh abihctcv`. Qur ld nds` f–uh am`vduam`j`ht f` fãechctcbhs `t

ï pdrtcr f'uh` sãrc` f'ãtuf`s quc d pbrtã sur l` elbw, a`s dutùrs luc dttdam`ht achq fcj`hscbhs ;

l` abhtröl`, ld fcssbacdtcbh t`jpbr`ll` pbrtã` pdr l–cjj`rscbh, ld kbucssdha`, l` abhtröl` `t ld

aurcbsctã. Cl abhfuct fbha ï uh` plus irdhf` utclctã fdhs l–datcvctã `t ï ld edaclctã f'utclcsdtcbh

p`réu`, pbur dnbutcr ï f`s cht`htcbhs abjpbrt`j`htdl`s pbsctcv`s. Cl s–`xprcj` abjj`

l–`hidi`j`ht tbtdl `t l–cjj`rscbh dnsblu` fdhs l–datcvctã (Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 43357 Hbvdg,

Mbeejdh `t Suhi >??? 7 Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, >??3). L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus prãs`ht` l`s

fceeãr`ha`s `htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t l` elbw ;

Abha`pt Hdtur` @xpãrc`ha` Furã` @jbtcbh Abhfctcbhs

L` elbw @tdt

@xpãrc`ha``xtrdbrfchdcr`(ebrt abht`hu

abihctce ̀ tãjbtcbhh`l, ̀ hkù

`t cht`rdatcbhsbacdl`)

Lbhiu` `t p`rjdh`ht`

_bsctcv`

L` abhtröl`, ldfcssbacdtcbht`jpbr`ll` pbrtã` pdr

l–cjj`rscbh, ld kbucssdha` t̀ ld

aurcbsctã

L–cjj`rscbh _rba`ssus/ @tdt

@xpãrc`ha`brfchdcr` `t / bu`xtrdbrfchdcr`.

Aburt` `tfcsabhtchu`

_bsctcv``t / bu

hãidtcv`

L–`hidi`j`ht,

l–cjplcadtcbh, làbhtröl` `t ldabha`htrdtcbh

Vdnl`du = ; Cjj`rscbh vs. elbw

_bur abhalur`, cl `st ï scihdl`r qu–cl h–`xcst` pds f` abhs`hsus `htr` ld fãechctcbh fu

elbw `t a`ll` f` l–cjj`rscbh. L` elbw abhstctu` uh ads pdrtcaulc`r f–cjj`rscbh. Cl s–dict f`

l–ãtdt fdhs l`qu`l l–chfcvcfu s` trbuv` qudhf cl dtt`cht l–`xpãrc`ha` `xtrdbrfchdcr`, a–`st ï fcr`



30

uh` `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh dirãdnl`, pbsctcv` `t chbunlcdnl`, quc iãhír` f` ebrt`s

stcjuldtcbhs deeàtcv`s ̀ t ãjbtcbhh`ll`s.

Fdhs l` ads f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` brfchdcr`, `ht`hfu` abjj` « fãpburvu` fu adrdatír`

chmdnctu`l, f`s ebrts `hkùx bu f`s ebrts abht`hus ãjbtcbhh`ls · (Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t

Ibtt`ldhf, >??5, p. =), l–chfcvcfu pùt abhhdètr` f`s jbj`hts f–cjj`rscbh tbtdl` bu f`s

ayal`s f` abha`htrdtcbh cht`hs`, qu–`ll` sbct abihctcv` `t / bu deeàtcv`, sdhs duauh `hkù

cjpbrtdht. Cl s–dict dlbrs f` l–cjj`rscbh fbht l–daaís hãa`ssct` ld jcs` `h plda` f`

abjpãt`ha`s p`rsbhh`ll`s f` ld pdrt f`s abhsbjjdtùrs.

CU.>. Cjj`rscbh vs. tãlãprãs`ha`

L` abha`pt f` prãs`ha` tcr` s`s ebhf`j`hts fdhs f`s fcsacplch`s uhcv`rsctdcr`s t`ll`s qu`

ld abjjuhcadtcbh, ld psyamblbic`, l`s sac`ha`s abihctcv`s, l–chebrjdtcqu`, l–chiãhc`rc`, ld

pmclbsbpmc` `t l`s drts (`.i., Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339 7 Ncbaad `t Fduim`rty, >??4). Qbuacùs`s f`

fãarypt`r l`s prba`ssus psyamblbicqu`s `t pmyscblbicqu`s dssbacãs dux jclcùx jãfcdtcsãs `t

hbh jãfcdtcsãs, a`s fcsacplch`s sac`htcecqu`s am`ram`ht ï sdvbcr abjj`ht l'mbjj` bridhcs` `t

cht`rprít` l`s chebrjdtcbhs fdhs sbh `hvcrbhh`j`ht, stbag` `t rãaupír` s`s sbuv`hcrs, pr`hf

f`s fãacscbhs, `ta. _bur a` edcr`, l`s am`ramùrs utclcs`ht sbuv`ht f`s stcjulc jãfcdtcsãs

abjj` sunstctut dux stcjulc hbh jãfcdtcsãs f'chtãrët (pbur plus f` abjjbfctã, dchsc qu'uh

abhtröl`). Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh (4339) suppbs`ht qu` lùrs abhaluscbhs s'dpplcqu`ht dutdht fdhs

l`s jclcùx jãfcdtcsãs `t l s̀ jclcùx hbh jãfcdtcsãs.

Ld prãs`ha` `st fãechc` abjj` « ld p`ra`ptcbh f'uh ̀ hvcrbhh`j`ht hdtur`l · (Qtu`r, 433>,

p. 95). @ll` s` adrdatãrcs` pdr l–cjj`rscbh fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht arãã drtcecac`ll`j`ht (qu–cl

sbct vcrtu`l bu rã`l) `t bó s` prbecl` uh` s`hsdtcbh f` rã`ll` dppdrt`hdha` ï a`t `hvcrbhh`j`ht

quc fbct ëtr` driuj`htã` pdr f`s rãdatcbhs deeàtcv`s pbsctcv`s. Fdhs l` abht`xt` f–Cht`rh`t, bó

l` vcrtu`l r`jplda` l` rã`l, ld tãlãprãs`ha` s` fãt`r jch` pdr ld s`hsdtcbh f–ëtr` prãs`ht fdhs uh

`hvcrbhh`j`ht jãfcdtcsã pdr uh` tàmhblbic`. Cl s–dict f` «ld p`ra`ptcbh jãfcdtcsã` f'uh

`hvcrbhh`j`ht · (Qtuùr, 433>, p. 95). @ll` s` fãechct abjj` « uh ãtdt psyamblbicqu` fdhs

l`qu`l uh` pdrtc` bu ld tbtdlctã f` ld p`ra`ptcbh f–uh chfcvcfu, fct` sunkàtcv`, abhfuct ï bunlc`r

l` röl` f` ld tàmhblbic` fdhs uh` `xpãrc`ha` · (Lbjndrf `t Qbhyf`r-Fuam, >??4). Lbrsqu` ld

p`ra`ptcbh `st jãfcdtcsã` pdr uh` tàmhblbic` (`.i., ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`), l–utclcsdtùr p`rébct

hãa`ssdcr`j`ht fùx typ`s f'`hvcrbhh`j`hts fcstchat ; a`luc quc `st rã`l (pmyscqu`) `t a`luc quc

`st vcrtu`l (jãfcdtcsã) (Qtù`r, 433> 7 Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339). L` abha`pt f` tãlãprãs`ha`



35

s–dppuc` sur fùx fcj`hscbhs ; ëtr` fdhs l'`hvcrbhh`j`ht pmyscqu` bu « n`chi tm`r` · `t

quctt`r l'`hvcrbhh`j`ht pmyscqu` bu « hbt n`chi tm`r` · (Gcj `t Ncbaad, 4339). L–utclcsdtùr

ãprbuv` ld s`hsdtcbh f` tãlãprãs`ha` lbrsqu` sd p`ra`ptcbh f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jãfcdtcsã pdr

ld tàmhblbic` pr`hf l` f`ssus sur ld p`ra`ptcbh f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht hbh jãfcdtcsã.

Ld tãlãprãs`ha` p`rj`t f–dnbutcr ï uh` `xpãrc`ha` `xactdht` `t cht`hs` `h ãjbtcbhs

(Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, >??3). @ll` `st fãt`rjchã` pdr l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s fu jãfcd `t f` sbh

utclcsdtùr (L`ssct`r `t dl., >??4 7 F`nndnc, Fddssc `t Ndcl`, >?4?) ï sdvbcr ;

- L`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s f` l–utclcsdtùr quc ràbuvr`ht sd adpdactã p`ra`ptu`ll` `t

abihctcv`, sbh dtt`htcbh, ld furã` f` sbh `xpbsctcbh `t / bu f` sbh cht`rdatcbh `t sd

edjclcdrctã dvà l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts jãfcdtcsãs (Yctj`r `t Qchi`r, 433=).

- L`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s fu jãfcd quc abrr`spbhf`ht ï ld ebrj` `t du abht`hu fu jãfcd ; ld

ebrj` fu jãfcd `st r`ldtcv` ï sbh cht`rdatcvctã `t ï sd rcam`ss` (Qtu`r, 433>) 7 sbh

abht`hu `st lcã ï l–utclcsdtcbh f`s abhv`htcbhs r`ldtcv`s du jãfcd `t ï ld hdtur` f` ld

tîam` bu f` l–datcvctã ï rãdlcs`r (Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339).

Ld tãlãprãs`ha` p`rj`t f` rdpprbam`r p`ra`ptu`ll`j`ht l`s utclcsdtùrs dux

abjpbsdht`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l `t fbha f` lùr beercr l–bppbrtuhctã f–chspàt`r

vcrtu`ll`j`ht l` prbfuct (`.i., Irceectm `t Am`h 7 >??6). Ld ebrt` cht`rdatcvctã `htr` l–utclcsdtùr

`t l` systíj` jãfcdtcsã abhfuct ï uh` s`hsdtcbh f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` jbhf` vcrtu`l, `xprcjã`

pdr uh` s`hsdtcbh f` prãs`ha` pmyscqu` fdhs a`t `hvcrbhh`j`ht (Euams `t dl., >??5). @ll` `st

dsscjcldnl` ï l–cjj`rscbh tàmhcqu` bu `habr` ï l–cjj`rscbh spdtcdl` (Fc`sndam `t K`dhfrdch,

>??0) `ht`hfu` abjj` l–clluscbh f–ëtr` fdhs uh` saíh` iãhãrã` pdr brfchdtùr. L`s chfcvcfus

rãdicss`ht dlbrs ï uh stcjulus vcrtu`l tbut abjj` cls l` e`rdc`ht fdhs ld rãdlctã. Cl s`rdct fbha

pbsscnl` f–y dfbpt`r l`s jëj`s abjpbrt`j`hts qu` fdhs l`s jdidschs pmyscqu`s. _dr dcllùrs,

l`s chfcvcfus pùv`ht s` s̀ htcr chalus fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l. Cls pùv`ht dussc

p`ra`vbcr a`tt` cjj`rscbh s pdtcdl` lbrsqu–cls abjjuhcqu`ht dvà f'dutr`s ëtr`s (rã`ls bu

vcrtu`ls) pdr ld arãdtcbh f` r`ldtcbhs « pdrdsbacdl`s · (Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339) `t pdr ld

jdhcpuldtcbh f`s bnk`ts (vcrtu`ls bu rã`ls) fu jdidsch vcrtu`l (Euams `t dl., >??5).

L` ebrt s`htcj`ht f` prãs`ha` `st chfuct pdr ld vcvdactã `t l'cht`rdatcvctã f`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht (Qm`rcfdh, 433>) dssbacãs ï l'dtt`htcbh rãs`rvã` pdr l–chfcvcfu (Qtù`r, 433>).

Ld tãlãprãs`ha` `st arãã` pdr sbh cjj`rscbh psyamblbicqu` fdhs l` abht`xt` jãfcdtcsã. @ll`

`st abhscfãrã` ãidl`j`ht abjj` uh dhtãaãf`ht du elbw, pucsqu–`ll` r`hvbc` fcràt`j`ht ï ld

abhstruatcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha` bptcjdl` (Mbeejdh, Hbvdg `t Suhi, >???).



39

L` abha`pt f` tãlãprãs`ha` f`vc`ht aruacdl pbur ld abjprãm`hscbh fu abjpbrt`j`ht

f`s chfcvcfus fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht jãfcdtcsã, t`ls qu` Cht`rh`t (`.i., Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh,

43397 Qtù`r, 433> 7 Fc`sndam `t K`dhfrdch, >??0). Cl s` prãs`ht` abjj` uh` abjpbsdht` f`

l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh. @h èe`t, lbrsqu` l`s stcjuldtcbhs f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht drtcecac`l sbht

cht`hs`s `t fdhs ld j`sur` bó l–dnsbrptcbh abihctcv` `st `hi`hfrã` pdr ld abha`htrdtcbh `t

l–dtt`htcbh, ld tãlãprãs`ha` p`rj`t f` edaclct`r l'`xpãrc`ha` f` l'cjj`rscbh irîa` ï

l–dpprbprcdtcbh spdtcdl` (Adss`l `t dl., >???). Ld s`hsdtcbh f` prãs`ha` djplcec` ld s`hsdtcbh

f–ãvdscbh fu jbhf` rã`l (pmyscqu`) `t prbvbqu` l` s`htcj`ht f–dppdrt`hdha` ï

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht crrã`l (vcrtu`l) `t fbha l–cjj`rscbh psyamblbicqu .̀

L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus prãs`ht` l`s fceeãr`ha`s `htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t ld tãlãprãs`ha ̀;

Abha`pt Hdtur` @xpãrc`ha` Q`hsdtcbhs Abhfctcbhs

Ld tãlãprãs`ha`Cjj`rscbhtàmhcqu`

@xpãrc`ha`brfchdcr` `t /bu`xtrdbrfchdcr`

_bsctcv`s ;_ldcscr, aurcbsctã,

lufcsj`

^ãdlcsj` f`l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

jãfcdtcsã, ̀ hidi`j`ht,abhtröl`, stcjuldtcbhs`hsbrc`ll`, prãs`ha`

sbacdl`

L–cjj`rscbh Cjj`rscbh

psyamblbicqu`_bsctcv` `t/

hãidtcv`

L–`hidi`j`ht,l–cjplcadtcbh, l`

abhtröl` `t ldabha`htrdtcbh

Vdnl`du 3 ; Cjj`rscbh vs. tãlãprãs`ha`

CU.1. L–cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` vs. l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` f`

l–`xpãrc`ha`

Ld t`hfdha` pbt`htc`ll` ï vcvr` f`s `xpãrc`ha`s f–cjj`rscbh dssbacã`s ï l–daqucsctcbh

f` prbfucts `t f` s`rvca`s `st uh edct ràbhhu. Vbutèbcs, ebra` `st f` abhstdt`r qu`, fdhs ld

lcttãrdtur` fãfcã` ï l–cjj`rscbh, f`s cht`rrbidtcbhs sunscst`ht qudht ï ld abha`ptudlcsdtcbh f`

a`tt` hbtcbh `t l` rdppbrt f` a` pmãhbjíh` dvà l` abht`xt` `t l` prba`ssus `xpãrc`htc`ls. @h

èe`t, ï a` suk`t, ld lcttãrdtur` dsscjcl` l–cjj`rscbh tdhtöt ï uh dhtãaãf`ht f` l'`xpãrc`ha` `t

tdhtöt ï uh` abjpbsdht` f` l'`xpãrc`ha`. F–bó ld abherbhtdtcbh `htr` fùx t`rjchblbic`s ;

« l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh · (Adró `t Abvd, >??1) `t « l”cjj`rscbhfdhs l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` · (Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf, >??=).



3=

L`s i`stcbhhdcr`s f` jdrqu` am`ram`ht f` plus `h plus ï edcr` vcvr` dux

abhsbjjdtùrs f`s `xpãrc`ha`s f–cjj`rscbhs fdhs f`s abht`xt`s `haldvãs, sãaurcsãs `t

tmãjdtcsãs, du jby`h f` ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh, ld tmãjdtcsdtcbh f` lùrs beer`s jdramdhf`s, fdhs

l` nut f` trdhspbrt`r lùrs alc`hts fdhs l` abht`xt` f` ld jdrqu`. Ld i`stcbh fu pbcht f` v`ht`

dppdrdèt dlbrs abjj` prcjbrfcdl` fdhs l` prba`ssus f` fãal`ham`j`ht f` rãdatcbhs deeàtcv`s,

abihctcv`s `t s`hsbrc`ll`s am`z l` abhsbjjdtùr. Cl s–dict dlbrs f` j`ttr` `h saíh` f`s

abht`xt`s `xpãrc`htc`ls pdr ld arãdtcbh bu ld trdhsebrjdtcbh f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf.

_dr dcllùrs, f`pucs fùx fãa`hhc`s, uh trdvdcl cjpbrtdht d ãtã edct `h a` s`hs sur

l'`hvcrbhh`j`ht f` jdidschdi`, a'`st-ï-fcr` sur l` f`scih f` l'`spda` f` v`ht`, pbur `ssdy`r f`

rã-`hamdht`r ld abhsbjjdtcbh. Vbutèbcs, sc l–`spda` f` v`ht` abhstctu` uh` abhfctcbh

hãa`ssdcr` f–daaís ï l–cjj`rscbh, cl h–`st pds sueecsdht. Cl `st `ss`htc`l qu` l–`hs`jnl` fu

abht`xt` sbct prbpca` ï ld abprbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbhs, pbur qu` l–chfcvcfu

pucss` ëtr` dnsbrnã pdr l–datcvctã `t tbtdl`j`ht cjj`riã (Qamjctt, 4333 7 Qamjctt `t ^bi`rs,

>??=). L` röl` f` l–`htr`prcs` `st fbha f` fãv`lbpp`r l`s jby`hs edaclctdht l'cjj`rscbh fdhs l`

abht`xt` abjj`racdl, pucsqu` l` abhsbjjdtùr h` pdss` pds systãjdtcqu`j`ht hc

dutbjdtcqu`j`ht pdr tbut`s l`s bpãrdtcbhs f–dpprbprcdtcbh.

Cl s–dict dlbrs f–uh `hs`jnl` f–ãlãj`hts quc abjpbs`ht l` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l,

hbtdjj`ht, l`s fcspbsctces f–daabjpdih`j`ht, ld stcjuldtcbh s`hsbrc`ll` `t ld stcjuldtcbh f`

l–cjdichdcr` (Adró `t Abvd, >??5d). @h èe`t, l`s fcspbsctces f–daabjpdih`j`ht fdhs l` pbcht

f` v`ht` (`.i., v`hfùrs, p`rsbhh`l abjj`racdl, jd`strb, dvdtdr, `ta.) bht pbur röl` f` iucf`r

l` abhsbjjdtùr du trdv`rs f'uh pdraburs spãacecqu` du abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l. Ld stcjuldtcbh

f`s s`hs s` edct pdr ld sbllcactdtcbh f` ld vu`, l'buâ`, l'bfbrdt, l` ib÷t `t l` tbuam`r, quc sbht

prbvbquãs pdr l`s ãj`ttùrs s`hsbrc`ls prãs`hts sur l` pbcht f` v`ht` (Qamjctt `t ^bfi`rs,

>??=). Tudht ï ld stcjuldtcbh f` l–cjdichdcr`, `ll` s` fãal`ham` pdr ld jcs` `h saíh` fu rãact

qu` rdabht` l` prbfuct ï trdv`rs l`s vdlùrs sur l`squ`ll`s s` plda` ld jdrqu` ; l–chtrciu`

(Gbzch`ts `t dl., >??>). L–`hs`jnl` f` a`s edatùrs, abhstctu` f`s jãadhcsj`s quc edaclct`htl–cjj`rscbh fu abhsbjjdtùr fdhs uh abht`xt` ilbndl.

A–`st dchsc qu` Adró `t Abvd (>??5d, p. 60) `xplcqu`ht qu` « l'cjj`rscbh h` s` edct pds

fdhs l'`xpãrc`ha` prbpr`j`ht fct` jdcs fdhs uh abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l chtãirdl bridhcsã du hbh

pdr uh` `htr`prcs` ·. A–`st l–chtãirdlctã fu abht`xt` quc djíh` l` abhsbjjdtùr ï

l–cjj`rscbh. A`ll`-ac `st pdr dcllùrs ebrt`j`ht `h rdppbrt dvà l`s abjpãt`ha`s `t l–ãtdt f`

abha`htrdtcbh fu abhsbjjdtùr. @h èe`t, fdhs a`rtdchs ads, l` amdldhf h` pdss` pds

hãa`ssdcr`j`ht pdr l`s bpãrdtcbhs f–dpprbprcdtcbh (`.i., abhsbjjdtùr mdnctuã bu `xp`rt). Cl plbhi` chstdhtdhãj`ht fdhs l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`. Fdhs l`s dutr`s ads, l`s chfcvcfus



33

s–cjj`ri`ht f` jdhcír` prbir`sscv` `t sbuv`ht pdrtc`ll` (`.i., abhsbjjdtùrs hbh mdnctuãs

bu fãnutdhts).

Dchsc, cl s`rdct plus dfãqudt f` pdrl`r f– « cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l · `t

hbh f– « cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh · adr l`s chfcvcfus h` p`rébcv`ht pds

l`s edatùrs quc abjpbs`ht l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–uh` edébh cf`htcqu` `t h`

j`tt`ht pds `h kù lùrs abjpãt`ha s̀ f` ld jëj` jdhcír`.



4??

ABHALPQCBH FP AMD_CV^@ CC

L`s i`stcbhhdcr`s f` jdrqu` sbht abha`rhãs pdr ld hbtcbh f'cjj`rscbh. Lùr rölàbhscst` f` plus `h plus ï rãuhcr l`s abhfctcbhs hãa`ssdcr`s pbur qu` l`s alc`hts vcv`ht uh`

`xpãrc`ha` pldcsdht` schbh chbunlcdnl`, f` edébh ï jbf`l`r lùrs abjpbrt`j`hts ï tbus l`s

pbchts f` r`habhtr` (Adró `t Abvd, >??5d 7 Qamjctt `t ^bi`rs, >??=). Fdhs l` abht`xt` fu

abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu`, l` sct` fbct rãpbhfr` dux dtt`ht`s, `xci`ha`s `t fãscrs `xpãrc`htc`ls f`s

cht`rhdut`s. L'usdi` f`s tàmhblbic`s cjj`rscv`s sur Cht`rh`t p`rj`tt`ht fãkï, `t p`rj`ttrbht

plus `habr`, f` iãhãr`r `t f` jdhdi`r f`s abht`xt`s `xpãrc`htc`ls fdhs l`squ`ls l`s

abhsbjjdtùrs pburrbht s'cjj`ri`r `t daaãf`r pl`ch`j`ht ï l–`xpãrc`ha`.

D l–chstdr f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts f` v`ht` aldsscqu`, l`s sct`s jdramdhfs pùv`ht

prbvbqu`r am`z l` abhsbjjdtùr f`s rãdatcbhs psyamblbicqu`s, ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t abihctcv`s

susa`ptcnl`s f` fãal`ham`r sbh cjj`rscbh. A`p`hfdht, a`tt` cjj`rscbh `st sbuv`ht pdrtc`ll` `t

chstdnl`. Cl h` s–dict pds f–uh` chfuatcbh ãjbtcbhh`ll` bu f–uh` cjj`rscbh chstdhtdhã` (l`

« plbhi`bh ·), jdcs nc`h f` jchc-ayal`s f–cjj`rscbh quc r`pbs`ht sur ld jcs` `h őuvr` f`

abjpãt`ha`s prbpr`s ï l–chfcvcfu. @h èe`t, l`s chfcvcfus l`s plus dpt`s ï vcvr` uh` `xpãrc`ha`

cjj`rscv` sbht l`s chfcvcfus l`s plus `xp`rts `t l`s plus mdnctuãs dvà f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts

tmãîtrdlcsãs `t jcs `h saíh` pdr l`s `htr`prcs`s (Adró `t Abvd, >??1 7 >??5d). Ph` `xpãrc`ha`

cjj`rscv` `st a`ll` quc s` jdhce`st` ï trdv`rs l`s fcj`hscbhs f` l–cjj`rscbh, hbtdjj`ht, ld

fcj`hscbh ãjbtcbhh`ll`, sbacdl`, pmyscqu`, abihctcv`, `t p`ra`ptu`ll` (Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-

Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf, >??5 7 >??=).

A` amdpctr` jbhtr` qu` pbur qu` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` dct lcù, cl `st

chfcsp`hsdnl` f` rãuhcr l`s abhfctcbhs edvbrdnl`s ï sbh dnbutcss`j`ht. @h èe`t, `ll` rãsult`

f`s stcjuldtcbhs f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf, quc ebht hdctr` f`s rãdatcbhs abihctcv`s,

deeàtcv`s, ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t sbacdl`s, am`z l` abhsbjjdtùr. L`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s

fu sct` jdramdhf p`rj`tt`ht `htr`-dutr`, ï l–cht`rhdut` l` abhtröl` fu fãrbul`j`ht f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`, uh` abhfctcbh cjpbrtdht` schbh prcjbrfcdl` pbur l–daaís ï l–cjj`rscbh.

Ld abjnchdcsbh f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`, prbvbqu` uh` `xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`

`h lcih` dssbacã` ï f`s ãjbtcbhs ï ld ebcs pbsctcv`s `t hãidtcv`s.



4?4

L–cjj`rscbh `st uh abha`pt prbam` jdcs fcstchat fu elbw, f` l–ãvdscbh `t f` ld

tãlãprãs`ha`. @ll` abhstctu` ï ld ebcs uh prba`ssus `t uh ãtdt `t `ll` `st abhfctcbhhã` pdr l`s

datcbhs `t l`s cht`rdatcbhs fu abhsbjjdtùr fdhs l` abht`xt` abjj`racdl, jcs `h saíh` pdr

l–`htr`prcs`. L–cjj`rscbh s` prbfuct sbct fdhs l`s pbchts f` v`ht` aldsscqu`s sbct fdhs l`s sct`s

jdramdhfs `t hbtdjj`ht ï l–dcf` f`s tàmhcqu`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sur Cht`rh`t. Ld

stcjuldtcbh f`s rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t deeàtcv`s f`s cht`rhdut`s abhfuct ï l`s cjj`ri`r

fdhs f`s abht`xt`s `h lcih` fãlcjctãs `t tmãjdtcsãs. Hbus pdrlbhs dlbrs f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`

abht`xt` ̀ xpãrc`htc`l.

Ld eciur` ac-f`ssbus t`ht` f` samãjdtcs`r l–`hs`jnl` f`s abha`pts dnbrfãs fdhs a`

amdpctr`.

Eciur` 9 ; L–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`

Qtcjulc vcrtu`ls ; @hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l

Qtcjulc j`htdux; ãjbtcbhh`ls,sbacdux, abihctces, ̀ t s`hsbrc`ls

Cjj`rscbh pmyscqu`

Dpprbprcdtcbh

Elbw

Cjj`rscbh psyamblbicqu`

Vãlãprãs`ha`

Cjj`rscbhtbtdl`

Jchc ayal`sf–cjj`rscbh



4?>

_ ^ @ J C @ ^ @ _ D ^ V C @









F@ ABHQBJJDVCBH

F @ P ] C @

J @ _ D ^ V C @



4?1

L@Q ABJ_BQDHV@Q F@L–@HUC^BHH@J@HV @]_@^C@HVC@L

@H LCIH@



4?6

CHV^BFPAVCBH FP AMD_CV^@ CCC

L`s sct`s f` jdrqu`s abhstctu`ht dukburf–muc, l–uh f`s edatùrs alãs fu suaaís pbur l`

fãv`lbpp`j`ht f–uh` `htr`prcs` `t ld idrdhtc` f` sd pãr`hhctã. L`s qu`stcbhs lcã`s ïl–èecadactã `t ld qudlctã f`s sct`s w`n abjj`racdux sbht du aőur f`s prãbaaupdtcbhs f`s

prbe`sscbhh`ls fu `-jdrg`tchi. Ëtr` prãs`ht sur ld tbcl` h–`st pds dcsã, uh sct` jdramdhf fbct

tbukburs vãrcec`r s`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s ebhatcbhh`ll`s `t `xpãrc`htc`ll`s dech f` idrdhtcr sd

vcscnclctã `t sbh suaaís.

Qcjcldcr`j`ht dux pbchts f` v`ht` pmyscqu`s, l`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs sbht fãsbrjdcs

tmãîtrdlcsãs. @h èe`t, l`s pbchts f` v`ht` vcrtu`ls fcspbs`ht f` abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s `h

lcih`, quc abhtrcnu`ht ï lùr tmãjdtcsdtcbh `t ï lùr jcs` `h saíh`. Ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh

trdhsebrj` l` pbcht f` v`ht` vcrtu`l `h uh` dcr` f–`hamdht`j`ht p`rjdh`ht bó l`s cht`rhdut`s

sbht l`s datùrs. Fdhs a`tt` p`rspàtcv`, l–chtãirdtcbh f`s fcs pbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` ï

Cht`rh`t, abhtrcnu` ï ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh f`s jdidschs `h lcih` quc j`tt`ht `h saíh` l`s

abjpbsdht`s ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll`s abhstctutcv`s f` l–dtjbspmír` jdramdhf`.

A` amdpctr` s` prbpbs` f–cf`htcec`r `t f` fãechcr l`s edatùrs susa`ptcnl`s f–chfucr`

l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih`. Cl s–dict f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` jdramdhf, hbtdjj`ht

l`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`.

Fdhs uh` pr`jcír` sàtcbh, hbus prãs`htbhs ld abhtrcnutcbh f` l–ãtuf` f` l–dtjbspmír`

fdhs l–dpprbam` `xpãrc`htc`ll`, fãv`lbppã` fdhs l` abht`xt` fu abjj`ra` trdfctcbhh`l `t fdhs

l` abht`xt` f–Cht`rh`t. _ucs, hbus hbus dttdrf`rbhs sur l` röl` kbuã pdr l` abhtröl` p`réu `h tdht

qu` f`t`rjchdht f` l–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`.

_dr ld suct`, hbus dnbrfbhs ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, hbtdjj`ht, sd fãechctcbh `t s`s

dpplcadtcbhs, pbur t`ht`r f` ld abha`ptudlcs`r fdhs l` abht`xt` fu jdrg`tchi sur Cht`rh`t.

@hech, a` amdpctr` fcstchiu` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` fu abha`pt f–myp`r -rãdlctã, pucs cl

s` p`ham` sur l`s fcspbsctces quc abhtrcnu`ht ï fãal`ham`r l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` ;

l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` jdramdhf. Hbus alöturbhs a` amdpctr` pdr uh`

typblbic` f`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`.



4?0

C. L–dtjbspmír` f` v`ht`

Ld arãdtcbh f–uh` dtjbspmír` quc r`pbs` prchacpdl`j`ht sur l` nbh s`hs f`s

r`spbhsdnl`s f` jdidschs `t sur ld jdhcpuldtcbh f` qu`lqu`s abjpbsdht`s h–`st plusf'datudlctã (L`jbch`, >??6). Ph n`sbch f` tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh `t f` jcs` `h saíh` f`s pbchts f`

v`ht` pr`hf f` plus `h plus f–cjpbrtdha`, `h rdcsbh f` l–cjpdat f`s dttrcnuts dtjbspmãrcqu`s

sur l`s rãdatcbhs `t l`s abjpbrt`j`hts f`s abhsbjjdtùrs `t sur l` amceer` f–deedcr` qu–cls

pùv`ht `hi`hfr`r pbur l`s jdrqu`s. L–dtjbspmír` f`s pbchts f` v`ht` `st n`l `t nc`h uh`

vdrcdnl` strdtãicqu` abjj`racdl` (L`jbch`, >??0). L`s i`stcbhhdcr`s f` jdrqu`s fbcv`ht y

rãelãamcr sarupulùs`j`ht ï amdqu` ebcs qu–cls sbumdct`ht jdhdi`r lùrs jdidschs `h sctudtcbh

rã`ll` bu vcrtu`ll`.

Fdhs a`tt` pdrtc` hbus dllbhs hbus chtãr`ss`r ï l–dtjbspmír` f` v`ht` ï trdv`rs l`s

fãechctcbhs trbuvã`s fdhs ld lcttãrdtur`. Hbus prãs`ht`rbhs suaa`sscv`j`ht l–dtjbspmír` f`s

pbchts f` v`ht` pmyscqu`s `t l–dtjbspmír` f`s pbchts f` v`ht` ̀ h lcih`.

C.4. L–dtjbspmír` f`s pbchts f` v`ht` pmyscqu`s

L` abha`pt f–dtjbspmír` f` v`ht` abhstctu` uh amdjp f–chv`stcidtcbh f–uh` irdhf`

cjpbrtdha`, quc dttcr` l–chtãrët f`s am`ramùrs `h abjpbrt`j`ht fu abhsbjjdtùr (`.i.,

M`lj`-Iuczbh, >??4 7 L`jbch`, >??=) `t `h psyamblbic` `hvcrbhh`j`htdl` (`.i., J`mrdncdh

`t ûss`ll, 4396), f`pucs l`s dhhã`s 435? ï dukburf–muc (Vurl`y `t Jcllcjdh, >???).

C.4.4. Fãechctcbhs

Gbtl`r (4391-4396) fãechct l–dtjbspmír` f` v`ht` abjj` « ld arãdtcbh f'uh

`hvcrbhh`j`ht f'damdt prbfucsdht f`s èe`ts ãjbtcbhh`ls spãacecqu`s am`z l'chfcvcfu

susa`ptcnl`s f'duij`ht`r sd prbndnclctã f'damdt ·. Cl s–dict f–uh stcjulus qu` j`t `h plda` ld

jdrqu` `h vu` f–`hal`ham`r f`s rãpbhs`s ãjbtcbhh`ll`s, deeàtcv`s `t abihctcv`s. A`s

rãpbhs`s `htrdèh`ht uh` ãvdludtcbh f` ld pdrt f`s abhsbjjdtùrs quc vd `hi`hfr`r f`s

rãdatcbhs abjpbrt`j`htdl`s `hv`rs l` jdidsch, ld jdrqu` `t l` prbfuct / s`rvca` (`.i.,

Fbhbvdh `t ^bssct`r, 43=> 7 M`lj`-Iuczbh, >??4 7 Fdcl`y, >??6 7 L`jbch`, >??=).

L–dtjbspmír` f` v`ht` `st uh abha`pt jultcfcj`hscbhh`l (Imdrnc, @ttcs `t N`h

Jcjbuh, >??>). @h èe`t, l` pbcht f` v`ht` `st uh` jcs` `h saíh` f` l–`spda` f` v`ht` f`



4?5

prbfucts (M`tz`l, >??>). A`tt` jcs` `h saíh` s–`xãaut` ï trdv`rs f`s dttrcnuts dtjbspmãrcqu`s.

Jcllcjdh `t Euidt` (4331) fãechcss`ht l`s fcj`hscbhs f` l'dtjbspmír` abjj` ãtdht l'`hs`jnl`

f`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht f–damdt tbuamdht l` amdjp p`ra`ptu`l f` l–chfcvcfu `t

adpdnl` f` stcjul`r s`s s`hs (Imdrnc, @ttcs `t N`h Jcjbuh, >??>). L–dtjbspmír` f–damdt `st

ld rãsultdht` f` l–cht`rdatcbh `htr` a`s fcj`hscbhs qu` l` i`stcbhhdcr` f` ld jdrqu` vd

sbuj`ttr` du abhsbjjdtùr.

_luscùrs fcj`hscbhs fãt`rjch`ht l'dtjbspmír` fu pbcht f` v`ht`; ld fcj`hscbh

vcsu`ll`, ld fcj`hscbh dufctcv`, ld fcj`hscbh bledatcv`, ld fcj`hscbh tdatcl` `t ld fcj`hscbh

iustdtcv`. Vbutèbcs, cl `xcst` f`s ãlãj`hts `ss`htc`ls quc fãt`rjch`ht l'dtjbspmír` fu jdidsch

(Uràmbpbulbs, Dpbstblbu `t Gbutscburcs, >??3). A` sbht hbtdjj`ht, l`s cjdi`s (vctrch`,

rdybhs, `ta.) `t l`s ãj`ttùrs s`hsbrc`ls fu jdidsch (sbh, bfùr, `ta.), quc abhtrcnu`ht ï ld

tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh `t ï ld jcs` `h saíh` f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf (L`wcsbh, 4336).

L'uh f`s edatùrs l s̀ plus cjpbrtdhts f` l–dtjbspmír` fu jdidsch `st l'di`ha`j`ht f s̀

jdidschs qu–bh pùt aldss`r `h trbcs adtãibrc`s spãacecqu`s (`.i., Uràmbpbulbs `t dl., >??3) ;

- Ph drrdhi`j`ht ràtdhiuldcr` f`s rdybhs `t f`s dllã`s, iãhãrdl`j`ht pdrdllíl`s l`s uh`s

dux dutr`s

- Ph` bridhcsdtcbh lcnr` f`s dllã`s dj`hdht ï uh ãabul`j`ht dutbhbj` `t dsyjãtrcqu` f`s

alc`hts

- Ph` rãpdrtctcbh f` ld sureda` f` v`ht` `h nlbas chfcvcfu`ls dvà sãpdrdtcbh f`s zbh`s `t

deeàtdtcbh ï amdauh` f–`ll`s f'uh tmíj` pdrtcaulc`r bu, f–uh` djncdha` pdrtcaulcír`

p`rj`ttdht f–`hidi`r l`s vcsctùrs ï trdv`rs f`s am`jchs spãacecqu`s prããtdnlcs pdr ld

jdrqu`.

L`s fcj`hscbhs f` l–dtjbspmír` fu pbcht f` v`ht` r`prãs`ht`ht pdr abhsãqu`ht,

l–`hs`jnl` f`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht f–damdt qu` p`rébct l–chfcvcfu `t quc sbht

adpdnl`s f` stcjul`r s`s s`hs (Jcllcjdh `t Euidt`, 4331 7 _`l`t, >??= 7 F`cimtbh `t Irdysbh,4330 7 L`jbch`, >??=). Cl s–dict hbtdjj`ht, f` ld juscqu` (`.i., ^cùhc`r, 433= 7 Bdg`s `t

Hbrtm >??= 7 Udaadrb `t dl., >??=), ld lujchbsctã (`.i., N`llczzc `t Mct`, 433>), ld abulùr (`.i.,

Vurl`y `t Jcllcjdh, >???), l–bfùr (`.i., Udaadrb `t dl., >??3), l` fãabr (L`jbch`, >??1), ld

ebul` `t l` hcv`du f–`habjnr`j`ht fdhs l` jdidsch (`.i., Fcbh-L` J``, 433=), `ta.

Fdhs a` quc suct, hbus prãs`htbhs fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps l–`hs`jnl` f`s dttrcnuts

dtjbspmãrcqu`s fu pbcht f` v`ht` aldsscqu` `t lùr röl` cjpbrtdht fdhs ld arãdtcbh f` ld

rãpbhs` abihctcv` `t deeàtcv` `t fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps, l` abjpbrt`j`ht fu abhsbjjdtùrsur plda`.



4?9

C.4.>. L`s typblbic`s f` ld aldsscecadtcbh f`s dttrcnuts `hvcrbhh`j`htdux

F` hbjnrùx am`ramùrs bht sbulcihã ld jultcplcactã f`s dttrcnuts `hvcrbhh`j`htdux(`.i., Fbhbvdh `t ^bssct`r, 43=> 7 Ndg`r `t dl., 4336) 7 a` quc d `hi`hfrã uh hbjnr` ãl`vã f`

trdvdux f` ràm`ram` abhsdarãs ï a` suk`t. L–`hs`jnl` f` a`s trdvdux s` rãeír`ht du pdrdfcij`

Q-B-^ (stcjulus-bridhcsj`-rãpbhs̀ ) f` J`mrdncdh `t ûss`ll (4396). Cls sbht uhdhcj`s sur l`

edct qu` tbut` fcj`hscbh `hvcrbhh`j`htdl` ( stcjulus), cjpdat` l`s rãdatcbhs f`s suk`ts

( ^ãpbhs`), vcd lùrs ãjbtcbhs (Bridhcsj`) (L`jbch`, >??0 7 >??=). A`s fcj`hscbhs

p`rj`tt`ht f–cf`htcec`r pluscùrs aldsscecadtcbhs j`ttdht `h ãvcf`ha` l`s prchacpdl`s

abjpbsdht`s `hvcrbhh`j`htdl`s f`s pbchts f` v`ht` (`.i., Ndg`r, 43=5 7 4336 7 N`rjdh `t

@vdhs, 4330 7 F–Dstbus, >??? 7 Vurl`y `t Jcllcjdh, >??? 7 Ndg`r, _drdsurdjdh, Ir`wdl `t

Ubss, >??>). _dr dcllùrs, Fduaã `t ^cùhc`r (>??>) cf`htcec`ht uh typ` f–dttrcnuts

cjp`ra`ptcnl`s du tbuam`r `t fãscih`ht pdr « dtjbspmír` · l–`hs`jnl` f`s ãlãj`hts

chtdhicnl`s quc s` trbuv`ht ï prbxcjctã fu prbfuct v`hfu.

Fdhs sbh drtcal` pcbhhc`r, Ndg`r (43=5) fcstchiu` trbcs adtãibrc`s f` edatùrs

`hvcrbhh`j`htdux ; l`s edatùrs f–djncdha` (ld juscqu`, ld lujcír`, l`s bfùrs, `ta.), l`s

edatùrs f` f`scih (l–dramctàtur`, ld tdcll` fu jdidsch, l–di`ha`j`ht, l–daaís dux prbfucts,

`ta.) `t l`s edatùrs sbacdux (ld ebul`, l–djdnclctã f`s alc`hts `t fu p`rsbhh`l, ld fcspbhcnclctã `t

ld s`rvcdnclctã f`s `jplbyãs, `ta.) (`.i., Ndg`r, 43=5 7 Ncth`r, 433> 7 L`jbch`, >??1 7 >??=).

F–dutr`s trdvdux sbulcih`ht f`s dttrcnuts lcãs ï l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xt`rh` du jdidsch (`.i.,

N`rjdh `t @vdhs, 4330), ï sdvbcr l`s abjjbfctãs dux dl`htburs fu pbcht f` v`ht`, ld tdcll` fu

nîtcj`ht bó s` trbuv` l` jdidsch, sd abulùr, l`s kdrfchs, l–`jplda`j`ht, l`s pdrgchis, l`

trdeca, l`s jdidschs vbcschs, `ta. N`rjdh `t @vdhs (4330) abjplít`ht lùr typblbic` pdr l`s

vdrcdnl`s cht`rh`s du jdidsch (l`s `sadlc`rs, l` sbl, l`s stcjulc s`hsbrc`ls, ld prãs`htdtcbh f`s

prbfucts), l–djãhdi`j`ht fu jdidsch (l` elux f` acrauldtcbh, l–`jplda`j`ht f`s adcss`s,

l–dttrcnutcbh `t l` pdrtdi` f` l–`spda`, l–djãhdi`j`ht f`s rdybhs `t f`s prãs`htbcrs, l`s sdll`s

f–dtt`ht`s, `ta.) `t ld fãabrdtcbh chtãrcùr` fu jdidsch (ld fãabrdtcbh f`s jurs, l`s deecam`s, l`s

pmbtbs, ld scihdlãtcqu`, `ta.) (Vbuzdhc `t dl., >??9).

Vurl`y `t Jcllcjdh (>???) `hrcamcss`ht ld aldsscecadtcbh f` N`rjdh `t @vdhs (4330) `h

chtãirdht uh achqucíj` dttrcnut ; ld vdrcdnl` mujdch`. A` hbuv`du pdrdjítr` pr`hf `h abjpt`,

hbtdjj`ht, l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s f`s `jplbyãs `t f`s alc`hts, lùr hbjnr` `t lùr `jplda`j`ht

(Vbuzdhc `t dl., >??9). Fduaã `t ^cùhc`r (>??>) rãfucs`ht l` hbjnr` f–dttrcnuts ï fùxirdhf`s adtãibrc`s. F–dnbrf, l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht pmyscqu` quc `st abjpbsã f`s fceeãr`hts



4?=

edatùrs s`hsbrc`ls `t l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht sbacdl fu jdidsch quc tc`ht abjpt` f`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s

f`s v`hfùrs `t f`s alc`hts `t f` ld i`stcbh f` ld ebul`. Cf`htcqu`j`ht, Jgmchchc (>??>)

prbpbs` uh` aldsscecadtcbh ï fùx adtãibrc`s. A`tt` aldsscecadtcbh s` rdpprbam` ebrt`j`ht f`s

trdvdux f` N`rjdh `t @vdhs (4330) `t f` Vurl`y `t Jcllcjdh (>???). Cl s–dict f`s ãlãj`hts

`xt`rh`s `t f`s ãlãj`hts cht`rh`s fu jdidsch.

@hech, cl hbus s`jnl` cjpbrtdht f–chalur` fdhs a`tt` syhtmís` uh dutr` typ` f–dttrcnuts

f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf scihdlã pdr F–Dstbus (>???). A`luc-ac j`t `h ãvcf`ha` f`s

edatùrs `hvcrbhh`j`htdux crrctdhts susa`ptcnl`s f–dicr hãidtcv`j`ht sur l`s ãjbtcbhs `t l`s

rãdatcbhs f`s alc`hts fdhs l` pbcht f` v`ht`. Cl l`s aldss` `h trbcs adtãibrc`s ;

- L`s edatùrs f–djncdha` crrctdhts t`ls qu` l`s jduvdcs`s bfùrs, lujchbsctã chdfãqudt`,

juscqu` nruydht`, uh` t`jpãrdtur` chdfãqudt`, l–ãtdt f–chsdlunrctã fu jdidsch

- l`s edatùrs f` f`scih crrctdhts (uh` jduvdcs` scihdlãtcqu`, uh` dramctàtur` fãsdirãdnl`, ld

tdcll` r`str`cht` fu jdidsch, l–daaís fceecacl` dux prbfucts, `ta.)

- l`s edatùrs sbacdux crrctdhts t`ls qu–uh jdidsch surpùplã, f`s `hedhts turnul`hts `t uh

p`rsbhh`l chfceeãr`ht bu chfcspbhcnl` (Vbuzdhc `t dl., >??9).

L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus syhtmãtcs` l`s fceeãr`ht`s aldsscecadtcbhs qu` hbus dvbhs trbuvã`s

fdhs ld lcttãrdtur`.



4?3

Dutùr Edatùrs (aldsscecadtcbh)

Ndg`r (4335)- L`s edatùrs f–djncdha` f` l–`spda` f` v`ht`- L`s edatùrs f` f`scih- L`s edatùrs sbacdux fu jdidsch

Ncth`r (433>)- L` f`scih fu pbcht f` v`ht`- L–djncdha` fu pbcht f` v`ht` - L`s abjpbsdht`s sbacdl`s fu pbcht f` v`ht`

N`rjdh `t @vdhs (4330)

- Edatùrs `xt`rh`s du pbcht f` v`ht`- Edatùr cht`rh` fu pbcht f` v`ht`- F`scih fu pbcht f` v`ht`- Di`ha`j`ht fu pbcht f` v`ht`- Fãabrdtcbh fu pbcht f` v`ht`

Vurl`y `t Jcllcjdh (>???)

- L`s vdrcdnl`s ̀ xt`rh`s- L`s vdrcdnl`s cht`rh`s iãhãrdl`s

- L` f`scih `t l–djãhdi`j`ht f` l–`spda` - Ld fãabrdtcbh `t l–djãhdi`j`ht fu pbcht f` v`ht`- L`s edatùrs mujdchs fu jdidsch

F–dstbus (>???)

L`s edatùrs `hvcrbhh`j`htdux crrctdhts ;- L`s edatùrs f–djncdha` crrctdhts fu pbcht f` v`ht` - L`s edatùrs f` f`scih crrctdhts fu jdidsch- L`s edatùrs sbacdux f` l–`spda` jdramdhf

Fduaã `t ^cùhc`r (>??>)- L–`hvcrbhh`j`ht pmyscqu` ; edatùrs s`hsbrc`ls (l`s

edatùrs tdatcl`s, sbhbr`s, iustdtces, bledatces `t vcsu`ls)- L–`hvcrbhh`j`ht sbacdl fu jdidsch ; l`s edatùrs sbacdux

Jgmchchc (>??>)- L`s ãlãj`hts `xt`rh`s du pbcht f` v`ht`- L`s ãlãj`hts cht`rh`s fu jdidsch

Vdnl`du 4? ; Ld aldsscecadtcbh f`s dttrcnuts dtjbspmãrcqu`s f`s pbchts f` v`ht`trdfctcbhh`ls

L`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–dtjbspmír` f` v`ht` hburrcss`ht l–`hs`jnl` f`s dtt`ht`s

s`hsbrc`ll`s fu abhsbjjdtùr. @ll`s p`rj`tt`ht du i`stcbhhdcr` f` ld jdrqu` f–cjprãih`r

l–`spda` jdramdhf f` sdvùrs bu f–crrctdtcbhs quc `hidi`ht bu fãs`hidi`ht l` amdldhf.

L–dtjbspmír` jdramdhf` abhstctu` uh jcxdi` abjpl`x` f` tbut`s l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s

`hvcrbhh`j`htdl`s bnãcssdht ï uh` lcst` chechc` f` pbsscnclctãs bó s–`xprcj`ht l`s abhfctcbhs

djncdht`s, l–di`ha`j`ht, ld ebhatcbhhdlctã spdtcdl`, l`s scih`s, l`s syjnbl`s `t l`s drtèdats

(Ncth`r, 433>). Ld abjnchdcsbh f`s fceeãr`hts edatùrs abhfuct ï ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh fu pbcht f`

v`ht` quc `hi`hfr` ld abhsbjjdtcbh mãfbhcst` (Mblnrbbg `t Mcrsamjdh, 43=>). A`ll`-ac s`

rãeír` dux jultcpl`s eda`tt`s fu abjpbrt`j`ht fu alc`ht chelu`haã pdr f`s ãjdhdtcbhs

jultcs`hsbrc`ll`s `t ãjbtcbhh`ll`s qu–cl ràu`cll` lbrs f` sbh `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh

(N`h [buncr, >??=).



44?

C.>. L–dtjbspmír` f`s pbchts f` v`ht` vcrtu`ls

L` jdidschdi` sur Cht`rh`t `st l'uh` f`s ebrj`s l`s plus pbpuldcr`s f–damdt mbrsjdidschs aldsscqu`s. A`tt` dlt`rhdtcv` `st fbha chtãr`ssdht` adr '`ll` beer` pluscùrs dvdhtdi`s

pbur l` abhsbjjdtùr. L` jdidschdi` pdr Cht`rh`t `st p`réu abjj` ãtdht l'uh` f`s jãtmbf`s

l`s plus abjjbf`s f` smbppchi (JaGchh`y, >??6). A` jbf` f` amdldhfdi` idih` `h

pbpuldrctã irîa` ï l'uh f` s`s dttrcnuts l`s plus edvbrdnl`s ; ld pbsscnclctã f` jdidsch`r fdhs l`

abhebrt f` sd jdcsbh ï tbut` mùr` fu kbur. L`s cht`rhdut`s-abhsbjjdtùrs bht dlbrs ld

pbsscnclctã f` ràm`ram`r f`s prbfucts `t f` abjpdr`r lùrs prcx `htr` l`s sct`s abjj`racdux,

dchsc qu–`htr` l`s jdidschs aldsscqu`s.

Vbutèbcs, jdlirã lùr ebrt` prãs`ha` sur l` rãs`du Cht`rh`t, l`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs

bht uh` dramctàtur` trís s`jnldnl` dux jdidschs trdfctcbhh`ls. @h èe`t, l`s jdidschs vcrtu`ls

sbht di`haãs f` jdhcír` ï p`rj`ttr` ï l–cht`rhdut` f–y hdvciu`r fdhs l`s j`cllùr`s

abhfctcbhs. Uràmbpbulbs `t dl. (>??3) `xplcqu`ht qu` l–djãhdi`j`ht f–uh sct` w`n jdramdhf

pùt pr`hfr` trbcs ebrj`s ;

Ph` jcs` `h pdi` « Mun · ; l`s alc`hts fbcv`ht pdss`r pdr uh mun (c.`., ld pdi` f'daau`cl,

l` adtdlbiu` f`s prbfucts) pbur pdss`r f–uh` adtãibrc` f` prbfucts ï uh` dutr` `h

r`spàtdht uh` struatur` mcãrdramcqu`

Ph` jcs` `h pdi` «pcp`lch`· ; l`s alc`hts pùv`ht daaãf`r ï amdqu` adtãibrc` f`

prbfucts fdhs l` jdidsch fcràt`j`ht, `h utclcsdht l`s lc`hs jultcpl`s eburhcs ï amdqu`

pdi` w`n f` ld nbutcqu`

L`s «vbc`s fcràtrca`s· ; l`s alc`hts sbht iucfãs pdr l` systíj` pbur hdvciu`r ï trdv`rs

f`s am`jch`j`hts spãacecqu`s `h vu` f'dtt`chfr` l`s prbfucts qu'cls sbumdct`ht.

Amdqu` jdidsch vcrtu`l pbssíf` sbh prbpr` `hvcrbhh`j`ht, hbus pdrlbhs ãidl`j`ht

f–dtjbspmír` fu sct` w`n.

C.>.4. Fãechctcbhs

L–cjpbrtdha` f` l–dtjbspmír` fu pbcht f` v`ht` `t sbh cjpdat sur l`s rãdatcbhs

deeàtcv`s, ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t abjpbrt`j`htdl`s, fdhs l` abht`xt` fu abjj`ra` trdfctcbhh`l, h`

sbht plus ï fãjbhtr`r (Fdcl`y, >??6 7 L`jbch`, >??6, >??0, >??=). @h èe`t, a` abha`pt d edct



444

l–bnk`t f–uh hbjnr` abhscfãrdnl` f` ràm`ram`s `t d edct s`s prùv`s `h jdtcír` f` f`sarcptcbh

jchutcùs` f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht f` v`ht` (Fbhbvdh `t dl., 4336 7 @rbilu `t dl., >??4, >??1). Qd

trdhspbsctcbh du abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu` s`jnl` prãs`ht`r f`s dvdhtdi`s cjpbrtdhts dutdht

pbur l`s am r̀amùrs qu` pbur l s̀ prbe`sscbhh l̀s `h jdrg`tchi sur Cht`rh`t (L`jbch`, >??=).

Fdcl`y (>??6) jbfcec` ld fãechctcbh f` l–dtjbspmír` f`s jdidschs Nrcag dhf Jbrtdr f`

Gbtl`r (4391), `ll` fãechct l–dtjbspmír` f`s sct`s w`n abjj` « ld abha`ptcbh abhsac`ht` f`s

`hvcrbhh`j`hts w`n pbur susact`r f`s èe`ts (deeàt, ãjbtcbhs `t abihctcbhs) pbsctces f` ld pdrt

f` l–utclcsdtùr fdhs l` nut f` arã`r f`s rãpbhs`s edvbrdnl`s ·. A`tt` fãechctcbh abhstctu` uh`

dfdptdtcbh f` ld fãechctcbh brcichdl` f` Gbtl`r (4391). @h èe`t, uh` irdhf` pdrtc` f` ld

ràm`ram` `h jdrg`tchi s–daabrf` pbur `htr`pr`hfr` f`s trdvdux sur ld trdhspbsctcbh du

abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu` f`s rãsultdts cssus fu abjj`ra` pmyscqu` (`.i., Ubll`, >??? 7 Vurl`y

`t Jcllcjdh, >??? 7 M`lj`-Iuczbh, >??4 7 @rbilu `t dl., >??1 7 L`jbch`, >??=).

Imdrnc, @ttcs `t N`h Jcjbuh (>??>, p. 4=6) fãechcss`ht l–dtjbspmír` fu sct`

abjj` ; l–`hs`jnl ̀ f`s ãlãj`hts f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l f–damdt tbuamdht l` amdjp

p`ra`ptu`l f` l–chfcvcfu `t adpdnl`s f` sbllcact`r `t f` stcjul`r s s̀ s`hs. Ph sct` Y`n rãussc `st

uh sct` jdramdhf quc abjnch` l–`hs`jnl` f`s dttrcnuts susa`ptcnl` f` prbvbqu`r uh` rãdatcbh

edvbrdnl` f` ld pdrt fu vcsctùr. Cl s–dict f` prbpbs`r f`s ebrjdts aldcrs quc p`rj`tt`ht ï

l–cht`rhdut` f` rãablt`r edacl`j`ht f`s chebrjdtcbhs sur l`s prbfucts. L` sct` jdramdhf fbct

rãusscr ï prãs`ht`r f` hbjnrùx r`hs`cih`j`hts sdhs hby`r l` vcsctùr (Csdda `t Ubll`, >?44).

C.>.>. Ld aldsscecadtcbh f`s dttrcnuts ̀ hvcrbhh`j`htdux sur Cht`rh`t

Cf`htcqu`j`ht dux `hvcrbhh`j`hts jdramdhfs fu abjj`ra` trdfctcbhh`l, f`s dttrcnuts

dtjbspmãrcqu`s prbpr`s dux sct`s jdramdhfs bht ãtã aldsscecãs (@rbilu `t dl, >??47 Fdcl`y,

>??6 7 L`jbch`, >??=). A`p`hfdht, ld ràm`ram` sur l–dtjbspmír` f`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs d

ãtã qu`lqu` pù lcjctã`, prchacpdl`j`ht `h rdcsbh f` ld hbuv`dutã fu suk`t.

Fùx vcscbhs jbhtr`ht qu–cl `xcst` uh` vrdc` prbnlãjdtcqu` sur l`s abjpbsdht`s

dtjbspmãrcqu`s f`s sct`s jdramdhfs. A`tt` sctudtcbh `st vrdcs`jnldnl`j`ht fu` du

amdhi`j`ht rdfcadl qu–d sunc l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu w`n du aburs f` ld f`rhcír` fãa`hhc`

(Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, >??3).

L`s pr`jc`rs jbfíl`s cllustrdht l–cjpdat f` l–dtjbspmír` fu pbcht f` v`ht` vcrtu`l sur

l`s rãdatcbhs f`s abhsbjjdtùrs `t sur lùrs abjpbrt`j`hts bht ãtã chtrbfucts pdr Fdcl`y

(4333) `t @rbilu `t dl. (>??4). A`s trdvdux s` sbht ndsãs sur l` pdrdfcij` Q-B-^ (stcjulus-bridhcsj`-rãpbhs`) f` J`mrdncdh `t ûss`ll (4396). Vurl`y `t Jcllcjdh (>???) bht prbpbsã



44>

l–dpprbam` Q-B-^ abjj` adfr` pbur `xdjch`r l`s èe`ts f` l'dtjbspmír` fu jdidsch sur l`

abjpbrt`j`ht alc`ht. A` adfr` d jbhtrã qu` l`s vdrcdnl`s dtjbspmãrcqu`s dicss`ht abjj` uh

stcjuldht pbur l`s `jplbyãs `t l`s alc`hts (bridhcsj`s), a` quc l`s djíh` ï rãdicr (rãpbhs`).

@h èe`t, l`s dttrcnuts dtjbspmãrcqu`s chelu`ha`ht l`s abhsbjjdtùrs `h jbfcecdht lùrs

rãdatcbhs abihctcv`s `t deeàtcv`s, quc ï lùr tbur, bht f`s èe`ts sur l`s abjpbrt`j`hts

f–dpprbam` bu f'ãvct`j`ht `hv`rs l` sct` jdramdhf. L`s abjpbrt`j`hts f'dpprbam` bu

f–ãvct`j`ht abhstctu`ht hbtdjj`ht, l` t`jps pdssã p`hfdht ld hdvcidtcbh sur l` sct`, l` r`tbur

sur l` sct`, `ta.

Fdcl`y (>??6) `t Amclf`rs `t dl. (>??4), chtrbfucs`ht l` t`rj` « w`njbspm`rcas · pbur

fãscih`r l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu jdidsch vcrtu`l sur Cht`rh`t 7 sbct l–ãqucvdl`ht ï l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

pmyscqu` f`s pbchts f` v`ht` rã`ls. Cl `st fbha f` plus `h plus dfjcs f` ràburcr du pdrdfcij`

Q-B-^ pbur jbfãlcs`r l'cjpdat f`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s dtjbspmãrcqu`s f'uh sct` Y`n sur l`s

rãdatcbhs f`s cht`rhdut`s (Amdhi `t dl., >??> 7 ^camdrf, >??0 7 L`jbch`, >??= 7 Gbb `t dl.,

>??3). L`s abjpbsdht`s dtjbspmãrcqu`s f–uh sct` w`n sbht abjpdrdnl`s ï a`ll`s f–uh

jdidsch aldsscqu`. @ll`s pùv`ht ëtr` fãechc`s abjj` f`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–cht`reda` w`n

pucsqu–`ll`s stcjul`ht l` amdjp s`hsbrc`l f`s alc`hts (M`lj`-Iuczbh, >??4).

Ld sàbhf` dpprbam` prbpbs` f` s–`xtrdcr` f`s jbfíl`s aldsscqu`s fdhs ld f`sarcptcbh

f` l–dtjbspmír` fu pbcht f` v`ht` `t sbulcih` ld ruptur` `htr` l` rã`l `t l` vcrtu`l (`.i., Lcdhi

`t Ldc, >??4 7 Mdusjdh `t Qc`gp`, >??3 7 Gbb `t dl., >??3, Md `t Qtb`l, >??3). Mdusjdh `t

Qc`gp` (>??3) chtíir`ht l` jbfíl` f–daa`ptdtcbh f` ld tàmhblbic` f` Fdvcs (4==3) fdhs lùr

rãel`xcbh, `h prblbhi`dht l–dtjbspmír` f` v`ht` `h lcih` ï l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht f` l–brfchdtùr.

L–dtjbspmír` f` v`ht` s–daarbèt, pucsqu` qu–`ll` chalut hbtdjj`ht, l`s edatùrs tàmhcqu`s

quc tc`hh`ht abjpt` f` ld ebhatcbhhdlctã fu sct` jdramdhf (Lcdhi `t Ldc, >??4) `t l`s tîam`s ï

daabjplcr (^camdrf, >??0). _dr dcllùrs, uh sct` Y`n rãussc `t uh sct` jdramdhf quc abjnch` ï

ld ebcs l'chebrjdtcbh `t l` fcv`rtcss`j`ht (Mdusjdh `t Qc`gp`, >??3). Md `t Qtb`l (>??3)

prblbhi`ht ld rãel`xcbh `h cf`htcecdht l` prba`ssus f–daa`ptdtcbh fu abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcquàbjj` uh edatùr cjpbrtdht fdhs l` prba`ssus f` hdvcidtcbh f` l–cht`rhdut` sur l`s sct`s

jdramdhfs, `t fbha f` l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih`.

A`s hbuv`ll`s aldsscecadtcbhs, hbtdjj`ht cssu` f`s trdvdux `h systíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh,

p`rj`tt`ht uh` `xt`hscbh f`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf `h lcih`. A`tt`

vcscbh p`rj`t f` fcjchu`r l`s `xplcadtcbhs `t l`s dppbrts f` l'chelu`ha` uhcqu` f` a`s dttrcnuts

(Fdcl`y, >??6). @h èe`t, @rbilu `t dl. (>??4) cf`htcec`ht fùx irbup`s f` edatùrs abjpbsdht

l–dtjbspmír` f–uh sct` w`n ;



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- L` pr`jc`r rdss`jnl` l`s abjpbsdht`s quc vcs`ht ï edaclct`r l–damdt `h lcih`. @ll`s

p`rj`tt`ht f` edcr` l` r`pãrdi` f`s prbfucts p`hfdht ld hdvcidtcbh, sur ld nds` f`s

ãlãj`hts vcsu`ls `t pcaturdux fu sct`, f`s cjdi`s fu prbfuct, ld f`sarcptcbh f` ld

jdramdhfcs ,̀ l–dvcs f`s abhsbjjdtùrs sur l` prbfuct, `ta. (L`jbch`, >??=). Cl s–dict f`

edatùrs « ebrt`j`ht p`rtch`hts · pdr rdppbrt ï ld rãdlcsdtcbh f–uh` tîam` ( Mcim tdsg

r`l`vdht au`s).

- L` sàbhf irbup` edct rãeãr`ha` dux edatùrs dtjbspmãrcqu`s utclcsãs ï f`s echs plus

fãabrdtcv`s `t lufcqu`s qu'chebrjdtcv`s, hbtdjj`ht, l`s abulùrs f`s drrcír`s pldh, l`s

styl`s f'ãarctur`, ld pblca` f` adrdatír`, l`s dhcjdtcbhs, ld juscqu`, `ta. (L`jbch`,

>??=). Cl s–dict f` edatùrs « edcnl`j`ht p`rtch`hts · pdr rdppbrt ï ld rãdlcsdtcbh f–uh`

tdam` ( Lbw tdsgr`l`vdht au`s).

Amdhi `t dl. (>??>) aldss`ht l`s ãlãj`hts dtjbspmãrcqu`s `h fùx adtãibrc`s ; L`s

ãlãj`hts ebhatcbhh`ls fu sct` (l`s pbp-ups, l` pldh fu sct`, l`s j`hus fãrbuldht, `ta.) `t l`s

ãlãj`hts syjnblcqu`s (ld abulùr, l`s drrcír`s pldhs, ld tdcll` `t ld pblca`…). A`tt` typblbic`

s`jnl` s` rdpprbam`r f`s aldsscecadtcbhs `xcstdht`s `h jdtcír` f` v`ht` trdfctcbhh`ll`.

Lcdhi `t Ldc (>??>) cf`htcec`ht trbcs adtãibrc`s f` edatùrs `h chtãirdht l–chfcvcfu fdhs

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf. Cl s–dict f`s edatùrs f` jbtcvdtcbh prbpr`s ï l–chfcvcfu, f`s

edatùrs f'myicíh` (ld edaclctã f` hdvcidtcbh `t f–utclcsdtcbh fu sct` w`n) `t f`s edatùrs f` ld

rcam`ss` f`s jãfcds.

_bur Qdutt`r `t dl. (>??6), l–dtjbspmír` f–uh sct` jdramdhf h` s` lcjct` pds dux

dttrcnuts f` l–cht`reda`. Cls ld fãechcss`ht abjj` « l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht pmyscqu` fdhs l`qu`l s`

prbfuct l–cht`rdatcbh mbjj` jdamch` ·. L–dtjbspmír` fu sct` abjpr`hf f`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s

ebhatcbhh`ll`s `t s`hsbrc`ll`s f` l–`hs`jnl` f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht pmyscqu` `t ãlàtrbhcqu`

p`hfdht ld hdvcidtcbh. Cl s–dict hbtdjj`ht, fu lcù ï pdrtcr fuqu`l l–chfcvcfu s` abhhàt` ï

Cht`rh`t, fu hbjnr` f` p`rsbhh`s prãs`ht`s dvà l–utclcsdtùr, f`s abhfctcbhs `ribhbjcqu`s fàbhh`xcbh (abhebrt) `t fu typ` f` jdtãrc`l chebrjdtcqu` fcspbhcnl` (Dlldiuc `t J–sddf, >??5).

Vbuedcly `t _`rrc`h (>??5) j`tt`ht `h ãvcf`ha` fùx typ`s f–dttrcnuts dtjbspmãrcqu`s.

L`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s ebhatcbhh`ll`s (l–`ribhbjc`, l` f`scih, ld qudlctã f` l–chebrjdtcbh, l–beer`

`t ld sãaurctã) `t l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s r`ldtcbhh`ll`s (abjjuhdutã vcrtu`ll`, p`rsbhhdlcsdtcbh,

qudlctã f` s`rvca`, abjjuhcadtcbh cht`llci`ht`, cht`rdatcvctã sbacdl`, `ta.).

@hech, plus rãa`jj`ht, `h s` ndsdht sur l` jbfíl` f–daa`ptdtcbh f` ld tàmhblbic`

(VDJ), Mdusjdh `t Qc`gp` (>??3) bht cf`htcecã fùx irbup`s f` abjpbsdht`sdtjbspmãrcqu`s. L`s edatùrs tàmhcqu`s hbtdjj`ht, ld sãaurctã, ld aldrtã fu abht`hu, ld



446

prãs`ha` f'uh pdhc`r, l` r`spàt f` ld vc` prcvã`, l`s pbsscnclctãs f` pdc`j`ht, ld prãs`htdtcbh

f`s prbfucts sbus ebrj` f–cjdi`s, `ta. @t l`s edatùrs mujdchs, abjj` ld ebhatcbh f`

ràm`ram`, l`s bptcbhs f` ldhiu`, l`s lc`hs v`rs f`s sct`s, l` hbjnr` f` vcsctùrs fu sct`, `ta.

L–`hs`jnl` f`s rãel`xcbhs s–daabrf` qu` l–utclcsdtcbh f`s @-dtjbspm`rcas s`rt ï dttcr`r

fdvdhtdi` f` alc`hts sur l`s sct`s jdramdhfs (Fdcl`y, >??6). L`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts jdramdhfs

`h lcih` iãhír`ht f`s rãdatcbhs cht`hs`s, fbht hbtdjj`ht, l–cjj`rscbh, l` elbw (Mbeejdh `t

Hbvdg, 4335, >??3), l–ãvdscbh (Qcjbh, >??9), `ta. p`rj`ttdht fdhs a`rtdchs ads l–daaís ï

l–`xpãrc`ha` b ptcjdl`.

L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus syhtmãtcs` l`s fceeãr`ht`s aldsscecadtcbhs qu` hbus dvbhs

r`trbuvã`s fdhs ld lcttãrdtur` sur l`s abjpbsdht`s dtjbspmãrcqu`s f`s sct`s w`n.

Dutùrs aldsscecadtcbh (Edatùrs)

@rbilu `t dl. (>??4) - L`s edatùrs ebrt`j`ht p`rtch`hts.- L`s edatùrs edcnl`j`ht p`rtch`hts.

Lcdhi `t Ldc (>??>)- L`s edatùrs f` jbtcvdtcbh.- L`s edatùrs f'myicíh`.- L`s edatùrs f` ld rcam`ss` f`s jãfcds.

Amdhi `t dl. (>??>) - L`s ãlãj`hts ebhatcbhh`ls.- L`s ãlãj`hts syjnblcqu`s.

JaGchh`y (>??6)

- L`s vdrcdnl`s ̀ xt`rh`s.- L`s vdrcdnl`s cht`rh`s.- Ld jcs` `h pdi`.- L` f`scih fu sct`.- L` s`rvca` alc`htíl`.

Qdutt`r `t dl. (>??6) - L`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s ebhatcbhh`ll`s.- L`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s s`hsbrc`ll`s.

Vbuedcly `t _`rrc`h (>??5) - L`s dttrcnuts ebhatcbhh`ls.- L`s dttrcnuts r`ldtcbhh`ls.

Mdusjdh ̀ t Qc`gp` (>??3) - L`s edatùrs tàmhcqu`s.- L`s edatùrs mujdchs.

Vdnl`du 44 ; Ld aldsscecadtcbh f`s dttrcnuts dtjbspmãrcqu`s f`s pbchts f` v`ht` vcrtu`ls

Ph hbjnr` cjpbrtdht f` stcjulc dtjbspmãrcqu`s d ãtã jcs `h ãvcf`ha` pdr l`sam`ramùrs `h jdrg`tchi `t plus pdrtcaulcír`j`ht `h `-jdrg`tchi (Gbb `t dl., >??3). A`s



440

fcspbsctces abhtrcnu`ht ï ld abha`ptcbh fu sct` jdramdhf `t abjpbs`ht sbh dtjbspmír`. _drjc

a`s stcjulc, cl s–dict hbtdjj`ht, ld abulùr (`.i., _`l`t, >??=), ld juscqu` (`.i., Idldh `t

U`rh`tt`, >???), l`s punlcactãs (`.i., Mbeejdh, Hbvdg `t Suhi, >???), l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls (`.i.,

L`jbch` `t Hbt`nd`rt, >?44 7 Gcj `t Ebrsytm`, >??=), l`s cjdi`s (`.i., Qcvdrdjdgrcsmhdh `t

dl., >??9), ld vcfãb (`.i., Dppcdm, >??5), ld prãs`htdtcbh `h 1F (Qum `t L``, >??0)…

L–`hs`jnl` f` a`s stcjulc dict sur l` abhsbjjdtùr ï pluscùrs hcv`dux, hbtdjj`ht, abihctce,

deeàtce `t abhdtce (_`l`t, >??=). L` hcv`du abihctce, p`rj`t du abhsbjjdtùr f` pr`hfr`

abhhdcssdha` f` l'`xcst`ha` f'uh prbfuct bu f–uh s`rvca`, l` hcv`du deeàtce, `st susa`ptcnl` f`

luc fbhh`r l–`hvc` bu hbh f'`ssdy`r l` prbfuct bu l` s`rvca`, `t `hech, l` hcv`du abhdtce, `st

f`stchã ï edaclct`r sbh pdssdi` fu alc`ht ï l'datcbh.

L` fãv`lbpp`j`ht f'Cht`rh`t d abhfuct ï daa`pt`r ld pbsscnclctã f'uh` hdtur` vcrtu`ll`

fu abht`xt` f` l'`xpãrc`ha` suppbrtã` pdr l` fãv`lbpp`j`ht f`s tàmhblbic`s cjj`rscv`s. @h

èe`t, l–cht`reda` jdramdhf` chelu`ha` scihcecadtcv`j`ht l` abjpbrt`j`ht f`s vcsctùrs. _lus

prãacsãj`ht, `ll` dict fcràt`j`ht sur lùrs ãjbtcbhs `t sur lùr dttctuf` eda` du sct`, sur lùrs

abjpbrt`j`hts `xplbrdtbcr`s, sur l` t`jps qu–cls y pdss`ht `t l` hbjnr` f` pdi`s qu–cls

vbc`ht, dchsc qu` sur lùr cht`htcbh f–damdt. L` f`scih fu sct` chact` l`s vcsctùrs ï plus bu

jbchs abhscfãr`r a`rtdchs dttrcnuts pbur pr`hfr` lùr fãacscbh (Csdda `t Ubll`, >?44).

Fdhs a` abht`xt` bó prãfbjch` l–cjdi`rc` vcsu`ll` pdr rdppbrt dux dutr`s typ`s

f–cjdi`rc` j`htdl` (@rbilu `t dl., >??4 7 >??1), l` ràburs dux tàmhblbic`s f` ld rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` ï trdv`rs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs (1F), l`s dvdtdrs, l`s sbhs, l`s

cjdi`s, l`s vcfãbs, `ta. pburrdc`ht abjp`hs`r l` jdhqu` f` abhtdat pmyscqu` `htr` l`s

cht`rhdut`s `t l`s prbfucts (Qum `t L``, >??0) `t ld rãfuatcbh f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht f` v`ht` ï ld

tdcll` f` l–ãardh (JaGchh`y, >??6). Abhscfãrã`s abjj` cht`rdatcv`s, `xplbrdnl`s `t

vcsudlcsdnl`s `h t`jps rã`l, l`s tàmhblbic`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` dppbrt`ht plus f` rãdlcsj`

du pbcht f` v`ht` vcrtu`l. @h èe`t, irîa` du fãv`lbpp`j`ht f`s cht`reda`s Mbjj`-Jdamch`

sur l` Y`n, l`s tàmhblbic`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sbht fãsbrjdcs `jplbyã`s pdr l`si`stcbhhdcr`s dech f` edcr` vcvr` dux abhsbjjdtùrs f`s `xpãrc`ha`s `h lcih` f` jdhcír`

qu–`ll`s sbc`ht pldcsdht`s schbh chbunlcdnl`s.

Dech f` jcùx cf`htcec`r l`s tàmhblbic`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, ld fùxcíj` pdrtc` s`

prbpbs` f` prãs`ht`r l–ãtdt f` l–drt f` a`s tàmhcqu`s `h s–chspcrdht f`s ràm`ram`s j`hã`s pdr

l`s spãacdlcst`s ̀ h systíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh.

C.1. L` abhtröl` p`réu



445

Ph sct` w`n jdramdhf prãs`ht` uh` vdrcãtã f` am`jchs `t f` ebhatcbhhdlctãs, quc

p`rj`tt`ht dux pdrtcacpdhts f` abhtröl`r l` abht`hu f` ld pldt`-ebrj` abjj`racdl` `t l`

fãrbul`j`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` (Kcdhi `t N`hndsdt, >??0). @h èe`t, ld p`r a`ptcbh f` abhtröl`

p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih`, p`rj`t du abhsbjjdtùr f` s` l–dpprbprc`r (Adró `t Abvd,

>??6). Ld s`hsdtcbh f` abhtröl` r`prãs`ht` uh` « uh` ebra` struaturdht` f` l–datcvctã brc`htã`

v`rs l` n`sbch f` fãjbhtr`r sd abjpãt`ha`, sd supãrcbrctã `t sd jdètrcs` f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht ·

(Ymct`, 4303 7 ch Luhdrfb, >??0, p. >). Cl r`prãs`ht` dlbrs uh` abjpbsdht` ï pdrt `htcír` f`

l–dtjbspmír` fu sct` jdramdhf (Jdtmwcag `t ^cifbh, >??6). Qc l` abha`pt f` abhtröl` d edct

l–bnk`t f` hbjnrùs`s ràm`ram`s `h psyamblbic` (`.i., Ymct`r, 4303), fdhs l` abht`xt` f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `h lcih`, pù f–ãtuf`s s` sbht p`hamã`s sur a` pmãhbjíh`, quc

hbus s`jnl` prcjbrfcdl.

Fdhs l` adfr` f` hbtr` ràm`ram`, l` abhtröl` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` s`jnl` kbu`r uh röl` trís

cjpbrtdht. Cl abhstctu`, `h plus f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l, l–uh f`s ãlãj`hts

fãt`rjchdhts f` l–cjj`rscbh. @h èe`t, p`hfdht ld hdvcidtcbh, l` abhsbjjdtùr h–d pds

abhstdjj`ht l` abhtröl` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`. Qc l` abht`hu `xpãrc`htc`l fu sct` `st fceeusã f`

jdhcír` ï sdtcsedcr` l–cht`rhdut`, f`s rcsqu`s h` fbcv`ht pds ëtr` hãilciãs. Ld p`rt` pbsscnl` fu

nc`h-ëtr` psyamblbicqu` `h rdcsbh f` l'utclcsdtcbh f–uh sct` jdramdhf, pùt trís rdpcf`j`ht

j`ttr` ech ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` (G`m `t _dhi, >?4?). Cl s–dict dlbrs f` p`rj`ttr` ï

l–cht`rhdut` f` idrf`r uh a`rtdch pbuvbcr sur l` fãrbul`j`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih`.

C.1.4. Ld abha`ptudlcsdtcbh fu abhtröl` fdhs l`s pbchts f` v`ht`

L` abha`pt f` abhtröl` `st mdnctu`ll`j`ht rdttdamã ï ld tmãbrc` fu lcù f` abhtröl`

(^btt`r, 4355). A`tt` tmãbrc` dfj`t qu` l` abhtröl` abhstctu` uh trdct f` p`rsbhhdlctã. @ll`

suiiír` qu` « sc l`s chfcvcfus p`rébcv`ht du aburs fu t`jps f`s abhtchi`ha`s `htr` lùrs

datcbhs `t l`s rãsultdts quc `h fãabul`ht, a`ld vc`ht r`hebra`r lùrs arbydha`s qudht ï lùr

abhtröl` sur l`s ãvãh`j`hts (chfcvcfus ï lcù f` abhtröl` cht`rh`) 7 s–cls h` p`rébcv`ht duauh`

abhtchi`ha`, cls dttrcnu`ht du abhtrdcr` l`s rãsultdts f` lùrs datcbhs ï uh` ebra` `xtãrcùr`,

t`ll` qu` ld amdha` bu ld edtdlctã (chfcvcfus ï lcù f` abhtröl` `xt`rh`) · (Luhdrfb, >?44 7 p. 0).

A`tt` abha`ptudlcsdtcbh fu abhtröl` s` ebhf` sur uh` fcstchatcbh fcambtbjcqu` `htr` l`s

abhsbjjdtùrs `t h` pr`hf pds `h abjpt` l`s edaultãs abihctcv`s, deeàtcv`s, ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t

abjpbrt`j`htdl`s, jcs`s ï fcspbsctcbh pdr l`s alc`hts p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh.

L` abhtröl` `st `xprcjã pdr Qgchh`r `t Iucltchdh (43=0) abjj` l` pbuvbcr qu–`x`raùh` erdatcbh sur uh` dutr`. Cl fãscih` « l` pbcht duqu`l uh` pdrtc` chelu`ha` l`s fãacscbhs



449

strdtãicqu`s `t bpãrdtcbhh`ll`s f–uh` dutr` pdrtc` fu adhdl · (p.9?). Ld ebul` f` edcts `t f`

abhhdcssdha`s quc ãjdh`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, bht dj`hã l`s am`ramùrs ï prbpbs`r uh`

abha`ptudlcsdtcbh plus sctudtcbhh`ll` fu pmãhbjíh` f` abhtröl` p`réu (Jdtmwcag `t ^cifbh,

>??6). L` abhtröl` abhstctu` dlbrs l–`hs`jnl` f`s abhvcatcbhs `t f`s a`rtctuf`s qu–uh chfcvcfu

fãtc`ht ï uh jbj`ht fbhhã, fdhs sd adpdactã ï èeàtu`r f`s jbfcecadtcbhs, fdhs l` s`hs qu–cl

fãscr` `t sur l` abht`xt` fdhs l`qu`l cl s` trbuv` (Dv`rcll, 4391). Hbus pdrlbhs dlbrs f`

abhtröl` p`réu quc `xprcj`, l–clluscbh f` l–chelu`ha` qu` pùt dvbcr l–chfcvcfu sur sbh

`hvcrbhh`j`ht.

F`s am`ramùrs, `h psyamblbic` `hvcrbhh`j`htdl`, suiiír`ht uh` dpprbam` fceeãr`ht`

dux fùx prãaãf`ht`s. Cls prbpbs`ht, qu` l` abhtröl` fbct fdvdhtdi` ëtr` dsscihã ï uh` rãdatcbh

qu–ï uh` datcbh (J`mrdncdh `t ûss`ll, 4396) dpp`lã fbjchdtcbh. Muc `t Ndt`sbh (4334),

fãechcss`ht l` abhtröl` fu abhsbjjdtùr abjj` « l` fìrã f` pbuvbcr `t f–chelu`ha` sur ld

spãacecadtcbh fu s`rvca`, sd rãdlcsdtcbh, `t l` rãsultdt · (p.=45). Cl abhstctu` uh` rãdatcbh

deeàtcv`, dssbacã ï uh` ãjbtcbh trdfucsdht am`z l` abhsbjjdtùr, l` s`htcj`ht f–ëtr` adpdnl`

f–chelu`ha`r bu f` abhtröl`r ld sctudtcbh fdhs ldqu`ll` cl s` trbuv` (Luhdrfb, >?44). _lus ld

s`hsdtcbh f` jdètrcs` `st cjpbrtdht`, plus l` abhsbjjdtùr s–dp`rébct qu` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `st

s`hscnl` ï s̀ s datcbhs.

Ld jdkbrctã f`s ràm`ram`s fãjbhtr` qu` ld p`ra`ptcbh f` abhtröl` p`hfdht

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` jdidschdi` d uh` chelu`ha` pbsctcv` sur l`s rãdatcbhs sunkàtcv`s f` l–chfcvcfu

(`.i., Luhdrfb, >?44), qu–`ll`s sbc`ht ãjbtcbhh`ll`s, deeàtcv`s `t abihctcv`s. Cl s–dict

hbtdjj`ht fu pldcscr (Jdtmwcag `t ^cifbh, >??6), fu elbw (Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, >??3) `t f`

l–cjj`rscbh (Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc, 433?). _dr dcllùrs, Jbll`h `t Yclsbh (>??3) `xplcqu`ht qu`

l` abhtröl` p`réu pdrtcacp` ï ld abhstruatcbh f` l–dtt`htcbh ebadlcsã` `t f` l–cjj`rscbh. L`

abhtröl` s` r`trbuv` dlbrs, ãqucvdl`ht ï l–uh` f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu pbcht f`

v`ht`, pucsqu` l` hcv`du f` abhtröl` `st lcã dux abjpãt`ha s̀ f` l–chfcvcfu, f` edébh ï dvbcr l`

s`htcj`ht f` pbuvbcr dtt`chfr` dcsãj`ht sbh bnkàtce. L` s`htcj`ht f` abhtröl` p`réu `hi`hfr`dlbrs f`s `xpãrc`ha`s sunkàtcv`s, quc abhstctu`ht l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `t l`s ãtdts

abhh`x`s ï l'`sprct fu alc`ht (Mbeejdhh `t Hbvdg, 4335).

C.1.>. Ld abha`ptudlcsdtcbh fu abhtröl` p`réu p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh

`h lcih`

_`hfdht ld hdvcidtcbh, l–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` s` edct pdrl–cht`rjãfcdcr` f–uh jãfcd quc p`rj`t l` abhtröl` f` ld vcsct`. Vbutèbcs, sc l` s`htcj`ht f`



44=

abhtröl` `st p`rfu, ld vcsct` p`rf f` sd vdlùr `t l` fìrã f–daa`ptdtcbh f` l–utclcsdtùr edcnlc.

L` abhtröl` `h lcih` s` rãeír` dux adpdactãs f`s utclcsdtùrs ï p`rsbhhdlcs`r `t ambcscr l`

abht`hu fu sct` Y`n pbur dtt`chfr` lùrs bnkàtces (Drc`ly, >???).

Kcdhi `t N`hndsdt (>??0) pdrl`ht plutöt f` abhtröl` vcrtu`l, r`ldtce du abhtröl`

ràm`ramã pdr l`s chfcvcfus fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. Cls cf`htcec`ht fùx

fcj`hscbhs ; l` abhtröl` vcsu`l `t l` abhtröl` ebhatcbhh`l. L` abhtröl` vcsu`l p`rj`t dux

abhsbjjdtùrs f` jdhcpul`r f`s cjdi`s f` prbfucts sur l` Y`n, pbur vbcr l`s prbfucts sbus

fceeãr`hts dhil`s 7 `t l` abhtröl` ebhatcbhh`l p`rj`t dux abhsbjjdtùrs f'`xplbr`r `t f`

fãabuvrcr l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s `t l`s fceeãr`ht`s ebhatcbhs fu sct`. Ld ràm`ram` jbhtr` qu` l`

abhtröl` (vcsu`l `t / bu ebhatcbhh`l) p`rj`t dux abhsbjjdtùrs l–daaís ï l–cjj`rscbh tbtdl`.

_dr dcllùrs, Ydhh `t Jbh-Ycllcdjs (4335), ãvbqu`ht ld jdhcpuldtcbh fcràt`,

iãhãrdl`j`ht dssbacã` ï uh` r`prãs`htdtcbh irdpmcqu`, p`rj`ttdht dux utclcsdtùrs f` abhtröl`r

fcràt`j`ht l`s bnk`ts f` lùr chtãrët. Fdhs uh` cht`reda` f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, ld jdhcpuldtcbh

fu abht`hu pùt dvbcr l`s jëj`s èe`ts `t `hi`hfr`r l`s jëj`s s`hsdtcbhs qu–uh`

jdhcpuldtcbh rã`ll` (Mutamchs `t dl., 43=5).

Fdhs hbtr` ràm`ram`, hbus abha`htrbhs fdvdhtdi` sur ld adpdactã f`s abhsbjjdtùrs,

ï abhtröl`r `t cht`rdicr edacl`j`ht dvà l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l. L` abhtröl` abhstctu` ld

adpdactã f` l'utclcsdtùr ï ambcscr l` abht`hu `t ld ebrj` f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l, ï trdv`rs ld

pbsscnclctã f` tburh`r, f–dirdhfcr bu rãtrãacr l` prbfuct, `t l–dptctuf` f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

vcrtu`l ï rãpbhfr` dfãqudt`j`ht dux brfr`s fu alc`ht (Kcdhi `t N`hndsdt, >??0 7 Dlimdrdndt `t

F`hhcs, >?4?). Lbrsqu` l–cht`rhdut` d l` s`htcj`ht f` abhtröl`r l–dtjbspmír` jdramdhf`, a`ld

luc fbhh` uh` cjpr`sscbh f` lcn`rtã, prbpca` ï l–cjj`rscbh. @h èe`t, l` abhtröl` p`réu p`hfdht

l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh, r`prãs`ht` l–cjpr`sscbh f–dvbcr l` ambcx fdhs ld sãlàtcbh f`s

rãsultdts bu f`s bnkàtces (Dv`rcll 4391). A` abhtröl` r`prãs`ht` uh edatùr cjpbrtdht fdhs ld

prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s abhvdchadht`s `h lcih` (Imdhc `t F`smpdhf` 4336). @h èe`t, uh`

vdrcãtã f` abht`xt`s jbhtr` qu`, l`s utclcsdtùrs fu w`n bht t`hfdha` ï s` s`htcr `t sàbjpbrt`r f` edébh plus pbsctcv` lbrsqu–cls p`rébcv`ht plus f` abhtröl` sur lùr `hvcrbhh`j`ht

(Jdtmwcag `t ^cifbh, >??6).

Fdhs l` ads abhtrdcr`, a'`st-ï-fcr` `h l–dns`ha` f` abhtröl`, l` alc`ht d l–cjpr`sscbh

f–ëtr` nbjndrfã, ndldfã f–uh pbcht ï uh dutr`, ld qudlctã f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` s` fãirdf`

rdpcf`j`ht. Ph s`htcj`ht f` erustrdtcbh pùt jëj` suricr. L` alc`ht `st dlbrs dj`hã ï quctt`r

l` sct` bu ï s–damdrh`r, fùx rãsultdts quc h` sbht pds sbumdctdnl`s pbur l` jdramdhf. L`s

abha`ptùrs fu sct` fbcv`ht fbha cjpãrdtcv`j`ht ãvct`r f–`he`rj`r l`s vcsctùrs fdhs f`ssãqu`ha`s bó cls p`rfrdc`ht l` abhtröl` f` lùr hdvcidtcbh (Kcdhi `t N`hndsdt, >??0). Cl s–dict



443

fbha, f` prbpbs`r du alc`ht uh hcv`du f` abhtröl` abhaclcdnl` dvà s`s abjpãt`ha`s (Kcdhi `t

N`hndsdt, >??6).

Fdhs ld fãechctcbh fu abhtröl` p`réu `h lcih`, Jdtmwcag `t ^cifbh (>??6) dkbut`ht ld

hbtcbh f` p`ra`ptcbh f` ambcx abhfuct ï l–djãlcbrdtcbh fu nc`h-ëtr` f` l–cht`rhdut`, dlbrs qu`

sbh dns`ha` djplcec` l`s èe`ts hãedst`s f` ld p`ra`ptcbh f–uh fãec chsurjbhtdnl`. L` abhtröl`

s`jnl` ebhatcbhh`r abjj` uh` abhfctcbh prãdldnl` du abjpbrt`j`ht f–dpprbam` f`s

abhsbjjdtùrs. Edvbrcsdht l'`xplbrdtcbh `t ld jdhcpuldtcbh f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts jdramdhfs

sur Cht`rh`t (Ydrf `t Ndrh`s, >??4). _dr `x`jpl`, fdhs l` fbjdch` f`s kùx `h lcih`, l`

s`htcj`ht f` abhtröl` abhstctu` l'uh` f`s `xplcadtcbhs f` l–cjj`rscbh (L`pp`r `t Jdlbh`,

43=9). Cl s–dict f–uh` vdrcdnl` `xplcadtcv` f` l–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. A`

quc abhebrt` l–cfã` f` Adró `t Abvd (>??5n), quc stcpul`ht qu` ld stcjuldtcbh f`s s`hs ï trdv`rs

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l, h` sueect pds ï rãdlcs`r l–cjj`rscbh.

@h abhsãqu`ha`, ld spãacecadtcbh `t ld rãdlcsdtcbh fu abhtröl` sbht r`prãs`htã`s pdr uh`

beer` quc p`rj`t du abhsbjjdtùr f` pdrtcacp`r ï uh` `xpãrc`ha`, du s`ch f` ldqu`ll` cl pùt

jbfcec`r luc-jëj` a`rtdchs ãlãj`hts abhstctutces, pdrjc uh `hs`jnl` f` jbful`s f` ambcx

prããtdnlc pdr l–`htr`prcs` 7 `t f` s` prbaur`r l` prbfuct ab-abhstruct (J`rl`, Amdhfbh `t ^bux,

>??=). @ll` p`rj`t fbha du abhsbjjdtùr f` ambcscr sbh pdraburs p`hfdht ld hdvcidtcbh (ld

spãacecadtcbh) tbut `h pdrtcacpdht pl`ch`j`ht ï l–`xpãrc`ha` (ld rãdlcsdtcbh).

A`tt` lcttãrdtur` suiiír` qu` l` abhtröl` `st dssbacã ï l–`xpãrc`ha ̀ bptcjdl` `t

ebhatcbhh` abjj` uh jãadhcsj`, quc p`rj`t dux chfcvcfus f` s'dfdpt`r ï f`s tîam`s fceecacl`s

(Gdrds`g `t Vm`br`ll, 433? 7 Kcdhi `t N`hndsdt, >??0). Lbrsqu` l` abhtröl` `st dtt`cht, l`s

r`ssbura`s dtt`htcbhh`ll`s quc bht ãtã fãtburhã`s pbur edcr` eda` ï ld sur`xactdtcbh bu ï ld

suramdri` f'chebrjdtcbhs, pùv`ht ëtr` lcnãrã`s pbur rãpbhfr` dux fãecs f` l–dtjbspmír`

jdramdhf` `h lcih`. L` abhtröl` s`jnl` ebhatcbhh`r abjj` uh` abhfctcbh `ss`htc`ll` f` ld

jdètrcs` f` l'`hkù quc chfuct l` pldcscr f` ld vcsct` bu l'ãtdt f'dhxcãtã (Y`nst`r `t Mb, 4339 7

Jdtmwcag `t ^cifbh, >??6 7 Kcdhi `t N`hndsdt, >??0). @h abhsãqu`ha`, a` s`htcj`ht pùtfbjch`r uh fãec daaru. @h r`vdham`, uh jdhqu` f` abhtröl` `st dssbacã` ï f` edcnl`s hcv`dux

f` fceecaultã, cjplcqudht scjpl`j`ht « uh` daa`ptdtcbh pdsscv` f` a` quc drrcv` · (Ydrf `t

Ndrh`s, >??4, p. 46?). F–bó l` röl` aruacdl fu abhtröl` p`réu fdhs ld ebrjdtcbh f`s rãdatcbhs

deeàtcv`s, ãjbtcbhh`ll`s ̀ t abihctcv`s, p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`.



4>?

Ld pr`jcír` sàtcbh f` a` amdpctr`, j`t `h ãvcf`ha` l`s fceeãr`hts edatùrs quc

pburrdc`ht chelu`ha`r l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. Cl s–dict f`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`.

@h èe`t, l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s f–uh sct` jdramdhf kbu`ht uh röl``ss`htc`l p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih`. A`s ãlãj`hts f` ld pld t`-ebrj`

abjj`racdl`, dssbacã`s dux abjpãt`ha s̀ f`s cht`rhdut`s, p`rj`tt`ht l–cht`rdatcbh fdhs l`s

abht`xt`s vcrtu`ls `t fãal`ham`ht l`s fcj`hscbhs abihctcv`s, s`hsbrc`ll`s, sbacdl`s `t

deeàtcv`s, prbpr`s ï l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh.

Qc l`s dttrcnuts f` l–dtjbspmír` f`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs bht edct l–bnk`t f`

hbjnrùs`s ãtuf`s, hbtr` y ràm`ram` dssbac` l–cjpbrtdha` f` l–butcl f` abhtröl` fu sct`

abjj` abhfctcbh ï l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`. L`s cht`rhdut`s am`ram`ht ï jdxcjcs`r l`

abhtröl` p`hfdht l` fãrbul`j`ht f` ld vcsct`, pbur s` s`htcr lcnr`s p`hfdht ld tîam` qu–cls

èeàtu`ht. _lus l` abhtröl` `st ebrt`j`ht p`réu, plus l–daaís ï l–cjj`rscbh `st edvbrcsã,

pucsqu–cl abhtrcnu` ebrt`j`ht ï l–dnsbrptcbh abihctcv` `t ï l–dtt`htcbh.



4>4

CC. Ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

L`s Cht`reda`s Mbjj`-Jdamch` (CMJ) r`prãs`ht`ht dukburf'muc uh `hkù

tàmhblbicqu`, sbacdl `t chfustrc`l jdkùr. @ll`s `hilbn`ht l–`hs`jnl` f`s systíj`s

chebrjdtcqu`s quc chelu`ha`ht ld pdrtcacpdtcbh f` l–utclcsdtùr ï f`s tîam`s chebrjdtcsã`s. @h

èe`t, l–cht`rdatcbh `htr` l–mujdch `t ld jdamch` rãpbhf ï uh n`sbch `ss`htc`l quc abhscst` `h ld

edaclctdtcbh f` ld abjjuhcadtcbh `htr` l–mbjj` `t ld jdamch` (Gblsg c, >??4). Ph` t`ll`

cht`rdatcbh r`pbs` sur l–`hs`jnl` f`s jby`hs jdtãrc`ls `t lbicac`ls jcs `h őuvr` pbur

edvbrcs`r l–cht`rprãtdtcbh f`s sbumdcts `t rãdatcbhs f` l–ëtr` mujdch eda` ï uh brfchdtùr.

@h èe`t, du aburs f`s fùx f`rhcír`s fãa`hhc`s, l`s brfchdtùrs bht sunc f`s jutdtcbhs

abhscfãrdnl`s. A`s jutdtcbhs bht p`rjcs dux fãv`lbppùrs f` rãdlcs`r f` hbjnrùx butcls

susa`ptcnl`s f–djplcec`r l`s prba`ssus f` p`hsã`, f` abjjuhcadtcbh `t f–cjdichdtcbh f`

l–mbjj`. Dchsc, cls sbht fãsbrjdcs adpdnl`s f` arã`r f`s abht`xt`s fdhs l`squ`ls l–utclcsdtùr

pburrd vcvr` f`s `xpãrc`ha`s brcichdl`s, s`jnldnl`s ï a`ll`s vãau`s fdhs ld rãdlctã. F`s

`xpãrc`ha`s quc `hi`hfr`ht f`s rãdatcbhs deeàtcv`s `t ãjbtcbhh`ll`s ãqucvdl`ht`s ï a`ll`s

vãau`s fdhs f`s abht`xt`s trdfctcbhh`ls.

L`s cht`reda`s Mbjj`-jdamch` bht edct l–bnk`t f` hbjnrùs`s ràm`ram`s fdhs f`s

fbjdch`s dussc hbjnrùx qu` vdrcãs, hbtdjj`ht `h systíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh. Fdhs l` adfr` f`

hbtr` f` ràm`ram`, hbus hbus ebadlcs`rbhs pdrtcaulcír`j`ht sur l`s tàmhcqu`s f` ld rãdlctãvcrtu`ll`5, abjj` ebhatcbhs quc p`rj`tt`ht f–djãlcbr`r l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih`. Qc a`s

tàmhcqu`s h` sbht prbpbsã`s qu` pdr uh` jchbrctã f` sct`s jdramdhfs, `ll`s bht pburtdht l`

pbt`htc`l f–`hrcamcr abhscfãrdnl`j`ht ld vcsct`. @ll`s bht pbur bnk`t f` prbpbs`r f`s abht`hus

bu p`rsbhhdlcs`r l–cht`reda` dech f` arã`r f` ld vdlùr pbur l` vcsctùr. Cl `st ï scihdl`r a`s

fcspbsctces h–bht pds pbur sùl röl` f–`hrcamcr l–`xpãrc`ha`, jdcs dussc f–chelu`ha`r l`s

abjpbrt`j`hts f–damdt (Csdda `t Ubll`, >?44).

CC.4. Fãechctcbhs f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

5 _bur l`s spãacdlcst`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` (Y`x`lnldt, 4331 ch Qum `t L``, >??0, p. 590), uh sct` jdramdhf hàbhstctu` pds uh fcspbsctce tbtdl`j`ht cjj`rsce ï prbpr`j`ht pdrl`r, fdhs l` s`hs bó l` vcsctùr h` fcspbs` pdsf–uh ãqucp`j`ht pdrtcaulc`r, abjj` uh adsqu` `t f`s idhts, pdr `x`jpl`. L–usdi` fu t`rj` « cjj`rsce · du s`hstàmhcqu`, pbur fãscih`r uh sct` bó uh p`rsbhhdi` quc ãvblu` fdhs uh fãabr rã`l `t quc s–dfr`ss` fcràt`j`ht du

vcsctùr `h luc pdrldht, `st fbha, f–uh` a`rtdch` jdhcír`, qu`lqu` pù dnusce. Hbus l–`jplbybhs cac pbur edcr` uh pdrdllíl` dvà l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` qu` l–bh trbuv` fdhs l`s ràm`ram`s `h jdrg`tchi (`.i., Adró `t Abvd,>??1 7 Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf, >??=).



4>>

Lbrsqu` hbus dvbhs `htdjã hbs ràm`ram`s fdhs l` fbjdch` f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`,

hbus dvbhs r`habhtrã uh` jultctuf` f` t`rj`s utclcsãs jãtdpmbrcqu`j`ht pbur fãscih`r ld

rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` (c.`., « `hvcrbhh`j`hts vcrtu`ls · 7 « jbhf`s drtcecac`ls · 7 « jbhf`s

vcrtu`ls · 7 « rãdlctã drtcecac`ll` · 7 « `hvcrbhh`j`hts 1F · bu `habr` f– « `xpãrc`ha`

syhtmãtcqu` ·). _dr dcllùrs, l`s fãechctcbhs f` a` abha`pt sbht dnbhfdht`s, fu edct qu` l` t`rj`

« ^ãdlctã Ucrtu`ll` · fãarct fceeãr`ht`s dpplcadtcbhs cssu`s f` fcsacplch`s jultcpl`s (Euams `t

dl., >??5).

L`s pr`jc`rs trdvdux sur ld ^ãdlctã Ucrtu`ll` s` sbht brc`htãs v`rs ld abha`ptcbh `t ld

rãdlcsdtcbh f–cht`reda`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s edvbrcsdht l–cjj`rscbh f` l–utclcsdtùr `t s`s

adpdactãs f–cht`rdatcbh fdhs l–uhcv`rs vcrtu`l. Ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `st dsscjclã` ï « uh fbjdch`

sac`htcecqu` `t tàmhcqu` `xplbctdht l–chebrjdtcqu` `t f`s cht`reda`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s `h vu`

f` scjul`r fdhs uh jbhf` vcrtu`l l` abjpbrt`j`ht f–`htctãs `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs, quc sbht `h

cht`rdatcbh `h t`jps rã`l `htr` `ll`s `t dvà uh bu pluscùrs utclcsdtùrs `h cjj`rscbh-psùfb-

hdtur`ll` · (Adfbz, 4336). A`s cht`reda`s bht pbur bnkàtce f–djplcec`r l` s`htcj`ht f`

prãs`ha` f` l–utclcsdtùr du s`ch f`s uhcv`rs vcrtu`ls (`.i., Qldt`r `t dl., 4336 7 Qamlb`rn, 4330 7

Yctj`r `t Qchi`r, 433= 7 Jbrch`du, >???). @ll`s vc`hh`ht ãaldcr`r l`s rãel`xcbhs

pmclbsbpmcqu`s sur l` s`htcj`ht f–uncquctã bu ld adpdactã f–`xcst`r `h pluscùrs lcùx

scjultdhãj`ht (`.i., Eldam `t Mblf`h 433= 7 [dmbrcg `t K`hcsbh 433=).

Ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `st uh jby`h pbur l`s mujdchs f` vcsudlcs`r, jdhcpul`r `t cht`rdicr

dvà f`s brfchdtùrs `t f`s fbhhã`s `xtrëj`j`ht abjpl`x`s (Dugstdgdlhcs `t Nldth`r, 433>).

Cl s–dict f–uh` scjuldtcbh ãlàtrbhcqu` f'`hvcrbhh`j`hts crrã`ls, `xpãrcj`htãs vcd f`s adsqu`s

f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `t f`s abjnchdcsbhs aînlãs p`rj`ttdht ï l'utclcsdtùr f'cht`rdicr fdhs f`s

sctudtcbhs trcfcj`hscbhh`ll`s rãdlcst`s (Abdt`s, 433>).

_dr dcllùrs, ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `st abhscfãrã` abjj` l–clluscbh f` ld pdrtcacpdtcbh ï uh

`hvcrbhh`j`ht syhtmãtcqu` plus qu` l–bns`rvdtcbh `xtãrcùr` f–uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht. @ll` p`rj`t

f` hdvciu`r `t vbcr uh jbhf` `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs. Ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `st uh albh` f` ld rãdlctã pmyscqu` (Ubh Qamw`n`r `t Ubh Qamw`n`r, 4330) bó l` abha`pt f–`xpãrc`ha` `st a`htrdl. Cl

s–dict f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–ëtr` fdhs uh jbhf` vcrtu`l (bu fdhs uh lcù fcstdht) sdhs y ëtr`

pmyscqu`j`ht (^m`chiblf, 4331). A`tt` `xpãrc`ha` `xtrdbrfchdcr` `hi`hfr` l–cjj`rscbh irîa`

ï f`s butcls f` stcjuldtcbh jultc-s`hsbrc`ll` (@drhsmdw `t dl., 4331). L`s utclcsdtùrs pbrt`ht

f`s adsqu`s-ãardh juhcs f` adptùrs f` pbsctcbh, vbc`ht f`s cjdi`s stãrãbsabpcqu`s,

`ht`hf`ht uh sbh 1F `t `xplbr`ht uh jbhf` cht`rdatce `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs (_cj`ht`l `t

V`x`crd, 4331). _rbir`sscv`j`ht, l–dppdrctcbh f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` d p`rjcs f` arã`r f`s



4>1

`hvcrbhh`j`hts `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs. Fís lbrs, l–cht`rdatcbh >F f`vrdct ldcss`r ld plda` ï uh`

cht`rdatcbh fct` 1F, plus dfdptã` dux pbsscnclctãs bee`rt`s pdr a`s hbuv`dux `hvcrbhh`j`hts.

Tuãdu (4331) plda` ld tàmhblbic` du a`htr` f` sd rãel`xcbh. Cl fãechct ld rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` ï trdv`rs ld hbtcbh f` jbhf` vcrtu`l ; A–`st « uh` nds` f` fbhhã`s irdpmcqu`

cht`rdatcv`, `xplbrdnl` `t vcsudlcsdnl` `h t`jps rã`l sbus ebrj` f–cjdi`s f` syhtmís`

trcfcj`hscbhh`ll`s f` edébh ï fbhh`r l` s`htcj`ht f–uh` cjj`rscbh fdhs l–cjdi` ·. Tudht ï

Qldt`r, Psbm `t Qt``f (4336), s` tburh`ht fdvdhtdi` v`rs l`s abhfctcbhs f` sdtcsedatcbh f`s

pulscbhs quc tc`hh`ht abjpt` f`s `xci`ha`s fu rã`l. @h èe`t, cls fãechcss`ht ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

abjj` uh` rãdlctã rã`ll` bu scjulã`. Fdhs a`tt` rãdlctã l` « Jbc · arbct qu–cl `st fdhs uh

`hvcrbhh`j`ht dutr` qu` a`luc fdhs l`qu`l s` trbuv` l` abrps pmyscqu`. Cl y p`rébct uh`

chebrjdtcbh s`hsbrc`ll` abrrãlã` dvà ld adpdactã f` s`htcr ld pbsctcbh, l–brc`htdtcbh `t l`

jbuv`j`ht f`s pdrtc`s f` sbh prbpr` abrps fdhs a`t `hvcrbhh`j`ht. Cl s–dict f– « uh uhcv`rs

f` jbfíl`s (du s`hs sac`htcecqu`) du s`ch fuqu`l tbut s` pdss` abjj` sc l`s jbfíl`s ãtdc`ht

rã`ls (du s`hs f` p`rscstdht `t rãscstdht) pdra` qu–cls prbpbs`ht scjultdhãj`ht ld trcpl`

jãfcdtcbh f`s s`hs, f` l–datcbh `t f` l–`sprct · (Vcss`du, >??4).

Ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` pùt ëtr` dsscjclã` ï uh fbjdch` sac`htcecqu` `t tàmhcqu` du s`hs

ldri`. A` amdjp `xplbct` l–chebrjdtcqu` `t l`s cht`reda`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s fdhs l` nut f`

scjul`r fdhs uh jbhf` vcrtu`l l` abjpbrt`j`ht f–uh bu pluscùrs utclcsdtùrs `h cht`rdatcbh

dvà f`s bnk`ts `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs. A`tt` cht`rdatcbh d lcù `h cjj`rscbh psùfb-hdtur`ll`

pdr l–cht`rjãfcdcr` f` adhdux s`hsbrc-jbtùrs (Euams, >??1).

Vbut`s a`s fãechctcbhs s` r`kbcih`ht sur l` edct qu` l–chfcvcfu h–`st plus pdssce du s`ch

fu systíj` arãã. @h èe`t, l–utclcsdtùr pùt cht`rrbjpr` l–`xpãrc`ha` ï tbut jbj`ht (Vcss`du,

>??6) `t pùt r`ldha`r ld scjuldtcbh lï bó cl l–dvdct drrëtã`. Cl pùt dchsc p`rturn`r l` systíj` `h

jbfcecdht sbh am`jch (bu sbh ãtdt), t`st`r uh abjpbrt`j`ht pdrtcaulc`r bu `habr`

`xpãrcj`ht`r uh` cfã`. L`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` p`rj`tt`ht f–bns`rv`r l`s

abhsãqu`ha`s f`s amdhi`j`hts ̀ eeàtuãs sur uh systíj` ̀ h ebhatcbhh`j`ht._`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha`, l–chfcvcfu s–`hidi` fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l (Yctj`r `t

Qchi`r, 433=). Cl h–`st plus sbllcactã pdr duauh` datcbh dtt`htcbhh`ll` `h f`mbrs f` l–datcvctã

`ll`-jëj` (Didrwdl `t Gdrdmdhhd, >???). L–chfcvcfu `st cjplcquã, dnsbrnã `t tbtdl`j`ht

`hidiã fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` (Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339). L`s tàmhblbic`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

prbpuls`ht l`s utclcsdtùrs du rdhi f–datùrs. Ld stcjuldtcbh f`s s`hs prbvbqu` ld s`hsdtcbh

f–ëtr` plbhiã fdhs uh uhcv`rs vcrtu`l tbut `h ãtdht csblã fu jbhf` rã`l.

Ld jultcplcactã f`s fãechctcbhs f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `st fu` du hbjnr` cjpbrtdht f`sdpplcadtcbhs abrr`spbhfdht`s. Vbutèbcs, l–bnkàtce abjjuh f` a`s fãechctcbhs `st f`



4>6

« p`rj`ttr` ï uh` p`rsbhh` (bu ï pluscùrs) uh` datcvctã s`hsbrc-jbtrca` `t abihctcv` fdhs uh

jbhf` drtcecac`l, arãã hujãrcqu`j`ht, quc pùt ëtr` cjdichdcr`, syjnblcqu` bu uh` scjuldtcbh

f` a`rtdchs dspàts fu jbhf` rã`l · (Euams `t dl., >??5). Cl s–dict f` s–`xtrdcr` f` ld rãdlctã

pmyscqu` pbur amdhi`r vcrtu`ll`j`ht f` t`jps, f` lcù `t/bu f` typ` f–cht`rdatcbh dvà uh

`hvcrbhh`j`ht scjuldht ld rãdlctã (Euams, 4335).

CC.>. L`s fbjdch`s f–dpplcadtcbh f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

D l–brcich`, ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` ãjdh` f` fùx fbjdch`s sac`htcecqu`s prchacpdux. Cl

s–dict f`s sac`ha`s `t tàmhcqu`s f` l–chebrjdtcbh `t f` ld abjjuhcadtcbh, dchsc qu` l`s

sac`ha`s mujdch`s.

L`s sac`ha`s `t tàmhcqu`s f` l–chebrjdtcbh `t f` ld abjjuhcadtcbh ; ld rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` p`rj`t dux chfcvcfus f–dicr fdhs uh jbhf` vcrtu`l. Fdhs a` fbjdch` sac`htcecqu`, f`

hbjnrùs`s fcsacplch`s abhabur`ht pbur prbfucr` f` hbuv`ll`s dvdhaã`s `h jdtcír` f` rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` (Euams `t dl., >??5). A` sbht hbtdjj`ht a`ll`s f` ;

- l–chebrjdtcqu`, pdr ld adpdactã f` prbfuatcbh `t f` arãdtcbh f` hbuv`ll`s cht`reda`s

vcrtu`ll`s cht`rdatcv`s

- ld tãlãbpãrdtcbh, pdr ld arãdtcbh `t l` fãv`lbpp`j`ht f` systíj`s bu cht`reda`s s`hsbrc-

jbtrca`s quc p`rj`tt`ht f–djãlcbr`r l–`xpãrc`ha`

- ld jãadhcqu`, l–bptcqu`, ̀ ta.

L`s sac`ha`s mujdch`s ; l`s tàmhcqu`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` p`rj`tt`ht ï l–utclcsdtùr

f–ëtr` du aőur f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, ï ld ebcs abjj` datùr `t spàtdtùr. L–chfcvcfu h–`st pds ï

l–`xtãrcùr f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l. Cl `st l–bnk`t jëj` f` ld sctudtcbh. A`ld abhfuct ï

pr`hfr` `h abjpt` l` lc`h `htr` ld prbnlãjdtcqu` f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `t l`s sac`ha`s

mujdch`s, pucsqu–cl s–dict f–uh` vcscbh quc tc`ht prchacpdl`j`ht abjpt` f` l–mbjj`. Euams `t

dl. (>??5) `xplcqu`ht qu` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` fbct tbut f–dnbrf, t`hcr abjpt` f` ;

- ld psyamblbic` `xpãrcj`htdl` a'`st-ï-fcr` l–ãtuf` f`s datcbhs `t f`s p`ra`ptcbhs

mujdch`s ï trdv`rs f`s fcspbsctces tàmhcqu`s

- l–`ribhbjc`, a'`st-ï-fcr` l–ãvdludtcbh f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` du hcv`du

fu abhebrt `t fu ebhatcbhh`j`ht



4>0

- ld abihctcbh, a'`st-ï-fcr` ld hdtur` fu prba`ssus abihctce fu suk`t plbhiã fdhs uh`

datcvctã quc d lcù fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht crrã`l.

L–dss`jnldi` f`s sac`ha`s fur`s `t f`s sac`ha`s mujdch`s, fbhh` ï ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

uh pbsctcbhh`j`ht pdrtcaulc`r fdhs l` samãjd sac`htcecqu` mdnctu`l (Euams, >??5). Ph t`l

pbsctcbhh`j`ht p`rj`t ï ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` f` abuvrcr f` hbjnrùx fbjdch`s f–dpplcadtcbh.

Fdhs l` nut f` p`rj`ttr` ï l'utclcsdtùr f'ãprbuv`r uh a`rtdch hbjnr` f` s`hsdtcbhs pmyscqu`s ï

fcstdha` (vcsu`ll`s, dufctcv`s, bledatcv`s, `ta.), l`s rãsultdts f` ràm`ram`s `h jdtcír` f` rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` hbus dppbrt`ht pluscùrs abjnchdcsbhs f` tàmhcqu`s f'cht`rdatcbh `t f'cht`reda`s

`htr` l'mbjj` `t ld jdamch`. @h èe`t, a`s tàmhblbic`s bht nc`h amdhiã ld edébh f` trdvdcll`r,

f` kbu`r, f` vcvr` `t f` abhsbjj`r. @ll`s bht chv`stc f` hbjnrùx fbjdch`s bó ld rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` trbuv` fãsbrjdcs uh` dpplcadtcbh lãictcj` (Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339), hbtdjj`ht

fdhs ;

L` jbhf` f`s deedcr`s pdr l` r`jplda`j`ht f`s vbydi`s pmyscqu`s irîa` ï ld vcfãb-

abheãr`ha` (`.i., Jumlndam, Nbag`r ̀ t _russbi, 4330)

ld tãlãjãfàch` `t ld tãlãpsyamcdtrc` ï trdv`rs l`s systíj`s abhh`x`s (`.i., Arujp `t

_ec`l, 4330)

l'`hs`cih`j`ht ï fcstdha` (`.i., Jbhdmdh, JaDrfl` `t N`rtblbttb >??=)

ld ebrjdtcbh jclctdcr` `t f`s scjuldtùrs f` vbl (`.i., ^m`chiblf, 4334)

l`s kùx vcfãb (`.i., Kuhi, Kb `t Jyuhi, >??=)

l'dramctàtur` `t f` f`scih f'chtãrcùr (`.i.., ûhFdhi `t dl., >??9), l` achãjd, ld

juscqu` ̀ ta.

_dr dcllùrs, butr` l`s dpplcadtcbhs prbe`sscbhh`ll`s, cl `st cjpbrtdht f` scihdl`r qu` l`s

tàmhblbic`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sbht utclcsã`s ãidl`j`ht fdhs fcv`rs`s datcvctãs t`ls qu` ;

- l`s datcvctãs lufcqu`s quc iãhír`ht f–dcllùrs, f–cjpbrtdhts amceer`s f–deedcr` (Dfdjb-

Uclldhc `t Yrcimt, >??9) ràbur`ht ï f`s tàmhcqu`s edvbrcsdht l–cjj`rscbh `t l–cht`rdatcbh.

@ll`s abha`rh`ht hbtdjj`ht f`s kùx quc utclcs`ht f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` ; kùx

scjpl`s dvà cht`rdatcbh `t sdhs cjj`rscbh 7 kùx dvà cht`rdatcbh `t edcnl` cjj`rscbh 7 kùx

dvà cht`rdatcbh `t ebrt` cjj`rscbh s`hsbrc-jbtrca` `t j`htdl`

- l`s datcvctãs drtcstcqu`s `t aultur`ll`s fbht hbtdjj`ht, l` achãjd, ld fdhs`, l` tmãîtr`, l`s

jusã`s vcrtu`ls, l`s spàtdal`s hujãrcqu`s, l`s őuvr`s `h 1F…



4>5

- ld ebrjdtcbh `t l–dppr`htcssdi` pbur l`squ`ls l`s tàmhcqu`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

p`rj`tt`ht f` rãdlcs`r f`s tîam`s sdhs fdhi`r, l`s amdhi`j`hts f` t`rrdch bu f` abhfctcbhs `t

ld rãdlcsdtcbh f` saãhdrcbs fceecacl`s ï r`prbfucr` fdhs ld rãdlctã.

@h rãsujã, l` ràburs ï ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` p`rj`t ï s`s utclcsdtùrs f` t`st`r uh

abjpbrt`j`ht, scjul`r uh` sctudtcbh, chtãir`r f`s pdrdjítr`s pdrtcaulc`rs ï a`tt` sctudtcbh,

cht`rdicr dvà f`s ãlãj`hts, `xpãrcj`ht`r uh` cfã` `h t`jps rã`l `t bns`rv`r l`s abhsãqu`ha`s

f`s amdhi`j`hts qu` sunct l` systíj` `h ebhatcbhh`j`ht. Cl `st f`v`hu pbsscnl` f` abha`vbcr

`t f` jbuvbcr f`s dvdtdrs, f` fãplda`r f`s bnk`ts, l`s jbfcec`r `t abjjuhcqu`r fdhs f`s

`hvcrbhh`j`hts vcrtu`ls vcd uh brfchdtùr, sdhs ãqucp`j`hts `habjnrdhts. @h abjpdrdcsbh

dvà l`s cht`reda`s >F, fbht l`s dttrcnuts jdtãrc`ls `t lbicac`ls sbht f`v`hus qudscj`ht

stdhfdrfcsãs, l` amdll`hi` `st nc`h plus cjpbrtdht fdhs uh jbhf` vcrtu`l `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs.



4>9

CCC. ^ãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `t jdrg`tchi

@h jdtcír` f–Cht`rh`t, l`s prbirís scihcecadtces rãdlcsãs furdht l`s f`rhcír`s dhhã`s, bht

`hi`hfrã uh` hbuv`ll` ãabhbjc` daabjpdihdtrca` fu amdhi`j`ht rdfcadl quc d deeàtã ld

jdhcír` f` edcr` fu jdrg`tchi (Abvd `t Abvd, >??1). Dvà l` fãv`lbpp`j`ht fu jdramã Y`n,

l`s sct`s f` `-abjj`ra` sbht f`v`hus l` prchacpdl jby`h f` abhtdat dvà uh irdhf hbjnr` f`

abhsbjjdtùrs pbur abhstctu`r uh f`s edatùrs alãs fu suaaís f`s `htr`prcs`s. Vbutèbcs, fdhs

uh abht`xt` bó l`s tàmhblbic`s `t l`s dtt`ht`s f`s cht`rhdut`s ãvblu`ht rdpcf`j`ht, f`

hbjnrùs`s cht`rrbidtcbhs p`rscst`ht qudht dux edatùrs susa`ptcnl`s f–dppbrt`r dux sct`s

jdramdhfs uh dvdhtdi` abhaurr`htc`l furdnl` (Csdda `t Ubll`, >?44). @h èe`t, pbur uh`

`htr`prcs`, djãlcbr`r l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` f` s`s alc`hts, abhstctu` dukburf–muc uh butcl

p`rtch`ht f` fceeãr`hacdtcbh. Cl s–dict f–chact`r l`s abhsbjjdtùrs ï vcvr` f`s `xpãrc`ha`s

f–cjj`rscbh fdhs f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts tmãjdtcsãs `t tmãîtrdlcsãs `t hbh sùl`j`ht ï s`

prbaur`r f`s prbfucts / s`rvca`s. _bur a` edcr`, l`s r`spbhsdnl`s f` sct`s jdramdhfs utclcs`ht f`

plus `h plus l`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `t p`rj`tt`ht dchsc dux utclcsdtùrs f` vcsudlcs`r,

jdhcpul`r `t cht`rdicr dvà f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `t f`s bnk`ts `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs (1F).

Irîa` du fãv`lbpp`j`ht f`s cht`reda`s Y`n `t ï l–`xplbscbh f`s kùx `t f`s jbhf`s

vcrtu`ls (c.`., Qàbhf Lce`, l`s Qcjs), l`s tàmhblbic`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sbht fãsbrjdcs`jplbyã`s pdr l`s prbe`sscbhh`ls fu `-jdrg`tchi. L`s `htr`prcs`s dfbpt`ht ld fãjdram`

`xpãrc`htc`ll` fdhs ld abha`ptcbh f` l–dtjbspmír` fu sct`. @ll`s prdtcqu`ht l`s tàmhblbic`s

f–cjj`rscbh f`s abhsbjjdtùrs fdhs l` adfr` f` abht`xt`s `xpãrc`htc`ls dpt`s ï lùr edcr`

vcvr` uh` `xpãrc`ha` sunkàtcv` pbsctcv` (Adró `t Abvd, >??5d). L`s sct`s jdramdhfs quc

jbnclcs`ht f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` s` j`tt`ht ï `xplbct`r l` pmãhbjíh` f–myp`r -

rãdlctã pbur abha`vbcr f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts spàtdauldcr`s. L` ràburs ï a` pmãhbjíh` p`rj`t

f` prbpbs`r f`s `xpãrc`ha`s fdhs f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts ràbhstctuãs, abjnchdht rã`l `tcjdichdcr`, plus drtcecac`ls qu–dutm`htcqu`s (^ctz`r, 4333 7 Luhdrfb, >??9). L`s fcts sct`s

arã`ht dchsc, f`s ̀ hvcrbhh`j`hts plus dttrdydhts qu` lùrs mbjblbiu`s aldsscqu`s.

CCC.4. L–dpplcadtcbh f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `h @-jdrg`tchi

Ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` abhstctu` uh amdjp f–chv`stcidtcbh f–uh` irdhf` cjpbrtdha`. Qbh

dfbptcbh sur Cht`rh`t `t plus pdrtcaulcír`j`ht fdhs l–`-abjj`ra`, `hi`hfr` f–uh aötã, uh



4>=

nbul`v`rs`j`ht fdhs l`s prdtcqu`s f`s jdrqu`s `t f`s abha`ptùrs f` sct`s jdramdhfs `t f–uh

dutr` aötã, `ll` cjplcqu` f` hbuv`dux èe`ts sur l`s abhsbjjdtùrs `t sur lùrs

abjpbrt`j`hts. L`s trdvdux f` Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg (4335 7 >??3), jbhtr`ht qu` ld p`rtch`ha`

f` l–dhdlys` `xpãrc`htc`ll` prãdldnl` ï l–`xpãrc`ha` fdhs l` jbhf` vcrtu`l, d ãtã ldri`j`ht

fãjbhtrã` (_bhach `t Idrhc`r, >?4?). L–cht`rhdut` s` r`trbuv` du a`htr` fu a`ral` p`rsbhh` ‑

bnk`t ‑ sctudtcbh, bó l–`xpãrc`ha` edct ï ld ebcs dpp`l ï ld spmír` abihctcv` `t deeàtcv` (Ecls`r,

>??>). L`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` s`rdc`ht fbha uh` « qudscrãdlctã · dydht f`s

èe`ts `t f`s abhsãqu`ha`s dhdlbiu`s (_bhach `t Idrhc`r, >?4?). Cls ebrj`ht l–dtjbspmír` f–uh

sct` w`n jdramdhf. L`s systíj`s chebrjdtcqu`s iãhír`ht l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` `t jbfce c`ht

l–cht`reda` fu pbcht f` v`ht` vcrtu`l sur l` pldh vcsu`l `t dufctce. @h kbudht sur l` systíj`

s`hsbrc`l (_`l`t, >??=) `t sur uh` j`cllùr` cht`rdatcvctã, l–cht`reda` f`s sct`s f` abjj`ra`

ãlàtrbhcqu` j`t l` abhsbjjdtùr fdhs uh abht`xt` spãacecqu`. L–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` f–uh

sct` jdramdhf pùt dlbrs ëtr` abhscfãrã` abjj` uh` datcvctã f` abhsbjjdtcbh.

_dr dcllùrs, l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` eburhcss`ht dukburf'muc uh

suppbrt abjj`racdl chhbvdht, adr cls p`rj`tt`ht f–dssbac`r l` abhsbjjdtùr ï l–`htr`prcs`

fdhs ld ab-arãdtcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih`. L–dfbptcbh f`s tàmhcqu`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

fdhs l–`-abjj`ra`, `hi`hfr` f`s rãp`rausscbhs sur l`s dspàts sbacdux `t abjj`racdux f`

l–`spda` f` v`ht` (Qtù`r, 433>). Fùx adrdatãrcstcqu`s cjpbrtdht`s fãarcv`ht l`s

`hvcrbhh`j`hts vcrtu`ls jdramdhfs, ï sdvbcr, ld vcvdactã `t l–cht`rdatcvctã f`s abhsbjjdtùrs

(Uràmbpbulbs `t dl., >??3). Lùr abjnchdcsbh dvà ld « tãlãprãs`ha` · (Qamlb`rn, 4330) `t

l– « cjdichdtcbh · (Vurgl`, 43=6) djíh` a`s f`rhc`rs ï s–cjj`ri`r fdhs l'`hvcrbhh`j`ht

vcrtu`l, a'`st-ï-fcr`, p`rfr` ld hbtcbh fu t`jps `t dvbcr f`s rãdatcbhs deeàtcv`s (Vurl`y `t

Jcllcjdh, >???), dchsc qu` edvbrcs`r uh` prbndnclctã plus ãl`vã` f` vcsct`s rãaurr`ht`s `t uh`

j`cllùr` jãjbrcsdtcbh f`s chebrjdtcbhs (Qmcm, 433=).

Ndsã` `ss`htc`ll`j`ht sur l`s abha`pts f` prãs`ha` `t f` tãlãprãs`ha`, ld rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` s` pbsctcbhh` abjj` uh amdjp f` ràm`ram` cht`rfcsacplchdcr` (`.i., Lbjndrf `tFcttbh, 4339). Qur Cht`rh`t, l`s fcspbsctces f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` s` jdhce`st`ht ï trdv`rs ;

- l`s chfcadtùrs vcsu`ls fu jbhf` vcrtu`l

- l` systíj` irdpmcqu` quc iãhír` f`s cjdi`s `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs

- l` systíj` f` sucvc quc chfcqu` ld pbsctcbh `t l'brc`htdtcbh f` l'utclcsdtùr

- l`s sbhs

- ld nds` f` fbhhã`s f'chebrjdtcbh

- l`s di`hts f'chebrjdtcbh (dvdtdrs)



4>3

L`s dpplcadtcbhs f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` p`rj`tt`ht dux abhsbjjdtùrs f'dicr `t f–cht`rdicr

sur `t dvà l` prbfuct (Gcj `t Ebrsytm`, >??=) `t f'daarbètr` ld vdlùr f` fcv`rtcss`j`ht f`

l'`xpãrc`ha` f` jdidschdi` (Erbst `t dl., >??=).

Vrdhspbs`r l`s tàmhcqu`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` du Y`n, djíh` l`s i`stcbhhdcr`s f` sct`s

ï arã`r f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `t f`s bnk`ts `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs, fdhs l`squ`ls l–cht`rhdut` pburrd

r`ss`htcr f`s rãdatcbhs `h t`jps rã`l `t cht`rdicr. Cl s–dict f` systíj`s chebrjdtcqu`s, fcts

Dpplcadtcbhs Cht`rh`t ^cam`s bu ^CD (^cam Cht`rh`t Dpplcadtcbh), daa`sscnl`s f`pucs l`

hdvcidtùr w`n. @ll`s sbht adpdnl`s f–dirãi`r tbus l`s typ`s f` abht`hus `t f` idrdhtcr uh`

`xpãrc`ha` sunstdhtc`ll` `t hbvdtrca` dux utclcsdtùrs. @ll`s p`rj`tt`ht f–dssbac`r f`s

p`rsbhhdi s̀ rã`ls bu vcrtu`ls fdhs uh fãabr trcfcj`hscbhh`l, dvà f` hbjnrùx jãfcds

syhamrbhcsãs t`ls qu` l`s cjdi`s, ld vcfãb, l`s t`xt`s `t l`s sbhs.

@h chtãirdht l`s tàmhblbic`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` fdhs l`s sct`s jdramdhfs, l`s

prbe`sscbhh`ls f` l–`-jdrg`tchi plbhi`ht l`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs f`s abht`xt`s `xpãrc`htc`ls. A`s

tàmhblbic`s dppbrt`ht plus f` rãdlcsj` du sct` `h fcjchudht l`s abhtrdcht`s jdkùr`s adusã`s

pdr l` jdhqu` f` abhtdat pmyscqu` `htr` l`s abhsbjjdtùrs `t l`s prbfucts (`.i., Qum `t L``,

>??0 7 Qum `t Amdhi, >??5). Du-f`lï f` a`s dspàts plutöt ebhatcbhh`ls, a`s tàmhblbic`s

fbhh`ht fu s`hs ï l–`xpãrc`ha`, pdr ld prbfuatcbh scjultdhã` `t cht`rdatcv` f` rãpbhs`s

abihctcv`s `t ãjbtcbhh`ll`s (Ldfw`ch, >??6). @ll`s dicss`ht echdl`j`ht abjj` f`s ãlãj`hts

abhstctudht `t chelu`hédht l'`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `t f` smbppchi. Dchsc, a`rtdchs uhcv`rs vcrtu`ls

fbtãs f` a`s tàmhblbic`s, s` rãvíl`ht trís èecada`s ï arã`r l'clluscbh f` ld rãdlctã. _lus cls

cjj`ri`ht l`s utclcsdtùrs fdhs f`s stcjulc abrr`spbhfdht ï lùrs dtt`ht`s, plus l'`xpãrc`ha` `st

« crrãscstcnl` · (^bs`hnlbj, >??1 7 _bhach `t Idrhc`r, >?4?).

Irîa` dux `hvcrbhh`j`hts f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, l` abht`xt` f` hdvcidtcbh `h lcih`

p`rj`t uh` cjj`rscbh pdrtc`ll`. L`s sct`s jdramdhfs jbnclcsdht f`s tàmhblbic`s f` rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` sbht dlbrs abhscfãrãs abjj` f`s abht`xt`s fdhs l`squ`ls l`s abhsbjjdtùrs pùv`ht

edcr` l–`xpãrc`ha` spàtdauldcr` f–uh` jdrqu`, sdhs ardchfr` l–chtruscbh f–ãlãj`hts `xtãrcùrs.A` typ` pdrtcaulc`r f` sct`s jdramdhfs, abhstctu` uh adfr` `haldvã, sãaurcsã `t tmãjdtcsã (Ecrdt

`t Fmbldgcd, 433=) bó l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh pùt dvbcr ãv`htu`ll`j`ht lcù.

D trdv`rs l`s sct`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, l`s i`stcbhhdcr`s f` jdrqu` am`ram`ht f` plus `h

plus ï rãuhcr l`s abhfctcbhs hãa`ssdcr`s pbur qu` l`s alc`hts vcv`ht uh` `xpãrc`ha` pldcsdht`

schbh chbunlcdnl`, f` jdhcír` ï edébhh`r lùrs abjpbrt`j`hts (Adró `t Abvd, >??5 7 Qamjctt

`t ^bi`rs, >??=). Fdhs l` abht`xt` fu abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu`, l` sct` jdramdhf d l–bnlcidtcbh

f` sdtcsedcr` l`s dtt`ht`s, `xci`ha`s `t fãscrs f`s cht`rhdut`s. Cl s–dict f` jdxcjcs`r l` pldcscrfu alc`ht p`hfdht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` pdr l–dssbuvcss`j`ht f` s`s n`sbchs `xpãrc`htc`ls



414

- Ph` sup`rpbsctcbh f`s hcv`dux f–clluscbh

- Ph rìdrf hùtr` sur uh` rãdlctã urndch` j`ttdht `h dvdht l` fãabr `t l–dppdr`ha`

- Ld prãacscbh f`s fãtdcls `t lùr cht`hscecadtcbh dech f–chfcqu`r l–`xdatctuf` `t jãtcau lbsctã

f`s scihcecadtcbhs

Ld prbfuatcbh f–`hvcrbhh`j`hts myp`r -rã`ls s` edct dlbrs ï trdv`rs l`s drtceca`s, l`s

clluscbhs, l–cht`hscecadtcbh f`s fãtdcls `t l–daa`ht jcs sur l` fãabr `t l`s dppdr`ha`s (Irdcllbt,

>??6 7 >??0). Cls h` abrr`spbhf`ht pds ï f`s stcjulc hdtur`ls jdcs ï f`s stcjulc f`

sunstctutcbh, uh` stcjuldtcbh quc `hi`hfr` uh` s`hsdtcbh fu fãkï vãau, `jpëamdht uh`

p`ra`ptcbh `h ebhatcbh f` sd prbpr` sunkàtcvctã (@ab, 4333). Cl s–dict f` abpc`s dutm`htcqu`s

fu jbhf` rã`l jdhcpuldnl`s ï vblbhtã, s`lbh l–cjdichdcr` f`s abha`ptùrs. F`s cjctdtcbhs quc

abhfucs`ht ï abhscfãr`r l` « edux · abjj` ãtdht fu « vrdc ·.

Vbutèbcs, fu edct f` l–`xplbctdtcbh f` jultcpl`s hcv`dux f–djnciuâtã, l–myp`r -rãdlctã

`st jbchs prbpca` ï l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`. @h èe`t, p`rj`tt`ht du vcsctùr f` vcvr` f`s

`xpãrc`ha`s quc r`qucír`ht pù bu pds f–èebrts, pucsqu` tbut `st jcs ï fcspbsctcbh fu alc`ht,

sdhs fãplby`r s`s prbpr`s abjpãt`ha`s. A–`st l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht myp`r -rã`l quc abhtröl` ld

qudsc-tbtdlctã f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh, fu fãnut kusqu–ï ld ech (Irdcllbt, >??6),

chelu`hédht uhcqu`j`ht ld vdlùr ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`. Tudht dux ̀ hvcrbhh`j`hts f`

rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, cls sbht ebrt`j`ht rãdlcst`s `t a`s fcspbsctces sbht fdvdhtdi` `jplbyãs pbur

`hrcamcr ãjbtcbhh`ll`j`ht ld vcsct` (Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, >??3). Ld qu`stcbh h'`st pds sdvbcr sc

l` jbhf` arãã `st dussc rã`l qu` l` jbhf` pmyscqu`, jdcs f` sdvbcr sc l` jbhf` arãã `st

sueecsdjj`ht rã`l pbur surpr`hfr` l–utclcsdtùr `t l` edcr` ãamdpp`r f` sbh qubtcfc`h. _dr

dcllùrs, ld plupdrt f`s am`ramùrs `t f`s sac`htcecqu`s s'daabrf`ht ï fcr`, qu` l` f` rãdlcsj`

tbtdl f` l–cjdi`, f`s sbhs `t f` ld vcfãb, h'`st pds uh` abhfctcbh sch` qud hbh pbur qu–uh

`hvcrbhh`j`ht f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, prbfucs` am`z l–utclcsdtùr uh s`htcj`ht f'cjj`rscbh

(Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339). Ph s`htcj`ht quc suiiír` ld ebadlcsdtcbh f` tbut`s l`s r`ssbura`sdtt`htcbhh`ll`s f` l–cht`rhdut` p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih`, f–bó l–duij`htdtcbh f`

ld amdri` abihctcv` `t deeàtcv` `hv`rs l` sct` tîam` (Didrwdl `t Gdrdmdhhd, >???). Cl `h rãsult`

uh` djplcecadtcbh f` p`ra`ptcbhs `t f`s r`ss`htcs pbsctces p`hfdht l–`xãautcbh f` ld tîam` fdhs

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf (Qcjbh, >??9).

@hech, l`s tàmhcqu`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` prbpbs`ht f` p`rsbhhdlcs`r l–cht`reda`

jdramdhf`, pbur edaclct`r l–dpprbprcdtcbh fu abht`xt` pdr l–cht`rhdut`, `t fbha prbvbqu`r lùr

cjj`rscbh `t chelu`ha`r f`s abjpbrt`j`hts edvbrdnl`s. Qc l s̀ `hvcrbhh`j`hts myp`r-rã`lssbht `jplbyãs ï f`s echs f–djus`j`ht (`ht`rtdchj`ht ) (c.`., spàtdal`s, r`prãs`htdtcbhs



41>

drtcstcqu`s, `ta.) (Irdcllbt, >??0), ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sur Cht`rh`t fbhh` plus f` arãfcnclctã du

sct` jdramdhf. @h èe`t, f`s fcspbsctces t`l qu` l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls bu dvdtdrs, l`s jdhh`quchs

vcrtu`ls, l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `h 1F, `ta. p`rj`tt`ht f–djãlcbr`r ld abhecdha` `hv`rs l` sct`

(Hbt`nd`rt `t L`jbch`, >?44) l–dttctuf` vcs-ï-vcs fu jdramdhf, dchsc qu` l` fãrbul`j`ht f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` (Ecbr` `t dl., >??0). L`s sct`s jdramdhfs quc jbnclcs`ht l`s tàmhblbic`s

f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, s` rãvíl`ht abjj` f`s abht`xt`s fdhs l`squ`ls l`s abhsbjjdtùrs pùv`ht

vcvr` f`s ̀ xpãrc`ha`s brcichdl`s f–cjj`rscbh ̀ h lcih`.

CCC.1. l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll s̀ f`s sct`s jdramdhfs f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

Nc`h qu` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sbct prbam` f`s tàmhblbic`s mdnctu`ll`j`ht utclcsã`s fdhsl`s sct`s jdramdhfs, `ll` s–`h fceeãr`hac` pdr uh a`rtdch hbjnr` f` eda`tt`s. A`ll`s-ac sbht

abhéu`s pbur prbpbs`r ï l'utclcsdtùr uh typ` f'`xpãrc`ha` quc h'd kdjdcs ãtã pbsscnl`

dupdrdvdht. Cl s–dict f` j`ttr` `h saíh` uh` `xpãrc`ha` quc s`jnl` « hdtur`ll` ·, « cjjãfcdt`

·, « fcràt` · `t « rã`ll` · (Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339). Ph` `xpãrc`ha` f` jãfcdtcbh quc arã`

pbur l'utclcsdtùr uh` ebrt` stcjuldtcbh abihctcv` t̀ cht`rdatcv`. @h èe`t, l`s `xpãrc`ha`s vãau`s

sur ld tbcl` s–dvír`ht f` plus `h plus rcam`s `t s` vùl`ht plus st cjuldht`s, vbcr` jëj` plus

qu` ld rãdlctã (_bhach `t Idrhc`r, >?4?). Ld rcam`ss` f` ld vcsct` `st fu` dux fcspbsctces f`

rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. Cls abha`rh`ht hbtdjj`ht, f`s p`rsbhhdi`s vcrtu`ls bu rã`ls, l` fãabr `h 1F,

ld r`prãs`htdtcbh f`s jãfcds dssbacãs, ld r`prãs`htdtcbh fu prbfuct, `ta.

Fdhs l` sbuac f` jcùx j`ttr` `h ãvcf`ha` l` abha`pt f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` fdhs l`

abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`, a`tt` sàtcbh s` abhsdar` ï ld fãechctcbh f`s

abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s f–uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. Hbus hbus

chtãr`ss`rbhs prchacpdl`j`ht dux `hvcrbhh`j`hts `h 1F `t dux dvdtdrs (Ae. amdpctr` 6).

CCC.1.4. L`s di`hts vcrtu`ls

L`s di`hts vcrtu`ls, dvdtdrs bu di`hts abhv`rsdtcbhh`ls, sbht f`s p`rsbhhdi`s quc

pùv`ht ëtr` utclcsãs `h tdht qu` r`prãs`htdhts f–uh` `htr`prcs` sur sbh sct` jdramdhf. L`

t`rj` dvdtdr s` rãeír` ï uh` r`prãs`htdtcbh f'uh` `htctã. Cl s` fãarct abjj` « uh`

r`prãs`htdtcbh f` l'utclcsdtùr abjj` uh p`rsbhhdi` dhcjã fdhs l`s jbhf`s vcrtu`ls · (Lbbs,

>??1, p. 49), tàmhcqu`j`ht, cls rèlít`ht ld p`rsbhhcecadtcbh irdpmcqu` f`s brfchdtùrs bu f`s

prba`ssus quc s'`xãaut`ht sur f`s brfchdtùrs (Mblzwdrtm `t dl., >??5). L`s dvdtdrs abhstctu`ht



411

l`s abhs`cll`rs vcrtu`ls fu sct`, cls chadrh`ht ld prãs`ha` mujdch` f` ld pldtèbrj` jdramdhf`.

A` sbht f`s fcspbsctces dhcjãs pdr l`s jby`hs f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`.

Qc l–uh f`s bnstdal`s l` plus rãpbhfu sur l` w`n `st ld hdtur` cjp`rsbhh`ll` f`s sct`s

jdramdhfs, l`s dvdtdrs abhstctu`ht uh` sblutcbh trís p`rtch`ht` (Mblzwdrtm `t dl., >??5) ; Cls

chstdur`ht uh` hbuv`ll` ebrj` f` fcdlbiu` dvà ld jdrqu`, cls pdrtcacp`ht ï ld prãs`htdtcbh f`

l–beer` `t ï l–cht`rdatcbh `htr` l` sct` `t l–cht`rhdut`. @h èe`t, a`s p`rsbhhdi`s iãhãrdl`j`ht

chtrusces prãs`ht`ht l`s prbfucts (l–be er`) `t pbs`ht f`s qu`stcbhs dux utclcsdtùrs dech f` jcùx

abhhdètr` lùrs dtt`ht`s `h abjnchdht sbhs, vcfãbs `t cjdi`s. L`s sct`s jdramdhfs f` rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` s–dppuc`ht sur uh` pldt`-ebrj` tàmhblbicqu` chhbvdht`. A`tt` pldt`-ebrj` `st fãfcã`

hbtdjj`ht, du str`djchi j`fcd. @h èe`t, a`s fcspbsctces p`rj`tt`ht ld fceeuscbh f'cjdi`s f`

qudlctã `t f` irdhf` tdcll` (dlldht fu qudrt f'ãardh du pl`ch ãardh). L`s dvdtdrs r`tc`hh`ht tbut`

l'dtt`htcbh f` l'cht`rhdut` `t idrdhtcss`ht uh` `xa`ll`ht` `xpbsctcbh, uh` j`cllùr`

abjprãm`hscbh fu j`ssdi` `t uh` ebrt` vdlùr p`réu`.

CCC.1.>. L`s ̀ hvcrbhh`j`hts ̀ h 1F

Ph `hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l `st uh systíj` chebrjdtcqu` quc iãhír` uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht

`h trbcs fcj`hscbhs bó l'utclcsdtùr pùt cht`rdicr `t p`ra`vbcr f`s rãdatcbhs `h t`jps rã`l. Cl

s–dict f–uhcv`rs quc r`pbs`ht sur uh` sãrc` f–clluscbhs abbrfbhhã`s `t abhéu`s pdr brfchdtùr.

Cls sbht ãidl`j`ht dpp`lãs « systíj`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` ·. A`s systíj`s cjj`rsces

cjplcqu`ht uh` scjuldtcbh `h t`jps rã`l `t f`s cht`rdatcbhs vcd l`s jultcpl`s adhdux

s`hsbrc`ls. L–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l cjplcqu` ï fbhh`r l–clluscbh ï l–cht`rhdut` f–ëtr` fdhs uh

jclcù dutr` qu` l` sc`h. L`s s`hs f` l–utclcsdtùr sbht dlbrs stcjulãs, du pbcht qu–cl r`ss`ht` ld

prãs`ha` f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l, vbcr` qu–cl s–cjj`ri` (Kch, >??3). Cl edut dlbrs qu` a`t

`hvcrbhh`j`ht jãfcdtcsã, prbaur` uh a`rtdch fìrã f` abhtröl` `t uh hcv`du f` amdll`hi`

sueecsdhts, pbur iãhãr`r l`s rãdatcbhs abihctcv`s `t deeàtcv`s sbumdctã`s pdr l–`hs`cih` surCht`rh`t.

Vbutèbcs, sc l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l `st fãpburvu f` adrdatãrcstcqu`s tdatcl`s,

bledatcv`s `t iustdtcv`s, cl kbu` pl`ch`j`ht sur l–dspàt vcsu`l `t dufctce. L`s cht`reda`s `h 1F

fdhs l`squ`ls l`s cht`rhdut`s s–cjj`ri`ht beer`ht uh` `xpãrc`ha` rcam` (Y`x`lnldt, 4331 7 Qum

`t L``, >??0). L` fìrã f` rcam`ss` f`s jãfcds `st fãt`rjchã pdr l` hcv`du ld prbebhfùr `t ld

ldriùr s`hsbrc`ll` f'uh` cht`reda` (Qtù`r, 433>). Ld prbebhfùr s` rãeír` ï ld qudlctã f`

l'chebrjdtcbh du s`ch f` amdqu` adhdl. Tudht ï ld ldriùr, `ll` s` rãeír` du hbjnr` f`fcj`hscbhs s`hsbrc`ll`s stcjulã`s scjultdhãj`ht.



416

Ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` duij`ht` ld prbebhfùr s`hsbrc`ll`, `h pdrtcaulc`r pbur ld vu`, adr cl

pùt trdhsj`ttr` f`s cjdi`s `t f`s bnk`ts `h 1F plus fãtdcllãs qu` l`s cjdi`s stdtcqu`s (>F)

(Qum `t L``, >??0). L`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `h 1F p`rj`tt`ht ãidl`j`ht f` jdhcpul`r ld ebrj` `t

l` abht`hu f'uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht `h t`jps rã`l `t `ll` beer` uh mdut hcv`du f` abhtröl` pdr

brfchdtùr, dech f` arã`r uh` clluscbh p`ra`ptcv` f'ëtr` prãs`ht `t ebrt`j`ht `hidiã fdhs uh

`hvcrbhh`j`ht jãfcdtcsã.

Cl `xcst` pluscùrs typ`s f–`hvcrbhh`j`hts vcrtu`ls. Lùr fceeãr`ha` rãscf` fdhs l`

hbjnr` f` stcjuldtùrs s`hsbrc`ls p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha`. _lus cl y d f` s`hs stcjulãs, plus l`s

utclcsdtùrs sbht csblãs f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu jbhf` rã`l (Ymcttbh, >??1). L–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

vcrtu`l pùt ëtr` cjj`rsce, s`jc-cjj`rsce bu hbh cjj`rsce.

- Ph `hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l cjj`rsce ; `st uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht fdhs l`qu`l ld tbtdlctã

f`s `htrã`s s`hsbrc`ll`s f` l–utclcsdtùr `st abhtchu`ll`j`ht ̀ xactã`

- Ph `hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l s`jc-cjj`rsce ; lbrsqu` l`s utclcsdtùrs pùv`ht cht`rdicr

ï ld ebcs dvà l`s jbhf`s rã`l `t vcrtu`l.

- Ph `hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l hbh-cjj`rsce ; Cl s–dict f–uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht pù

cjj`rsce vcsu`ll`j`ht, utclcsdht pdr `x`jpl` f`s ãardhs f` jcarb-brfchdtùrs

@h rãadpctulã, l–bnkàtce prchacpdl f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts vcrtu`ls `st f` stcjul`r l`s s`hs

f` l–utclcsdtùr `t f` prbaur`r uh` s`hsdtcbh f–cjj`rscbh `t f–cht`rdatcbh dvà a`t

`hvcrbhh`j`ht.

CCC.6. Vypblbic` f`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

L`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` tmãîtrdlcs`ht `t j`tt`ht `h saíh` l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts

jdramdhfs. D trdv`rs ld jdhcpuldtcbh f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s f` l–cht`reda`

abjj`racdl`, f`s rãdatcbhs sunkàtcv`s, ï ld ebcs deeàtcv`s, ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t abihctcv`s

suricss`ht am`z l–cht`rhdut`. Cl p`rf ld hbtcbh fu t`jps, cl s` r`trbuv` fdhs uh uhcv`rs fceeãr`ht

fuqu`l cl s` trbuv` ; cl `st `h cjj`rscbh. @h èe`t, l–cjj`rscbh fãp`hf f`s edatùrs

`hvcrbhh`j`htdux fu sct`, cls sbht ãtrbct`j`ht lcãs ï f`s fcspbsctces quc abhfucs`ht ï

r`prãs`htdtcbhs rãdlcst`s (^ydh, 4336). L'utclcsdtùr s` s`ht dlbrs `htburã pdr uh jbhf` vcrtu`l,

fdhs l`qu`l cl pùt lcnr`j`ht hdvciu`r.

Abha`rhdht l`s sct`s jdramdhfs quc ràbur`ht l` plus ï ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, hbus

prãs`htbhs ac-f`ssbus uh` typblbic` quc abjpr`hf f`s sct`s trdhsdatcbhh`ls, chebrjdtcbhh`ls



410

`t r`ldtcbhh`ls. A`tt` aldsscecadtcbh pbrt` sur l`s sct`s r`ldtcbhh`ls `t sur l`s jchc-sct`s

prbjbtcbhh`ls. A`s typ`s f` sct`s sbht « abhéus pbur `hrcamcr l–cjdi` `t ld hbtbrcãtã f–uh`

jdrqu`, qu'cls sbc`ht f`s rãdlcsdtcbhs pãr`hh`s, bu qu–cls dc`ht ãtã abhéus pbur h` r`st`r `h

lcih` qu` qu`lqu`s jbcs · (Elbrís `t Ubll`, >??0, p. 6?).

Fdhs l` tdnl`du quc suct, hbus dvbhs rãdlcsã uh` typblbic` f`s sct`s erdhédcs quc

jbnclcs`ht f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` s`lbh lùr hdtur`, lùr echdlctã, l`s j`fcds utclcsãs,

l` abht`hu, l` sàtùr f–datcvctã, ld acnl` `t qu`lqu`s `x`jpl`s f` jdrqu`s.



415

Vdnl`du 4> ; Vypblbic` f`s sct`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` ï usdi` abjj`racdl

Hdtur` Bnkàtce J`fcds Abht`hu Qàtùr f–datcvctã Acnl` @htr`prcs` / Jdrqu`

C h e b r j d t c b h h ` l l ` / ^ ` l d t c b h h ` l l ` `-Jdclchi

>F, Cjdi`s,t`xt`

Ucfãb jdcl, t`xt` f` prãs`htdtcbh, dvdtdr.

Dirbdlcj`htdcr`Dutbjbncl`,Ndhqu`, Vburcsj`, `ta.

N tb AN tb N

VMDL@Q, Adrlsbh YdibhlctVrdv`l, PEA Tu` ambcscr,JDDE, Adhdlsdt, `ta.

Abhtdat >F `t bu 1F,Qbhs, vcfãb

Ebrjuldcr` cht`rdatce pbur prcs`f` ^FU, dsscstdht vcrtu`l, `ta.

Dutbjbncl`,Cjjbnclc`r, Ndhqu`,`ta.

N tb NN tb AN tb D

Jbhd ndhqu`, Q`dt Cnczd,_ùi`bt 4??9, `ta.

Daabjpdih`j`ht`t abhs`cl

>F/1F,Cjdi`s, t`xt`,Qbhs `t vcfãb

Daabjpdih`j`ht `t dcf` ï ldhdvcidtcbh, prbirdjj`s fèbrjdtcbh cht`rdatces, dvdtdrebrjdtùr, ̀ ta.

@-L`drhchi, Vburcsj`,Cjjbnclc`r, Vrdhspbrt,`ta.

N tb N

N tb A

VMDL@Q, Adrlsbh YdibhlctVrdv`l, PEA Tu` ambcscr,V@L@LDHIP@, ^DV_,`ta.

@vãh`j`htc`l>F/1F,Cjdi`s, t`xt`sbhs `t vcfãb

Jchc-sct` prbjbtcbhh`l,Kùx/abhaburs, vcfãb punlcactdcr` cht`rdatcv`, `ta.

Dirbdlcj`htdcr`,Dutbjbncl`, Irdhf`fcstrcnutcbh, `ta.

N tb AL`scùr, C^QH, AdrrèburACA kùh`s datces, ArãfctDircabl`, ̀ ta.

V r d h s d

a t c b h h ` l l `

_unlcactã>F/1F, Qbhs`t Ucfãb

Ucfãb-ndhhcír` cht`rdatcv` punlcactdcr`._rãs`htdtùr f` l–beer`, ̀ ta.

Dssurdha`,tãlãabjjuhcadtcbh,dutbjbncl`, `ta.

N tb NN tb A

DIE, Brdhi`, H`xcty,L`hbvb, Ldvdzzd, M_, `ta.

U`ht`>F/1FCjdi`s, t`xt`,

sbhs `t vcfãb

_rãs`htdtùr (v`hfùr)Fãjbhstrdtùr cht`rdatceQcjuldtcbh `h lcihÙcfãb f–`htr`prcs`, ̀ ta.

Dirbdlcj`htdcr`,Dutbjbncl`,Ndhqu`, Vburcsj`,Dssurdha`, ̀ ta.

N tb NN tb A

U`blcd, JDDE, AdhdlsdtJbhd ndhqu`, PEA Tuàmbcscr, ^`hdult H`w F`dl,Bptclcn, `ta.

Nbutcqu` vcrtu`ll`>F/1FCjdi`s, t`xt`sbhs `t vcfãb

@spda` smbwrbbj fãfcã ï ldjdrqu`, dux prbfucts `t duxs`rvca`s, v`hfùr bufãjbhstrdtùr, ̀ ta.

Dutbjbncl`,Absjãtcqu`,Chebrjdtcqu`, ̀ ta.

N tb NN tb A

Sv`s ^bam`r, Phcv`rs^`hdult, F@LL, Brdhi`,Q`pmbrd, `ta.



419

Fdhs sd abha`ptcbh `t fdhs sbh ebhatcbhh`j`ht, l` sct` w`n jdramdhf s` rdpprbam` f`

plus `h plus f–uh jdidsch f` abjj`ra` trdfctcbhh`l. Cl `st `hrcamc pdr l`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` quc prbaur`ht uh` abjpbsdht` lufcqu` bu mãfbhcst` cjpbrtdht` fbht h` kbucss`ht pds

tbus l`s sct`s f` `-abjj`ra`. A`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s pdrtcacp`ht du r`hebra`j`ht f`

sbh dttrdatcvctã eda` ï ld abhaurr`ha`. Cl s–dict n`l `t nc`h f–uh` ebrj` f` « rã -`hamdht`j`ht ·

chfuct`s pdr f`s `xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh `h lcih`.



41=

ABHALPQCBH FP AMD_CV^@ CCC

L–dtjbspmír` f`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs `st uh abha`pt p`rtch`ht quc p`rj`tf–`xplcqu`r l–cjpdat f`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` w`n jdramdhf sur l`

abhsbjjdtùr. L`s ãlãj`hts dtjbspmãrcqu`s fu sct` fãt`rjch`ht l`s rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s,

deeàtcv`s `t abihctcv`s, quc chelu`ha`ht l` abjpbrt`j`ht f` l–cht`rhdut` (`.i., @rbilu `t dl

>??4 7 Qdutt`r `t dl. >??6 7 ^camdrf >??0 7 Fdcl`y >??6). _dr dcllùrs, ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

prbpbs` f`s butcls `ss`htc`ls pbur ld prbfuatcbh f–ãlãj`hts dtjbspmãrcqu`s èecada`s sur

l–cht`rdatcvctã dvà l`s abhsbjjdtùrs `t ï l–`hrcamcss`j`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`.

Abhscfãrã` abjj` uh `hs`jnl` f` tàmhcqu`s `xplbctdht f`s cht`reda`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s,

`ll` vcs` ï scjul`r f`s abjpbrt`j`hts f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs uh jbhf` `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs `t

`h t`jps rã`l.

_rchacpdl`j`ht pcbhhc`rs fdhs l` sàtùr f`s kùx `h lcih`, l`s fcspbsctces f` ld rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` beer`ht dukburf'muc uh jclcù abjj`racdl chhbvdht. Lùr chtãirdtcbh dux sct`s w`n

jdramdhfs, abhstctu` uh jby`h èecada` pbur ld prbjbtcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih`.

Cl `st abjjuhãj`ht dfjcs qu–cls ebrj`ht f`s butcls abjj`racdux ãj`ri`hts fbtãs f–uh`

jultctuf` f` ebhatcbhhdlctãs chhbvdht`s abhtrcnudht ï r`hebra`r l–cht`rdatcbh `htr` l–mbjj` `t

l–brfchdtùr (`.i., Uràmbpbulbs `t dl., >??3 7 Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, >??3 ). Fdhs uh pr`jc`r

t`jps, cls cht`rvc`hh`ht fdhs ld struaturdtcbh `t l–di`ha`j`ht fu sct`, dchsc qu` fdhs

l–ãjcsscbh f` stcjulc s`hsbrc`ls (l–buâ` `t ld vu`). Fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps, cls abhtrcnu`ht ï

ld sbacdlcsdtcbh `t du fcv`rtcss`j`ht fu alc`ht quc, `hidiã fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` f–uh sct`

f` `-abjj`ra`, ãprbuv` f`s s`hsdtcbhs, f`s ãjbtcbhs `t f`s ãtdts deeàtces spãacecqu`s.

L–dpprbam` `xpãrc`htc`ll` f` Mblnrbbg `t Mcrsamjdh (43=>), sbutc`ht qu` l` abjpbrt`j`ht fu

abhsbjjdtùr h–`st pds sùl`j`ht l` rãsultdt f` l–`xpbsctcbh f` a` f`rhc`r du prbfuct, jdcs

dussc l` rãsultdt f`s cht`rdatcbhs dvà l` prbfuct `t ld sctudtcbh.

Qc a`s cht`rdatcbhs s` ebht pdr l` ncdcs f` ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh `t ld jcs` `h saíh`, chfuct`s

pdr l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l, l–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` durd lcù

lbrsqu` l` abht`xt` jdramdhf p`rj`t ï l–cht`rhdut` f` abhtröl`r sd vcsct`. @h èe`t, L` abhtröl`

p`réu p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh, r`prãs`ht` l–cjpr`sscbh f–dvbcr l` ambcx fdhs ld

sãlàtcbh fu pdraburs. Cl r`prãs`ht` uh edatùr cjpbrtdht fdhs ld prbfuatcbh f` abihctcbhs `t



413

f–ãjbtcbhs. L`s abhsbjjdtùrs `h lcih` bht t`hfdha` ï s` s`htcr `t s` abjpbrt`r f` edébh

pbsctcv`, fu jbj`ht bó cls p`rébcv`ht uh abhtröl` sur lùr `hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf.

A` amdpctr` j`t pdrtcaulcír`j`ht l'daa`ht sur l'dtjbspmír` f`s jdidschs `h lcih` `t l`s

tàmhcqu`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. Cl vcs` ï `xplbr`r, ï trdv`rs uh` dpprbam` cht`rfcsacplchdcr` f`

ràm`ram`, l`s jãadhcsj`s f` fãplbc`j`ht f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` fdhs l` abht`xt` fu

abjj`ra` `h lcih`, `t lùr cjpdat sur l`s rãdatcbhs `t l`s abjpbrt`j`hts f`s abhsbjjdtùrs.

L`s tàmhcqu`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` s`jnl`ht, pdr dcllùrs, beercr du hcv`du f` l–dtjbspmír`

f` v`ht`, uh ebrt pbt`htc`l f` fceeãr`hacdtcbh `htr` l`s sct`s f` `-abjj`ra` quc sbht `h hbjnr`

abhstdjj`ht arbcssdht. L`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s f` ld nbutcqu` `h lcih` s` sbht

dvãrã`s ëtr` uh jby`h èecada` fdhs ld abhstruatcbh f–uh dvdhtdi` abhaurr`htc`l pbur l`s

`htr`prcs`s `h t`rj`s f'damdt `t f'cht`htcbh f'damdt (Qum `t L``, >??0 7 Gbb `t dl., >??3). L`s

fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` abhtrcnu`ht ï l–`hrcamcss`j`ht f` ld vcsct`, pdr uh` jcs` `h

vdlùr f`s prbfucts / s`rvca`s fu sct` jdramdhf. A`s fcspbsctces r`prãs`ht`ht l–`hs`jnl` f`s

abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ls f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l. F` t`ll`s abjpbsdht`s `hi`hfr`ht f`s

rãdatcbhs chfcvcfu`ll`s ï amdqu` abhsbjjdtùr. _`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`, l`s rãdatcbhs

f`s cht`rhdut`s ãvblu`ht tbut du lbhi f` ld hdvcidtcbh, kusqu–ï dtt`chfr` l–cjj`rscbh, a'`st-ï-

fcr` l` fãal`ham`j`ht f` rãdatcbhs abihctcv`s, s`hsbrc`ll`s, deeàtcv`s `t sbacdl`s. Hbus

pdrlbhs dlbrs f–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh ̀ h lcih`.



46?

ABHALPQCBH F@ LD ^@UP@ F@ LD LCVV@^DVP^@

Du t`rj` f` a`tt` r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur`, hbus prbpbsbhs fdhs a`tt` pdrtc`, f`

syhtmãtcs`r a`s trbcs pr`jc`rs amdpctr`s, dech f–ãaldcracr l`s abha`pts qu` hbus dvbhs prãs`htã

`t ld jdhcír` fbht hbus dllbhs l`s trdct`r fdhs l`s amdpctr`s sucvdhts.

L–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` d ãtã fãechc` ï pdrtcr f–uh` ãtuf` trdhsv`rsdl` fu

abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh fdhs fceeãr`ht`s fcsacplch`s, plus pdrtcaulcír`j`ht, l` jdrg`tchi

`xpãrc`htc`l `t l`s systíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh. A`tt` chv`stcidtcbh hbus d p`rjcs f` fcstchiu`r

fùx typ`s f–cjj`rscbh ; l–cjj`rscbh tàmhcqu` `t l–cjj`rscbh psyamblbicqu`. Fdhs l` adfr`

f` a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl, hbus hbus ebadlcs`rbhs sur l–cjj`rscbh du s`hs psyamblbicqu`, quc

s–`xprcj` pdr l–cjplcadtcbh, l–dnsbrptcbh `t l–`hidi`j`ht (Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339). @ll`

suiiír` ld ebadlcsdtcbh f` tbut`s l`s r`ssbura`s dtt`htcbhh`ll`s f` l–cht`rhdut` p`hfdht

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih`, f–bó l–duij`htdtcbh f` ld amdri` abihctcv`, deeàtcv` `t

ãjbtcbhh`ll` f` a` f`rhc`r `hv`rs l` sct`. _bur l`s r`spbhsdnl`s f` sct`s jdramdhfs, l–bnk àtce

dtt`hfu `st l` r`hebra`j`ht f` p`ra`ptcbhs pbsctcv`s furdht l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih` `t

l–cht`rdatcbh dvà l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf.

Dprís dvbcr fãechct l` abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh, hbus hbus dpplcquãs ï cf`htcec`r l`s

fcj`hscbhs f` l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`. Cl s–dict f`s fcj`hscbhs f` Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh

`t Ibtt`ldhf (>??=), a'`st-ï-fcr` ld fcj`hscbh abihctcv`, ld fcj`hscbh s`hsbrc`ll` bu

p`ra`ptu`ll`, ld fcj`hscbh deeàtcv`, ld fcj`hscbh sbacdl` `t ld fcj`hscbh pmyscqu`. A`tt`

r`prãs`htdtcbh f`s eda`tt`s f` hbtr` abha`pt a`htrdl s` trbuv` plus `xmdustcv` qu` a`ll` f`

Fc`sndam `t K`dhfrdch (>??0), quc s–chtãr`ss` uhcqu`j`ht dux fcj`hscbhs spdtcdl`s `t sbacdl`s.

Ld aldsscecadtcbh f` Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf (>??=) hbus s`rvcrd f` nds` pburl–cf`htcecadtcbh f` l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh fdhs hbtr` ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` (ae. amdpctr` 6).

Vbukburs abha`rhdht l–cjj`rscbh, hbus dvbhs t`hu ï j`ttr` `h lujcír` qu`lqu`s

sbura`s f` abheuscbh dutburs fu pmãhbjíh`. @h èe`t, ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` hbus d p`rjcs

f` fcstchiu`r l–cjj`rscbh f–dutr`s abha`pts prbam`s `t plus pdrtcaulcír`j`ht, l` elbw

(Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc, >??? 7 Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 4335 7 >??3). `t ld tãlãprãs`ha` (Qtù`r, 433> 7

Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339). _dr dcllùrs, fdhs a`tt` ràm`ram`, hbs qu`stcbhh`j`hts t`ht`ht f`fãt`rjch`r sc p`hfdht uh` `xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih`, l`s cht`rhdut`s dtt`cih`ht bu pds l–ãtdt



464

f–cjj`rscbh, qu` hbus dpp`lbhs « cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` · bu `habr`

« `xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` ·.

@hsuct`, sc l–ãardh f–uh brfchdtùr h` abhstctu` pds uh systíj` tbtdl`j`ht cjj`rsce,

l–usdi` f`s tàmhblbic`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sur Cht`rh`t p`rj`t, fdhs a`rtdchs ads, l–daaís ï

uh` `xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` `h lcih`. Fdhs l`s sct`s jdramdhfs, l`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` sbht, hbtdjj`ht, chadrhã`s pdr l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls quc `x`ra`ht f`s èe`ts sur ld

fcj`hscbh f` sbacdl` fu sct` (Kbmhsbh `t Gulpd, >??9) 7 l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `h 1 fcj`hscbhs,

quc r`prãs`ht`ht l`s fcj`hscbhs s`hsbrc`ll`s susa`ptcnl`s f–ëtr` utclcsã`s sur l` sct`. _dr

dcllùrs, ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` jbhtr` qu` l` abhtröl` p`réu abhstctu` uh ãlãj`ht trís

cjpbrtdht pbur l–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. L` abhtröl` pùt ëtr` jdtãrcdlcsã

pdr ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`, quc abhstctu` uh stcjulus vcsu`l r`ldtce ï l–bridhcsdtcbh `t ï ld

struatur` fu sct`. A`s fcspbsctces syjnblcs`ht l`s butcls cht`rdatces quc bht l` pbt`htc`l

f–`hrcamcr `t abhtröl`r ld vcsct`.

Quct` ï ld r`vu` f` lcttãrdtur`, hbus hbus prbpbsbhs f–èeàtu`r fdhs l` amdpctr`

sucvdht, uh` ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` pbur `xplbr`r l`s spãacecactãs f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` fdhs

l` abht`xt` fu abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu`. L–dhdlys` p`rj`t f–cf`htcec`r l`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s f`s sct`s jdramdhfs quc utclcs`ht f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, `ll` edct

ãj`ri`r uh` hbuv`ll` vdrcdnl` ; ld vdlùr ilbndl`. L–ãtuf` j`t ãidl`j`ht `h ãvcf`ha`

l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh sur l`s rãpbhs`s f` l–cht`rhdut` `hv`rs l` sct`, ld jdrqu` `t l` prbfuct,

qu–cl s–dicss` f` rãpbhs`s abihctcv`s, trdhsdatcbhh`ll`s bu r`ldtcbhh`ll`s. _bur abhalur`, uh

jbfíl` abha`ptu`l trdfucsdht l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls `h lcih` `st

`xpbsã `t l`s mypbtmís`s ï t`st`r sbht ãjcs`s.



46>









F@ ABHQBJJDVCBH

_ ^ @ J C @ ^

@ _ D ^ V C @

F @ P ]

C @ J @ _ D ^ V C @



461

AMD_CV^@ CU ; LD _MDQ@TPDLCVDVCU@ @V L@Q MS_BVM@Q@Q

F@ ^@AM@^AM@



466

CHV^BFPAVCBH FP AMD_CV^@ CU

L–bnkàtce prchacpdl f` a` amdpctr`, `st f` prbpbs`r uh jbfíl` abha`ptu`l quc p`rj`ttrdf` t`st`r l`s mypbtmís`s a`htrdl`s f` hbtr` prbnlãjdtcqu`. Cl dnbrf` l` pmãhbjíh`

f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sur uh sc t` f` `-abjj`ra`. Hbtr`

ãtuf` s–chtãr`ss` dux pmãhbjíh`s f–cjj`rscbh p`hfdht `t dprís l` prba`ssus f–damdt. @ll`

chtíir` l`s abhsãqu`ha`s p`ra`ptcv`s `t abjpbrt`j`htdl`s ãv`htu`ll`s f–uh` `xpãrc`ha`

cjj`rscv` sur uh sct` jdramdhf.

Fdhs uh` pr`jcír` sàtcbh, hbus prãs`htbhs uh` ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` dux echs f–cf`htcec`r

l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s f–uh sct` jdramdhf quc jbnclcs` f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` `t f` abhecrj`r l` abha`pt f–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` fu abjj`ra`

ãlàtrbhcqu`.

Fdhs uh` fùxcíj` sàtcbh, hbus prãs`htbhs l`s vdrcdnl`s ambcsc`s, abherbhtbhs l`s

rãsultdts f` l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` ï hbtr` r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` `t `xpbsbhs l` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l

`t l`s mypbtmís`s f` ràm`ram`.



460

D. Ld pmds` qudlctdtcv` f` ld ràm`ram`

L–bnkàtce f` a`tt` sàtcbh vcs` ï a`rh`r l` prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`, cf`htcec`r

l`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `t `h abjpr`hfr` l–cjpdat ãv`htu`l sur l`s

rãpbhs`s f`s cht`rhdut`s. Abjpt` t`hu fu adrdatír` ãj`ri`dht f` hbtr` amdjp f` ràm`ram`,

ld jãtmbfblbic` qudlctdtcv` d ãtã r`t`hu`.

Hbtr` ãtuf` dnbrf` l` pmãhbjíh` f–cjj`rscbh sur uh sct` f` abjj`ra` `h lcih`. @ll`

s–chtãr`ss` dux pmãhbjíh`s f–cjj`rscbh `t f` vdlùr p`réu` p`hfdht `t dprís l` prba`ssus

f–damdt, tbut `h chtãirdht l`s abhsãqu`ha`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s ãv`htu`ll`s f–uh` `xpãrc`ha`

cjj`rscv` sur uh sct` jdramdhf.

Hbus prãs`htbhs suaa`sscv`j`ht l`s bnkàtces f` ld pmds` qudlctdtcv`, l`s fceeãr`ht`s

ãtdp`s f` l–ãtuf` `t l`s fcsausscbhs r`ldtcv`s dux rãsultdts cssus f` l–dhdlys`.

C. L`s bnkàtces f` l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv`

Ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` hbus d p`rjcs f` abjpr`hfr` l` abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh jdcs

f`s cht`rrbidtcbhs sur a` abha`pt p`rscst`ht `t tbuam`ht hbtdjj`ht l`s rãdatcbhs f`

abhsbjjdtùrs abhhàtãs ï f`s sct`s jdramdhfs. Hbtr` ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` j`hã` duprís f–uh

ãamdhtcllbh f–cht`rhdut`s s` fbhh` pbur bnkàtce f` abhtrcnu`r ï l–`xplbrdtcbh f` a`s rãdatcbhs

`t f` rãpbhfr` dux qu`stcbhs sucvdht`s ;

- Tu`ll`s sbht l`s s`hsdtcbhs `t l`s ãjbtcbhs r`ss`htc`s pdr l`s cht`rhdut`s p`hfdht

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` hdvcidtcbh sur uh sct` jdramdhf 2 _dr a`tt` qu`stcbh, hbus hbus

prbpbsbhs f–dhdlys`r l`s rãdatcbhs f`s cht`rhdut`s quc s–cjj`ri`ht fdhs

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht f–uh sct` jdramdhf `h rdppbrt dvà l`s fcj`hscbhs f` l–cjj`rscbh

cf`htcecã`s pdr Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf (>??5 7 >??=).

- Tu`ll`s sbht l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s p`réu`s pdr l`s abhsbjjdtùrs `t quc

abhtrcnu`ht ï ld tmãjdtcsdtcbh `t ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh fu sct` jdramdhf 2 Ld r`vu` f` ld

lcttãrdtur` hbus d p`r jcs f–`h cf`htcec`r uh irdhf hbjnr`. Hbus tîam`rbhs f` fãabuvrcr

f–dutr`s abjpbsdht`s quc chelu`ha`ht ̀ h pdrtcaulc`r l` prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`.



465

- Tu`ls sbht l`s nãhãeca`s tcrãs pdr l`s cht`rhdut`s p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` fu sct`

jdramdhf `t qu`ls sbht l`s abjpbrt`j`hts prbndnl`s f`s cht`rhdut`s `hv`rs l` sct`, l`

prbfuct `t ld jdrqu` 2

- @hech, qu`ll`s sbht l`s vdrcdnl`s chfcvcfu`ll`s `t l`s vdrcdnl`s mbrs fu abhtröl` fu sct`

quc pùv`ht chelu`ha`r l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` 2

L–dhdlys` f`s rãsultdts f`s `htr`tc`hs ràu`cllcs fdhs hbtr` ãtuf` qudlctdtcv`, hbus

p`rj`ttrd f` rãpbhfr` dux qu`stcbhs pbsã s̀ ac-f`ssus `t f–deech`r hbtr` adfr` abha`ptu`l. @ll`

hbus p`rj`ttrd ãidl`j`ht f` hbus eburhcr ld idrdhtc` qu` l`s amdjps utclcsãs fdhs ld r`vu` f`

ld lcttãrdtur`, `xcst`ht n`l `t nc`h fdhs l` fcsaburs f`s cht`rrbiãs `t f` vdlcf`r l` abha`pt

f–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` fdhs l` abht`xt` fu abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu` `t plus pdrtcaulcír`j`ht,

a`luc f` ld hdvcidtcbh sur l`s sct`s jdramdhfs quc jbnclcs`ht f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`.

L–bnkàtce f` hbtr` ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` `st pdr abhsãqu`ht fbunl` ;

- L` pr`jc`r bnkàtce `st f` hdtur` `xplbrdtbcr`. L–ãtuf` p`rj`ttrd f–buvrcr f`

hbjnrùs`s pcst`s f` ràm`ram`, fdhs l` prblbhi`j`ht f`s trdvdux datu`ls sur l`

jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l `h iãhãrdl `t sur Cht`rh`t `h pdrtcaulc`r. _luscùrs qu`stcbhs s`

pbs`ht `habr` sur ld hdtur` jëj` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` lbrs f–ãpcsbf`s f`

hdvcidtcbh sur f`s sct`s jdramdhfs ̀ t sur s`s abhsãqu`ha`s.

- L` fùxcíj` bnkàtce vcs` ï vãrcec`r ld p`rtch`ha` f`s ãlãj`hts f` ld lcttãrdtur`. A`tt`

ãtuf` hbus p`rj`ttrd f` vdlcf`r hbs brc`htdtcbhs tmãbrcqu`s. L–dhdlys` f`s v`rndtcj

hbus eburhcrd ld vdlcfdtcbh qu` l` pmãhbjíh` f–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` pùt ëtr`

dpprãm`hfã fdhs l` abht`xt` fu abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu` `t plus prãacsãj`ht, a`luc f`s

sct`s jdramdhfs quc utclcs`ht f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`.



469

CC. Ld jãtmbfblbic` f` ld pmds` qudlctdtcv`

F`s `htr`tc`hs bht ãtã j`hãs duprís f–uh ãamdhtcllbh cht`rhdut`s ï l–dcf` f–uh iucf`

f–`htr`tc`h. Hbus prãs`ht`rbhs fdhs a` quc suct, ld prbaãfur` f` abllàt` f`s fbhhã`s,l–ãamdhtcllbh f` l–ãtuf`, l` ràu`cl f`s fbhhã`s `t ld jãtmbf` f–dhdlys` f s̀ v`rndtcj.

CC.4. L` jbf` f` abllàt` f`s fbhhã`s

Ac-f`ssbus hbus prãs`ht`rbhs suaa`sscv`j`ht l` typ` f–`htr`tc`h dfbptã fdhs l–ãtuf`

qudlctdtcv` `t l`s ãtdp`s qu` hbus dvbhs sucvc`s p`hfdht ld abllàt` f`s fbhhã`s.

d. L` typ` f–`htr`tc`h

Dech f` ràu`cllcr f`s v`rndtcj quc rãpbhf`ht dux qu`stcbhs prãs`htã`s prãaãf`jj`ht,

l` iucf` f–`htr`tc`h s–dvír` abjj` uh butcl chfcsp`hsdnl` adr cl fbhh` lcù ï uh jdtãrc`l

v`rndl rcam` `t abjpl`x` (Ndrfch, >??1). Ld jcs` `h őuvr` f–`htr`tc`hs `h eda` ï eda`,

abhstctu` uh` jãtmbf` f` ràm`ram` pù fcràtcv` `t plus buv`rt` qu` l`s qu`stcbhhdcr`s f`s

ãtuf`s qudhtctdtcv`s aldsscqu`s. Ph t`l butcl `st abhebrj` du prchacp` qu` l` abjpbrt`j`ht f`

l–chfcvcfu `st chelu`haã pdr f`s edatùrs fbht cl h–d pds abhsac`ha` `t qu–cl h` vùt pds

j`htcbhh`r fcràt`j`ht, fu edct f` jãadhcsj`s f` fãe`hs` (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3).

Ld tàmhcqu` f` l–`htr`tc`h p`rj`t dchsc ï l–cht`rlbautùr, f` rãpbhfr` lcnr`j`ht dux

qu`stcbhs `t cf`htcec`r aldcr`j`ht sd prbpr` p`ra`ptcbh f`s pmãhbjíh`s ãtufcãs 7 a` quc hbus

dssur` f` ld rcam`ss` `t f` ld qudlctã f`s chebrjdtcbhs ràu`cllc`s (F`hzch `t Lchablh, >??0).

L`s fbhhã`s prbfuct`s sbht f`s fcsaburs `t f`s mcstbcr`s quc abha`rh`ht l–`hs`jnl` f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` vãau` pdr l–chfcvcfu cht`rrbiã.

^`jdrqubhs qu` pluscùrs typ`s f–`htr`tc`hs sbht `jplbyãs fdhs ld ràm`ram` `h `h

sac`ha`s f` i`stcbh iãhãr dl `t `h jdrg`tchi `h pdrtcaulc`r. L–`htr`tc`h s`jc-fcràtce d ãtã

ambcsc fdhs l` adfr` f` hbtr` ãtuf`. Cl abhstctu` uh jbf` f` abllàt` f` fbhhã`s p`rj`ttdht

f–dnbrf`r f`s tmíj`s prãacs (F`hzch `t Lchablh, >??0 7 @vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). Cl s`

fãrbul` ï pdrtcr f–uh iucf` f–`htr`tc`h prãdldnl` quc s` lcjct` ï rãp`rtbrc`r l`s tmíj`s ï trdct`r.

L` iucf` f–`htr`tc`h `st struaturã f` jdhcír` ï ldcss`r lcnr` aburs dux rãpbhs`s `t buvrcr ld

vbc` ï f`s fcsausscbhs abjplãj`htdcr`s.



46=

n. L` iucf` f–`htr`tc`h

L` iucf` f–`htr`tc`h (Dhh`x` >) s`rt f` suppbrt dux tmíj`s ï fãv`lbpp`r p`hfdht l`

eda` ï eda`. Cl s–dict f–uh` hbt` ãarct` pdr l` am`ramùr `t rãfciã` sbus ebrj` f` qu`stcbhs. @ll`

d pbur nut, f–chtrbfucr` `t f–dpprbebhfcr l` amdjp f–chv`stcidtcbh. L` iucf` s–drtcaul` dutbur

f` qu`lqu`s tmíj`s bu pbchts f–`htr`tc`h hbh fcràtce quc vcs`ht ï edaclct`r l` fcsaburs (@vrdrf,

_rds `t ^bux, >??3). L`s tmíj`s dnbrfãs prbvc`hh`ht f` ld lcttãrdtur`, f` ld prbnlãjdtcqu` f`

ràm`ram` `t f` l–chtuctcbh fu am`ramùr (^bj`ld`r, >??0).

Cl `st ï sbulcih`r qu–dvdht l` abjj`ha`j`ht f` l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv`, hbtr` iucf`

f–`htr`tc`h d ãtã t`stã fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps, sur f`s ãtufcdhts f` pr`jcír` dhhã` f` Jdst`r ï

l–Phcv`rsctã _drcs-Fdupmch`. Aàc d p`rjcs f` fãabuvrcr l–ãj`ri`ha` f` hbuv`ll`s s`hsdtcbhs

`t rãdatcbhs r`ldtcv`s ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f` hdvcidtcbh `h lcih`, `htr`vbcr a`rtdchs pmãhbjíh`s

actãs fdhs ld lcttãrdtur`, abjj` l–cjj`rscbh `t l`s cht`htcbhs abjpbrt`j`htdl`s, jdcs dussc

lcjct`r `t prãv`hcr f`s rcsqu`s tàmhcqu`s abjj` l` fãnct f` ld abhh`xcbh Cht`rh`t,

l–datcvdtcbh f`s mdut-pdrlùrs, `ta.

Fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps, l` iucf` f–`htr`tc`h d ãtã sbujcs ï l–ãvdludtcbh f` fùx

spãacdlcst`s f`s ãtuf`s qudlctdtcv`s pbur dssur`r ld nbhh` abjprãm`hscbh f`s qu`stcbhs pdr l`s

cht`rrbiãs `t dtt`chfr` l`s bnkàtces ecxãs. L–ãvdludtcbh d p`rjcs f–djãlcbr`r ld qudlctã f`

l–butcl f–`htr`tc`h pdr ld rèbrjuldtcbh f` a`rtdch`s qu`stcbhs, ld abrràtcbh f` l–brfr` f`s

tmíj`s `t l` p`reàtcbhh`j`ht f`s r`ldha`s.

L` prbtbabl` f–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` s–`st fãrbulã `h fùx ãtdp`s ;

- _`hfdht ld pr`jcír` ãtdp`, l–cht`rhdut` vcsct` l` sct` jdramdhf sãlàtcbhhã (^`hdult

H`w F`dl), vcd uh brfchdtùr ãqucpã f` mduts pdrlùrs `t f–uh` abhh`xcbh Cht`rh`t

stdnl`. L`s vcsct`s fu sct` f` hbtr` ãtuf` bht ù lcù fdhs f`s `hfrbcts adlj`s, ï l–dnrc

f`s chtruscbhs `t f`s cht`rruptcbhs pbur p`rj`ttr` ï l–cht`rvc`wã uh` abha`htrdtcbh `tuh` cht`rdatcbh bptcjdl` dvà l` abht`hu fu sct`.

- _`hfdht ld fùxcíj` ãtdp`, hbus dvbhs abhfuct l–`hquët` buv`rt` prbpr`j`ht fct`, `h

dfjchcstrdht l` iucf` f–`htr`tc`h.

A` f`rhc`r s–`st struaturã f` ld jdhcír` sucvdht` ;

- Ld pmrds` f–`htdj` `st scjpl` `t edacl` ï abjpr`hfr`. @ll` chtrbfuct l` suk`t f` l–ãtuf`.

@ll` `xpbs` l`s bnkàtces f` l–ãtuf` `t l` jbf` f` ebhatcbhh`j`ht f` l–`htr`tc`h fdhs l` nut f` j`ttr` l–cht`rrbiã `h abhecdha`.



463

- Ld fùxcíj` pmds` `xpbs` f`s qu`stcbhs iãhãrdl`s sur l` abht`hu `t l`s

adrdatãrcstcqu`s fu sct` jdramdhf dchsc qu` sur l` fãrbul`j`ht f` ld vcsct` `ll`-jëj`.

@ll` p`rj`t f` fãtàt`r l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s `t l`s edatùrs f–djãlcbrdtcbh

quc vbht abhtrcnu`r ï ld tmãjdtcsdtcbh `t ï ld jcs` `h saíh` fu sct` f` `-abjj`ra`.

_drjc a`s abjpbsdht`s, hbus cf`htcecbhs a`ll`s quc sbht rã`ll`j`ht p`réu`s pdr l`s

cht`rhdut`s. Cl s–dict f`s ãlãj`hts f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` quc p`rj`tt`ht ï

l–chfcvcfu f–daaãf`r ï uh` `xpãrc`ha` pbt`htc`ll`, a'`st-ï-fcr` ï l–cjj`rscbh.

- Ld trbcscíj` pmds` `st ld pmds` f–dpprbebhfcss`j`ht. @ll` f`jdhf` uh` `xplcadtcbh

fãtdcllã` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` p`réu`. Vbut`s l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s h–`htr`ht pds

`h kù f` ld jëj` edébh pbur tbus l`s chfcvcfus. A`tt` pmds` hbus p`rj`t f–cf`htcec`r

l`s fceeãr`ht`s rãdatcbhs `t cht`rdatcbhs `htr` l–cht`rhdut` `t l` sct`, lbrsqu` a`luc-ac

s–cjj`ri` fdhs l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`. @ll` hbus rãvíl` l`s ãjbtcbhs `t l`s

s`hsdtcbhs r`ss`htc`s pdr l–cht`rhdut` p`hfdht ld vcsct` `t `h pdrtcaulc`r, s`s fcv`rs`s

rãdatcbhs abihctcv`s, s`hsbrc`ll`s, ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t sbacdl`s (l` aőur f` l–`xpãrc`ha`

cjj`rscv`) dchsc qu` sbh ãvdludtcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`.

- Du eur `t ï j`sur`, l`s qu`stcbhs s` ebht plus pbchtu`s pbur echcr dvà a`tt` f`rhcír`

pmds`, dvà f`s qu`stcbhs e`rjã`s pbrtdht sur f`s pbchts prãacs. L`s rãpbhs`s ï a`s

qu`stcbhs, hbus p`rj`tt`ht fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps, f` abhhdètr` l`s rãsultdts f`

l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh `t f` ld vdlùr p`réu`, sur l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`

l–cht`rhdut` `hv`rs l` sct`, l` prbfuct `t ld jdrqu`. Fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps, `ll`s hbus

p`rj`tt`ht f` ràu`cllcr f`s chebrjdtcbhs p`rsbhh`ll`s sur l–cht`rhdut` (îi`, i`hr`,

prbe`sscbh, hcv`du f–ãtuf`, utclcsdtcbh f–Cht`rh`t…).

L`s `htr`tc`hs s`jc-fcràtces bht ãtã rãdlcsãs `t `hrìcstrãs vcd uh fcatdpmbh` dvà

l–daabrf f`s pdrtcacpdhts. Hbus dvbhs prcs l` sbch f` hbt`r lùrs lcùx `t lùrs furã`s. Cls bht

ãtã r`trdhsarcts `h tbtdlctã pbur abllàt`r l` jdxcjuj f` fbhhã`s `t eburhcr f`s chebrjdtcbhs

ecdnl`s `t prãacs`s pbur l–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv`.

L–dhdlys` fu abht`hu s–`st èeàtuã` du eur `t ï j`sur` fu ràu`cl f`s fbhhã`s dech f`

t`hcr abjpt` f` ld sdturdtcbh sãjdhtcqu`.

a. L` fãrbul`j`ht f`s ̀ htr`tc`hs

L–cht`rdatcbh `htr` l–cht`rvc`w`r `t l–cht`rvc`wã p`hfdht ”`htr`tc`h s`jc-fcràtce d p`rjcs f` rãablt`r f`s fbhhã`s p`rtch`ht`s qudht ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih`. L`s



40?

`htr`tc`hs bht furã `htr` >0 f` 60 jchut`s p`hfdht l`squ`ls hbus dvbhs `ssdyã f` idrf`r uh`

pbstur` pbsctcv`, dtt`htcv`, ï l–ãabut`, `jpdtmcqu` `t ldcssdht uh` irdhf` pdrt f` lcn`rtã ï

l–cht`rvc`wã fdhs l` fãv`lbpp`j`ht f` s`s prbpbs. Dech f–ëtr` l` plus prbam` pbsscnl` fu f`

l–cht`rvc`wã `t fãtàt`r s`s r`ss`htcs `t s`s p`ra`ptcbhs p`hfdht sbh `xpãrc`ha` f` hdvcidtcbh

sur l` sct` f` l–ãtuf`.

f. L–ãamdhtcllbh

L–ãamdhtcllbh cht`rrbiã h–`st pds stdtcstcqu`j`ht r`prãs`htdtce f` ld pbpuldtcbh

f–cht`rhdut`s jdcs cl rãpbhf ï f`s arctír`s f` p`rtch`ha`. Cl s–dict f–uh ãamdhtcllbh f`

abhv`hdha` quc trdfuct ld fcv`rsctã f` ld pbpuldtcbh ãtufcã` (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). Ld

echdlctã h–`st pds f` iãhãrdlcs`r l`s rãsultdts, jdcs f` rdss`jnl`r uh abht`hu rcam`, fãtdcllã,

fcv`rscecã `t f` qudlctã (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3), `h dfãqudtcbh dvà hbtr` prbnlãjdtcqu`

`t hbs qu`stcbhs f` ràm`ram`. L`s chfcvcfus sbht rãp`rtbrcãs fdhs l` tdnl`du 41 s`lbh l`s

vdrcdnl`s sbacbfãjbirdpmcqu`s, l` hbjnr` f–mùr`s qubtcfc`h f` abhh`xcbh ï Cht`rh`t, ld fdt`

fu f`rhc`r damdt `h lcih` `t l` hbjnr` f–damdts. _dr dcllùrs, pbur djãlcbr`r ld ecdnclctã f`

l–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv`, hbus dvbhs prcs sbch f` v`cll`r ï ld qudlctã f`s rãpbhfdhts ràrutãs ; l`

fìrã f` edjclcdrctã sdtcsedcsdht dvà l–butcl Cht`rh`t `t dvà l–damdt `h lcih`.

L` hbjnr` f`s p`rsbhh`s cht`rrbiã`s d ãtã fãt`rjchã `h ebhatcbh f` ld sdturdtcbh

sãjdhtcqu`, a'`st-ï-fcr`, lbrsqu` l` fcsaburs f–uh pdrtcacpdht supplãj`htdcr` h–`hrcamct plus

l`s fbhhã`s ràu`cllc`s (Ilds`r `t Qtrduss, 4359 7 Juaamc`llc, 4334).

Hbtr` ãamdhtcllbh r ãpbhf ï ld ríil` f–ãidlctã f`s aldss`s `t s` abjpbs` f` 4= chfcvcfus,

sbct 3 mbjj`s `t 3 e`jj`s. L–îi` f`s pdrtcacpdhts vdrc` `htr` >> `t 55 dhs, mdnctdht `h rãicbh

pdrcsc`hh`. Ld jby`hh` f–îi` pbur l`s mbjj`s `st f–`hvcrbh 16 dhs `t a`ll` pbur l`s e`jj`s

dvbcsch` l`s 1? dhs. L`s chfcvcfus sbht rãp`rtbrcãs s`lbh l`s vdrcdnl`s sbacbfãjbirdpmcqu s̀, l`

hbjnr` f–mùr`s qubtcfc`h f` abhh`xcbh ï Cht`rh`t `t ld fdt` fu f`rhc`r damdt `h lcih`.



404

Vdnl`du 41 ; L` prbecl f`s chfcvcfus cht`rrbiãs

`. L` ambcx fu sct`

L` sct` sãlàtcbhhã pbur l–ãtuf` `st ^`hdult H`w F`dl9-=

. Cl s–dict f–uh sct` rãa`ht(>??=) (Dhh`x` 4) quc prãs`ht` f` hbjnrùs`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s quc abhtrcnu`ht ï

ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh `t ld tmãjdtcsdtcbh f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf.

L` ambcx f` a` sct` `h pdrtcaulc`r s` kustcec` fdhs ld j`sur` bó cl prãs`ht` f`

hbjnrùs`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s. L`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` abha`rh`ht

9 ^`hdult H`w F`dl `st prbfuct pdr Hbvdabj Irbup`, uh` di`ha` f` abjjuhcadtcbh spãacdlcsã` fdhs l`

jdrg`tchi fcràt. Ebhfã` `h 43=5, `ll` prbfuct f`s fcspbsctces cht`rdatces jdramdhfs pbur l` w`n.= mttp;//hvaf`v.h`tvcf`babj.h`t/h`wf`dl/

Chfcvcfu Q`x` Di`

Hnf–mùr`s

f–Cht`rh`t/kbur

F`rhc`rdamdt

`h lcih`

Hnf–damdts

surCht`rh`t

_rbe`sscbh ^`v`hus

4 J 11 > Kdjdcs ? _`chtr` `h

nîtcj`ht

4???->???

> J >> 5 4 jbcs 4? `t plus @tufcdht ?-4???1 E >> 0 4 jbcs 4? `t plus @tufcdht` ?-4???6 E >6 5 6 jbcs 0 ï 4? @tufcdht` 4???->???0 E 1> 6 4 jbcs 4? `t plus @hs`cihdht` >???-1???5 J 16 9 4 jbcs 4? `t plus Chiãhcùr `h

chebrjdtcqu`1??? `t +

9 E >5 9 5 jbcs 0 ï 4? @tufcdht` ?-4???= J 6> > 4 jbcs 4? `t plus @xp`rt

abjptdnl`1??? `t +

3 J >5 1 1 jbcs 4? `t plus Chiãhcùr `hjcarbncblbic`

>???-1???

4? J 1? 3 5 jbcs 0 ï 4? @tufcdht ?-4???44 E >5 4? > jbcs 4? ̀ t plus Abhsultdht` >???-1???4> J >3 5 4 jbcs 4? `t plus Fcràtùr

abjj`racdl1??? `t +

41 E 15 4 Kdjdcs ? Qdhs `jplbc ?-4???46 J >= 3 4 jbcs 4 ï 0 @tufcdht ?-4???40 E >= 9 4 jbcs 4? `t plus @tufcdht` 4???->???45 E >= > 4> jbcs 4 ï 0 Jãfàch >???-1???49 J 55 > 5 jbcs 4 ï 0 Chiãhcùr ï ld

r`trdct`

1??? `t +

4= E 04 4 ï > 5 jbcs 4? `t plus Abjj`rédht` 1??? `t +

http://nvcdev.netvideocom.net/newdeal/






40>

hbtdjj`ht f`s p`rsbhhdi`s vcrtu`ls bu rã`ls. Cl s–dict f–dvdtdrs quc chadrh`ht ld prãs`ha`

mujdch` fu sct`. Cls chstdur`ht uh` hbuv`ll` ebrj` f` fcdlbiu` dvà ld jdrqu`, cls pdrtcacp`ht

ï ld prãs`htdtcbh f` l–beer` `t ï l–cht`rdatcbh `htr` l` sct` `t l–cht`rhdut`. A`s p`rsbhhdi`s

pbs`ht f`s qu`stcbhs dux utclcsdtùrs dech f` jcùx abhhdètr` lùrs dtt`ht`s (typ` f` vbctur`,

furã`, jbhtdht, `ta.), `t l`s cht`rhdut`s fbcv`ht y rãpbhfr` pbur dvdha`r fdhs lùr fãjdram`.

L` sct` ^`hdult H`w F`dl prãs`ht` ãidl`j`ht uh` cht`reda` `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs (1F) quc

abjnch` sbhs, vcfãbs `t cjdi`s. Cl s–dppuc` sur uh` pldt`-ebrj` tàmhblbicqu` fãfcã` du

str`djchi j`fcd. A`s fcspbsctces p`rj`tt`ht ld fceeuscbh f'cjdi`s f` qudlctã `t f` irdhf`

tdcll`. Cls r`tc`hh`ht tbut` l'dtt`htcbh f` l'cht`rhdut`.

Cl edct dpp`l du ^cam j`fcd3 pdr l`s tàmhcqu`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `h abjnchdht ld

vcfãb, l`s cjdi`s `t l` t`xt`, fbhhdht du sct` ld pbsscnclctã f` fceeus`r f`s abht`hus elucf`s `t

f` mdut` qudlctã. L` sct` ^`hdult H`w F`dl prãs`ht` ãidl`j`ht, uh a`rtdch hbjnr` f`

prbprcãtãs trís ràm`ramã`s pdr l`s jdrqu`s. Cl p`rj`t pdr `x`jpl`, ld fceeuscbh f–uh` qudlctã,

f'uh` cjdi` f` irdhf` tdcll`, quc baaup` l–`hs`jnl` f` l'`spda` vcsu`l f` l'cht`rhdut` `t quc

abhstctu` l` sùl j`ssdi` ï l'ãardh. Cl p`rj`t `h butr`, f'ãvct`r tbus l`s prbnlíj`s tàmhcqu`s

lcãs dux « pldy`rs · `t ï l'ãqucp`j`ht jultcjãfcd f`s cht`rhdut`s.

CC.>. Ld jãtmbf` f–dhdlys`

L–dhdlys` f` abht`hu `st uh` tàmhcqu` f` ràm`ram` pbur ld f`sarcptcbh bnkàtcv`,

systãjdtcqu` `t qudhtctdtcv` fu abht`hu jdhce`st` f`s abjjuhcadtcbhs, dydht pbur nut f` l`s

cht`rprãt`r. L–dhdlys` f` abht`hu s` ebhf` sur uh `hs`jnl` f` tàmhcqu`s vcsdht, pdr f`s

prbaãfur`s systãjdtcqu`s `t bnkàtcv`s f` f`sarcptcbh f`s j`ssdi`s, ï bnt`hcr f`s chfcadtùrs

p`rj`ttdht l–cheãr`ha` f` abhhdcssdha`s r`ldtcv`s dux abhfctcbhs f` prbfuatcbh/rãa`ptcbh f`

a`s j`ssdi`s (Ndrfch, >??1). L`s tàmhcqu`s l`s plus utclcsã`s `h jdrg`tchi sbht l–dhdlys`

l`xcadl` ; quc s–chtãr`ss` ï ld hdtur` `t ï ld rcam`ss` fu vbadnuldcr`, `ll` `st a`htrã` dutbur fu

jbt `t f`s pmrds`s `t pùt cjplcqu`r uh` fãjdram` qudlctdtcv` `t/bu uh` fãjdram`

qudhtctdtcv` `t l–dhdlys` tmãjdtcqu`.

3 L` ^cam j`fcd bu cht`reda` rcam`, `st uh systíj` quc rdss`jnl` fceeãr`hts jãfcds (sbh, vcfãb, dhcjdtcbhs,cjdi`s), fbht l'cht`rdatcvctã `st scjplcecã` pdr uh` `ribhbjc` quc s'dppuc` sur l'utclcsdtcbh f`s dhcjdtcbhs. Cl

p`rj`t f` iãr`r l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` t̀ syhamrbhcs`r l'dufcb `t/bu ld vcfãb dvà l` abht`hu.



401

d. L–dhdlys` tmãjdtcqu`

L–dhdlys` tmãjdtcqu` `ll` `st trís prbam` f` l–dhdlys` l`xcadl`, `ll` `st fdvdhtdi`

a`htrã` sur l`s tmíj`s qu` sur l`s jbts `t `ll` utclcs` abjj` driuj`hts f`s `xtrdcts fu abrpus

(@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). Cl s–dict f` ld tàmhcqu` trís plus utclcsã` pbur l–`xplbctdtcbh fu

abht`hu qudlctdtce.

L` v`rndtcj prbfuct pdr uh `htr`tc`h s`jc-fcràtce `st uh jdtãrc`l abjpl`x`. L`

fcsaburs fbct dlbrs s` prët`r ï pluscùrs typ`s f–dhdlys`s. Fdhs l` adfr` f` hbtr` ràm`ram`,

hbus dvbhs ambcsc f` prbaãf`r ï uh` dhdlys` qudlctdtcv` pbrtdht sur l` abht`hu, dpplcqudht l`s

prchacp`s f` l–dhdlys` tmãjdtcqu` chspcrã` f` ld jãtmbf` f` l–@auy r̀ (43=9).

@h èe`t, l–dhdlys` tmãjdtcqu` `st iãhãrdl`j`ht utclcsã` pbur j`ttr` `h vdlùr l`

jdtãrc`l qudlctdtce fdhs ld ràm`ram` `h jdrg`tchi. @ll` dppbrt` f–dutr`s chebrjdtcbhs qu`

a`ll`s dvdhaã`s du fãpdrt `t p`rj`t f` eburhcr f`s fbhhã`s hbh dp`réu`s ï ld pr`jcír` làtur`

(Ndrfch, >??1). @ll` r`jplct uh` ebhatcbh mùrcstcqu` quc `hrcamct uh` dpprbam` f` fãabuv`rt`

`xplbrdtbcr` ; « vbcr bu abjpr`hfr` · `t uh` ebhatcbh f–dfjchcstrdtcbh f` prùv`s `jpcrcqu`s,

bu f–cheãr`ha` ï pdrtcr f–mypbtmís`s f` trdvdcl qu–bh am`ram` ï vdlcf`r (Ndrfch, >??1). @ll`

abhscst` `h ld aldsscecadtcbh bu ld abfcecadtcbh f–ãlãj`hts fu fbauj`ht dhdlysã `h adtãibrc`s

pbur `h `xtrdcr` l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s t̀ `h abjpr`hfr` l` s`hs `xdat (l–@auy`r, 43=9).

Vbut f–dnbrf, cl s–dict f` r`pãr`r ld erãqu`ha` f–dppdrctcbh f` a`rtdch`s abjpbsdht`s

fu abht`hu fu fcsaburs. @h èe`t, a–`st ld prãs`ha` bu l–dns`ha` f–uh` adrdatãrcstcqu` f`

abht`hu fbhhã` bu f–uh `hs`jnl` f` adrdatãrcstcqu`s, fdhs uh erdij`ht f` j`ssdi`, quc `st

prcs` `h abhscfãrdtcbh (Ndrfch, >??1). Hbtr` bnkàtce abhscst` prãacsãj`ht ï ràm`ram`r,

`xplcact`r `t dhdlys`r f`s pmãhbjíh`s, f`s r`ss`htcs, f`s p`ra`ptcbhs `t f`s abjpbrt`j`hts.

L–ãtuf` f` edcts `st rãdlcsã` dvà l`s tàmhcqu`s f` ràu`cl `t f–dhdlys` quc, ãamdppdht ï

prbirdjjdtcbh systãjdtcqu` `t r`pbs`ht `ss`htc`ll`j`ht sur ld prãs`ha` mujdch` f`

l–`hquëtùr, `t sur l–dpprbam` chfuatcv` dfbptã`.Ndrfch (>??1), `xpbs` l–dhdlys` f` abht`hu tmãjdtcqu` `h trbcs ãtdp`s ;

@tdp` 4 ; Ld prã-dhdlys` ; Abhebrjãj`ht ï ld fãjdram` f` l–dhdlys` tmãjdtcqu` f`

abht`hu, a`tt` pmds` d pbur bnkàtce l–bpãrdtcbhhdlcsdtcbh `t ld systãjdtcsdtcbh f`s cfã`s f`

fãpdrt f` jdhcír` ï dnbutcr ï uh samãjd prãacs fu fãrbul`j`ht f`s bpãrdtcbhs

suaa`sscv s̀ a'`st-ï-fcr` uh pldh f–dhdlys` (Ndrfch, >??1).

L–`hs`jnl` f`s `htr`tc`hs d ãtã r`trdhsarct fdhs sbh chtãirdlctã, dech f` ambcscr `tf–bridhcs`r l` abrpus f` l–dhdlys` (Dhh`x` 1). Dprís uh` « làtur` elbttdht` ·, quc abhscst` ï



406

s` j`ttr` du abhtdat dvà l`s fbauj`hts f–dhdlys` (Ndrfch, >??1), l`s bnkàtces `t l`s

mypbtmís`s f` l–dhdlys` bht ãtã fãechcs `t deechãs `h ebhatcbh f` ld prbnlãjdtcqu` f` l–ãtuf`.

Ph` ebcs l` amdjp fu abrpus fãechc, a–`st ld pmds` fu ambcx f`s tmíj`s `t ld edébh fbht cls

dppdrdcss`ht (ld erãqu`ha` f–dppdrctcbh f`s tmíj`s) quc d ãtã chctcã`.

L` tmíj` s–`ht`hf abjj` l–uhctã f` scihcecadtcbh quc s` fãidi` hdtur`ll`j`ht f–uh

t`xt`. Hbus dvbhs prbaãfã ï ld sìj`htdtcbh fu abrpus `h uhctãs bu tmíj`s p`rtch`hts `t pdr

ld adtãibrcsdtcbh jultcfcj`hscbhh`ll`, abhebrj` dux ircll`s f–dhdlys` abha`ptu`ll` prbpr` ï

amdqu` ràm`ram`, fdhs uh` bptcqu` f` abfdi` d pbst`rcbrc bó l` am`ramùr lct l` t`xt` `t

jdrqu` luc-jëj` l`s uhctãs f` s`hs fu abrpus (K`hhy, 4339, p. 59). A`tt` ãtdp` `st

ebhfdj`htdl` adr `ll` p`rj`t f` pbs`r ld nds` f` hbtr` dhdlys`. @h abhsãqu`ha`, hbus d dvbhs

cf`htcecã l`s tmíj`s sucvdhts ;

- Ld p`ra`ptcbh f`s abjpbsdht`s fu sct` jdramdhf

- L`s ãjbtcbhs `t l`s s`hsdtcbhs r`ss`htc`s p`hfdht ld vcsct`

- Ld p`ra`ptcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` pdr l`s cht`rhdut`s

- L`s edatùrs chfcvcfu`ls quc chelu`ha`ht ld p`ra`ptcbh f` ld vcsct` fu sct` jdramdhf

- L`s ãtdts ãjbtcbhh`ls `t s`hsbrc`ls f`s cht`rhdut`s.

L` t`xt` pùt ëtr` dlbrs fãabupã `h uhctãs f` s`hs pbur l–`xplbctdtcbh `t l` trdct`j`ht

fu jdtãrc`l.

@tdp` > ; L–`xplbctdtcbh `t l` trdct`j`ht fu jdtãrc`l ; l`s tmíj`s sbht `hsuct` rìrbupãs

`h adtãibrc`s quc fbcv`ht rãpbhfr` ï f`s ríil`s f–`xaluscbh jutu`ll`, f` p`rtch`ha`,

f–mbjbiãhãctã `t f–èecadactã. Hbtr` fãjdram` abhscst` ï cf`htcec`r ; tbut jbt, tbut` pmrds` bu

pbrtcbh f` pmrds` dydht uh s`hs abjpl`t `h sbc (L–@auy`r, 43=5, p. 5>). @hsuct`, ï rìrbup`r

`hs`jnl` tbus a`s jbts, pmrds`s bu pbrtcbhs f` pmrds s̀ quc r`he`rj`ht l` jëj` s`hs. Cl s–dict

dlbrs f` abhf`hs`r, rdss`jnl`r `t bridhcs`r l`s sìj`hts fu fcsaburs `h adtãibrc`s rìrbupdht

l`s tmíj`s rãaur r`hts `hs`jnl`. L–bnkàtce f` a`tt` ãtdp` f` l–dhdlys` `st f–dpplcqu`r du

abrpus, f`s trdct`j`hts p`rj`ttdht f––daaãf`r ï uh` scihcecadtcbh fceeãr`ht`, quc ï ld ebcs,

rãpbhf ï ld prbnlãjdtcqu` `t h` fãhdtur` pds l`s fbhhã`s chctcdl`s (Ndrfch, >??1). _dr dcllùrs,

p`hfdht a`tt` pmds`, hbus dvbhs prbaãfã dux bpãrdtcbhs f` abfdi` (fãabjpt` bu

ãhujãrdtcbh) `h ebhatcbh f`s arctír`s prãdldnl`j`ht ebrjulãs. Fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps, Hbus

dvbhs prbaãfã ï uh` aldsscecadtcbh f`s ãlãj`hts abhstctudht l` t`xt`, pdr fceeãr`hacdtcbh pucs

pdr rìrbup`j`ht pdr i`hr` (dhdlbic`), f–dprís f`s arctír`s fãechcs dech f` eburhcr pdrabhf`hsdtcbh, uh` r`prãs`htdtcbh scjplcecã` f`s fbhhã`s nrut`s. Fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps,



400

hbus dvbhs prbaãfã du abjptdi` (bu abfdi`) f`s uhctãs f` s`hs. Cl s–dict dlbrs f` r`pbrt`r l`s

sìj`hts fu abrpus fdhs l`s ircll`s f–dhdlys`, s`lbh, sbh dppdrt`hdha` dux adtãibrc`s.

@tdp` 1 ; L` trdct`j`ht `t l–cht`rprãtdtcbh f`s rãsultdts ; lbrs f` a`tt` ãtdp`, l`s fbhhã`s

nrut`s sbht trdctã`s f` jdhcír` ï ëtr` scihcecadtcv`s `t vdlcf`s uh` dhdlys` mbrczbhtdl` trdctdht

amdqu` ãlãj`ht dnbrfã pdr l'`hs`jnl` f`s cht`rvc`wãs. _bur prbaãf`r ï l–dhdlys`, f`s

bpãrdtcbhs stdtcstcqu`s scjpl`s (c.`., pbura`htdi`s, erãqu`ha`s f–baaurr`ha`, `ta.) p`rj`tt`ht

f–ãtdnlcr f`s tdnl`dux f` rãsultdts quc abhf`hs`ht `t j`tt`ht `h r`lcè l`s chebrjdtcbhs

dppbrtã`s pdr l–dhdlys` (Ndrfch, >??1). Fdhs l` adfr` f` hbtr` ãtuf`, hbus dvbhs bridhcsã hbs

tmíj`s s`lbh lùr erãqu`ha` f–baaurr`ha` (l` hbjnr` f` actdtcbhs fu tmíj`). D a` stdf`,

l–bnkàtce `st f` syhtmãtcs`r fdhs f`s tdnl`dux, l`s fbhhã`s ràu`cllc`s duprís f`s cht`rvc`wãs.

Quct` ï a`ld, f`s cht`rprãtdtcbhs sbht dvdhaã`s ï prbpbs f`s ct`js r`habhtrãs fdhs ld lcttãrdtur`

bu abha`rhdht f–dutr`s fãabuv`rt`s cjprãvu`s. A`tt` pmds` f–cht`rprãtdtcbh p`rj`t f–ãvdlu`r

ld rcam`ss` fu abrpus `t ld vdlùr f`s qu`stcbhs f` ràm`ram`.

L–dhdlys` jdhu`ll` f` l–`hs`jnl` f`s `htr`tc`hs hbus d abhfucts ï cf`htcec`r amdauh

f`s ãlãj`hts rãaurr`hts, rìrbupãs `h adtãibrc`s `xmdustcv`s `t `xaluscv`s, dech f–`h `xtrdcr`

l`s ãlãj`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls fu sct`, t`ls qu–cls sbht rã`ll`j`ht p`réus pdr l`s cht`rhdut`s, l`s

fcj`hscbhs f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh, l`s abjpbsdht`s f` ld vdlùr p`réu` f` ld vcsct`,

lùrs chacf`ha`s, `h t`rj` f` p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi fu sct`, ld jdrqu` `t l` prbfuct, a'`st-ï-

fcr`, l`s abjpbrt`j`hts prbndnl`s dprís ld vcsct` fu sct` `t l`s jbfãrdtùrs, a'`st-ï-fcr`, l`s

edatùrs chfcvcfu`ls quc chelu`ha`ht ld p`ra`ptcbh f` ld vcsct` fu sct` jdramdhf (c.`., l–`xp`rtcs`

f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t, l–cj plcadtcbh `t l` jbj`ht `t l` lcù f` ld vcsct`).

n. Ld ecdnclctã `t ld vdlcfctã f` l–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv`

L`s qu`stcbhs quc abha`rh`ht ld vdlcfctã `t ld ecdnclctã f`s ãtuf`s qudlctdtcv`s ebht f`

plus `h plus l–bnk`t f` fãndts f`s am`ramùrs `h sac`ha`s f` i`stcbh (`.i., Dhfrãdhc `t

Abhambh, >??1 7 Ndrfch, >??1 7 F`hzch `t Lchablh, >??0). @h èe`t, tbut abjj` pbur l`s

ãtuf`s qudhtctdtcv`s, l`s ãtuf`s qudlctdtcv`s h` sbht pds fcsp`hsã`s f` prãadutcbhs ï pr`hfr`

pdr l–`hquëtùr dech f` jchcjcs`r l`s ncdcs quc pùv`ht dltãr`r l`s rãsultdts f` l–dhdlys`. Ld

ràm`ram` qudlctdtcv` `st uh` prbaãfur` chtuctcv` `t sbupl` quc p`rj`t f` suiiãr`r f`s r`ldtcbhs

pbsscnl`s `htr` uh chfca` fu j`ssdi` `t uh` bu pluscùrs vdrcdnl`s fu lbautùr bu f` ld



405

sctudtcbh (Ndrfch, >??1). @ll` s–`xpbs` abhtchu`ll`j`ht ï f`s arctcqu`s f` sunkàtcvctã, f`

l–chelu`ha` f` l–`hquëtùr `t f` hbh r`prãs`htdtcvctã f`s rãsultdts ï irdhf` ãam`ll`. Ac-f`ssbus,

hbus prãs`htbhs l`s prãadutcbhs prcs`s p`hfdht l–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv`.

Ld ecdnclctã f` l–dhdlys̀ qudl c tdtcv`

_`hfdht lbhit`jps, l`s dhdlys`s qudlctdtcv`s bht edct l–bnk`t f` r`prbam`s, abjpt` t`hu

f` lùr sunkàtcvctã (Jugdjur`rd, Ldaburs` `t Abuturc`r, >??5). @h èe`t, l`s rcsqu`s

f–cht`rprãtdtcbhs p`rsbhh`ll`s, crrdtcbhh`ll`s `t hbh abhebrj`s dux ríil`s f` rciuùr iu`tt`ht

abhtchu`ll`j`ht l` am`ramùr fdhs sd fãjdram`. Cl s–dict cac f` sdvbcr sc l`s dhdlys`s

qudlctdtcv`s sbht uhcebrj`s fdhs l` t`jps `t sc `ll`s bnãcss`ht du arctír` f` trdhseãrdnclctã

(Fdhb, Mdjbh `t Llbsd, >??6). Hbus edcsbhs `h pdrtcaulc`r, dlluscbh ï lùr vdlcfctã `t ï ld

ecfãlctã f` l–cht`rprãtdtcbh qu–`h fãfucs`ht l`s am`ramùrs, dchsc qu–ï lùrs dptctuf`s ï ld

arãfcnclctã, stdnclctã `t ecdnclctã (Jugdjur`rd, Ldaburs` `t Abuturc`r, >??5).

Ld ecdnclctã abhscst` `h ld hãa`ssctã f–ãtdnlcr `t f` vãrcec`r qu` lbrsqu` l`s abhfctcbhs

bpãrdtbcr`s f–uh` ràm`ram` sbht r`tcrã`s, l`s dhdlys`s durdc`ht f`s rãsultdts cf`htcqu`s,

qu`lqu` sbct l` am`ramùr `t qu`lqu` sbct l` jbj`ht f` sbh fãrbul`j`ht (Vmc`tdrt, >??9 7

@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). A`p`hfdht, `h abhscfãrdtcbh f`s fceeãr`hts bnkàtces f` ld

ràm`ram`, cl `st pbsscnl` f–dhdlys`r, f` jultcpl`s jdhcír`s, l`s `htr`tc`hs. Cl h–`xcst` pds f`

fãjdram` uhcv`rs`ll` fdhs ld abllàt` `t l–dhdlys` f`s v`rndtcj. L`s cht`rprãtdtcbhs f`s

rãsultdts dvdhaã`s s–cjpríih`ht tbukburs f` hbtr` dpprãacdtcbh `t f` hbtr` prbpr` s`htcj`ht.

Dvà ld f`sarcptcbh fãtdcllã` f` hbtr` fãjdram`, hbus sbumdctbhs j`ttr` ï ld fcspbsctcbh

f–dutr`s am`ramùrs, l`s jëj`s butcls `t tàmhcqu`s pbur `sabjpt`r l`s jëj`s rãsultdts.

Ld vdlcfctã f` l–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv`

L`s arctír`s f` vdlcfctã `xdjch`ht l–`xdatctuf` f`s dhdlys`s `t l`s pbsscnclctãs f`

iãhãrdlcsdtcbh f`s rãsultdts f–uh` ràm`ram` qudlctdtcv` (Dhfrãdhc `t Abhambh, >??1). Cl s–dict

f` jbhtr`r f–dnbrf qu`, a` qu` hbus j`surbhs `st nc`h a` qu` hbus am`rambhs ï j`sur`r `t

pds dutr` ambs̀ 7 `hsuct` f–ãt`hfr` l`s rãsultdts bnt`hus sbct ï l–`hs`jnl` f` ld pbpuldtcbh, sbct

ï f`s uhcv`rs fceeãr`hts (Fdhb `t dl., >??6). Hbus pdrlbhs cac f` vdlcfctã cht`rh` `t `xt`rh`.

_bur hbus dssur`r f` ld vdlcfctã f` hbs dhdlys`s, cl edut abhscfãr`r qu`, fdhs uh

pr`jc`r t`jps, ld vdrcdtcbh f`s vdrcdnl`s ï `xplcqu`r (bu vdrcdnl`s fãp`hfdht`s) sbc`htadusã`s uhcqu`j`ht pdr ld vdrcdtcbh f`s vdrcdnl`s `xplcadtcv`s (bu vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s)



409

(@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). Hbus `stcjbhs qu` l` sct`, l–butcl `t l`s tàmhcqu`s f` ràm`ram`

ambcscs, sbht nc`h dfdptãs dux p`rsbhh`s cht`rrbiã`s pbur qu` l` prchacp` ac-f`ssus sbct

r`spàtã. Fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps, cl edut ecx`r l`s lcjct`s f–`xtrdpbldtcbh f`s rãsultdts f` ld

ràm`ram` du fbjdch`, bnk`t f` l–ãtuf` (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). @tdht fbhhã ld tdcll` f`

hbtr` ãamdhtcllbh `t l`s vcsct`s sur abjjdhf` fu sct` jdramdhf, cl `st fceecacl` f` iãhãrdlcs`r

hbs rãsultdts. Vbutèbcs, nc`h qu–cl s–cl s–dicss` f–uh` ãtuf` `xplbrdtbcr`, hbus dvbhs t`hu ï a`

qu` hbtr` ãamdhtcllbh sbct vdrcã pbur trdfucr` ld fcv`rsctã f` ld pbpuldtcbh `t qu` l`s qu`stcbhs

sbc`ht buv`rt`s jdcs prãacs`s pbur deech`r ld qudlctã f`s rãpbhs`s. A`ld hbus p`rj t̀ f` hbus

dpprbam`r du jcùx f`s arctír`s f` vdlcfctã f` ld ràm`ram`.

Fdhs a` trdvdcl, l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` t`ht` f` ràm`ram`r, `xplcact`r `t dhdlys`r f`s

pmãhbjíh s̀, f`s r`ss`htcs, f`s p`ra`ptcbhs `t f`s abjpbrt`j`hts. @ll` s` fbhh` pbur

pr`jc`r bnkàtce , l–cf`htcecadtcbh f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`, t`ll`s qu–`ll`s sbht

p`réu`s pdr l`s cht`rhdut`s `t quc abhtrcnu`ht ï ld tmãjdtcsdtcbh `t ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh fu

abht`xt` jdramdhf, f`s abjpbsdht`s quc pburrdc`ht chelu`ha`r l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` `h

lcih`. Fùxcíj`j`ht, l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` t`ht` f` abhhdctr` l`s rãdatcbhs f`s cht`rhdut`s quc

s–cjj`ri`ht fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct`, a'`st-ï-fcr`, l`s fcj`hscbhs f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs

l` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l. @hsuct`, f` fãt`rjch`r l`s nãhãeca`s tcrãs pdr l`s cht`rhdut`s

p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` fu sct` jdramdhf `t l–èe`t f`s a`s p`ra`ptcbhs sur ld

p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi fu sct`, a'`st-ï-fcr`, l`s abjpbrt`j`hts prbndnl`s f`s cht`rhdut`s

`hv`rs l` sct`, l` prbfuct `t ld jdrqu`. @hech, l–ãtuf` am`ram` ï abhhdctr` l`s vdrcdnl`s

chfcvcfu`ll`s, `h t`rj`s f` abjpãt`ha`s `t f–`hidi`j`ht, `t l`s vdrcdnl`s mbrs fu abhtr öl`

fu sct` quc pùv`ht chelu`ha`r l–`hs`jnl` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`.

L` jdtãrc`l rãabltã `xprcj` l–`xpãrc`ha` vãau` pdr amdqu` cht`rhdut`, qu` hbus

am`rambhs ï cht`rprãt`r ï trdv`rs ; ld r`trdhsarcptcbh `h uhctãs mbjbiíh`s ï pdrtcr f–uh

a`rtdch hbjnr` f` adtãibr c`s cssu`s f`s ircll`s f–dhdlys` eburhc`s pdr hbs qu`stcbhs f`

ràm`ram`. @hsuct`, hbus dhdlys`rbhs amdqu` sìj`ht `h ebhatcbh f` l–`hs`jnl` fu jdtãrc`l

abllàtã. Cl s–dict f–dnbrf l–`hs`jnl` f`s rãpbhs`s f` amdqu` rãpbhfdht fbht l–dhdlyst`

`xtrdct f`s ãhbhaãs, `t a–`st dussc l–`hs`jnl` f`s rãpbhs`s dttrcnudnl`s ï a` suk`t. Hbtr`

bnkàtce h–`st pds f` eburhcr ld « nbhh` · cht`rprãtdtcbh adr tbut abrpus stcjul` uh` chechctã

f–cht`rprãtdtcbhs (Jdrcbh, >??1, p. 9). Hbtr` echdlctã `st f–cht`rprãt`r l` fcsaburs f` ld

jdhcír` ld plus `xmdustcv` `t ld plus plduscnl` pbsscnl`.



40=

CCC. L–dhdlys` f`s rãsultdts

A`tt` ãtdp` abhscst` `h l–dhdlys` `t l–cht`rprãtdtcbh f`s fbhhã`s qu` hbus dvbhs

ràu`cllc`s lbrs f`s `htr`tc`hs s`jc-fcràtces. Cl s–dict cac f` s` f`jdhf`r « a` quc vd dvàqubc · 2 L`s rãsultdts nruts bht ãtã trdctãs f` jdhcír` ï `h r`t`hcr aùx quc sbht l`s plus

scihcecadtces, rciburùx `t vdlcf`s (Ndrfch, >??1 7 @vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3) (Dhh`x` 6).

Hbus dvbhs dchsc prbaãfã ;

- D ld scjplcecadtcbh sdhs rãfuatcbh, f s̀ rãpbhs`s ràu`cllc`s

- Du r`pãrdi` f`s struatur`s, tmíj`s plduscnl`s bu typblbic`s

-

D l–cf`htcecadtcbh f`s vdrcdnl`s dvà lùrs cht`rr`ldtcbhs - D l–ãldnbrdtcbh f` tdnl`dux j`ttdht `h ãvcf`ha` l`s rãsultdts f` l–dhdlys` irîa` ï

f`s bpãrdtcbhs stdtcstcqu`s scjpl`s (pbura`htdi`s).

_dr dcllùrs, hbus dvbhs systãjdtcqu`j`ht abherbhtã hbs rãsultdts dvà l`s abha`pts

cf`htcecãs fdhs ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur`. L` typ` f–cheãr`ha`s bnt`hu`s pùt s`rvcr f` nds` ï

uh` dhdlys` brfbhhã` dutbur f` hbuv`ll`s fcj`hscbhs tmãbrcqu`s bu prdtcqu` irîa` ï f`s

tàmhcqu`s fceeãr`ht`s (Ndrfch, >??1).

^dpp`lbhs qu` l–bnkàtce f` a`tt` ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` abhscst` ï cf`htcec`r l`s

abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` abjj`racdl, a'`st-ï-fcr` l`s ãlãj`hts quc abhtrcnu`ht ï

ld tmãjdtcsdtcbh `t ï ld jcs` `h saíh` f` l–beer` `t quc p`rj`tt`ht l–daaís du aőur f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih`. _drjc a`s abjpbsdht`s, hbus cf`htcecbhs a`ll`s quc sbht rã`ll`j`ht

p`réu`s pdr l`s cht`rhdut`s p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha`. Hbus hbus cht`rrbi`bhs `hsuct` sur l`s

fceeãr`ht`s cht`rdatcbhs `htr` l–cht`rhdut` `h cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht ̀ xpãrc`htc`l

`t l` sct`, dchsc qu` sur ld p`ra`ptcbh f` ld vdlùr f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` pdr l`s

cht`rrbiãs. Abhsãautcv`j`ht, hbus am`ram`rbhs ï abhhdètr` l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh `t f`

ld vdlùr p`réu` sur l`s rãpbhs`s f` l–cht`rhdut` `hv`rs l` sct`, l` prbfuct `t ld jdrqu` ;

ld p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi `h lcih`.

CCC.4. L` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l

L` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l `st fãechc abjj` ãtdht uh dss`jnldi` f` stcjulc lcãs du

prbfuct `t ï l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht prbpr` ï edcr` dfv`hcr uh` `xpãrc`ha` (Adró `t Abvd, >??5n).



403

Fdhs a`t `spda` f` abhsbjjdtcbh vcrtu`l, l–cht`rhdut` vd j`ttr` `h kù s`s abjpãt`ha`s

chfcvcfu`ll`s (c.`., sbh `xp`rtcs` `t sbh cjplcadtcbh vcs-ï-vcs ï l–beer`) quc luc p`rj`ttrbht

f–èeàtu`r uh `hs`jnl` f–bpãrdtcbhs f` edébh acrauldcr` pbur s–dpprbprc`r l–`xpãrc`ha`

(hcfcecadtcbh, `xplbrdtcbh `t jdrqudi`). D ld suct` f` a` prba`ssus f–dpprbprcdtcbh, lbrsqu` l`

abhsbjjdtùr d daaís ï tbut bu uh` pdrtc` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, cl s` trbuv` `h ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh.

Ld jcs` `h plda` f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls `h lcih`, `st f`stchã` ï edvbrcs`r l`

prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh irîa` ï ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh fu fãabr, ld jcs` `h saíh` fu rãact rdabhtã

pdr ld jdrqu` `t ld stcjuldtcbh f`s cht`rdatcbhs `htr` l`s cht`rhdut`s `t l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

jdramdhf. Ld abjnchdcsbh f` a`s trbcs rìcstr`s f–datcbh abhfuct l`s abhsbjjdtùrs ï vcvr`

f`s `xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh (Ecls`r, >??>) `t ï iãhãr`r f`s rãpbhs`s pbsctcv`s du hcv`du

abihctce, ãjbtcbhh`l `t deeàtce.

@h èe`t, l`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs sbht fãsbrjdcs abhéus pbur p`rj`ttr` dux

cht`rhdut`s f` vcvr` f`s `xpãrc`ha`s brcichdl`s vbcr` chbunlcdnl`s. Cls prbvbqu`ht am`z l`s

abhsbjjdtùrs f`s rãdatcbhs sunkàtcv`s rcam`s `h scihcecadtcbhs syjnblcqu`s, f`s rãpbhs`s

mãfbhcst`s `t f`s arctír`s `stmãtcqu`s (U`rh`tt`, >??9). L`s sct`s f` `-abjj`ra` pùv`ht ëtr`

abhscfãrãs abjj` f`s jdidschs vcrtu`ls, pucsqu–cls prbvbqu`ht f`s rãdatcbhs s`jnldnl`s ï

a`ll`s vãau`s fdhs l`s jdidschs pmyscqu`s aldsscqu`s. L`s sct`s f` jdrqu`s sbht dlbrs

susa`ptcnl`s f–ëtr` fãarcts pdr l`s jëj`s dttrcnuts qu` l`s jdidschs trdfctcbhh`ls (`.i., M`lj`-

Iuczbh, >??4 7 Lcdhi `t Ldc, >??> 7 ^`cx, >??1).

F` hbjnrùs`s ràm`ram`s s` r`kbcih`ht sur l` edct qu` l–dtjbspmír` fu jdidsch d uh

röl` ebhfdj`htdl fdhs ld jcs` `h plda` f–uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht iãhãrdtùr f–`xpãrc`ha`s. @h

èe`t, l–dtjbspmír` `st fãechc` abjj` l–`hs`jnl` f`s stcjulc s`hsbrc`ls p`réus pdr l–chfcvcfu

ï l–chtãrcùr fu jdidsch `t edcsdht dppdrdètr` f`s ãtdts ãjbtcbhh`ls `hi`hfrdht f`s

abjpbrt`j`hts f–dpprbam` bu f` euct` (Gbtl`r, 4391-4396 7 J`mrdncdh `t ûss`l, 4396). Ph

hbjnr` scihcecadtce f` trdvdux d ù pbur bnk`t l–cf`htcecadtcbh f`s abjpbsdht`s

dtjbspmãrcqu`s f`s pbchts f` v`ht` abhv`htcbhh`ls. Ph` r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` hbus d p`rjcsf–`h fcstchiu`r qu`lqu`s uh`s f` a`s aldsscecadtcbhs ; ld typblbic` f` Ndg`r (43=5, 4336), f`

N`rjdh `t @vdhs (4330), f` F–Dstbus (>???), f` Vurl`y `t Jcllcjdh (>???), f` Amclf`rs Adrr,

_àg `t Adrsbh (>??4), f–@rbilu, Jdaml`ct `t Fdvcs (>??4), f` Fduaã `t ^cùhc`r (>??>), f`

Jgmchchc (>??>), f` Amdhi `t dl. (>??>), Ndg`r, _drdsurdjdh, Ir`wdl `t Ubss, (>??>), `ta.

Fdhs a` adfr`, hbtr` ràm`ram` s` prbpbs` f–cf`htcec`r l`s fceeãr`hts ãlãj`hts quc

abhtrcnu`ht ï ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh (fãjdram` quc abhscst` ï j`ttr` `h saíh` l–beer` abjj`racdl`

f–uh` `hs`cih` sur Cht`rh`t, fbht l` nut `st f` edvbrcs`r l–dat` f–damdt pdr ld arãdtcbh f–uh`djncdha` edvbrdnl` `t f–duij`ht`r ld erãqu`htdtcbh fu sct`) `t ld tmãjdtcsdtcbh (arãdtcbh f–uh



45>

Vmíj`Hbjnr` f` actdtcbhs fu

tmíj`_bura`htdi` fu tmíj`

L`s di`hts vcrtu`ls 19 >4,4>

L` fãabr `h 1F 15 >?,5=

Ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` 1? 49,>6

Vbtdl 4?1 03,?6

Vdnl`du 40 ; L`s abjpbsdht`s ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll`s r`t`hu`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct`

jdramdhf

d.

L`s edatùrs sbacdux ; l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls

L`s di`hts vcrtu`ls sbht f`s p`rsbhhdi`s mujdchs bu crrã`ls (fdhs a` ads bh pdrl`

plutöt f–dvdtdrs) quc sbht iãhãrdl`j`ht chadrhãs (Hbt`nd`rt, >??0). Cls dhcj`ht l` sct` `t

abhstctu`ht l`s cht`rlbautùrs f`s cht`rhdut`s p`hfdht ld vcsct`. Cls fbhh`ht abrps ï ld

fcj`hscbh sbacdl` fu sct` (Ydhi `t dlcc., >??9) `t p`rj`tt`ht du vcsctùr f` vcvr` pl`ch`j`ht

l–`xpãrc`ha`. L`s cht`reda`s mbjj`-jdamch` quc abjpbrt`ht uh di`ht vcrtu`l sbht plus

`hidi`dht`s, plus dttrdatcv`s `t plus djusdht`s qu` a`ll`s quc h–`h abjpbrt`ht pds (Adss`ll `t

dlcc., >???). Lùr prãs`ha` r`hebra` l`s cht`rdatcbhs `htr` l–cht`rhdut` `t l` sct` (Fc`sndam `t

dlcc., >??9). Lùr ebhatcbh `st f–dcf`r l–cht`rhdut` ï s–brc`ht`r lbrs f` sd hdvcidtcbh (L`jbch`

`t Hbt`nd`rt, >?44). Cls iãhír`ht f`s ãjbtcbhs pbsctcv`s, djãlcbr`ht ld vdlùr p`réu` `t

abhfucs`ht ï f`s abjpbrt`j`hts edvbrdnl`s `hv`rs l` sct` (Mblzwdrtm `t dlcc., >??5 7

Ydhi `t dlcc., >??9) `t `hv`rs l` prbfuct / s`rvca` prãs`htã (L`jbch` `t Hbt`nd`rt, >?44).

L`s v`rndtcj jbhtr`ht qu` pdrjc l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s, l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls

bht ãtã actãs `h pr`jc`r (4?? % f`s cht`rhdut`s `t >4,4> % f`s actdtcbhs). L`s di`hts fu sct`

^`hdult H`w F`dl sbht « Hcablds · `t « Csdn`ll` ·, f`s di`hts vcrtu`ls chadrhãs `t dhcjãs

dydht uh` adpdactã f–cht`rdicr . Ld tbtdlctã f`s rãpbhfdhts d `xprcjã uh chtãrët pbur a`s

p`rsbhhdi s̀ vcrtu`ls. Cls bht ãtã qudlcecãs f` « prãs`htdtùrs ·, « cht`rv`hdhts ·,

« abjj`racdux ·, « v`hfùrs ·, « p`rsbhhdi`s ·, `ta.

« … K` j` sucs fcs qu` l` abha`pt f` a` sct` `st trís nc`h `t qu` a–ãtdct plus syjpd f–ãabut`r

f`s v`hfùrs pdrl`r qu` f` lcr` l`s chebrjdtcbhs… · ‑ >.



451

L–dhdlys` rãvíl` qu` l'cht`rdatcbh dvà l–di`ht pùt ëtr` rcam` `h ãamdhi`s `t `hi`hfr`

f`s ãjbtcbhs s`jnldnl`s ï a`ll`s quc pùv`ht ëtr` vãau`s `h jdidsch.

«… k–ãtdcs f`vdht jbh brfchdtùr … K–ãtdcs uh pù chtcjcfã qu–bh j` pdrl` abjj` éd…· ‑

9.

F` plus, lbrsqu` l–cht`rdatcbh s–dppdr`ht` ï uh ãamdhi` cht`rp`rsbhh`l, l`s cht`rhdut`s

s` abjpbrt`ht vcs-ï-vcs f` l–brfchdtùr abjj` s–cls ãtdc`ht eda` ï uh` p`rsbhh` vcvdht`.

« … K–dvdcs l–cjpr`sscbh qu` l` jbhscùr j` pdrldct… k` p`hs` qu` a–`st l` jbhscùr quc d

dttcrã jbh dtt`htcbh du fãpdrt. Cl j` rìdrfdct fdhs l`s yùx `t `h j` pbsdht s`s qu`stcbhs

a–`st abjj` sc k–ãtdcs `h eda` f` luc… · ‑ 4=.

Ld prãs`ha` f`s di`hts vcrtu`ls iucf` l`s cht`rhdut`s `t l`s brc`ht` tbut du lbhi f`

l–`x pãrc`ha`.

« … K` fbhhdcs j`s ambcx `t k–dc r`ss`htc uh vãrctdnl` daabjpdih`j`ht tbut du lbhi f` ld

vcsct` f` l–`spda` abhs`cl. L`s p`rsbhhdi`s sbht vrdcj`ht trís pãfdibiu`s · ‑ 3 7 « K –dc

n`duabup dcjã l` edct qu–bh j–`xplcqu` l–beer`… · ‑ 9.

L`s di`hts vcrtu`ls daabjpdih`ht l`s vcsctùrs, ld fcj`hscbh sbacdl` arãã` furdht

l–ãamdhi` `hi`hfr` fu pldcscr am`z a`rtdchs vcsctùrs kusqu–ï chelu`ha`r ld p`ra`ptcbh ilbndl`

fu sct`.

« … K –dc ù l–cjpr`sscbh f–ëtr` iucfã tbut du lbhi f` ld vcsct`. Bh j` pbsdct f ̀s qu`stcbhs `t

k–y rãpbhfdcs dech f` trbuv`r l–beer` quc j` abhvc`ht l` plus… L` aötã cht`rdatce p`rj`t

f–duij`ht`r l–chtãrët pbur l` sct` `t ld prãs`ha` f`s cht`rv`hdhts y `st pbur irdhf -ambs` … ·

‑ 49.

« … K–dc surtbut dcjã l`s prãs`htdtùrs, ld jdhcír` fbht cls pdrl`ht `t lùrs i`st`s. F` plus

k–dc dpprãacã qu–bh j` pbs` f`s qu`stcbhs dech f` sdvbcr a` quc j` vd l` plus 7 l` jbhscùr

ãtdct trís hdtur`l `h j` pdrldht…Bh s` ldcss` edacl`j`ht abhvdchar` `t sucvr` s`s

chstruatcbhs… · ‑ 45.



456

A`tt` ebrt` cht`rdatcbh fbhh` l–cjpr`sscbh qu` l` sct` `st p`rsbhhdlcsã.

«… Cl edut ambcscr fceeãr`ht`s bptcbhs, dppbrt `h pbura`htdi`, rytmj` dhhu`l f` amdhi`j`ht

f` vbctur` `ta. @h ebhatcbh f` a`ld, l–`xpbsã f`s fùx p`rsbhh`s vdrc`, s–dfdpt` `t s`

p`rsbhhdlcs` 7 a–`st cht`rdatce ! ... · ‑ 1.

« … l`s i`st`s `t l`s `xpr`sscbhs fu vcsdi` j–bht fbhhã l–cjpr`sscbh qu` Hcablds h` j`

pdrldct qu–ï jbc … · ‑ 41.

L`s v`rndtcj jbhtr`ht qu` p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` hdvcidtcbh uh` r`ldtcbh f`

abhecdha` pr`hf ebrj` `t qu` l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls daqucír`ht uh` a`rtdch` arãfcnclctã dux yùx

f`s abhsbjjdtùrs.

« … L–mbjj` `st arãfcnl`, cl `st dsscjcldnl` ï uh vrdc v`hfùr `h abha`sscbh. Cl s`jnl`

fãabhtrdatã `t fbhh` l–cjpr`sscbh f–ëtr` f` nbh abhs`cl … · ‑ 41.

Vbutèbcs, a`tt` r`ldtcbh `st fceeãr`ht` f–uh di`ht ï l–dutr` `t s`lbh ld p`ra`ptcbh f`

l–cht`rhdut` ̀ hv`rs a`luc-ac.

«… Ld e`jj`, Csdn`ll`, `st jbchs dirãdnl`, uh pù str`ssã` `t pds trís hdtur`ll`. @ll`

ndebucll` f` t`jps `h t`jps `t `ll` `st jbchs nbhh` brdtrca` qu` sbh pdrt`hdcr`. A`p`hfdht,

`ll` chspcr` abhecdha` ãidl`j`ht… · ‑ 41.

L`s di`hts vcrtu`ls bht l` röl` f–daabjpdihdtùr p`hfdht ld vcsct` fu sct` jdramdhf,

abjj` l` iucf` (Drhbulf `t _rca`, 4331) bu l` jd`strb (Adró `t Abvd, >??1). Lbrsqu–cls sbht

pbsctcv`j`ht p`r éus, cls edvbrcs`ht f`s ãtdts deeàtces `t ãjbtcbhh`ls rãpãtãs p`hfdht l–ãpcsbf`f` hdvcidtcbh. _dr abhsãqu`ht, cls abhtrcnu`ht ï l–daarbcss`j`ht f` ld vdlùr p`réu` fu sct` `t

pburrdc`ht dvbcr uh èe`t sur l`s abjpbrt`j`hts abhsãautces ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`,

hbtdjj`ht f`s abjpbrt`j`hts r`ldtcbhh`ls, abjj` ld vblbhtã f` jdcht`hcr l` abhtdat dvà ld

jdrqu` bu f–`h pdrl`r dutbur f` sbc.

n. L`s edatùrs f–djncdha` ; l` fãabr `h 1F



450

Ld trbcscíj` adtãibrc` f`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–dtjbspmír` f` ld typblbic` f` Ndg`r

(43=5 7 4336) `st r`prãs`htã` pdr l`s edatùrs f–djncdha`. A`t ãlãj`ht fu abht`xt`

`xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih` d ãtã actã pdr 46 rãpbhfdhts ï 15 r`prcs`s, pbur uh pbura`htdi` f`

actdtcbhs f` >?,5=%. Fdhs l`s pbchts f` v`ht` trdfctcbhh`ls, pluscùrs ãlãj`hts abhtrcnu`ht ï ld

fãechctcbh f'uh` djncdha`, hbtdjj`ht, l`s abulùrs, ld t`jpãrdtur`, ld juscqu`, l`s lujcír`s,

l`s bfùrs, ld ebul`, `ta. Fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l f` abhsbjjdtcbh `h lcih`, l`s

edatùrs f–djncdha` r`prãs`ht`ht tbut`s l`s fcj`hscbhs s`hsbrc`ll`s susa`ptcnl`s f–ëtr`

utclcsã`s sur l` sct` (L`jbch`, >??=). Fdhs l` abht`xt` f–Cht`rh`t bó prãfbjch` l–cjdi`rc`

vcsu`ll` pdr rdppbrt dux dutr`s typ`s f–cjdi`rc` j`htdl` (@rbilu `t dl., >??4), l` ràburs dux

tàmhblbic`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` ï trdv`rs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs (1F),

pburrdct abjp`hs`r l` jdhqu` f` abhtdat pmyscqu` `htr` l`s cht`rhdut`s `t l`s prbfucts (Qum `t

L``, >??0) `t ld rãfuatcbh f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht f` v`ht` ï ld tdcll` f` l–ãardh

(JaGchh`y, >??6). Abhscfãrã`s abjj` cht`rdatcv`s, `xplbrdnl`s `t vcsudlcsdnl`s `h t`jps

rã`l, l`s tàmhblbic`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` dppbrt`ht plus f` rãdlcsj` du pbcht f` v`ht`

vcrtu`l. Qur l` sct` ^`hdult H`w F`dl, l–dhdlys` f`s `htr`tc`hs rãvíl` qu` l` fãabr `h 1F `st l`

edatùr f–djncdha` l` plus cjpbrtdht ;

« … L` fãabr `st dss`z dirãdnl` ï rìdrf`r, k` arbcs qu` a` fãabr r`ss`jnl` ï l–chtãrcùr f`s

abha`sscbhs ^`hdult … · ‑ 4=.

L`s tàmhblbic`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sbht fãsbrjdcs `jplbyã`s pdr l`s

prbe`sscbhh`ls fdhs ld jcs` `h saíh` f`s sct`s f` abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu` dech f` edcr` vcvr`

dux cht`rhdut`s f` hbuv`ll`s `xpãrc`ha`s f` hdvcidtcbh. A`s tàmhblbic`s p`rj`tt`ht dux sct`s

abjj`racdux f` j`ttr` l` abhsbjjdtùr fdhs uh abht`xt` spãacecqu` `h kbudht

`ss`htc`ll`j`ht sur l` systíj` s`hsbrc`l (L`jbch`, >??=). L`s v`rndtcj rãvíl`ht qu` l`s

stcjuldtcbhs dufctcv`s `t vcsu`ll`s fu sct` sbht sueecsdht`s pbur qu` a`rtdchs cht`rhdut`s sàrbc`ht fdhs uh pbcht f` v`ht` pmyscqu` ;

«… L` fãabr r`st` fdhs l–djncdha` ^`hdult 7 bh fcrdct qu` k–y ãtdcs, éd abrr`spbhf

pdredct`j`ht ï l–`sprct f` ^`hdult 7 K–durdcs dcjã pbuvbcr j` prbj`h`r fdhs l–`spda`

abha`sscbh pbur vbcr l`s jbfíl`s f` vbctur`s… · ‑ 45.

_bur a`rtdchs cht`rhdut`s cht`rrbiãs, l` sct` abhstctu` uh` ebrj` f–myp`r -rãdlctã a'`st-ï-fcr` uh` rãdlctã fceeãr`ht` f` ld rãdlctã bnkàtcv`, jdtãrc`ll` `t p`ra`ptcnl` quc abhfuct ï h` plus



455

pbuvbcr edcr` ld fceeãr`ha` `htr` l` vrdc `t l` edux (Irdcllbt, >??6). Vbutèbcs, `h ríil`

iãhãrdl`, l`s cht`rhdut`s fcstchiu`ht nc`h `htr` l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `t l`s

`hvcrbhh`j`hts myp`r-rã`ls.

Du-f`lï f`s dspàts plutöt ebhatcbhh`ls f`s tàmhblbic`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, l–dhdlys`

jbhtr` qu`, pdr ld prbfuatcbh scjultdhã` `t cht`rdatcv` f` rãpbhs`s abihctcv`s `t

ãjbtcbhh`ll`s, a`s tàmhcqu`s fbhh`ht fu s`hs ï l–`xpãrc`ha` (Ldfw`ch, >??6). L`

abhsbjjdtùr f`vc`ht ï ld ebcs datùr `t spàtdtùr f` l–`xpãrc`ha ̀; « cl h–`st pds `xtãrcùr du

prba`ssus jdcs l'bnk`t jëj` f` l'`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` 7 cl `st abhkbcht`j`ht suk`t dicssdht `t

bnk`t f` ld trdhsebrjdtcbh · (M`tz`l, >??>).

« … L` fãabr r`ss`jnl` n`duabup ï uh abha`sscbhhdcr` ^`hdult, a`luc f`s Amdjps @lysã`s,

jdcs l`s abulùrs trbp prbhbhaã`s, hbus rdpp`ll`ht qu–cl s–dict f–uh `spda` vcrtu`l… · ‑ >.

« L`s fãabrs rãdlcst`s duij`htdc`ht l–cht`rdatcvctã `t l–chtãrët `hv`rs ld vcsct` fu sct`… Du

aburs f` ld vcsct`, l–cht`rhdut` `st dj`hã ï pdrtcacp`r · ‑ 41.

Lbrsqu` l`s edatùrs f–djncdha` sbht dpprãacãs, a` quc h–`st pds systãjdtcqu`, cls

fbhh`ht ï ld hdvcidtcbh uh adrdatír` pldcsdht `t dirãdnl` ;

« … K–ãtdcs nc`h fdhs l–djncdha`, bh s–y arbcrdct vrdcj`ht 7 L` sct` `st nc`h struaturã `t l`s

abulùrs fu fãabr `h 1F hbus p`rj`tt`ht f` jcùx hbus abha`htr`r sur l` sct` 7 A–ãtdct trís

dirãdnl`, k–dc n`duabup dcjã… · ‑ 44.

A`p`hfdht, ld p`ra`ptcbh f`s edatùrs f–djncdha` `st lbch f–ëtr` mbjbiíh`, jdlirã l`s

èebrts f` rãdlcsj` f` l–cht`reda` fu sct`. A`rtdchs cht`rhdut`s `xplcqu`ht qu` ld vcsct`, pùt

jëj` p`rfr` `h chtãrët `t `h pldcscr ;

«… L–uhcv`rs fu sct` h` edct rãeãr`ha` ï duauh `spda` abhhu. L–uhcv`rs `st, k` p`hs`, trbp

euturcst`. Bh h` sdct pds nc`h sc bh `st du s`ch f` ld fcràtcbh f` ^`hdult bu sc bh `st am`z uh

abha`sscbhhdcr`, a` quc iëh` uh pù l` fãrbul`j`ht f` jd vcsct`… · ‑ 0.

« … K` trbuv` qu` ld fcj`hscbh vcrtu`ll` fu sct` `st trís prbhbhaã` a` quc r`hf fceecacl`

f–cjdich`r qu` a`t `hfrbct `xcst` `h vrdc …· ‑ 46.



459

Vbut abjj` fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts f` v`ht` pmyscqu`, l`s abhsbjjdtùrs sbht ï ld

ràm`ram` f` lc`h sbacdl dvà f–dutr`s chfcvcfus sur l` sct` pbur pdrtdi`r lùr `xpãrc`ha` ;

« … Ld sdll` `st vcf`, k–durdc dcjã qu–cl y–dct plus f` jbhf`, f`s i`hs abjj` hbus, éd durdct

jbchs r`ss`jnlã ï uh` jcs` `h saíh`. A–`st vcf`… · ‑ 44.

L` abhsbjjdtùr `st tbut f` jëj` adpdnl` f` rãdsscjcl`r `t f` rãcht`rprãt`r l` s`hs

f`s j`ssdi`s quc luc sbht trdhsjcs pdr l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf ï sd jdhcír` `t abhstrucr`

sd prbpr` `xpãrc`ha` ;

« … K–dc dfbrã l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht, l` adfr`, l` fãabr…Bh d l–cjpr`sscbh qu` hbus sbjj`s

fdhs uh` di`ha` ^`hdult. D l–`xtãrcùr cl y d f`s vbctur`s, abjj` sc a–ãtdct uh` sdll` f`

rãa`ptcbh am`z ^`hdult bu uh` sdll` f–dtt`ht`… · ‑ 44.

L`s v`rndtcj rãvíl`ht ãidl`j`ht qu` a`rtdchs vcsctùrs bht t`htã f` s–dpprbprc`r

l–`spda` vcrtu`l `h am`ramdht ï `xplbr`r l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l ;

«… D uh a`rtdch jbj`ht f` ld vcsct`, k` vbuldcs edcr` uh tbur `h 1F pbur vbcr l`s

fceeãr`hts jbfíl`s f` vbctur`s prbpbsã`s du lcù f` fbhh`r uh` lcst`… · ‑ 46.

L`s edatùrs f–djncdha` f` l–dtjbspmír` fu sct` jdramdhf sbht f`s abjpbsdht`s quc

kbu`ht uh röl` scihcecadtce fdhs ld arãdtcbh f` rãpbhs`s f`s cht`rhdut`s. L` fãabr `h trbcs

fcj`hscbhs, chelu`ha` l`s p`ra`ptcbhs `t l`s rãdatcbhs f`s abhsbjjdtùrs lbrs f` l–`xpãrc`ha`

f` vcsct`. Ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` pùt prbvbqu`r am`z l`s cht`rhdut`s f`s rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s

scjcldcr`s ï a`ll`s prbvbquã`s pdr f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts pmyscqu`s, dlldht kusqu–ï l–cjj`rscbh,

a'`st-ï-fcr` lbrsqu` l–ãtdt deeàtce, ãjbtcbhh`l `t abihctce sbht ebrt`j`ht stcjulãs.

a. L`s edatùrs f` f`scih ; l`s abjjdhf`s f` abhtröl`

L`s ãlãj`hts fu f`scih ãvbquãs pdr l`s rãpbhfdhts abha`rh`ht prchacpdl`j`ht ld

hdvcidnclctã, ld lcscnclctã, l–daa`sscnclctã f` l–beer` sur l` sct` `t l` t`jps f` tãlãamdri`j`ht. L`s

edatùrs f` f`scih sbht l`s stcjulc r`ldtces ï l–bridhcsdtcbh `t ï ld struatur` fu sct` (N dg`r `t

dlcc. , 4336 7 L`jbch`, >??=). Ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`, djãlcbr` ld hdvcidnclctã fu sct` `tl–daa`sscnclctã f` l–beer`.



45=

L` sct` ^`hdult H`w F`dl s` prãs`ht` sbus ld ebrj` f–uh` vcfãb cht`rdatcv` abjnchdht

fu t`xt`, f`s cjdi`s `t f`s sbhs. L–dhdlys` f` abht`hu fu fcsaburs f`s cht`rhdut`s cht`rvc`wãs

hbus d p`rjcs f–cf`htcec`r ld abjpbsdht` « abjjdhf`s f` abhtröl` · (dvdha`r / ràul`r,

drrët`r / r`pr`hfr`, datcv`r / drrët`r l` sbh, `ta.) abjj` l` edatùr f` f`scih l` plus ãvbquã `h

rdcsbh f` sbh dns`ha` ; 40 rãpbhfdhts scihdl`ht uh jdhqu` f` abhtröl` p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha`

f` vcsct` `t 49,>6% f` l–`hs`jnl` f`s actdtcbhs, abha`rhdht l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu

sct`.

« … Éd j` rdpp`ll` l`s FUF, a`luc f` Fbrd l–`xplbrdtrca`, sdue qu` pbur l`s FUF bh pùt

dvdha`r, stbpp`r, ràul`r, abup`r l`s sbhs… · ‑ 4> 7 « … S rdkbut`r f`s nbutbhs f–dvdha`

rdpcf`, pbur h` pds ëtr` bnlciã f–ãabut`r l`s prãs`htdtùrs durdc`ht pu r`hfr` jd vcsct` plus

pldcsdht`… · ‑ 45.

@h èe`t, lbrs f` l–cht`rdatcbh jãfcdtcsã` pdr brfchdtùr, l` s`htcj`ht f` abhtröl` pùt

ëtr` vãmcaulã pdr ld jultctuf` f'bptcbhs `t f–datcbhs quc s'beer`ht ï l'usdi`r (Jdlbh` `t Ldpp`r,

43=9 7 @ttcs, >??>). L` abhtröl` fãp`hf f` ld jdhcpuldtcbh fcràt` `t f`s tàmhblbic`s

jultcjãfcds pbur iãhãr`r f` l'cht`rdatcvctã `t f` ld vcvdactã. Kcdhi `t N`hndsdt (>??0)

`xplcqu`ht qu` l` abhtröl` vcrtu`l p`rj`t dux alc`hts f` jdhcpul`r fcràt`j`ht f`s fcspbsctces

`h lcih`, pbur daquãrcr f`s chebrjdtcbhs sur l`s prbfucts abha`rhãs. L` abhtröl` vcrtu`l d

ràburs ï ld tàmhblbic` jultcjãfcd, ï trdv`rs ldqu`ll`, f`s cjdi`s, f`s dhcjdtcbhs, f`s ecljs,

`t f`s sbhs, sbht jbnclcsãs dech qu` l–cht`rhdut` pucss` s–`hidi`r fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` bptcjdl`.

@hvcrbh l`s trbcs qudrts f`s rãpbhfdhts (40 rãpbhfdhts) bht actã spbhtdhãj`ht ld

abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` abjj` uh` abjpbsdht` cjpbrtdht` fu sct` Y`n, quc pburrdct

abhtrcnu`r scihcecadtcv`j`ht du nbh fãrbul`j`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` ï trdv`rs sbh abhtröl`.

« K–dvdcs l–cjpr`sscbh qu` k` h` abhtröldcs pds a` qu` k` vbydcs, éd j–d edct s`htcr qu` k–ãtdcs

p`rfu `t éd j–d uh pù fãplu. Ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` durdct ï ld ebcs uh abtã prdtcqu`,

jdcs a–`st dussc uh jby`h f` idrf`r uh` a`rtdch` jdctrcs` fu fãrbul`j`ht f` ld vcsct` · ‑ 4?.

F`s rãpbhs`s deeàtcv`s sbht fãal`hamã`s pdr a`tt` dns`ha` f` jdètrcs` fu abht`hu f`

l–`xpãrc`ha`. A` fãedut f` prãs`ha` f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`, fãtãrcbr` l` pbt`htc`l

cjj`rsce fu sct` jdramdhf. L`s cht`rhdut`s quc h–drrcv`ht pds ï jdctrcs`r l` abht`hu f`

l–`xpãrc`ha`, h–`htr`ht pds fdhs l` prba`ssus f` l–cjj`rscbh. L`s stcjuldtcbhs `xpãrc`htc`ll`sfu sct` s` trdhsebrj`ht `h ãtdts j`htdux hãidtces, quc `hi`hfr`ht f`s rãdatcbhs stãrcl`s



453

p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha`. @h èe`t, l` hcv`du chsueecsdht f–cht`rdatcvctã fu sct` Y`n jdramdhf d

ãtã sbuv`ht jbhtrã abjj` dhtãaãf`ht ï l–dttctuf` fãedvbrdnl` `hv`rs l` sct`, ld jdrqu` `t l`

prbfuct.

« …Qc bh vùt r`v`hcr sur uh pbcht, bh `st bnlciã f` rããabut`r l–chtãirdlctã fu fcsaburs

kusqu–du pdssdi` quc hbus chtãr`ss` a` quc f`vc`ht didédht 7 f`s abjjdhf`s pbur edcr`

dvdha`r bu daaãlãr`r ld vcfãb durdc`ht pu r`hfr` ld vcsct` plus dirãdnl` pdra` qu` l–beer` h`

j–chtãr`ssdct pds trbp… · ‑ 4>.

L–dhdlys` f`s v`rndtcj jbhtr` qu` l`s vcsctùrs bht uh n`sbch f` jdètrcs` f`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf. L–dns`ha` f` s`htcj`ht f` abhtröl` chelu`ha` ld p`ra`ptcbh f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` hdvcidtcbh ̀ t `hi`hfr` f`s ãjbtcbhs hãidtcv`s trís cht`hs`s.

«… K` trbuv` l` j`ssdi` trbp lbhi, bh h` pùt pds r`v`hcr `h drrcír` bu sdut`r f`s ãtdp`s, a`

quc `st vrdcj`ht fbjjdi`… · ‑ 0.

L` jdhqu` f` abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` d dussc uh cjpdat cjpbrtdht sur ld abha`htrdtcbh

`t ld abjprãm`hscbh f` l–beer`. @h èe`t, l`s vdrcdnl`s `xt`rh`s ï ld hdvcidtcbh, hbtdjj`ht l`s

nructs, ld prãs`ha` f–dutr`s chfcvcfus, `ta., pùv`ht cht`reãr`r p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`,

l–d ns`ha` f` abjjdhf`s f` abhtröl` fãtãrcbr` ld vdlùr p`réu` fu sct`.

«… éd s`rdct nc`h f'dvbcr uh` abjjdhf` f` fãecl`j`ht du ads bó bh p`rfrdct f` ld

abha`htrdtcbh bu sc bh rà`vdct uh dpp`l sur l` tãlãpmbh` pdr `x`jpl`, bh `st ebraã f`

r`tburh`r du pbcht f` fãpdrt … · ‑ 4?.

L–cht`rhdut` vùt dvbcr ld pbsscnclctã f` jbf`l`r l` sct` sur l` l`qu`l cl hdvciu`. Cl vùtabfcrci`r l–beer` abjj`racdl` quc luc `st prbpbsã` `t l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf fdhs l`qu`l cl

ãvblu`. Cl s`jnl` ãidl`j`ht qu` l` fìrã f–cjplcadtcbh f` l–cht`rhdut` `hv`rs l` prbfuct

chelu`ha` l` fãrbul`j`ht f` ld vcsct`. @h èe`t, f`s chfcvcfus jbchs cjplcquãs bht am`ramã ï

drrët`r ld vcsct`.

« … J ëj` sc l–beer` h` hbus chtãr`ss` pds, bh h` pùt pds dvdha`r ld vcfãb, l–drrët`r bu

`habr` abup`r l` sbh… · ‑ 5 7 « … Cl edut vrdcj`ht ëtr` chtãr`ssã pdr l–beer` prbpbsã` pdr ^`hdult pbur ãabut`r l` j`ssdi` kusqu–du nbut. A–`st uh pù trbp lbhi, uh` p`rsbhh` hbh



49?

abha`rhã` pdr l–beer` f` echdha`j`ht vd a`rtdch`j`ht drrët`r ld vcsct` du nbut f` fùx

jchut ̀ s… · ‑ 0.

L` abhsbjjdtùr quc vcsct` uh jdidsch vcrtu`l `st dhcjã pdr f`s jbtcvdtcbhs

utclctdcr`s `t mãfbhcst`s (Amclf`rs `t dl., >??4). L–ãvdludtcbh fu f`scih f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

jãfcdtcsã pdr brfchdtùr fceeír` s`lbh qu` l` abjpbrt`j`ht `st fcrciã v`rs uh nut bu qu–cl `st

`xaluscv`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l (Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 4335). Cl s`jnl` pdr dcllùrs hãa`ssdcr` f`

ldcss`r ï l–cht`rhdut` l` abhtröl` fu elux sbus p`ch` f` iãhãr`r f`s ãjbtcbhs hãidtcv`s ebrt`s,

hbtdjj`ht duprís f`s cht`rhdut`s l`s plus `xp`rts.

« …Qc tbus l`s sct`s ãtdc`ht pdr`cls qu` a`luc lï, a`ld j–`hhuc`rdct pdra` qu` k` p`rfrdcs

n`duabup f` t`jps, cl jdhqu` l` nbutbh pbur drrët`r l` prãs`htdtùr … · ‑ 44.

Lbrs f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` hdvcidtcbh, l–cht`rhdut` s–`hidi` ï pluscùrs hcv`dux. Nc`h

qu` pdrebcs hãidtce, a`t `hidi`j`ht jbhtr` qu` l–`xpãrc`ha` `st jãjbrdnl` pbur l`s

cht`rhdut`s. @h tbut ãtdt f` adus`, l–`hidi`j`ht d ãtã vãau cht`hsãj`ht.

«… K ̀ h–dc pds trbuvã abjj`ht l–drrët`r, k` j` sucs s`htc mdra`lã 7 k–dc `ssdyã pdr tbus l`s

jby`hs f` pr`hfr` sur jbc `t f` j` abha`htr`r jdcs rc`h ï edcr` 7 k` h` r`vc`hfrdc plus sur a`

i`hr` f` sct`s… · ‑ =.

Ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` abhtrcnu` ï l– « djãhdi`j`ht · fu sct` jdramdhf. @ll`

abhstctu` uh` abjpbsdht` cjpbrtdht` fu sct` fdhs ld j`sur` bó sbh dns`ha` iãhír` f`s ãtdts

ãjbtces `t deeàtces ebrt`j`ht hãidtce. @ll` p`rj`t f` edaclct`r ld hdvcidtcbh `t f` iãr`r

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih` fdhs l`qu`l l`s abhsbjjdtùrs pburrbht s'cjj`ri`r.

_dr dcllùrs, l–dhdlys` jbhtr` qu` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` s` rãvíl` ëtr` uh edatùr cjpbrtdhtfurdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`. L` abhtröl` f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf kbu` uh röl` fãacsce

pbur dtt`chfr` l–`xpãrc`ha` bptcjdl` lbrsqu` l` abhsbjjdtùr `st sur l` sct` (Imdhc `t

F`smpdhf`, 4336 7 Jdlbh` `t Ldpp`r, 43=9). A` edatùr f` f`scih daabrf` ld lcn`rtã dux

vcsctùrs. Cl p`rj`t f` prbir`ss`r fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf fu sct` bu f` quctt`r

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` hdvcidtcbh.



494

Ld typblbic` f` Ndg`r (43=5 7 4336) hbus d p`rjcs f–bridhcs`r hbtr` r`prãs`htdtcbh

f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`. @ll` prãs`ht` uh` aldsscecadtcbh f`s dttrcnuts`hvcrbhh`j`htdux `h trbcs adtãibrc`s ; l`s edatùrs sbacdux, f–djncdha` `t f` f`scih. L`s

v`rndtcj hbus p`rj`tt`ht f–cf`htcec`r trbcs stcjulc dtjbspmãrcqu`s prchacpdux, ï sdvbcr ;

l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls (edatùr sbacdl), l` fãabr (edatùr f–djncdha`) `t l`s abjjdhf`s f`

abhtröl` (edatùrs f` f`scih).

L–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h 1F `t l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls, abhstctu`ht l`s fcspbsctces jbnclcsãs

pdr l`s tàmhcqu`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. Tudht ï ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`, `ll` trdfuct l`

s`htcj`ht f` jdètrcs`, ràm`ramã pdr l–cht`rhdut` p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih`.

L`s trbcs abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s qu` hbus dvbhs cf`htcecãs, r`prãs`ht`ht l`s

butcls hãa`ssdcr`s ï l–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`.

F–dprís ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` `t l–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv`, l` fãabr `h 1 fcj`hscbhs,

l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls `t l`s abjjdhf`s f` abhtröl`, abhstctu`ht l`s adtdlysùrs du nbh

fãrbul`j`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` `h lcih`. L–dfbptcbh f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` sur l`s sct`s f` `-abjj`ra` rãfuct lùr fãecact `h s`hsdtcbhs r`ss`htc`s. A`s

fcspbsctces bht uh röl` ebhfdj`htdl du hcv`du f`s cht`reda`s jdramdhf`s. Cls kbu`ht uh röl`

cjpbrtdht sur a` qu` l` abhsbjjdtùr r`ss`ht `t vct p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha`. Cls chelu`ha`ht

l–ãtdt deeàtce `t ãjbtcbhh`l, iãhír`ht f`s p`hsã`s, ebrj`ht f`s arbydha`s, arã`ht uh lc`h

sbacdl `t stcjul`ht l`s s`hs f`s alc`hts.



49>

CCC.>. L–cjj`rscbh

L` sàbhf bnkàtce f` hbtr` ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` `st f–cf`htcec`r l`s fceeãr`ht`s cht`rdatcbhs

`htr` l–cht`rhdut` `t l` sct`, lbrsqu` a`luc-ac s–cjj`ri` fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `hlcih`.

Vmíj` Hbjnr` f` actdtcbhs _bura`htdi`

Cjj`rscbh

@hidi`j`ht 49 >3,14

Abha`htrdtcbh 45 >9,0=

Cjplcadtcbh 5 4?,16

_rbkàtcbh 1 0,49

Erustrdtcbh > 1,66

Dssurdha` > 1,66

Aurcbsctã 4 4,9>

Vbtdl 69 =4%

@hhuc 6 5,=3

Crrctdtcbh > 1,66

^c`h > 1,66

Mdraíl`j`ht 4 4,9>

Fãa`ptcbh 4 4,9>

Chtcjcfdtcbh 4 4,9>

Vdnl`du 45 ; _bura`htdi`s f` actdtcbh f` l–cjj`rscbh

L–dhdlys` f`s rãsultdts f`s `htr`tc`hs s`jc-struaturãs jbhtr` qu`, l`s abjpbsdht`s`xpãrc`htc`ll`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht prbvbqu`ht f`s ãtdts djncvdl`hts, pbsctces `t hãidtces. A`s

ãtdts h` sbht pds abhstdhts `t ãvblu`ht du lbhi f` l–`xpãrc`ha ̀;

« … K` arbydcs qu–cls vbuldc`ht j` v`hfr` qu`lqu` ambs`…k–ãtdcs aurcùs`, chtrciuã`, k`

vbuldcs fãabuvrcr a` quc s` pdssdct 7 k–dtt`hfdcs ld suct`, k–ãabutdcs l`s prãs`htdtùrs, jdcs

a`ld j–`hhuydct, k–dc p`rfu pdtc`ha`… · ‑ 44 7 « … Du fãnut, k–dc dpprãacã pucs, p`tct ï p`tct,

l` sct` j–d ãh`rvã` pdra` qu` l–beer` h` j–chtãr`ssdct pds 7 k` h–ãtdcs plus abha`htrã`, k–dtt`hfdcs kust` qu` éd echcss`…· ‑ 40.



491

Ld rãtca`ha` `hv`rs l` sct` `st prbndnl`j`ht lcã` ï uh edcnl` hcv`du f–cjplcadtcbh

`hv`rs l` prbfuct. Ph` ebcs pdssã l` stdf` f` ld fãabuv`rt` `t l` prbfuct prãs`htã, a`rtdchs

cht`rhdut`s hbh abha`rhãs pdr l–beer` h` trbuv`ht duauh chtãrët `hv`rs l` sct` `t r`ss`ht`ht uh`

a`rtdch` crrctdtcbh ;

« … Du fãnut k` l–dc trbuvã brcichdl, jdcs du eur `t ï j`sur` bu k–dvdhédcs l` sct` f`v`hdct

crrctdht `t lbhi · ‑ = 7 « Cl edut ëtr` rã`ll`j`ht cjplcquã `t jbtcvã pbur pbursucvr` ld

hdvcidtcbh · ‑ 40.

_dr dcllùrs, pbur l`s cht`rhdut`s `xp`rts f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t, l–cjj`rscbh h–`st pds hbh

plus dssurã` fdhs ld j`sur` bó aùx-ac fcspbs`ht f–uh hcv`du ãl`vã f` abjpãt`ha`s `t qu–cls

h` sbht pds amdll`hiãs pdr l` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l. L`s `xp`rts h` fãpdss`rbht prbndnl`j`ht

pds l` stdf` f` ld stcjuldtcbh, pbsctcv` bu hãidtcv` ;

« … L` sct` `st lbhi `t fãa`vdht. Cl h–dnbutct ï rc`h. Cl hbus `hvbc` am`z l` abha`sscbhhdcr`

pbur dvbcr ld prbpbsctcbh amceerã`… · ‑ 45 7 « A–ãtdct uh` vcsct` dirãdnl` quc j–d cjplcquã

p`hfdht qu`lqu`s chstdhts · ‑ 49.

L`s rãpbhs`s f` a`rtdchs chfcvcfus ldcss`ht tbutèbcs p`hs`r qu–cls s–`hidi`ht n`l `t

nc`h fdhs uh prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh, uh ãtdt psyamblbicqu` cht`hs` adrdatãrcsã pdr

l–cjplcadtcbh, l–dnsbrptcbh `t l–`hidi`j`ht tbtdl, dvà uh` p`rt` f` r`pír`s t`jpbr`ls. F`s

chfcvcfus cjplcquãs `t hbh `xp`rts f` l–Cht`rh`t bht daaãfã pl`ch`j`ht ï l–`xpãrc`ha` ;

« … K–ãtdcs tbut l` t`jps abha`rhã `t abha`htrã. Bh hbus pdrl` fcràt`j`ht f` a` quc hbus

r`hf plus cjplcquã 7 a–`st a` qu–bh h` r`ss`ht pds sur f`s sct`s bó cl edut lcr` f`s qudhtctãs f`

pdrdirdpm`s 7 a–`st abjj` sc k–ãtdcs am`z l` abha`sscbhhdcr` 7 k` trbuv` qu` a–`st uh`

vãrctdnl` rãussct`… · ‑ >.

« … L` fcdlbiu` `htr` l`s fùx p`rsbhhdi`s `t l` prchacp` f` qu`stcbhs - rãpbhs`s hbus

p`rj`t f` r`st`r ï l–ãabut` fu j`ssdi` `t f` r`st`r abha`htrã… · ‑ 0. « … K–ãtdcs abha`htrã

dvà a` qu` rdabhtdc`ht l` jbhscùr `t ld fdj`, k` h–dc pds vu l` t`jps pdss`r … · ‑ 4=.



496

L`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts myp`r-rã`ls bht uh röl` cjpbrtdht fdhs l` prba`ssus f–daaís ï

l–`xpãrc`ha`. Cls edaclct`ht l–cjj`rscbh fu abhsbjjdtùr `t djãlcbr`ht ld qudlctã p`réu` f` ld

vcsct` ;

«… K–ãtdcs abha`htrã sur l–beer` 7 abjj` fãabhhàtã, k` h` p`hsdcs ï rc`h … · ‑ 4.

Fdhs a`rtdchs ads, lbrsqu` l–cht`rhdut` chtíir` l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`,

cl s–`hidi` fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha`. A`tt` `xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh abhfuct ï uh` fãabhh`xcbh fu

jbhf` rã`l, s`jnldnl` ï ld s`hsdtcbh f–ëtr` prãs`ht fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l ;

«…Abjj` dnsbrnã pdr l` sct`, k–ãtdcs nc`h ï l–dcs` am`z ^`hdult `h trdch f` fcsaut`r dvà l`

v`hfùr · ‑ 41 7 « … K –ãtdcs du aőur fu sct`, k–y dc pdrtcacpã pl`ch`j`ht, k–dc fbhhã j`s

ambcx… · ‑ 3.

Ld jdkbrctã f`s p`rsbhh`s cht`rrbiã`s (3?%) d deecrjã dvbcr vãau f`s jbj`hts

cht`hs`s f` abha`htrdtcbh, prbvbquãs pdr ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh `t ld jcs` `h saíh` f` l–beer` .

_`hfdht a`s jbj`hts, qudtr` f`s achq fcj`hscbhs cf`htcecã`s pdr Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t

Ibtt`ldhf (>??5 7 >??=) bh ãtã r`trbuvã`s 4? ;

- ld fcj`hscbh abihctcv`, quc ràbuvr` ld iãhãrdtcbh f` p`hsã`s `t ld ebrjdtcbh f`

arbydha`s ; l–dhdlys` j`t `h ãvcf`ha` a`tt` fcj`hscbh ï trdv`rs l`s abhhdcssdha`s

daqucs`s `t ld abha`ptcbh f` a`rtctuf`s p`hfdht `t ï ld suct` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`.

« … K` arbydcs qu–cls vbuldc`ht j` v`hfr` qu`lqu` ambs`… k–ãtdcs aurcùs`, chtrciuã 7 k`

vbuldcs fãabuvrcr a` quc s` pdssdct bu a` qu–bh vbuldct j` prãs`ht`r… jdcs dprís ld vcsct` k`

pburrdcs ëtr` chtãr`ssã` jdcs pds ebraãj`ht fãacfã` ï dam`t`r l` prbfuct pbur l` jbj`ht… a`

sct` d ãtã f–uh` irdhf` dcf` pbur jbc … · ‑ 44.

- Ld fcj`hscbh s`hsbrc`ll` `t p`ra`ptu`ll` quc abrr`spbhf ï ld stcjuldtcbh f`s s`hs ;

lbrsqu` l–cht`rhdut` `st cjj`riã fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l fu sct`, sbh

systíj` p`ra`ptu`l `st abjplít`j`ht stcjulã pdr l` jbhf` vcrtu`l `t hbh pdr l` jbhf`

4? Ld fcj`hscbh pmyscqu` h–d pds ãtã cf`htcecã`.



490

rã`l bu pmyscqu` quc l–`htbur` (Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf , >??5 7 >??=,

Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339).

« ... L` sct` f` ^`hdult `st edacl` ï jdhcpul`r a'`st-ï-fcr` qu` k–dc ù l–cjpr`sscbh f–ëtr` iucfã

tbut du lbhi f` ld vcsct` 7 bh j` pbsdct f`s qu`stcbhs `t k–y rãpbhfdcs dech f` trbuv`r l–beer`

quc j` abhvc`ht l` plus, abjj` sc k–y ãtdcs…. · ‑ 49.

- Ld fcj`hscbh deeàtcv` ; a`tt` fcj`hscbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha` abha`rh` l` pldcscr bu

fãpldcscr r`ss`htc p`hfdht ld hdvcidtcbh. L–dhdlys` jbhtr` qu` l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`

`st dssbacã` ï f`s ãjbtcbhs pbsctcv`s `t hãidtcv`s, dhdlbicqu`j`ht dux

`hvcrbhh`j`hts pmyscqu`s ;

« … _`hfdht ld vcsct`, k` j` sucs s`htc erustrã, mdra`lã, didaã, ldssã `t `hhuyã… l` sct` `st

crrctdht, stupcf` `t lbhi. K–dc ù l–cjpr`sscbh qu–bh j` pr`hdct pbur uh cjnãacl`. K` p`hs` qu`

a` sct` h` jdram`rdct pds fu tbut. ^`hdult j` fãébct vrdcj`ht dvà a` sct` … · ‑ =.

- ld fcj`hscbh sbacdl` `st r`lcã` ï ld hbtcbh f` pdrtdi` f–`xpãrc`ha` `t f–ãamdhi`. @h

èe`t, l–`xpãrc`ha` `st uh` abhstruatcbh sbacdl` sunkàtcv` `t bnkàtcv`. @ll` `st l`

prbfuct f–uh` cht`rdatcbh rãacprbqu` `htr` uh chfcvcfu (bu pluscùrs), uh lcù `t uh`

prdtcqu` f` abhsbjjdtcbh (Nbuam`t, >??6) ;

« … Ld fceeãr`ha` vc`ht f`s p`rsbhhdi`s 7 cls j` pdrl`ht dvà uh vbadnuldcr` scjpl` `t edacl`

ï abjpr`hfr` 7 cls j` rìdrf`ht nc`h 7 uh` vrdc` p`rsbhh` `h eda` f` jbc quc j` abhs`cll` `t

j` iucf` p`hfdht tbut` ld vcsct`… · ‑ 3.

L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus j`t `h ãvcf`ha` l`s fcj`hscbhs r`pãrã`s.



495

Fcj`hscbhs U`rndtcj

Ld fcj`hscbh

abihctcv`

« … K–ãtdcs ï l–dcs` f`vdht jbh brfchdtùr, k` p`hs` qu` éd h` s`rdct

pds l` ads sc k–dvdcs dsscstã ï uh fcdlbiu` `htr` fùx p`rsbhh`s

pmyscqu`j`ht prãs`ht`s f`vdht jbc 7 k` edcs rãeãr`ha` ï jd tcjcfctã

quc pburrdct chelu`ha`r jbh fìrã f` abha`htrdtcbh `t j`s rãpbhs`s

dux qu`stcbhs pbsã`s 7 k–ãtdcs uh pù chtcjcfã… · ‑ 9

Ld fcj`hscbh

s`hsbrc`ll`

« … Abhtrdcr`j`ht dux sct`s aldsscqu`s, … a–`st `h jëj` t`jps

vcsu`l `t dufctces, bh d pluscùrs s`hs quc sbht stcjulãs · ‑ 44

Ld fcj`hscbh

deeàtcv`« l–djncdha` amdlùrùs` `t dirãdnl` · ‑ 1

ld fcj`hscbh

sbacdl`

« L` tbh `st sãrcùx `t djcadl. L`s p`rsbhhdi`s bht l–dcr

prbe`sscbhh`l, l–djncdha` amdlùrùs` `t dirãdnl`. Cls abrr`spbhf`ht

ï a` quc `st dtt`hfu f–uh prbe`sscbhh`l ^`hdult. L` tbh `t l`s

p`rsbhhdi`s sbht abmãr`ht · ‑ 1

Vdnl`du 49 ; Qyhtmís` f`s fcj`hscbhs f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`

L–dhdlys` t`xtu`ll` jdhu`ll` aldsscqu` (Ndrfch, >??1) f`s rãacts f`s cht`rhdut`s

cht`rrbiãs, hbus d tbut f–dnbrf p`rjcs f` vãrcec`r l` abhstdt edct pdr Adró `t Abvd (>??1 7

>??5d) quc stcpul` qu` l–cjj`rscbh `st sbuv`ht pdrtc`ll` `t chstdnl`. Cl h` s–dict pds f–uh`

chfuatcbh ãjbtcbhh`ll` bu f–uh` cjj`rscbh chstdhtdhã` (l` edjùx « plbhi`bh ·), jdcs nc`h

f` jchc-ayal`s f–cjj`rscbh quc r`pbs`ht sur ld jcs` `h őuvr` f` abjpãt`ha`s prbpr`s ï

l–chfcvcfu. F` a` edct, l–cjj`rscbh h–`st pds uh` pãrcbf` lbhiu` `t uhcqu` (Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-

Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf , >??5 7 >??=). L`s qudtr` fcj`hscbhs sbacb - psyamblbicqu`s fãa`lã`s

fdhs hbtr` ràm`ram`, abrr`spbhf`ht nc`h dux ãpcsbf`s f–cjj`rscbh f` l–cht`rhdut` quc,

dnsbrnã pdr l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` `t p`rfdht s`s r`pír`s t`jpbr`ls, s–`hidi` tbtdl`j`ht

fdhs l` abht`xt` f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` arãã` pdr l` sct`.

CCC.1. Ld vdlùr p`réu` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`, uh` vdrcdnl` jãfcdtrca` 2

L`s sct`s Y`n sbht fãsbrjdcs abhéus pbur p`rj`ttr` dux cht`rhdut`s f` vcvr` f`s

`xpãrc`ha`s cjj`rscv`s `h lcih`. L–dhdlys` fu abht`hu f`s v`rndtcj jbhtr` qu` l–`xpãrc`ha`



499

vãau` dppdrdèt abjj` ebrt`j`ht abhfctcbhhã` pdr ld p`ra`ptcbh `t l–ãvdludtcbh f`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l. L`s abhsãqu`ha`s f–uh` t`ll` `xpãrc`ha` rãscf`ht fdhs l`s

nãhãeca`s ãjbtcbhh`ls qu` l` abhsbjjdtùr pùt `h tcr`r. Buvry `t Ldfw`ch (>??5)

sbulcih`ht qu` « l–dhdlys` fu abht`hu f` l–`xpãrc`ha` h` pr`hf s`hs qu–du rìdrf f` ld vdlùr

susa`ptc nl` f–`h rãsult r̀ pbur l` abhsbjjdtùr ·.

A` abha`pt f` « vdlùr p`réu` · d ãtã r`trbuvã fdhs ld jdkbrctã f`s fcsaburs f`s

cht`rhdut`s cht`rrbiãs. Cl tbuam` ï l–`hs`jnl` f`s fcj`hscbhs deeàtcv`s, abihctcv`s,

s`hsbrc`ll`s `t sbacdl`s f` l–`xpãrc`ha` `t s` jdhce`st` fbunl`j`ht ï ld suct` f` l–cjj`rscbh

f` l–cht`rhdut`. Cl pùt f–dnbrf s` trdfucr` pdr f`s nãhãeca`s iãhãrdux ;

« … Erdham`j`ht pbur jbc, Cht`rh`t r`st` qu`lqu` ambs` f–dss`z hbuv`du jëj` sc k` j`

abhhàt` f` plus `h plus erãqu`jj`ht. L` jdidsch d uh` plda` cjpbrtdht` lbrs f` j`s

damdts. Fu abup k` h` pburrdc kdjdcs dam`t`r uh` vbctur` pdr `x`jpl` pdra` qu`

l–chv`stcss`j`ht `st dss`z cjpbrtdht. A`ld fct sur a` sct` k–dvdcs l–cjpr`sscbh f–y ëtr` ! K–dc

trbuvã l`s chebrjdtcbhs hãa`ssdcr`s pbur echdha`r l–damdt f–uh` vbctur` ï jbchfr` erdcs, tbut

`h pdssdht uh` vcsct` dirãdnl`. K–dc trbuvã a` sct` aldcr du hcv`du fu abht`hu `t lufcqu` du

hcv`du f` ld ebrj`… · ‑ 4=.

« … Cl s–dict f–uh sct` fdhs l`qu`l k–dc trbuvã n`duabup f–chebs… A`s chebrjdtcbhs sbht

iãhãrdl`j`ht `h rdppbrt dvà jbh trdvdcl, `t éd j` p`rj`t f` vbcr a` qu` ebht l`s dutr`s

`htr`prcs`s fdhs l` fbjdch` bó k` trdvdcll`… · ‑ 4>.

Ld vdlùr p`réu` pùt dussc s` trdfucr` pdr f`s fbjjdi`s p`réus ;

« … A`rt`s l` sct` `st syjpd, k–dc nc`h dcjã du fãnut jdcs ld ech f` ld vcsct` `st fãa`vdht`, du

eur `t ï j`sur` f` l–`xplcadtcbh `t f`s qu`stcbhs, pucs f` ld f`jdhf` f` prbpbsctcbh amceerã`,

bh s–dtt`hf ï uh` scjuldtcbh bu uh` prbpbsctcbh p`rsbhhdlcsã` dvà l–dhhbha` fu prcx. @h

rãdlctã dprís dvbcr ãabutã tbut l` fcsaburs, dvbcr rãpbhfu ï tbut`s l`s qu`stcbhs, edct uh

fcdihbstca, bh j–d chvctã ï pr`hfr` r`hf`z -vbus dvà l` abha`sscbhhdcr` ^`hdult l` plus

prbam`. Du echdl k–dc ù l` s`htcj`ht f–dvbcr p`rfu jbh t`jps. L` sct` h` j–d rc`h dkbutã `t k`

fbcs p`rfr` `habr` fu t`jps `h dpp`ldht l` hujãrb fbhhã ï ld ech… · ‑ 40.

Ld r`prãs`htdtcbh f` l–ãvdludtcbh f`s cht`rrbiãs f` ld vdlùr cssu` f` ld vcsct` pùtfbha ëtr` pbsctcv` bu hãidtcv`. L`s nãhãeca`s `t l`s p`rt`s quc rãsult`ht f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs



49=

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` pùv`ht ëtr` p`réus, ï ld ebcs, abjj` dttrcnuts jdtãrc`ls bu

cjjdtãrc`ls f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` (Idll`h `t Nbuf`r -_dcll`r, >?4?).

L–dhdlys` f`s v`rndtcj jbhtr` qu`, l–`xpãrc`ha` vcrtu`ll` d uh bnkàtce prbpr` `t

qu–`ll` abhstctu` `h `ll`-jëj` uh bnkàtce. @ll` `st utclctdcr` `t r`hvbc` ï uh jdidschdi` dydht

uh nut ecxã ï l–dvdha`. Jdcs `ll` `st ãidl`j`ht mãfbhcqu` `t r`hvbc` ï uh jdidschdi` djusdht

`t pldcsdht.

Vmíj` U`rndtcj

Udlùr mãfbhcqu`

« K–dc trbuvã ld vcsct` dirãdnl` sdhs trbp j–`hhuy`r · ‑ 4

« L` abha`pt f` a` sct` `st trís nc`h `t qu` a–ãtdct plus syjpd f–ãabut`r

uh v`hfùr pdrl`r qu` f` lcr` l`s chebrjdtcbhs ‑ > K–dcj` nc`h « l`s cjdi`s quc nbui`ht · éd rãsuj` l`s pbchts

cjpbrtdhts · ‑ 6

« Lùr fcsaburs fãp`hf f` hbs rãpbhs`s `t s–dfdpt` ï hbtr` pbcht f`

vu` fdvdhtdi` qu–ï hbs n`sbchs, l–dvcs `st fu abup trbp sunkàtce sur

uh suk`t rdtcbhh`l · ‑ 0

Udlùr utclctdcr`

« Bh d tbut`s l`s chebs hãa`ssdcr`s ï hbtr` abjprãm`hscbh

sc k` vbuldcs j–dam`t`r uh` Alcb a`ld pburr dct ëtr` chtãr`ssdht

f–dfbpt`r uh` sblutcbh f` arãfct ^`hdult H`w f`dl · ‑ 44

« éd s`rdct iãhcdl f–dvbcr uh typ` quc j` fbhh`rdct l`s nbhs pldhs · ‑ >

« Tu`lqu`s jbts vdl`ht jcùx qu–uh` lbhiu` mcstbcr`… · ‑ 0

« L` suk`t fu echdha`j`ht f–uh` dutbjbncl` j` abha`rh`… a`tt`

sblutcbh pburrdct ëtr` dfãqudt ̀· ‑ >

Vdnl`du 4= ; L–drtcauldtcbh vdlùr utclctdcr` / vdlùr mãfbhcqu` fdhs l`s v`rndtcj

d. Ld vdlùr utclctdcr`

L–dhdlys` f`s rãsultdts f`s `htr`tc`hs s`jc-fcràtces rãvíl` qu`, ld vdlùr p`réu` pùt

ëtr` ld abhsãqu`ha` f–datcbhs rdcsbhhã`s `t brc`htã`s v`rs ld rãdlcsdtcbh f–uh bnkàtce prãacs.

@ll` fãp`hf f`s dttrcnuts ebhatcbhh`ls f` l–`xpãrc`ha` `t edct dpp`l ï ld rdtcbhdlctã `t

l–bnkàtcvctã fu abhsbjjdtùr. L`s p`rsbhh`s cht`rrbiã`s ãvbqu`ht l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s

tàmhcqu`s f` l–beer`, s`s dvdhtdi`s `t s`s chabhvãhc`hts ;



493

« … K–dc trbuvã a`tt` vcsct` `hhuydht` `t l`ht`. L–cht`rv`hdht` ãtdct pr`squ` ãh`rvdht` dvà

s`s `xplcadtcbhs ï h` plus echc. Qbh tbh trís sãrcùx `t jbhbtbh`, ãtdct trís fãsdirãdnl` … Ld

vcsct` d ãtã trbp l`ht` `t l` sct` hbh dfdptã ï j`s n`sbchs… K` h` am`ram` pds f` jbf` f`

echdha`j`ht adr k` h` prbk`tt` pds l–damdt f–uh` vbctur`. Jdcs, k` p`hs` qu–cl `xcst` f`s tdux

cheãrcùrs ï a`luc prbpbsã pdr ^`hdult H`w F`dl. Jbh ndhquc`r pùt j` prbpbs`r uh`

j`cllùr` beer` pucsqu–cl j` abhhdèt jcùx qu` a`s fùx p`rsbhh`s… · ‑ 5.

« … J dcs cl y d n`duabup f` ambs`s quc jdhqu`ht du suk`t f` l–beer` `t f`s fãtdcls cjpbrtdhts

ï j`s yùx, abjj` pdr `x`jpl`, jbh sdldcr ̀, j`s n`sbchs, j`s arãfcts… L` sct` `st trbp

iucfã. Cls durdc`ht f÷ j`ttr` uh trua pbur qu` l`s i`hs pucss`ht adlaul`r pdr ùx jëj` l` f`dl

quc l`s chtãr`ss`… · ‑ 4>.

n. Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu`

Ld vcscbh mãfbhcqu` f` ld vdlùr p`réu` s–chstdll` fdhs l–dpprbam` `xpãrc`htc`ll` f`

Mblnrbbg `t Mcrsamjdh (43=>), quc pbstul` qu` l–`xpãrc`ha` vãau` pdr l` abhsbjjdtùr fdhs

s`s datcvctãs f` jdidschdi` `st `ll`-jëj`, sbura` f` irdtcecadtcbhs mãfbhcqu`s (Durc`r,

@vrdrf `t H–Ibdld, >??6).

Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` abrr`spbhf ï l–dspàt sunkàtce f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` jdidschdi`

chaludht l` pldcscr, ld edsachdtcbh `t l–ãvdscbh (Mblnrbbg t̀ Mcrsamjdh, 43=>). Cac, l–damdt `st

daa`ssbcr` `t l` abhsbjjdtùr s` ebadlcs` sur l`s dttrcnuts chtdhicnl`s f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f`

vcsct`.

« … A–ãtdct chhbvdht `t lufcqu`. A–ãtdct jëj` djusdht. L`s cht`rv`hdhts `t l`s fãabrs

duij`htdc`ht l–cht`rdatcvctã `t l–chtãrët `hv`rs ld vcsct` fu sct`; l` fcsaburs `st aldcr `t scjpl`

dvà f`s pmrds`s aburt`s, a` quc j–d p`rjcs f–dpprãac`r l` fãrbul`j`ht f` ld vcsct`… A–`st

sup`r Cht`rdatce, trís dirãdnl` `t fcstrdydht. Du aburs fu fcsaburs k–ãtdcs dj`hã ï pdrtcacp`r

`h rãpbhfdht ï qu`lqu`s qu`stcbhs 7 éd hbus amdhi` f`s sct`s aldsscqu`s … vrdcj`ht trís

brcichdl … · ‑ 41.

Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` `st `xprcjã` abjj` l` pldcscr f` l–cht`rhdut`, p`hfdht uh ldps f`

t`jps, suct` ï sbh `xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh.



4=?

Ld vdlùr p`réu` `st ebrt`j`ht chelu`haã` pdr l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

`xpãrc`htc`l fu sct`. @ll` `st pbsctcv`j`ht ãvdluã` pdr l`s p`rsbhh`s quc bht dtt`cht l–ãtdt

f–cjj`rscbh bu a`ll`s quc bht vãau f`s ãpcsbf`s f–cjj`rscbh. @h r`vdham` lbrsqu`

l–cht`rhdut` h` s–`hidi` pds fdhs l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, cl p`rébct hãidtcv`j`ht

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `t jdhce`st` f`s abjpbrt`j`hts fãedvbrdnl`s `hv`rs l` sct`, ld jdrqu`

`t l` prbfuct / s`rvca`.

Ld vdlùr p`réu` (mãfbhcqu` `t utclctdcr`) s`jnl` dvbcr uh èe`t jãfcdtùr. @ll` kbu` uh

röl` cht`rjãfcdcr` `htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t l`s abjpbrt`j`hts prbndnl`s f`s cht`rhdut`s quc ebht

suct` ï ld vcsct`. Ld p`ra`ptcbh f` ld vdlùr f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` pdrdèt pbuvbcr `xplcqu`r ld

r`ldtcbh `htr` a`s fùx vdrcdnl`s.

CCC.6. Ld p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi fu sct` ; L`s abjpbrt`j`hts f`s cht`rhdut`s

A`rtdchs ãlãj`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls fu sct` jdramdhf abhfucs`ht ï f`s amdhi`j`hts

abjpbrt`j`htdux. Qbus a`rtdch`s abhfctcbhs, cls pùv`ht djãlcbr`r l` fìrã f` sdtcsedatcbh

f`s alc`hts, lùr dttctuf` ï l–ãidrf f` l–beer` `t lùrs cht`htcbhs f–damdt (Jujjdldh`hc, >??0 7

Mblzwdrtm, Kdhcsz`wsgc `t Hùjdhh, >??5), dchsc qu` l–cjpr`sscbh vcs-ï-vcs fu sct` `t

l–cht`htcbh f` vcsct`s rãpãtã`s (Quppm`ll`h `t Hysv``h, >??4 7 ^bs`h `t _urchtbh, >??6). Cls

pùv`ht ãidl`j`ht r`hebra`r ld r`ldtcbh dvà ld jdrqu` bu ld ecfãlctã (N`ri`rbh, >??4 7

Hbt`nd`rt, >??0).

Vmíj`Hbjnr` f` actdtcbhs fu

tmíj`_bura`htdi` fu tmíj`

^`vcsct`r l` sct` 40 >>,?5

_r`hfr` abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu` 46 >?,0=

Nbuam` ï br`cll` 46 >?,0=

Cht`htcbh f–damdt 41 43,4>

Q–chsarcr` du ebrjuldcr` 4> 49,56

Vbtdl 5= 4??

Vdnl`du 43 ; _bura`htdi`s f` actdtcbh f`s abjpbrt`j`hts euturs f`s cht`rhdut`s



4=4

Ld plupdrt f`s p`rsbhh`s cht`rrbiã`s (46 chfcvcfus) d deecrjã qu` l` sct` ^`hdult H`w

F`dl pburrdct l`s dcf`r ï dam`t`r uh prbfuct bu s`rvca` ;

« …Dprís ld vcsct` k` pburrdcs ëtr` chtãr`ssã`, jdcs pds ebraãj`ht dam`t`r l` prbfuct 7 sc a`

i`hr` f` sct` prbpbsdct uh` vcsct` vcrtu`ll` f–uh` jdcsbh, nckbux, vët`j`hts… cl s`rdct f–uh`

irdhf` dcf` pbur jbc… · ‑ 9.

Fdhs l` ads f–uh` ebrt` cjplcadtcbh sctudtcbhh`ll`, l`s cht`rrbiãs chfcqu`ht qu` l`

fcspbsctce f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` pburrdct jbfcec`r lùr abjpbrt`j`ht ;

« …Qc k` vbuldcs j–dam`t`r uh` Alcb, cl pburrdct ëtr` chtãr`ssdht f–dfbpt`r a`tt` sblutcbh f`

arãfct… · ‑ >.

F` edébh iãhãrdl`, l–dhdlys` f`s rãpbhs`s p`rj`t f–cf`htcec`r achq abjpbrt`j`hts

prbndnl`s abhsãautces ï l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` ;

Abjjdhf`r uh prbfuct / s`rvca` sur l` sct` ;

« … A d j–d fbhhã `hvc` f–dam`t`r uh` vbctur` dvà a` jbf` f` echdha`j`ht …· ‑ 9 7 « … K`

pburrdcs dam`t`r f`s lbicac`ls sur f`s sct`s f` jëj` typ`, bó bh j` fbhh`rdct f`s `xplcadtcbhs

fãtdcllã`s sur amdqu` ebhatcbhhdlctã. A` sct` pùt s`rvcr f` t`stcjbhcdl pbur l–`xplcadtcbh f`s

ebhatcbhhdlctãs f–uh lbicac`l plus bu jbchs abjplcquã … · ‑ 5.

^`jplcr uh ebrjuldcr` p`rj`ttdht f–ëtr` ràbhtdatã ultãrcùr`j`ht pdr ld

jdrqu` ;

«… K` sucs plutöt pbur ld prcs` f` r`hf`z-vbus `t ld abjpdrdcsbh f`s fceeãr`hts prbfucts

bee`rts `t pr`hfr` ld fãacscbh `hsuct`… · ‑ 46.

_r`hfr` abhtdat fcràt`j`ht dvà ld jdrqu` ;

« … a` sct` j–dcf`rdct ï rãelãamcr sur l–beer` f` echdha`j`ht `t dvbcr plus f–cheb, cl j–dcf`rd ï

jcùx ambcscr… Dprís dvbcr prcs uh` cfã`, cl s` pùt qu` k` abhtdat` fcràt`j`ht ^`hdult H`w

F`dl , … · ‑ 44.



4=>

^`v`hcr sur l` sct` (bu f`s sct`s f` jëj` typ`) ;

« … K` r`vc`hfrdc prbndnl`j`ht sur f`s sct`s f` jëj` typ` sc k–daabrf` n`duabup

f–cjpbrtdha` du prbfuct bu s`rvca` prãs`htã… · ‑ 41.

_drl`r pbsctcv`j`ht f` ld jdrqu` (nbuam`-ï-br`cll`) ;

« …Cl s–dict f–uh` bptcbh f` echdha`j`ht trís chtãr`ssdht` prbpbsã` pdr ^`hdult, k` l–dc nc`h

r`t`hu`, k` p`hs` qu` k–`h pdrl`rdc dutbur f` jbc dux p`rsbhh`s quc prbk`tt`ht f–dam`t`r uh`

vbctur`… · ‑ 9.

L`s i`stcbhhdcr`s f` jdrqu` sbht abha`rhãs pdr ld hbtcbh f'cjj`rscbh adr lùr röl`

abhscst` f` plus `h plus ï rãuhcr l`s abhfctcbhs hãa`ssdcr`s pbur qu` l`s alc`hts vcv`ht uh`

`xpãrc`ha` pldcsdht` schbh chbunlcdnl`, ï tbus l`s pbchts f` r`habhtr`, f` edébh ï jbf`l`r lùrs

abjpbrt`j`hts (Adró `t Abvd, >??5 7 Qamjctt `t ^bi`rs, >??=). Fdhs l` abht`xt` fu


cht`rhdut`s. L'usdi` f`s tàmhblbic`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sur Cht`rh`t p`rj`t f` iãhãr`r `t f`

jdhdi`r f`s abht`xt`s `xpãrc`htc`ls fdhs l`squ`ls l`s abhsbjjdtùrs pburrbht s'cjj`ri`r `t

daaãf`r pl`ch`j`ht ï l–`xpãrc`ha`.



4=1

CU. L`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s chfcvcfu`ll`s `t l`s ãlãj`hts mbrs fu abhtröl` fu

sct`

L–dhdlys` t`xtu`ll` cssu` f` a`tt` ãtuf` `xplbrdtbcr` hbus abhfuct ï abhscfãr`r

l–`xpãrc`ha` p`réu` abjj` ld rãsultdht` f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` pbt`htc`ll` lcã` dux abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l fu sct`. _`hfdht a`tt` `xpãrc`ha` tbut`s l`s

abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s h` r`htr`ht pds `h kù f` ld jëj` edébh pbur tbus l`s chfcvcfus.

_dr dcllùrs, l–dhdlys` f`s fcsaburs rãvíl` qu` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh fãp`hf f`s

adrdatãrcstcqu`s chfcvcfu`ll`s dchsc qu` f`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht mbrs fu abhtröl`

fu sct`.

CU.4. L`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s chfcvcfu`ll`s `t l`s ãlãj`hts mbrs fu abhtröl` fu sct`

d. L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t

A`rtdchs chfcvcfus `xp`rts fdhs l–butcl Cht`rh`t, h` sbht pds pdrv`hus ï l–ãtdt

f–cjj`rscbh, tdhfcs qu` l`s jbchs `xpãrcj`htãs y pdrv`hdc`ht plus edacl`j`ht. L–chelu`ha` f`l–`xp`rtcs` sur l` abjpbrt`j`ht f` jdidschdi` fãkï abhstdtã` fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht

trdfctcbhh`l (M`lj`-Iuczbh, >??4) jãrct` uh` dtt`htcbh pdrtcaulcír` fdhs l` adfr` f` hbtr`

ràm`ram`. @h èe`t, l–dhdlys` f`s rãpbhs`s jbhtr` qu` ld jdètrcs` f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t d uh

cjpdat hãidtce sur l–cjj`rscbh, fdhs ld j`sur` bó plus l–cht`rhdut` `st `xp`rt, jbchs cl pburrd

s–cjj`ri`r fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l fu sct`. D l–chv`rs`, l`s fãnutdhts ebhf`ht lùr

pdraburs sur l`s fcj`hscbhs spdtcdl`s t̀ vcsu`ll`s fu sct` (^bnch, >??? 7 M`lj`-Iuczbh, >??4).

Cls t`hf`ht ï dfbpt`r uh abjpbrt`j`ht « rãarãdtcbhh`l · quc s` trdfuct pdr l–`xplbrdtcbh f`s

fceeãr`hts dspàts f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht (Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 4335 7 >??3).

Dchsc `h ebhatcbh fu hcv`du f` abjpãt`ha`s `t f` abha`htrdtcbh fu abhsbjjdtùr sur

l` tmíj` f` l'`xpãrc`ha`, fùx saãhdrcc sbht pbsscnl`s pbur daaãf`r ï l–`xpãrc`ha`

f–cjj`rscbh ; sbct f` jdhcír` cjjãfcdt`, abjj` uh plbhi`bh (pbur l`s `xp`rts), sbct f`

jdhcír` prbir`sscv` `t pdrtc`ll` (pbur l`s hbvca`s) (Adró `t Abvd, >??5). Vbutèbcs, l`s èe`ts

f` l–`xp`rtcs` sur l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh sbht djncvdl`hts. L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t, pburrdct

abhstctu`r uh bnstdal` fdhs l` ads f`s `xpãrc`ha`s `h lcih`.



4=6

«… K` prãeír` `habr` dll`r fcràt`j`ht du jdidsch, a–`st plus cht`rdatce `h qu`lqu` sbrt`, k`

pburrdcs pbs`r l`s qu`stcbhs quc j–chtãr`ss`ht, `h plus k` h–durdcs pds ï j` tdp`r tbut lùr

fcsaburs… K` pdss` plus f` muct mùr`s pdr kbur sur jbh brfchdtùr `t l`s fùx vcùx h–bht

pds drrëtã f` pdrl`r, qu`lqu`s lcih`s durdc`ht sueect `t k–durdcs ù l`s chebrjdtcbhs qu` k`

vbuldcs, k–dvbu` k` p`hsdcs ï dutr` ambs` ï a` jbj`ht lï… · ‑ 6 7

A`tt` rãtca`ha` f`s `xp`rts ï l–cjj`rscbh, s–`xplcqu` pdr l` edct qu–cls h–ãtdc`ht pds

fãecãs pdr l` abht`xt` jdramdhf. L` amdll`hi` djãlcbr` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh (Mbeejdh

`t Hbvdg, >??3). Lbrsqu` l`s `hkùx f` ld vcsct` sbht ï ld mdutùr f`s abjpãt`ha`s f`s

cht`rhdut`s.

« … K` j` sucs `hhuyã. Cl edufrdct plus f` t`xt` `t jbchs f` pdrbl`s, bu nc`h, drrët`r l`s sbhs

bu dvdha`r ld vcfãb. A–`st pùt ëtr` uh fãedut prbe`sscbhh`l, k` sucs fãv`lbppùr w`n, k–dc

l–mdnctuf` f` trbuv`r l`s chebrjdtcbhs quc j–chtãr`ss`ht tbut sùl. Tu`lqu`s jbts vdl`ht

jcùx qu–uh` lbhiu` mcstbcr`… · ‑ 5.

L–cjj`rscbh h–`st pds ãvcf`ht` am`z l–cht`rhdut` `xp`rt quc aburt-acrauct` tbut`s l`s

prbpbsctcbhs f` pdrtcacpdtcbh bridhcsã`s pdr l` sct`, jdcs `ll` `st chfcsautdnl` pbur l` hbvca`

quc pùt s'cjj`ri`r irîa` dux fcspbsctces jcs `h őuvr` pdr l` sct`. _`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha`

cjj`rscv`, l–cht`rhdut` `xpãrcj`ht` f`s prba`ssus `t `xplbr` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct`, ï

trdv`rs l`s stcjuldtcbhs s`hsbrc`ll`s, deeàtcv`s `t abihctcv`s, pbur s–cjj`ri r̀ fdhs l`

abht`xt` prbpbsã pds ld jdrqu`.

n. L–cjplcadtcbh furdnl` `hv`rs l` prbfuct / s`rvca`

L`s chfcvcfus l`s plus ebrt`j`ht chtãr`ssãs pdr l–beer` sbht fdvdhtdi` susa`ptcnl`s f`r`ss`htcr fu pldcscr lbrs f` ld vcsct` `t f` s–cjj`ri`r fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha`. L–cjpl cadtcbh fdhs ld

adtãibrc` f` prbfuct / s`rvca` prãs`htã, deeàt` `h prbebhfùr ld prbfuatcbh f` rãpbhs`s

deeàtcv`s `t ãjbtcbhh`ll`s dchsc qu` l`s nãhãeca`s qu` l`s cht`rhdut`s r`tc`hh`ht ï ld suct` f`

lùr cjj`rscbh. F` jëj`, l–`xpãrc`ha` `st vãau` fceeãr ̀ jj`ht s`lbh ld hdtur` f`s prbfucts /

s`rvca`s duxqu`ls `ll` `st dssbacã` sbht ï ebrt` bu edcnl` cjplcadtcbh.

« … A` sct` `st trbp lbhi `t n`duabup trbp f` fãtdcls. @h rãdlctã, k` h` am`ram` pds fu tbut ïdam`t`r bu echdha`r uh` vbctur` pdra` qu` k–dfbr` jbh vãlb. L`s chebrjdtcbhs prãs`htã`s



4=0

h–bht duauh chtãrët pbur jbc. _`hfdht ld vcsct` k` rãpbhfdcs du mdsdrf dux qu`stcbhs `t

k–dtt`hfdcs qu` a`tt` prãs`htdtcbh s` t`rjch`… · ‑ 40.

Ld rãtca`ha` `hv`rs l` sct` `st prbndnl`j`ht lcã` ï uh edcnl` hcv`du f–cjp lcadtcbh

`hv`rs l` prbfuct. Ph` ebcs pdssã l` stdf` f` ld fãabuv`rt`, a`rtdchs cht`rhdut`s pù cjplcquãs

h` trbuv`ht plus duauh chtãrët `hv`rs l` sct` `t r`ss`ht`ht uh` a`rtdch` crrctdtcbh.

« Du fãnut k` l–dc trbuvã brcichdl, jdcs du eur `t ï j`sur` bu k–dvdhédcs l` sct` f`v`hdct

crrctdht `t lbhi · ‑ =

« L` sct` `st lbhi `t fãa`vdht, cl h–dnbutct ï rc`h cl hbus `hvbc` am`z l` abha`sscbhhdcr` pbur

dvbcr ld prbpbsctcbh amceerã` · ‑ 45.

Fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, l` abhsbjjdtùr `st suppbsã jdhcpul`r

`t cht`rdicr dvà l`s prbfucts `t s`rvca`s prãs`htãs, scjcldcr`j`ht abjj` fdhs l`s

`hvcrbhh`j`hts pmyscqu`s. Br, `h ríil` iãhãrdl`, pbur qu` l` abhsbjjdtùr pdss` fu t`jps

fdhs l` jdidsch `t vcv` pl`ch`j`ht l–`xpãrc`ha`, cl fbct ëtr` cjplcquã fdhs ld adtãibrc` f`

prbfuct bu s`rvca` bee`rt`.

« … K–ãtdcs abha`htrã dvà l`s v`hfùrs `t l`s tdnl`dux f`s qu`stcbhs. Cl edut fcr` qu` l` suk`t

fu echdha`j`ht f–uh` dutbjbncl` j` abha`rh` pdra` qu` k–dcj`rdcs dam`t`r uh` vbctur` a`t

ãtã `t pucsqu` k` sucs `habr` ãtufcdht, a`tt` sblutcbh pburrdct ëtr` dfãqudt`… · ‑ >.

CU.>. L`s ãlãj`hts mbrs fu abhtröl` fu sct` ; L` lcù `t l` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct`

L`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht quc s` trbuv`ht mbrs fu abhtröl` fu sct` bu

sctudtcbhh`ll`s (`.i., abhfctcbhs jdtãrc`ll`s f–daaís du sct`, abjjuhdutãs / fcj`hscbh sbacdl`

f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh, nructs `xtãrcùrs, prãs`ha` f–dutruc, `ta.) pùv`ht cht`reãr`r `t chelu`ha`r

l`s rãdatcbhs f`s cht`rhdut`s (Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 4335 7 Qmcm, 433= 7 M`lj`-Iuczbh, >??4).

L–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l f–uh sct` jdramdhf h` fbct pds s` lcjct`r ï ld scjpl` abhscfãrdtcbh

f`s dttrcnuts f` l–cht`reda`, jdcs fbct pr`hfr` `h abjpt` « l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht pmyscqu` fdhs

l`qu`l s` prbfuct l–cht`rdatcbh mbjj`-jdamch` · (@ttcs, >??0 7 Qdutt`r, Myjdh `t Lugbscus,

>??6). L–dhdlys` f`s `htr`tc`hs j`t `h dvdht l` lcù `t l` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` abjj` ãlãj`hts



4=5

quc pùv`ht cht`rv`hcr lbrs f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`. A`s ãlãj`hts, r`trbuvãs fdhs f`s

sctudtcbhs hdtur`ll`s, pùv`ht fãabha`htr`r l`s cht`rhdut`s kusqu–ï l–cht`rruptcbh jëj` f` ld

vcsct`. _dr dcllùrs, l–`xpãrc`ha` h` pùt dvbcr lcù qu` fdhs f`s abht`xt`s `haldvãs, tmãjdtcsãs

`t sãaurcsãs (Adró `t Abvd, >??5d), tbut` sbllcactdtcbh `h f`mbrs f` l–datcvctã `ll`-jëj` pùt

fãtburh`r l–dtt`htcbh fu abhsbjjdtùr `t j`ttr` `h pãrcl f` fãrbul`j`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` fdhs

sd ilbndlctã.

« … Du fãnut k–ãtdcs abha`htrã jdcs du ecl fu t`jps, f` jbchs `h jbchs. @h plus ï uh a`rtdch

jbj`ht jbh tãlãpmbh` d vcnrã, k` h–dc pds rãpbhfu jdcs k` h–dc pds drrëtã f` p`hs` r du abup

f` ecl. A–ãtdct pùt ëtr` uri`ht `h plus k–dtt`hfdcs uh dpp`l cjpbrtdht … · ‑ 5.

Qc uh abht`xt` `haldvã lcjct` l–chtruscbh f'ãlãj`hts quc h'dppdrtc`hh`ht pds du tmíj`,

cl daarbct ebrt`j`ht l–cht`hsctã f` l'`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh (Adró `t Abvd, >??5d). Vbutèbcs,

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih` pùt sbueercr f` qu`lqu`s lcjct`s, quc `jpëam`ht

l–cht`rhdut` f–daaãf`r ï l–cjj`rscbh `t f` arã`r uh` ruptur` dvà sbh qubtcfc`h `t luc

p`rj`ttr` f` s–ãvdf`r f` s`s baaupdtcbhs fcràt`s. @h èe`t, l` systíj` s`hsbrc`l f` l–chfcvcfu

`st abhstdjj`ht sbllcactã dvà fceeãr`hts stcjulc, quc prbvc`hh`ht f–uh` vdrcãtã f` sbura`s

`xt`rh`s du sct`. L–chtruscbh f–ãlãj`hts `xtãrcùrs ï l–`xpãrc`ha`, j`t `h pãrcl l–csbl`j`ht f`

l–cht`rhdut`, lbrsqu–cl `htr` fdhs l` prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh.

Dchsc, abhebrjãj`ht ï ld lcttãrdtur` quc trdct` f`s abht`xt`s `xpãrc`htc`ls (`.i., M`lj`-

Iuczbh, >??4), l` lcù `t l` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` f–uh sct` jdramdhf cht`reír`ht p`hfdht

l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih`. L` abht`xt` fbct ëtr` sãaurcsã. CC fbct ëtr` prbtãiã f` tbut` r`quët`

`xtãrcùr`. L` abht`xt` f` ld vcsct` fbct ëtr` abhtrölã dech f` jchcjcs`r l` rcsqu` f` p`rt`

f–dtt`htcbh, f–`hidi`j`ht `t f–dtt`htcbh p`hfdht l–cht`rdatcbh dvà l`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` jdramdhf.



4=9

Fdhs l` adfr` f`s ãtuf`s pbrtdht sur l`s `xpãrc`ha`s `h lcih`, pbur daaãf`r ï

l–cjj`rscbh, cl `st hãa`ssdcr` pbur l–cht`rhdut` f` j`ttr` `h kù s`s abjpãt`ha`s pbur

s–cjprãih`r fu abht`xt`. @h abhsãqu`ha`, cl `st `ss`htc`l f` t`hcr abjpt` f`s edatùrs

chfcvcfu`ls pbur ãtufc`r l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` adr cls chelu`ha`ht ld p`ra`ptcbhf`s ãlãj`hts f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `t edvbrcs`ht l–cjj`rscbh (Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg,

4335 7 >??3 7 Echh`rdh `t [mdhi, >??>).

@h abhsãqu`ha ,̀ l`s hcv`dux f–`xp`rtcs` `t f–cjplcadtcbh f`s cht`rhdut`s ebht qu` l`s

cht`rhdut`s plbhi`ht fdhs l` abht`xt` fu sct` bu, du abhtrdcr`, r`ss`ht`ht uh` fcstdha` pdr

rdppbrt ï l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht arã`. A`tt` fcstdha` er`ch` l'cjj`rscbh `t pùt dchsc dhhul`r

l'`xpãrc`ha` (Adró `t Abvd, >??5d) `t fdhs a`rtdchs ads, rbjpr` ld r`ldtcbh dvà ld jdrqu` `t

l` sct`.

_dr dcllùrs, hbus dvbhs t`htã f` j`ttr` `h ãvcf`ha` l` lcù `t l` jbj`ht f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`, abjj` vdrcdnl`s sctudtcbhh`ll`s chelu`hédht ld p`ra`ptcbh f`s

abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` lbrsqu` l–cht`rhdut` daaíf` (bu pds) ï l–cjj`rscbh. @h

èe`t, sc f`s vdrcdnl`s abjj` ld pr`sscbh t`jpbr`ll` (N`lg, 4390) bu ld f`stchdtcbh f`

l–damdt, cjpr`sscbh f` ebul`, dtt`ht` dux adcss`s (Vurl`y `t Jcllcjdh, >???), bht ãtã jcs`s

`h ãvcf`ha` fdhs l` abht`xt` fu abjj`ra` aldsscqu`, l`s ãlãj`hts mbrs fu abhtröl` fu sct`

cht`rvc`hh`ht fdhs l` abht`xt` fu abjj`ra` sur Cht`rh`t. Lùr dppdrctcbh `t lùr

jdhce`stdtcbh sbht fu`s ï l–chelu`ha` f` vdrcdnl`s lcã`s ï l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht abjj`racdl.

L–`hidi`j`ht fdhs uh prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` `st sbujcs ï l–chelu`ha` f` vdrcdnl`s

jbfãrdtrca`s, sctudtcbhh`ll`s `t chfcvcfu`ll`s (M`lj`-Iuczbh, >??4). A`p`hfdht, cl `st ï

scihdl`r qu` l`s ãlãj`hts mbrs fu abhtröl` fu sct` h` sbht pds trís ebrt`j`ht jcs `h ãvcf`ha`

fdhs l`s fcsaburs f`s cht`rrbiãs, l`s `htr`tc`hs dydht ù lcù fdhs f`s `hfrbcts adlj`s `t sdhs

chtruscbhs. L` edct f` jdètrcs`r l`s ãlãj`hts mbrs fu abhtröl` fu sct` d chelu`haã l–cjpdat f`s

abjpbsdht`s ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s.



4=3

-4- @xpãrc`ha` prãs`htã`

Abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` 7 Fãabr 7 V`xt` 7 Qbhs 7 Juscqu` 7 Di`hts vcrtu`ls 7 Ebrjuldcr` 7

_dhh`dux 7 Beer` 7 Abulùrs 7 Vbh 7 Jbfíl`s f` vbctur`s 7 Lbib.

->- @xpãrc`ha` p`réu`

L`s edatùrs sbacdux (l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls)

L`s edatùrs f–djncdha` (l` fãabr `h 1F)

L`s edatùrs f` f`scih (ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`)

-1- L` aőur f` l–`xpãrc`ha` ; l–cjj`rscbh

Fcj`hscbhs abihctcv`s,

ãjbtcbhh`ll`s, s`hsbrc`ll`s

`t sbacdl`s

-6- L–ãvdludtcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha`

Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu`

Ld vdlùr utclctdcr`

-0- L`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s

_r`hfr` abhtdat

Abjjdhf`r

^`jplcr uh ebrjuldcr`

^`v`hcr sur l` sct`

Nbuam` ï br`cll`

-5- L–`hvcrbhh`j`ht mbrs fu abhtröl` fu sct` `t l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s chfcvcfu`ls

L`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s chfcvcfu`ll`s

Lcù `t jbj`ht f` ld vcsct`

Cjplcadtcbh

@xp`rtcs`

Eciur` = ; L`s tmíj`s cf`htcecãs



43?

UC. Abhaluscbh f` ld sàtcbh

@h abhaluscbh, l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` qu` hbus dvbhs `htr`prcs`, hbus d p`rjcs f`rãpbhfr` ï l–`hs`jnl` f`s qu`stcbhs pbsã`s du abjj`ha`j`ht f` a`tt` ràm`ram`. Hbus

dvbhs pu `h èe`t, cf`htcec`r l` r`ss`htc f`s cht`rhdut`s p`hfdht ld vcsct` f–uh sct` jdramdhf quc

jbnclcs` f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `t fãidi`r l`s fcj`hscbhs f` l–`xpãrc`ha`

f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`.

Fdhs l–brfr`, hbs trdvdux f` ràm`ram` hbus bht p`rjcs fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps, f`

fãt`rjch`r l`s ãlãj`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls fu sct` (4). L` pr`jc`r irbup` f–chebrjdtcbhs ràu`cllc`s

s–dppdr`ht` dux abjpbsdht`s abhstctutcv`s fu sct` jdramdhf `t lcã`s ï l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih`._drjc `ll`s, hbus dvbhs pu `xtrdcr` l`s abjpbsdht`s p`réu`s pdr l`s cht`rhdut`s `t quc

abhtrcnu`ht ï ld tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh `t ï ld jcs` `h saíh` fu sct` (>). Hbus dvbhs dsscjclãs a`s

abjpbsdht`s dux trbcs edatùrs prchacpdux quc bridhcs`ht l–dtjbs pmír` fu pbcht f` v`ht`

vcrtu`l. Cl s–dict hbtdjj`ht, f`s edatùrs sbacdux (l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls), f`s edatùrs f–djncdha`

(l` fãabr `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs) `t f`s edatùrs f` f`scih (ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`). A`s trbcs

edatùrs abhstctu`ht l` fùxcíj` irbup`.

Fdhs uh sàbhf t`jps, hbus dvbhs am`ramã ï fcsa`rh`r l`s s`hsdtcbhs `t l`s ãjbtcbhs

r`ss`htc`s pdr l`s cht`rhdut`s p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` hdvcidtcbh (1). Qc ld lcttãrdtur` r`ldtcv`

dux `xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh tbuam` prchacpdl`j`ht du fbjdch` aultur`l du s`hs ldri`,

hbtr` ràm`ram` s–dpplcqu` ï a`luc fu abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu` `t plus prãacsãj`ht, a`luc f`s

sct`s jdramdhfs fbtãs f` fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. L`s rãsultdts bnt`hus, hbus p`rj`tt`ht

f` abhecrj`r ld vdlcfctã fu abha`pt f–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` fdhs a` fbjdch`. @h èe`t, ld

rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` pùt prbvbqu`r am`z l`s cht`rhdut`s f`s rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s scjcldcr`s ï

a`ll`s prbvbquã`s pdr f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts pmyscqu`s. L`s stcjulc `xpãrc`htc`ls f`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l `hi`hfr`ht f`s rãdatcbhs schiulcír`s ï amdqu` cht`rhdut`. F` t`ll`s

rãdatcbhs pùv`ht ëtr` pbsctcv`s bu hãidtcv`s `t ãvblu`ht tbut du lbhi f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, dlldht

kusqu–ï l–cjj`rscbh. L–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` `h lcih`, r`vët uh `hs`jnl` f` fcj`hscbhs

cf`htcecã`s fdhs l`s `xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh (mbrjcs ld fcj`hscbh pmyscqu )̀, ï sdvbcr ld

fcj`hscbh abihctcv`, ld fcj`hscbh s`hsbrc`ll`, ld fcj`hscbh deeàtcv` `t ld fcj`hscbh

sbacdl` (`.i., Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf. >??=).

L`s rãsultdts f–dhdlys` rãvíl`ht dussc qu`, l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` r`vët uh` fcj`hscbh

spãacecqu`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`ll` `t uh` fcj`hscbh ebhatcbhh`ll`. @ll` h` s` lcjct` pds dux



434

abhsãqu`ha`s abihctcv`s bu trdhsdatcbhh`ll`s mdnctu`ll`j`ht r`pãrã`s (`.i., Nrcfi`s `t

Elbrsm`cj, >??= 7 Mblzwdrtm, Kdhcsz`wsgc `t Hùjdhh, >??5 7 Qum `t L``, >??0), jdcs

`hilbn` ãidl`j`ht l`s pãrcbf`s prã `t pbst-damdt (Ecls`r, >??>). _`hfdht sbh cjj`rscbh,

l–cht`rhdut` s` ebadlcs` prchacpdl`j`ht sur l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s `stmãtcqu`s, syjnblcqu`s `t

spcrctu`ll`s. @h r`vdham`, lbrsqu–cl h–daaíf` pds ï l–cjj`rscbh, cl s` abha`htr` sur l`s dttrcnuts

jdtãrc`ls `t ebhatcbhh`ls f` ld vcsct`. A` irbup` f–dttrcnuts chtdhicnl`s `t tdhicnl`s `hi`hfr`

f` ld vdlùr p`réu` abheãrdht ï ld vcsct` f`s fcj`hscbhs mãfbhcqu`s `t utclctdcr`s. Ld vdlùr

p`réu` s–ãrci` dlbrs abjj` uh` vdrcdnl` jãfcdtrca` (6) `htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t s`s èe`ts

prbndnl`s.

Fdhs a` adfr`, l`s rãsultdts f` hbtr` ràm`ram` hbus bht p`rjcs f` j`ttr` `h lujcír`

l`s chacf`ha`s f` l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` sur l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`s cht`rhdut`s

`hv`rs l` sct`, l` prbfuct `t ld jdrqu` (0). L–dhdlys` fu fcsaburs f` hbtr` ãamdhtcllbh

f–cht`rhdut`s, j`t `h ãvcf`ha` l–`xcst`ha` f` abhsãqu`ha`s ultãrcùr`s ï l–`xpãrc`ha`

cjj`rscv`, hbtdjj`ht f`s abjpbrt`j`hts r`ldtcbhh`ls, abjj` ld vblbhtã f` jdcht`hcr l`

abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu` bu f–`h pdrl`r dutbur f` sbc. L–`xpãrc`ha` h–d pds sùl`j`ht uh`

vdlùr `h `ll`-jëj`. D l–chstdr f`s rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s cf`htcecã`s fdhs ld lcttãrdtur` sur

l`s èe`ts dtjbspmãrcqu`s, l–cjj`rscbh `st susa`ptcnl` f–chfucr` f`s abhsãqu`ha`s abjj`

l–cht`htcbh f–damdt, l` nbuam` ï br`cll`, l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct` `t l–`hs`jnl` f`s

rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s cf`htcecã`s fdhs a`tt` ãtuf`.

@h ech, l–dhdlys` t`xtu`ll` hbus d p`rjcs `hech f–cf`htcec`r l–èe`t fu hcv`du f–`xp`rtcs`

f` l–cht`rhdut` `h jdtcír` f–Cht`rh`t, sbh cjplcadtcbh fdhs ld adtãibrc` f` prbfuct, s`s

adrdatãrcstcqu`s chfcvcfu`ll`s `t l` lcù `t l` jbj`ht f` sd vcsct` (5), abjj` vdrcdnl`s

jbfãrdtrca`s p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`.

L` samãjd syhtmãtcqu`, prãs`htã ac-f`ssbus, hbus eburhct uh` nds` f` trdvdcl pbur ld

i`hís` f` hbtr` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l `t l–ãldnbrdtcbh `t ld ebrjuldtcbh f`s mypbtmís`s f`

ràm`ram`.



43>

Eciur` 3 ; L` jbfíl` tmãbrcqu` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` `h lcih`

L` abjpbrt`j`ht

f`s cht`rhdut`s

Ld vdl`ur p`réu`

f` ld vcsct`

L`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s`réu`s

L` aőur f`

l–`xpãrc`ha`;L–cjj`rscbh

L–`hvcrbhh`j`htmbrs fu abhtröl`

fu sct` `t l`sjbfãrdt`urschfcvcfu`ls

LD UCQCV@ FP QCV@ ;L`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`



431

D. L` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l `t l`s mypbtmís`s f` ràm`ram`

A`tt` pdrtc` s` fbhh` pbur bnkàtce, f–`xpbs`r l`s dx`s f` ràm`ram` `t l`s vdrcdnl`s quc

abjpbs`ht hbtr` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps, f` ebrjul`r l`s mypbtmís`s f`

ràm`ram` cssu`s f` ld lcttãrdtur` `t f` l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` `xplbrdtbcr` fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps

`t `hech, f` prãs`ht`r hbtr` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l f` ld ràm`ram`.

C. _rbpbsctcbh f–uh jbfíl` abha`ptu`l

Ph adfr` abha`ptu`l p`rj`t f` r`lc`r tbus l`s abha`pts cf`htcecãs lbrs f` l–`hquët`duprís f`s cht`rhdut`s. Cl dict abjj` uh` adrt` quc fbhh` f` ld abhabrfdha` ï l–`hquët`

qudlctdtcv` `t ï ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur`.

C.4. L`s dx`s f` ld ràm`ram`

L`s suppbsctcbhs quc s`rbht ebrjulã`s `h rãpbhs` ï hbs qu`stcbhs f` ràm`ram` durbht

abjj` lcih`s fcràtrca`s l`s vàtùrs qu` hbus dvbhs cf`htcecãs dupdrdvdht ;

- Ph` `xpãrc`ha` pbt`htc`ll` 7

- Ph` `xpãrc`ha` p`réu` 7

- Ph` `xpãrc`ha` vãau` 7

- F`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s dssbacã`s.

L`s abha`pts quc abhstctu`ht hbtr` jbfíl` sbht ;

4- L`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` ; L`s edatùrs sbacdux 7 L`s edatùrs

f–djncdha ̀7 L`s edatùrs f` f`scih.

>- L–cjj`rscbh ; L`s fcj`hscbhs abihctcv`s 7 ãjbtcbhh`ll`s 7 s`hsbrc`ll`s 7 sbacdl`s.

1- Ld vdlùr p`réu` ; Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` 7 Ld vdlùr utclctdcr`.

6- L`s rãpbhs`s f`s cht`rhdut`s ; _r`hfr` abhtdat 7 Abjjdhf`r 7 ^`jplcr uh

ebrjuldcr` 7 ^`v`hcr sur l` sct` 7 Nbuam` ï br`cll`.

0- l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s chfcvcfu`ll`s `t sctudtcbhh`ll`s ; Lcù f` ld vcsct` 7 Jbj`ht f` ld

vcsct` 7 Cjplcadtcbh 7 @xp`rtcs`.



436

A`s abha`pts hbus p`rj`tt`ht f` syhtmãtcs`r hbtr` adfr` abha`ptu`l `h qudtr` dx`s

prchacpdux ;

4- Dx` 4 ; Hbus dllbhs fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps hbus cht`rrbi`r sur l–cjpdat f`s

abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s p`réu`s fu sct` jdramdhf sur l` prba`ssus

f–cjj`rscbh p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`. _bur a` edcr`, hbus dllbhs hbus

chtãr`ss`r ï l–chelu`ha` fu fãabr `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs, f`s di`hts vcrtu`ls `t f` ld

abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` sur l–`xpãrc`ha` vãau` `h lcih`.

>- Dx` > ; J`ttr` `h ãvcf`ha` l` pmãhbjíh` f` vdlùr f` ld vcsct` t`ll` qu–`ll` `st

p`réu` pdr l`s cht`rhdut`s dydht daaãfã ï l–cjj`rscbh, l–cjpdat f` a`tt` f`rhcír`

sur l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`s vcsctùrs `t l–ãv`htu`l èe`t jãfcdtùr

qu–`ll` pburrdct dvbcr.

1- Dx` 1 ; Cf`htcec`r l`s abhsãqu`ha`s pbsscnl`s f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih`,

a'`st-ï-fcr` l`s abjpbrt`j`hts f`s cht`rhdut`s `hv`rs l` sct`, ld jdrqu` `t l`

prbfuct / s`rvca`.

6- Dx` 6 ; L–chelu`ha` f`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s chfcvcfu`ll`s `t sctudtcbhh`ll`s `h tdht qu`

jbfãrdtrca`s f` ld r`ldtcbh cjj`rscbh ‑ vdlùr p`réu`.

Hbus pbuvbhs prãs`ht`r a`s qudtr` dx`s f` ràm`ram` sbus ld ebrj` sucvdht` ;



430

Eciur` 4? ; L`s dx`s f` r`am`ram`

L`s abjpbsdht`s`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`

L`s adrdatãrcstcqu`schfcvcfu`ll`s `tsctudtcbhh`ll`s

Udl`ur p`réu`

Abjpbrt`j`hts f`scht`rhdut`s

Cjj`rscbh

Dx` 4

Dx` >

Dx` 1

Dx` 6



435

C.>. L` ambcx f`s vdrcdnl`s

Dvdht f–cf`htcec`r l`s fceeãr`hts irbup`s f–mypbtmís`s, cl `st cjpbrtdht f` prãs`ht`r l`s

vdrcdnl`s quc abhstctu`ht hbtr` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l. L` ambcx f` a`s vdrcdnl`s r`pbs` sur ld

r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` `t sur l`s r ãsultdts f` l–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv` `xplbrdtbcr`.

d. L`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s

A` sbht l`s vdrcdnl`s jdhcpuldnl`s f` sct`s jdramdhfs fbtãs f` fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll`. @ll`s s` fcstchiu`ht pdr l` edct qu–`ll`s abhtrcnu`ht l` plus ï l–ãv`htudlctã f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`.

Ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` `t l–dhdlys` tmãjdtcqu` t`xtu`ll` p`rj`tt`ht f–cf`htcec`r trbcs

vdrcdnl`s quc chelu`ha`ht l` fãrbul`j`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`. A` sbht l`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` t`ll`s qu–`ll`s sbht rã`ll`j`ht p`réu`s pdr l`s cht`rhdut`s ; l`s edatùrs

sbacdux (l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls), l`s edatùrs f–djncdha` (l` fãabr `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs) `t l`s

edatùrs f` f`scih (ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`).

L` fãabr `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs

L` fãabr `h 1F s` r`habhtr` hbtdjj`ht fdhs ld lcttãrdtur` `h systíj` f–chebrjdtcbh

(`.i., Euams, Jbr`du `t _dpch, >??4 7 JaGchh`y, >??6 7 Qum `t L``, >??0 7 Qum `t Amdhi,

>??5 7 Dppcdm, >??5). Cl r`prãs`ht` l–uh` f`s fcj`hscbhs s`hsbrc`ll`s utclcsã`s sur l` sct`

jdramdhf, suppbrt f` hbtr` ãtuf` `t kbu` l` röl` f–chfuatùr ãjbtcbhh`l `t deeàtce p`hfdht

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`. L`s rãsultdts f–dhdlys` f`s `htr`tc`hs qu` hbus dvbhs chctcãs, rãvíl`ht

qu` l` fãabr `h 1F `st l` edatùr f–djncdha` l` plus cjpbrtdht.

L`s di`hts vcrtu`ls

Ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` spãacdlcsã` `h jdrg`tchi `t `h systíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh,

jbhtr` qu` l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls bu dvdtdrs bht edct l–bnk`t f` hbjnrùx trdvdux (`.i., Fdvcs `t

dl., >??3). Butr` l` s`rvca` f–daabjpdih`j`ht r`hfu dux cht`rhdut`s `h vcsct` fu sct`, cls

abhtrcnu`ht scihcecadtcv`j`ht du fãrbul`j`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` (`.i., Adss`ll `t dlcc., >??? 7

Hbt`nd`rt, >??0 7 Dppcdm, >??5 7 Mblzwdrtm `t dlcc., >??5 7 Ydhi `t dlcc., >??9 7 L`jbch` `t

Hbt`nd`rt, >?44). Hbtr` ãtuf` `xplbrdtbcr` abhecrj` l–èe`t chabht`stdnl` f` a` edatùr sur l`fãv`lbpp`j`ht prbir`ssce f` l–`xpãrc`ha`.



439

Ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`

D hbtr` abhhdcssdha`, a`tt` abjpbsdht` f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l jdramdhf h–d pds edct

l–bnk`t f–ãtuf`s kusqu–ï prãs`ht. L–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` qu` hbus dvbhs chctcã`, j`t `h ãvcf`ha`

l–cjpbrtdha` f` a`tt` vdrcdnl`. _dr dcllùrs, ld lcttãrdtur` `h systíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh jbhtr`

qu` l–djãlcbrdtcbh f` ld abha`ptcbh f'cht`reda`s f` `-abjj`ra` d abhfuct ï uh` hdvcidtcbh

plus edacl` `t plus dttrdydht`s cht`reda`s irdpmcqu`s, (Gcj `t Sbb, >??? 7 Lcj, >??> 7 _dlj`r,

>??> 7 Kcdhi `t N`hndsdt, >??0). Jdlirã l` fãv`lbpp`j`ht f` a`s ebhatcbhhdlctãs, f`

hbjnrùx am`ramùrs abhtchu`ht f` fbut`r f` l'èecadactã f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts abjj`racdux

ãlàtrbhcqu`s (c.`., Nmdhthdidr, >???). A`s dutùrs `xplcqu`ht qu` l`s sct`s Y`n sbht lcjctãs,

adr l`s abhsbjjdtùrs h` ebht qu` rà`vbcr pdsscv`j`ht l'chebrjdtcbh sur l`s prbfucts

prãs`htãs. L` jdhqu` f'`xpãrc`ha` fcràt` lcjct` ld adpdactã f`s abhsbjjdtùrs ï kui`r f` ld

qudlctã f`s prbfucts `t prbaur` uh `hidi`j`ht ãjbtcbhh`l edcnl`, f'bó ld rãtca`ha` f`s

cht`rhdut`s s–cjj`ri`r `h lcih`.

@h abhsãqu`ha`, ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` pdrtcacp` ï ld

iãhãrdtcbh f–ãjbtcbhs `t f` rãdatcbhs spãacecqu`s ï l–cjj`rscbh p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha .̀

Eciur` 44 ; L`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s abhscfãrã`s

n. L`s vdrcdnl`s fãp`hfdht`s

L`s vdrcdnl`s fãp`hfdht`s f` hbtr` jbfíl` sbht l–cjj`rscbh `t l`s rãpbhs`s

abjpbrt`j`htdl s̀ f`s cht`rhdut`s.

L–cjj`rscbh

L`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s

Abjjdhf` fàbhtröl`

Di`ht vcrtu`lFãabr 1 F



43=

F`pucs l–drtcal` ebhfdtùr f` Mblnrbbg `t Mcrsamjdh (43=>), l`s trdvdux `h jdrg`tchi

`xpãrc`htc`l bht daabrfã uh` plda` a`htrdl` ï l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts

`xpãrc`htc`ls (`.i., Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 4335, >??3 7 Adró `t Abvd, >??1, Ebrh`rchb `t dl.,

>??5 7 >??= 7 Kby `t Qm`rry, >??1 7 Ldfw`ch, >??> 7 Ndfbt `t dlcc., >??9 7 Y`st `t dlc., >??6 7

Nrbwh `t Adcrhs, >??6). L–chtãirdtcbh f` a`tt` vdrcdnl` `st uh` vbc` f–`xplbrdtcbh prcvclãicã`

adr, brcichdl` fdhs l` abht`xt` fu abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu`. Qd sãlàtcbh pbur hbtr` jbfíl`

abha`ptu l̀, rãsult` f` l–cjpbrtdha` qu–`ll` d r`vëtu` fdhs l`s `htr`tc`hs, f` ld plda` qu–`ll`

baaup` du aőur f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` hdvcidtcbh `h lcih` `t f` sbh rdppbrt dvà l` amdhi`j`ht

f` abjpbrt`j`ht f`s cht`rhdut`s. _bur a`s rdcsbhs, l–cjj`rscbh abhstctu` ld vdrcdnl` a`htrdl`

f` hbtr` ràm`ram`.

Ld p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi ̀ h lcih` ; l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s

Fdhs l` adfr` f` hbtr` ràm`ram` `t ï ld lujcír` f`s rãsultdts f` l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv`,

hbus dvbhs dpprcs qu`, edcsdht suct` ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`, l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s

f`s cht`rhdut`s, r`hvbc`ht dux datcbhs `t cht`htcbhs sucvdht`s ; nbuam` ï br`cll`, r`jplcr l`

ebrjuldcr` `h lcih`, pr`hfr` abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu`, dvbcr l–cht`htcbh f` r ̀ vcsct`r l` sct` `t

l–cht`htcbh f–dam`t`r l` prbfuct / s`rvca` prãs`htã.



>??

l–chtãir`r ï hbtr` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l dvà s`s fùx fcj`hscbhs (vdlùr mãfbhcqu` `t vdlùr

utclctdcr`) rãvãlã`s ï l–baadscbh f` hbtr` ãtuf` qudlctdtcv`.

^dpp`lbhs qu` hbs trdvdux j`tt`ht `h dvdht uh röl` jãfcdtùr kbuã pdr ld vdlùr

p`réu` fdhs uh` sãqu`ha` «adusdl`· bó uh` vdrcdnl` chfãp`hfdht` (l–cjj`rscbh) chelu`ha`

uh` vdrcdnl` cht`rjãfcdcr` (ld vdlùr p`réu`) quc chelu`ha` ï sbh tbur vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` (l`s

rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`s cht`rhdut`s). @h èe`t, l–cjj`rscbh `st uh dhtãaãf`ht f` ld

vdlùr p`réu` `t a`ll`-ac `st uh dhtãaãf`ht f`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`s cht`rhdut`s. Ld

vdrcdnl` jãfcdtrca` r`vët fbha l` stdtut f` vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` bu f` vdrcdnl` chfãp`hfdht`

s`lbh l'dhil` sbus l`qu`l `ll` `st bns`rvã` (Amujpctdz Ada`r`s `t Udhmdjj`, >??1 7 [mdb,

Lyham `t Am`h, >?44).

Eciur` 41 ; L`s vdrcdnl`s jãfcdtrca`s abhscfãrã`s

f. L`s vdrcdnl`s jbfãrdtrca`s

L`s vdrcdnl`s jbfãrdtrca`s susa`ptcnl`s f–dicr sur l`s lc`hs f` hbtr` jbfíl` sbht

l–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t (`.i., Mdjjbhf, Ja Ycllcdj `t Fcdz, 433= 7 Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 4335 7

Jdtmwcag, Jdlmbtrd `t ^cifbh, >??4 7 ^bnch, >??? 7 Nàmùr `t Ibll`ty, >??5), l–cjplcadtcbh

fdhs ld adtãibrc` f` prbfuct (Qtrdzzcãrc, 4336 7 Ubll`, 4335 7 Fì`rdtu `t dl., >??? 7 ^dy, Mdbh

`t Ibtt`ldhf, >??9) `t l`s vdrcdnl`s mbrs fu abhtröl` fu sct` (l` lcù `t l` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct`)

(`.i., @ttcs, >??0 7 Qdutt`r, Myjdh `t Lugbscus, >??6).

A`s vdrcdnl`s r`st`ht systãjdtcqu`j`ht f`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s qu`l qu` sbct

l'dhil` f'dhdlys` (Amujpctdz Ada`r`s `t Udhmdjj`, >??1). @ll`s jbful`ht l–èe`t f`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l fu sct` sur ld vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` (cjj`rscbh). L` s`hs `t/bu l`s

ebra`s f'chelu`ha` f`s edatùrs f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf sur l–cjj`rscbh, vdrc`ht `h

Udlùr p`réu`

Udlùr utclctdcrÙdlùr mãfbhcqu`



>?4

ebhatcbh f`s vdrcdnl`s jbfãrdtrca`s (Amujpctdz Ada`r`s `t Udhmdjj`, >??1 7 [mdb, Lyham `t

Am`h, >?44). Ph èe`t jbfãrdtùr f` a`s vdrcdnl`s `st pbt`htc`l fdhs ld jcs` `h őuvr` f–uh

`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`. L`s rãsultdts bnt`hus pdr hbtr` dhdlys` qudlctdtcv`

`xplbrdtbcr`, abhebrt`ht l`s chebrjdtcbhs pbrtã`s fdhs ld lcttãrdtur` `t prãs`ht`ht uh chtãrët

pdrtcaulc`r pbur hbtr` ràm`ram`. @h èe`t, l` abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu` hãa`ssct` f` l–cht`rhdut`,

uh jchcjuj f` jdctrcs` f` l–cht`reda` mbjj`-jdamch` (Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 4335 7 >??3).

Vbutèbcs, cl `st ï hbt`r qu` ld fct` dhdlys` h` j`t pds `h ãvcf`ha` l–cjpdat f`s

adrdatãrcstcqu`s chfcvcfu`ll`s f`s cht`rhdut`s (i`hr`, îi`, hcv`dux f–ãtuf`, r`v`hu…). A` quc

hbus djíh` ï p`hs`r qu` t`ll`s vdrcdnl`s h–cht`rvc`hh`ht pds lbrs f` l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`

`h lcih`.

Eciur` 46 ; L`s vdrcdnl`s jbfãrdtrca`s abhscfãrã`s

L`s vdrcdnl`s jbfãrdtrca`s

Lcù f` ld vcsct`Cjplcadtcbh@xp`rtcs`f–Cht`rh`t

Jbj`ht f` ldvcsct`



>?>

CC. L`s mypbtmís`s f` ràm`ram`

A`tt` pdrtc` s` fbhh` pbur bnkàtce l–ãldnbrdtcbh f`s fceeãr`hts irbup`s f–mypbtmís`s

qu` hbus am`ram`rbhs ï abhecrj`r bu ï checrj`r lbrs f` l–ãtuf` qudhtctdtcv`. A`s irbup`s

tburh`ht dutbur f`s dx`s f` ràm`ram` qu` hbus dvbhs jcs `h ãvcf`ha` fdhs a` quc prãaíf`.

@tdht fbhhã l` adrdatír` `xplbrdtbcr` `t ãj`ri`ht f` hbtr` suk`t fdhs l` fbjdch` fu abjj`ra`

ãlàtrbhcqu`, ld ebrjuldtcbh f` hbs mypbtmís`s pucs` prchacpdl`j`ht sbh brcich` fdhs l`s

rãsultdts f` hbtr` ãtuf` qudlctdtcv`, `h dydht abjj` suppbrt tmãbrcqu` ld lcttãrdtur` sur

l–dtjbspmír` f`s pbchts f` v`ht`s `t a`ll` fu jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l. Hbus pbsbhs abjj` mypbtmís s̀ f` ràm`ram` l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh, l–èe`t f` a`ll`-ac sur ld vdlùr p`réu` `t l–èe`t f` ld

vdlùr p`réu` sur ld p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi fu sct` (abjpbrt`j`hts f`s cht`rhdut`s ; cht`htcbh

f–damdt, nbuam` ï br`cll`, chstruatcbh fu ebrjuldcr`, cht`htcbh f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu` `t

cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct`). Fdhs a` adfr`, hbtbhs qu` l–cht`reãr`ha` fdhs l` prba`ssus f`

vcsct`, f`s abjpãt`ha`s chfcvcfu`ll`s f`s cht`rhdut`s `h Cht`rh`t, l–cjplcadtcbh `hv`rs l`

prbfuct bee`rt `t f` hbjnrùx ãlãj`hts `xtãrcùrs du sct`, s`jnl`ht kbu`r uh röl` cjpbrtdht surl`s rãdatcbhs f`s chfcvcfus p`hfdht l–ãpcsbf` f` hdvcidtcbh `h lcih`.

CC.4. L` pr`jc`r irbup` f–mypbtmís`s ; l`s mypbtmís`s abha`rhdht l–cjj`rscbh fdhs

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`

L`s `htr`tc`hs `h prbebhfùr rãdlcsãs dvà l`s chfcvcfus quc abjpbs`ht hbtr`

ãamdhtcllbh rãvíl`ht qu` l`s ãlãj`hts f` l–dtjbspmír` f–uh sct` jdramdhf sur Cht`rh`t sbhtabhscfãrãs abjj` f` vãrctdnl`s scihdux p`réus pdr l`s s`hs f` l–chfcvcfu `t r`spbhsdnl s̀ f` ld

hdtur` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` vãau` pdr a` f`rhc`r. Cl s–dict f` tbut` abjpbsdht` dppdrt`hdht ï

l–cht`reda` fu sct` qu` l–chfcvcfu pùt adpt`r irîa` ï ld vu` bu l–buâ`. A`p`hfdht, l–dhdlys` fu

fcsaburs f`s cht`rhdut`s cht`rrbiãs hbus d p`rjcs f` rìrbup`r l`s vdrcdnl`s abjpbsdht l`

abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`, quc chelu`ha`ht l–cjj`rscbh f`s vcsctùrs p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha`

`h lcih`. Cl s–dict fu fãabr `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs, ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `t l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls.



>?1

CC.4.4. L–chelu`ha` fu fãabr `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs sur l–cjj`rscbh

Ld pr`jcír` fcj`hscbh f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih` `st r`ldtcv` dux

edatùrs f–djncdha` fu sct`. A`t ãlãj`ht f` l–dtjbspmír` r`prãs`ht` am`z hbs rãpbhfdhts, uhabht`xt` `haldvã, sãaurcsã `t tmãjdtcsã. L` fãabr `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs abhtrcnu` ebrt`j`ht ï ld

stcjuldtcbh f`s s`hs `t f` l–cjdichdcr` f`s vcsctùrs.

_dr dcllùrs, f` hbjnrùs`s ràm`ram`s s` sbht chtãr`ssã`s ï l'ãtuf` f`s rãdatcbhs

r`ss`htc`s pdr l`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. @h èe`t, du-f`lï f`s

sct`s w`n trdfctcbhh`ls, l`s am`ramùrs s–brc`ht`ht f` plus `h plus v`rs f` hbuv`dux sàtùrs

f–cht`rdatcbh mbjj`-jdamch`. _drjc l`s rãdatcbhs sunkàtcv`s r`ss`htc`s p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha`

`h lcih` fdhs a`s abht`xt`s `xpãrc`htc`ls ãj`ri`hts, l–ãtdt f` elux d edct l–bnk`t f–uh hbj nr`

cjpbrtdht f–chv`stcidtcbhs (Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, >??3). A`s ràm`ram`s bht jcs `h ãvcf`ha` uh

ldri` ãv`htdcl f–dhtãaãf`hts ï l–ãtdt f` elux (quc abhstctu` uh` ebrj` pdrtcaulcír`

f–cjj`rscbh). Dchsc, Ambc, Gcj `t Gcj (>??9) hbt`ht qu` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jãfcdtcsã `h trbcs

fcj`hscbhs d f`s èe`ts scihcecadtces sur l–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha` bptcjdl`. _dr dcllùrs, ld

r`prãs`htdtcbh vcrtu`ll` f`s lcùx pmyscqu`s eburhct uh` `xpãrc`ha` `hrcamcssdht` `t sbuv`ht

amdriã` deeàtcv`j`ht `t ãjbtcbhh`ll`j`ht (Luhd, _`rrdamcb `t f` Kudh, >??> 7 Mbeejdh `t

Hbvdg, >??3).

_dr abhsãqu`ht, ld abhstruatcbh fu s`hs fu lcù pburrdct ëtr` chabrpbrã f` jdhcír`

dpprbprcã` abjj` uh dhtãaãf`ht ï l–cjj`rscbh (`.i., Jdhzb >??07 Qm`rry >???). F–dutr`

pdrt, ld hdtur` f`s `spda`s vcrtu`ls pùt dvbcr uh cjpdat sur ld iãhãrdtcbh f` p`hsã`s, l`s

rãpbhs`s deeàtcv`s `t ãjbtcbhh`ll`s. @h èe`t, ld mdutùr fu pldebhf f`s amdjnr`s fdhs l`s

jbhf`s pmyscqu`s (J`y`rs-L`vy `t [mu, >??9). A`s rãsultdts pùv`ht ëtr` trdhseãrãs dux

`hvcrbhh`j`hts vcrtu`ls, f` sbrt` qu` l` ld hdtur` f`s fãabrs trcfcj`hscbhh`ls pucss`

abhtrcnu`r ï l–daaís `t ï l–`hrcamcss`j`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` (Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, >??3).

_dr dcllùrs, ld s`hsdtcbh f` prbebhfùr `t ld r`prãs`htdtcbh f`s bnk`ts pdr l` ràburs dux

fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` (Ydhi `t dl., >??9) chelu`ha` l` trdct`j`ht f`s chebrjdtcbhs `t

l`s rãp`rausscbhs qu–`ll`s ̀ hi`hfr`ht, hbtdjj`ht l` fãal`ham`j`ht f` l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh.

L` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l `st fbha abhscfãrã abjj` uh` vdrcdnl` cjpbrtdht` fdhs

l–daaís ï l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh pucsqu–`ll` abhstctu` uh dhtãaãf`ht `ss`htc`l du vãau f'uh`

`xpãrc`ha` sunkàtcv` (Adró `t Abvd, >??5d). @h abhsãqu`ha`, l` fãabr `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs

dssbacã dux abjpãt`ha`s chfcvcfu`ll`s f`s cht`rhdut`s, r`prãs`ht` uh butcl f` i`stcbh sãrcùx,

qu` l`s r`spbhsdnl`s f`s sct`s f` `-abjj`ra` jdhcpul`ht pbur stcjul`r l–deeàt f`s alc`hts `tduij`ht`r dchsc lùr prbndnclctã f–cjj`rscbh (Nrcfi`s `t Elbrsm`cj, >??=). L`s edatùrs



>?6

f–djncdha`, qudhf cls sbht dpprãacãs pdr l`s utclcsdtùrs fu sct`, fbhh`ht ï ld hdvcidtcbh uh

adrdatír` pldcsdht `t dirãdnl` (Dlldiuc `t J–sddf, >??5), prbaurdht dchsc plus f` s`hs ï

l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih`.

F–bó hbtr` pr`jcír` mypbtmís` ;

M4.4 ; Ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f–uh fãabr `h 1F fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`h t fu sct`,

chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf.

CC.4.>. L–chelu`ha` f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` sur l–cjj`rscbh

Ld sàbhf` fcj`hscbh fu abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l fu sct` ld plus actã` pdr hbtr`

ãamdhtcllbh f–cht`rhdut`s `st r`ldtcv` ï ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`. A` edatùr f` f`scih `st kuiã

abjj` trís p`rtch`ht pdr l`s rãpbhfdhts adr cl lùr prbaur` uh s`htcj`ht f` abhtröl`. @h èe`t,

a`t ãlãj`ht ãvct` dux cht`rhdut`s f` s` s`htcr fãpdssãs pdr l`s chebrjdtcbhs jcs`s ï fcspbsctcbh

pdr l` sct`. Cl s–dict f` ld lcn`rtã f–dicr f` jdhcír`s vdrcã s̀ a'`st-ï-fcr` ld adpdactã f` l'chfcvcfu

ï abhtröl`r bu hbh sbh `hvcrbhh`j`ht (J`mrdncdh `t ûss`ll, 4396)

« F` plus, k–dvdcs l–cjpr`sscbh qu` k` h` abhtröldcs pds a` qu` k` vbydcs, éd j–d edct s`htcr

qu` k–ãtdcs p`rfu, a` quc j–d uh pù fãplu. Éd s`rdct nc`h f'dvbcr uh` abjjdhf` f`

fãecl`j`ht pbur ld vcfãb du ads l` vcsctùr p`rf l` ecl f` abha`htrdtcbh bu d ù uh abup f`

tãlãpmbh` pdr `x`jpl`, f` r`tburh`r du pbcht bó cl `h ãtdct. Ld abjjdhf` durdct ï ld ebcs uh

abtã prdtcqu`, jdcs a–`st dussc uh jby`h f` idrf`r uh` a`rtdch` jdctrcs` fu fãrbul`j`ht f`

ld vcsct` · ‑ 4?.

L` edcnl` fìrã f–daa`ptdtcbh f`s cht`rvc`wãs, lùr fbhh` l` s`htcj`ht f` p`rfr` l`

abhtröl` f` ld hdvcidtcbh p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih`. Ph s`htcj`ht f` erustrdtcbh

pùt jëj` suricr rdpcf`j`ht. L` vcsctùr `st dlbrs dj`hã ï quctt`r l` sct` bu ï s–damdrh`r

(Csdda `t Ubll`, >?44). Ld s`hsdtcbh f` jdctrcs` fu abht`hu ï trdv`rs ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`,

p`rj`t fbha f–dttãhu`r ld iãhãrdtcbh f–ãjbtcbhs hãidtcv`s `t duij`ht` l–cht`rdatcvctã fu sct`

(Hbvdg, Mbeejdh `t Suhi, >??? 7 Fdcl`y, >??6 7 Qgdfn`ri `t Gcjj`l, >??6 7 Mudhi, >??1 7

>??5). L`s edatùrs f` f`scih pùv`ht ëtr` adrdatãrcsãs pdr l`s fùx fcj`hscbhs `ss`htc`ll`s

qu` sbht l–daa`sscnclctã `t ld hdvcidnclctã (L`jbch`, >??=). F` plus, « l` a`rv`du mujdch `st

suppbsã ëtr` uh bridh` ednrcqudht fu s`hs, `t dvbcr uh abhtröl` sur l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht p`rj`t ïl–daqucsctcbh f–chebrjdtcbh f–ëtr` chtãirdl`j`ht lcã` ï l–dat` f` abhstruatcbh fu s`hs · (Drc`ly,



>?0

>??? ch Fdhfbudu, >??4). @h èe`t, sc l` alc`ht d l–cjpr`sscbh f` abhtröl`r sbh `hvcrbhh`j`ht

vcrtu`l, a`ld vd luc fbhh`r uh` cjpr`sscbh f` lcn`rtã `t edvbrcs`r sbh cjj`rscbh. @h r`vdham`,

qudhf l` alc`ht d l–cjpr`sscbh f–ëtr` nbjndrfã, ndldfã f–uh pbcht ï uh dutr`, ld qudlctã f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` s` fãirdf` trís vct` (Csdda `t Ubll`, >?44).

Fdhs uh` ràm`ram` quc d ù pbur bnk`t l–ãtuf` f` l–ãtdt f` elbw fdhs f`s abht`xt`s

`xpãrc`htc`ls rã`ls, Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc (433?) `xplcqu` qu` l` fìrã f` abhtröl` p`rj`t f–dvbcr

uh ãquclcnr` `htr` l` amdll`hi` prbpbsã `t l`s abjpãt`ha`s daqucs`s f` l–chfcvcfu ; « l`

abhtröl` f` s`s datcbhs `st sc ebrt qu` s–`stbjp` ld fcstchatcbh `htr` luc `t l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht,

`htr` l` stcjulus `t ld rãpbhs`, `htr` l` pdssã, l` prãs`ht `t l` eutur. Ld abhsac`ha` f` sbc

fcspdrdèt, ld p`ra`ptcbh fu t`jps s–dltír` `t l–ãtdt fdhs l`qu`l l–`sprct s–chstdll` f`vc`ht

`xtrëj`j`ht irdtcecdht ·. L` abhtröl` fdhs l` elux f` l–chebrjdtcbh abhfuct l–utclcsdtùr ï f`s

mùrcstcqu`s vcsdht ï lcjct`r l` ab÷t f–uh` jbnclcsdtcbh cht`hs` f`s r`ssbura`s abihctcv`s

(Fdhfbudu, >??4). @h abhsãqu`ha`, uh hbjnr` cjpbrtdht f–ãjbtcbhs `t f` irdtcecadtcbhs

s`jnl` prbv`hcr f` ld aldrtã f`s scihdux ãjcs pdr l` sct` jdramdhf. Ld adpdactã f` abhtröl`

prbaur` uh` s`hsdtcbh f` pbuvbcr sur l` jdidsch vcrtu`l. L–chfcvcfu `htr` dlbrs fdhs uh ãtdt

fdhs l`qu`l cl `st t`ll`j`ht cjplcquã fdhs l–datcvctã qu` rc`h f–dutr` h` luc s`jnl` cjpbrtdht.

Fdhs l` abht`xt` f–Cht`rh`t, l`s `xpãrc`ha`s f–cjj`rscbh sbht f`s `xpãrc`ha`s fdhs l`s

qu`ll`s l–chfcvcfu abhtröl` s`s datcbhs, cl jdètrcs` sbh prbpr` am`jch (Mudhi, >??5).

L–cht`rhdut ̀s` p`rébct `h abhtröl` f` s`s datcbhs sdhs, abhsac`jj`ht, `ssdy`r f` s–cjpbs`r

sur sbh `hvcrbhh`j`ht (@ttcs, >??0).

Ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` s` rãvíl` fbha ëtr` uh ãlãj`ht cjpbrtdht quc abhtrcnu` ï

dtt`chfr` l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh `t ï l–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha`. L` suk`t d l` s`htcj`ht f` jdètrcs`r ld

sctudtcbh `t f` abhtröl`r s`s datcbhs. Ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `st fbha uh dhtãaãf`ht

cjpbrtdht ï l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh pucsqu–`ll` chelu`ha` l`s rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s deeàtcv`s `t

abihctcv`s r`ss`htc`s p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`.

A` quc hbus djíh` ï l–mypbtmís ̀;

M4.> ; Ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f–uh` abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu

sct`, chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l

jdramdhf.

CC.4.1. L–chelu`ha` f`s di`hts vcrtu`ls sur l–cjj`rscbh



>?5

L` trbcscíj` `t f`rhc`r ãlãj`ht fu abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih` fbht hbus dvbhs pu

sbulcih`r l–cjpbrtdha` ï trdv`rs l`s rãpbhs`s f`s rãpbhfdhts ï hbtr` `htr`tc`h `st l–di`ht

vcrtu`l quc dhcj` l` sct`. @h èe`t, a` typ` f` abhs`cll`rs vcrtu`ls iucf` l` vcsctùr sur l` sct` bu

luc p`rj`t f` ebrjdlcs`r sbh prba`ssus f–damdt. Cls sbht pdrtcaulcír`j`ht utcl`s pbur l`s damdts

abjpl`x`s (prbfucts tàmhcqu`s, pdr `x`jpl`), y abjprcs fdhs l` fbjdch` f`s s`rvca`s

(prbjbtcbh cjjbnclc`r, arãfct- ndcl…) (Csdda `t Ubll`, >?44). L–chtãirdtcbh f–ãlãj`hts sbacdux

fdhs l`s trdhsdatcbhs `h lcih` d pbur nut f–djãlcbr`r l`s p`ra`ptcbhs f`s abhsbjjdtùrs sur

l`s dspàts mãfbhcqu`s `t chebrjdtcbhh`ls (_`htchd `t Vdylbr, >?4?). L`s dvdtdrs p`rj`tt`ht

f–djãlcbr`r ld sdtcsedatcbh fu vcsctùr `hv`rs l` sct` jdramdhf, sbh dttctuf` vcs-ï-vcs fu

prbfuct v`hfu `t s`s cht`htcbhs f–damdt (Mblzwdrtm, Kdhcsz`wsgc `t Hùjdhh >??5). _dr

dcllùrs, ld prãs`ha` sur l` sct` f` t`ls scihdux sbacdux d ãidl`j`ht ãtã lcã` ï uh` duij`htdtcbh

f`s p`ra`ptcbhs f` sbacdnclctã fu sct` w`n, fu pldcscr, f` l'`xactdtcbh f`s vcsctùrs, dchsc qu`

lùrs ãjbtcbhs (Ydhi `t dl. >??9).

Fdhs l` abht`xt` fu abjj`ra` `h lcih`, Mblzwdrtm `t dl. (>??5) bht jbhtrã qu` l`s

abhsbjjdtùrs jby`hh`j`ht cjplcquãs bht ãtã ebrt`j`ht p`rsudfã pdr f`s dvdtdrs dttrdatces

ï l'damdt `h lcih` f` amdussur`s brtmbpãfcqu`s, pbur Ydhi `t dl. (>??9) d rdppbrtã qu` l`s

dvdtdrs duij`ht`ht dttctuf` pbsctcv` l` sct` `t l` prbfuct, qudht ï L`jbch` (>?44), cl `xplcqu`

qu` ld prãs`ha` f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l deeàt` pbsctcv`j`ht ld furã` f` hdvcidtcbh `t l` hbjnr` f`

pdi`s vcsctã`s. L`s rãdatcbhs ï l–ãidrf fu jdramdhf vcrtu`l `t ld hdtur` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` vãau`

`h lcih` sbht fbha ebrt`j`ht deeàtã`s pdr ld prãs`ha` bu l–dns`ha` f–di`ht vcrtu`ls.

L–cht`rdatcbh dvà uh dvdtdr `st p`réu` abjj` uh` r`prãs`htdtcbh f–dutr` sbc fdhs

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l (Amuhi, >??0). L–di`ht vcrtu`l pdrtcacp` ï csbl`r l`s cht`rhdut`s

f'dutr`s stcjulc fcspbhcnl`s fdhs lùr `hvcrbhh`j`ht pmyscqu`, pbur l`s cjj`ri`r fdhs l`

abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`. Fdhs a`rtdchs ads, l–cht`rdatcbh utclcsdtùr - dvdtdr fdhs l`s jbhf`s

vcrtu`ls cjpdat` abhscfãrdnl`j`ht l'`xpãrc`ha` f` elux (^dtamebrf, >??3).

L`s utclcsdtùrs daaíf`ht ï l'`xpãrc`ha` f'cjj`rscbh psyamblbicqu` irîa` ï ld prãs`ha`f–uh dvdtdr. Lbrsqu` l`s vcsctùrs cht`rdicss`ht hdtur`ll`j`ht dvà uh dvdtdr, cls sbht adpdnl`s

ï ld ebcs f–chelu`ha`r `t f–ëtr` chelu`haãs pdr l`s stcjulc fu abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l (Amuhi,

>??0). _dr dcllùrs, Kch (>??3) `xplcqu` fdhs sbh ãtuf` fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts jãfcdtcsãs

qu` l` fìrã cjplcadtcbh, f–`hidi`j`ht `t f–dnsbrptcbh fdhs l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, `st

ebrt`j`ht abrrãlã dvà l–cht`rdatcbh f`s utclcsdtùrs dvà l–di`ht vcrtu`l.

L`s di`hts vcrtu`ls s`jnl`ht kbu`r uh röl` cjpbrtdht fdhs l–daaís ï l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh

fdhs l` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`. A` quc hbus djíh` ï ebrjul`r l–mypbtmís` sucvdht` ;



>?9

M4.1 ; Ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct`,


@h syhtmís`, l`s trbcs abjpbsdht`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht qu` hbus dvbhs cf`htcecã, bhtedct l–bnk`t f` hbjnrùs`s ràm`ram`s, quc bht ãtufcã lùrs cjpdats sur l` elbw (Hbvdg,

Mbeejdh `t Suhi, >??? 7 Mudhi, >??1 7 >??5), l`s ãjbtcbhs (Nrcfi`s `t Elbrsm`cj, >??= 7

Jdhzb >??0), ld abhecdha` (L`jbch` `t Hbt`nd`rt, >?44), l–cjj`rscbh (_`htchd `t Vdylbr,

>?4?). A` trdvdcl fbatbrdl s` prbpbs` fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps, f–`h ãtufc`r l–cjpdat sur

l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l jdramdhf fu sct`.

Ld eciur` ac-f`ssbus samãjdtcs` a`tt` pr`jcír` mypbtmís` f` ràm`ram`.

M4 ; L`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` chelu`ha`ht pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjj`rscbh f`s

cht`rhdut`s fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l jdramdhf.

M4.4 ; Ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f–uh fãabr `h 1F fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct`,


M4.> ; Ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f–uh` abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

fu sct`, chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l

jdramdhf.

M4.1 ; Ld prãs`ha` (vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct`,




>?=

Eciur` 40 ; Ld r`ldtcbh `htr` l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s p`réu`s `t l–cjj`rscbh fdhs

l` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l

CC.>. L` fùxcíj` irbup` f–mypbtmís`s ; L–èe`t jãfcdtùr f` ld vdlùr p`réu` fdhs ld

r`ldtcbh cjj`rscbh ‑ rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s

Ld sàtcbh quc suct, `st fãfcã` ï l–cjpbrtdha` fu abha`pt f` vdlùr p`réu` fdhs hbtr`

ràm`ram`, dchsc qu–ï sbh röl` f` jãfcdtùr. Hbus prãs`htbhs suaa`sscv`j`ht ld vdlùr p`r éu`

`t l`s mypbtmís`s r`ldtcv`s ï sd jãfcdtcbh fdhs hbtr` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l.

d. L` abha`pt f` vdlùr p`réu`

L` abha`pt f` vdlùr d ãtã dnbrfã s`lbh pluscùrs dpprbam`s (Durc`r, @vrdrf `t

H–Ibdld, >??6 7 Ecls`r `t _lcambh, >??6 7 Ecls`r, >??= 7 J`rl`, Amdhfbh `t ^bux, >?4?). Fdhs

ld lcttãrdtur` `xpãrc`htc`ll`, l`s dpprbam`s s–daabrf`ht fdhs lùr jdkbrctã sur l` edct qu`,

lbrsqu` l` abhsbjjdtùr pdss` pdr f`s ãtdts deeàtces `t ãjbtcbhh`ls djncvdl`hts, ld vdlùrs–cf`htcec` ï uh kui`j`ht ãvdludtce quc fãabul` f–uh` abherbhtdtcbh `htr` l`s nãhãeca`s `t l`s

sdarceca`s dssbacãs ï uh` `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh (Mblnrbbg `t Mcrsamjdh, 43=> 7

Mblnrbbg, 4333 7 Ir`wdl, Jbhrb` `t Grcsmhdh, 433=).

L–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `st abhscfãrã` abjj` uh vãau p`rsbhh`l `t sunkàtce,

amdriã ãjbtcbhh`ll`j`ht. A–`st uh « ãtdt sunkàtce f` abhsac`ha` daabjpdihã f'uh` vdrcãtã f`

scihcecadtcbhs syjnblcqu`s, f` rãpbhs`s mãfbhcst`s `t f` arctír`s `stmãtcqu`s ·

(U`rh`tt`, >??9). _`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh, l`s abhsbjjdtùrs sbht dutdht s`hscnl`s

dux adrdatãrcstcqu`s syjnblcqu`s `t `stmãtcqu`s f`s prbfucts / s`rvca`s, `t plus ilbndl`j`ht, ï

L`s abjpbsdht`s ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll`sp`réu`s

Cjj`rscbh

M4.4

Abjjdhf ̀f` abhtröl`

Fãabr 1F

Di`hts vcrtu`ls

M4.>

M4.1



>?3

lùr vdlùr `xpãrc`htc`ll` (`.i., Mblnrbbg, 4333 7 Jdtmwcag `t dl., >??4) qu–ï lùrs

adrdatãrcstcqu`s jdtãrc`ll`s `t ebhatcbhh`ll`s `t ï lùr vdlùr utclctdcr`. @h èe`t, ld vdlùr

p`réu` pdr l` abhsbjjdtùr p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha`, rãuhct l`s fùx spmír`s abihctcv` `t

deeàtcv` trdfctcbhh`ll`j`ht fcskbcht`s fdhs l`s trdvdux f` ràm`ram` `h abjpbrt`j`ht fu

abhsbjjdtùr (Ecls`r, >??=). Fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf `h lcih`, `ll` s` prãs`ht`

abjj` l` rãsultdt f` l–cht`rdatcbh quc s` prbfuct `htr` l–chfcvcfu `t l–bnk`t, du jbj`ht f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h jdidsch, dvà bu sdhs damdt (Lbjndrt, >??4 7 Ecls`r `t _lcambh,

>??6 7 J`rl`, Amdhfbh `t ^bux, >?4?).

L–dhdlys` t`xtu`ll` f` l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` rãvíl` qu` l`s cht`rhdut`s ãj`tt`ht uh

kui`j`ht ãvdludtce sur l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`. Ph t`l kui`j`ht `st chelu`haã hbh sùl`j`ht pdr

l–cht`rdatcbh bnk`t/p`rsbhh`, jdcs dussc pdr l` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l.

Ld vdlùr iãhãrã` pdr uh` `xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih`, h–`st pds abhscfãrã` abjj` ld

sùl` nds` f` fãacscbh f–damdt. Ld abhsãqu`ha` f–`xpãrc`ha`s aujulã`s pís` n`duabup fdhs

uh` t`ll` fãacscbh (Durc`r, @vrdrf `t H–Ibdld, >??6). L–daaís du aőur f` amdauh` f` a`s

`xpãrc`ha`s, prbvbqu` f`s vdlùrs p`réu`s fceeãr`ht`s `t jultcpl`s quc pr`hh`ht ebrj` lbrsqu`

l–cht`rhdut` s` « fãabhhàt` · f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l. Cl s–dict f–uh` ãvdludtcbh `x-

pbst f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. Buvry `t Ldfw`ch (>??5) scihdl`ht qu` ld

iãhãrdtcbh f` vdlùr am`z l` abhsbjjdtùr h` prbvc`ht hc f` ld jdrqu` hc fu prbfuct /

s`rvca`. A–`st l–`xpãrc`ha` prbpr` f` l–chfcvcfu quc `hi`hfr` f` ld vdlùr. Ld vdlùr p`réu`

s–cllustr` fbha abjj` ld rãsultdht` f–uh` bu pluscùrs cjj`rscbhs fdhs f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts

`xpãrc`htc`ls ̀ h lcih`.

n. L–èe`t jãfcdtùr f` ld vdlùr p`réu`

Abjj` l` sbulcih` Uãzchd (4333), « l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `hilbn` f`sdatcvctãs quc chelu`ha`rbht l`s fãacscbhs `t datcbhs eutur`s f`s abhsbjjdtùrs ·. L`s

`hvcrbhh`j`hts vcrtu`ls sbht f`stchãs ï arã`r f`s èe`ts pbsctces am`z l`s cht`rhdut`s, tdht du

hcv`du abihctce qu'du hcv`du ãjbtcbhh`l (Fdcl`y, >??6 7 Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 4335 7 >??3).

L–cjj`rscbh fdhs a`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts, abhfuct ï f`s rãdatcbhs ãvdludtcv`s quc prbvbqu`ht f`s

amdhi`j`hts p`ra`ptu`ls ̀ t abjpbrt`j`htdux f`s chfcvcfus.

L'ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` rãdlcsã` fdhs a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl, edct dppdrdètr` qu–cl `xcst` am`z l`s

cht`rhdut`s uh` rãdatcbh ãvdludtcv` pbst-vcsct`, dchsc qu` achq abjpbrt`j`hts prbndnl`s,abjj` abhsãqu`ha`s ï l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`. @ll` jbhtr` qu` ld



>4?

vdlùr p`réu` `st uh` vdrcdnl` quc r`prãs`ht` l` jãadhcsj` pdr l`qu`l, ld vdrcdnl`

« cjj`rscbh · chelu`ha` l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s.

Ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` sbulcih` pdr dcllùrs, qu` a`tt` vdlùr pùt t`hcr l` röl` f`

prãfcadtùr fu abjpbrt`j`ht eutur f` l–chfcvcfu pbur s` sunstctu`r ï ld sdtcsedatcbh (`.i.,

Ecls`r, >??=). F` hbjnrùx trdvdux sur ld vdlùr p`réu` (vdlùr mãfbhcqu` `t vdlùr utclctdcr`)

`hvcsdi`ht a`ll`-ac abjj` uh dhtãaãf`ht f` l–cht`htcbh f–damdt (`.i., [`ctmdjl, 43== 7

Ir`wdl, Jbhrb` `t Grcsmhdh, 433=), fu nbuam` ï br`cll` (`.i., F`rndcx `t dl., >?4?) `t f`

l–`hs`jnl` f`s cht`htcbhs abjpbrt`j`htdl`s prbndnl`s f`s abhsbjjdtùrs (`.i., Jchvc`ll` `t

Jdrs, >?4?).

L–cjj`rscbh s`rdct uh dhtãaãf`ht f` ld vdrcdnl` « vdlùr p`réu` · fdhs s`s fcj`hscbhs

mãfbhcqu`s `t utclctdcr`s. A`ll`-ac s`rdct ï sbh tbur l–dhtãaãf`ht f`s rãpbhs`s

abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`s cht`rhdut`s. @ll` dict abjj` uh « trdhsj`ttùr · pdr l`qu`l trdhsct`

l'èe`t f` l–cjj`rscbh sur l–`hs`jnl` f`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s (Amujpctdz Ada`r`s `t

Udhmdjj`, >??1). @ll` pburrdct `xplcqu`r ld jdhcír` `t l` prba`ssus quc p`rj`tt`ht ï ld

vdrcdnl` « cjj`rscbh · f–chelu`ha`r l`s abjpbr t`j`hts f`s cht`rhdut`s.

Ld vdlùr p`réu` kbu` pdr abhsãqu`ht, uh röl` jãfcdtùr `htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t l`s

abjpbrt`j`hts f`s cht`rhdut`s. @ll` p`rj`t f–`xplcqu`r abjj`ht s–bpír` ld r`ldtcbh `htr` l`s

fùx vdrcdnl`s `h fãabjpbsdht a`tt` r`ldtcbh `h fùx èe`ts ; uh èe`t fcràt `t uh èe`t

chfcràt jãfcdtcsã (Amujpctdz Ada`r`s `t Udhmdjj`, >??1 7 [mdb, Lyham `t Am`h, >?44).

Dchsc, lbrs f` ld prãs`htdtcbh f`s rãsultdts f` l–ãtuf` qudhtctdtcv` (ae. Amdpctr` 5) f` hbtr`

ràm`ram` hbus j`ttrbhs `h ãvcf`ha` l–èe ̀ t jãfcdtùr tbtdl (lbrsqu` ld vdlùr p`réu` trdhsj`t

f` jdhcír` abjplít` l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh sur l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s) `t l–èe`t

jãfcdtùr pdrtc`l (lbrsqu` ld vdlùr p`réu` trdhsj`ttrd pdrtc`ll`j`ht l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh

sur l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s).

Hbus pbstulbhs fbha qu` ld vdlùr p`réu` fdhs s`s fcj`hscbhs mãfbhcqu`s `t

utclctdcr`s `st uh jãfcdtùr f` ld r`ldtcbh `htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s. Hbus suppbsbhs qu` ld p`ra`ptcbh f` ld vdlùr f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`, kbu` uh röl`

cjpbrtdht fdhs a`tt` r`ldtcbh `t pburrdct jëj` l–djplcec`r. F–bó ld prbpbsctcbh sucvdht` ;

_rbpbsctcbh _4 ; Ld vdlùr p`réu` jãfcdtcs` ld r`ldtcbh cjj`rscbh ‑ abjpbrt`j`htf`s cht`rhdut`s



>44

Hbus t`st`rbhs fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps, ld r`ldtcbh fcràt` `htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t l`s

rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`s cht`rhdut`s. Qc a`tt` r`ldtcbh s–dvír` ï ld ebcs pbsctcv` `t

scihcecadtcv`, a`ld cjplcqu` qu–cl y d èeàtcv`j`ht uh chtãrët ï t`st`r uh èe`t jãfcdtùr f` ld

vdlùr p`réu`.

L`s mypbtmís`s ac-f`ssus s–cllustr`ht f` ld jdhcír` sucvdht` ;

Eciur` 45 ; L–cjj`rscbh `t ld vdlùr p`réu` fdhs l` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l

Fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps, hbus am`ram`rbhs ï t`st`r ld r`ldtcbh f` fãp`hfdha` `htr`

l–cjj`rscbh `t ld vdlùr p`réu`.

Hbus pbuvbhs dlbrs ebrjul`r l–mypbtmís` sucvdht` ;

M> ; L–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l` abjpbrt`j`ht f`s cht`rhdut`s.

M>.4 ; L–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–chstruatcbh fu ebrjuldcr` `h lcih`.

M>.> ; L–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu`.

M>.1 ; L–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l` nbuam` ï br`cll`.

M>.6 ; L–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f–damdt.

M>.0 ; L–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct`.

M>.1Cjj`rscbh

M>.4

Cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`rl` sct`

^`jplcr uhebrjuldcr`

_r`hfr` abhtdat

Nbuam` ï br`cll`

Cht`htcbh f–damdt

M>.>

M>.6

M>.0



>4>

L`s mypbtmís`s ac-f`ssus s–cllustr`ht f` ld jdhcír` sucvdht` ;

Eciur` 49 ; L–èe`t f` l–cjj`rscbh sur ld vdlùr p`réu` fdhs l` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l

Q–cl s–dvír` qu` a`tt` r`ldtcbh `st ãidl`j`ht ï ld ebcs pbsctcv` `t scihcecadtcv`, hbus

s`rbhs dlbrs dj`hãs ï t`st`r ld r`ldtcbh adusdl` sucvdht` ;

Cl s–dict cac f` t`st`r l`s r`ldtcbhs `htr` ld vd lùr p`réu` `t l`s rãpbhs`s

abjpbrt`j`htdl s̀. Qc `ll`s s–dvír`ht scihcecadtcv`s, l`s rãsultdts f` a` t`st hbus p`rj`ttrbht f`

vãrcec`r hbtr` prbpbsctcbh _4, a'`st-ï-fcr` l–èe`t jãfcdtùr f` ld vdlùr p`réu`. A` quc hbusdjíh` ï pbs`r l`s mypbtmís`s sucvdht`s ;

Cjj`rscbh vdlùr p`réu` abjpbrt`j`hts

M1 ; L–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht ld vdlùr p`réu` f` ld vcsct`

M1.4 ; L–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` f` ld vcsct`

M1.> ; L–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht ld vdlùr utclctdcr` f` ld vcsct`

Ld vdlùr p`réu` f`ld vcsct`

Cjj`rscbh

M1.4

M1.>

Ld vdlùr

mãfbhc u`

Ld vdlùrutclctdcr`



>41

L`s mypbtmís`s f` ld prbpbsctcbh _4 `xpbsã`s ac-f`ssus s–cllustr`ht f` ld jdhcír`

sucvdht` ;

M0 ; ld vdlùr utclctdcr` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l` abjpbrt`j`ht f`s cht`rhdut`s

M0.4 ; Ld vdlùr utclctdcr` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l` r`jplcssdi` fu ebrjuldcr` `h

lcih`

M0.> ; Ld vdlùr utclctdcr` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu`

M0.1a ; Ld vdlùr utclctdcr` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l` nbuam` ï br`cll`

M0.6 ; Ld vdlùr utclctdcr` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f–damdt

M0.0 ; Ld vdlùr utclctdcr` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct`

M6 ; ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l` abjpbrt`j`ht f`s cht`rhdut`s

M6.4 ; Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l` r`jplcssdi` fu ebrjuldcr` `h

lcih`M6.> ; Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f` abhtdat`r ld

jdrqu`

M6.1 ; Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l` nbuam` ï br`cll`

M6.6 ; Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f–damdt

M6.0 ; Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct`



>46

Eciur` 4= ; L–cjj`rscbh `t ld vdlùr p`réu` fdhs l` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l

CC.1. L` trbcscíj` irbup` f–mypbtmís`s ; l`s mypbtmís`s abha`rhdht l` röl` f`s

jbfãrdtùrs fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`

Fdhs a` quc suct hbus prãs`htbhs l`s mypbtmís`s r`ldtcv`s dux jbfãrdtùrs. Cl s–dict f`

l–`xp`rtcs` `h Cht`rh`t, l–cjplcadtcbh `hv`rs ld adtãibrc` fu prbfuct, l` lcù `t l` jbj`ht f` ld

vcsct`.

d. L` röl` jbfãrdtùr f` l–`xp`rtcs`

Ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` j`t `h ãvcf`ha` l–cjpbrtdha` f` l–`xp`rtcs` p`hfdht

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` jdidschdi` Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 4335 7 M`lj`-Iuczbh, >??4 7 Nàmùr `t

Ibll`ty, >??5). @ll` `st fãechc` abjj` « ld adpdactã f` rãdlcs`r f`s tîam`s lcã`s du prbfuct ·

(Dlnd `t Mutamchsbh, 43=9). @h èe`t, l–`xp`rtcs` kbu` uh röl` chelu`ht sur l` abjpbrt`j`ht

f`s alc`hts (`.i., ^bnch, >??? 7 Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 4335 7 >??3 7 M`lj`-Iuczbh, >??4 7Nàmùr `t Ibll`ty, >??5). L–cjpdat f` ld jdètrcs` f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t sur l` fãrbul`j`ht f` ld

vcsct` vdrc` ebrt`j`ht f–uh vcsctùr ï uh dutr`. L`s vcsctùrs l`s plus edjclcdrcsãs dvà ld tbcl`

dfbpt`ht uh abjpbrt`j`ht systãjdtcqu` `t lchãdcr` ebadlcsã sur ld ràm`ram` f` rãpbhs`s ï f`s

cht`rrbidtcbhs prãacs`s (^bnch, >??? 7 M`lj`-Iuczbh, >??4), dlbrs qu` l`s hbvca`s daabrf`ht

fdvdhtdi` f–cjpbrtdha` dux adrdatãrcstcqu`s spdtcdl`s `t `stmãtcqu`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht f`

v`ht` (Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, >??3), a'`st-ï-fcr` dux ãlãj`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls quc abhstctu`ht l` sct`

jdramdhf. Dchsc, l`s cht`rhdut`s `xp`rts `t l`s cht`rhdut`s plus hbvca`s h` s`jnl`ht pds dvbcrl`s jëj`s mdnctuf`s f` ràm`ram` `t f` hdvcidtcbh.


Cjj`rscbhM1.4

M1.>

Ld vdlùrmãfbhc u`

Ld vdlùrutclctdcr`

L` abjpbrt`j`htf`s cht`rhdut`s

_r`hfr` abhtdat

Abjjdhf`r^`jplcr uhebrjuldcr`

^`v`hcr sur l` sct`Nbuam` ï br`cll`

M6

M0

M >



>40

L` hcv`du f–`xp`rtcs` fdhs l–utclcsdtcbh f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t, abhtrcnu` ldri`j`ht ï

edébhh`r l`s abjpbrt`j`hts `h lcih` (Mbeejdh `t Hbvdg, 4335 7 >??3) `t l`s rãdatcbhs

abihctcv`s, s`hsbrc`ll`s, deeàtcv`s `t sbacdl`s (Abvd `t Abvd, >??3) prbpr`s du prba`ssus

f–cjj`rscbh. Hbus ãj`ttbhs dlbrs ld prbpbsctcbh sucvdht` ;

@h abhsãqu`ha`, hbus am`ram`rbhs ï t`st`r ld jbfãrdtcbh sur l`s r`ldtcbhs sucvdht`s ;

Ld prãs`ha` (vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh fãabr `h 1 `t l–cjj`rscbh 7 ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f–uh`

abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` fdhs `t l–cjj`rscbh 7 ld prãs`ha` (vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l `t

l–cjj`rscbh.

Ld jdètrcs` f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t djãlcbr` ld p`ra`ptcbh f` abhtröl` `t f` edaclctã

f–utclcsdtcbh fu sct`. _`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` l` abhsbjjdtùr j`t `h kù s`s

abjpãt`ha`s chfcvcfu`ll`s (Ebrh`rchb `t dl., >??=). Cl s–chv`stct, s–`hidi` `t cht`rdict dvà

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht arãã pdr l–`htr`prcs` (Abvd `t Abvd, >??3). L–cht`rdatcbh `st ebhfã` sur uh`

cht`reda` mbjj`-jdamch` r`quc`rt uh` a`rtdch` `xp`rtcs` f` ld pdrt f`s chfcvcfus (Mbeejdh `t

M5 ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh ;

M5.4 ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (Us.

dns`ha`) f–uh fãabr `h 1 fcj`hscbhs fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh

f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf

M5.> ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (Us.

d ns`ha`) f–uh` abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur

l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf

M5.1 ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (Us.

d ns`ha`) f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s

cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf.

_rbpbsctcbh _> ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t jbfír` l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh.



>45

Hbvdg, >??3). L` hcv`du f` abhhdcssdha` cht`rvc`ht fdhs ld prbfuatcbh f` rãpbhs`s deeàtcv`s

`t ãjbtcbhh`ll`s f` l–cht`rhdut` `t pdr dcllùrs fdhs sd p`ra`ptcbh f` ld vdlùr f` ld vcsct`.

L–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv` jbhtr` qu` l` hcv`du f–`xp`rtcs` chelu`ha` ld r`ldtcbh `htr`

cjj`rscbh `t vdlùr p`réu`. _`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`, l`s nãhãeca`s `t l`s p`rt`s sbht

p`réu`s fceeãr`jj`ht `t ï pluscùrs hcv`dux. L` hcv`du f–`xp`rtcs` f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t,

abhtrcnu` ldri`j`ht ï edébhh`r l`s abjpbrt`j`hts, l`s p`ra`ptcbhs `h lcih` (Mbeejdh `t

Hbvdg, >??3) `t l`s rãdatcbhs abihctcv`s, s`hsbrc`ll`s, deeàtcv`s `t sbacdl`s (Abvd `t Abvd,

>??3) prbpr`s du prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh. Lbrsqu` l` abhsbjjdtùr j`t `h kù s`s

abjpãt`ha`s chfcvcfu`ll`s, cl djãlcbr` sd p`ra`ptcbh f` abhtröl` `t f` edaclctã f–utclcsdtcbh fu

sct`, dchsc qu` sbh ãvdludtcbh ebhatcbhh`ll` fu sct`. A`ld suiiír` ld prbpbsctcbh sucvdht` ;

@h abhsãqu`ha`, hbus am`ram`rbhs ï t`st`r ld jbfãrdtcbh sur l` lc`h `htr` l–cjj`rscbh

`t ld vdlùr p`réu` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`.

n. L` röl` jbfãrdtùr f` l–cjplcadtcbh `hv`rs ld adtãibrc` fu prbfuct

L–cjplcadtcbh `hv`rs ld adtãibrc` f` prbfuct d edct l–bnk`t f` hbjnrùx trdvdux (`.i.,

Amdcg`h `t dlcc., 43=3 7 Irceectm `t Grdjpe, 4333 7 M`lj`-Iuczbh, >??4 7 Fì`rdtu .,

^dhidswdjy `t Yu, >??? 7 Qtrdzzcãrc, 4336 7 Ubll`, 4335). @ll` r`hvbc` ï ld p`rtch`ha` prbpr` fu prbfuct pbur l–chfcvcfu `h ebhatcbh f`s vdlùrs ebhfdj`htdl`s f` a`luc-ac, s`s nuts

M9 ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`

abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr p`réu` f` ld vcsct`

M9.4 ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs

l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` f` ld vcsct`

M9.> L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs

l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr utclctdcr` f` ld vcsct`

_rbpbsctcbh _1 ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f`

l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr p`réu` f` ld vcsct`



>49

`t sbh cjdi` f` sbc (@hi`l, Nldagw`ll `t Jchcdrf, 4330). L–cjplcadtcbh `st ebhfã` pdr uh bu

pluscùrs stcjulc fdhs uh` sctudtcbh pdrtcaulcír` ([dcamgbwsgy, 43=0 7 43=5 7 4336). @ll`

fãabul` prchacpdl`j`ht f`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s chfcvcfu`ll`s fu abhsbjjdtùr `t f` l–ãvdludtcbh

f`s dttrcnuts tdhicnl`s `t syjnblcqu`s fu prbfuct (Udl`tt`-Elbr`ha`, 43=3).

L–dhdlys` f`s v`rndtcj ràu`cllcs p`hfdht l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv`, hbus d abhfucts ï

abhscfãr`r l` hcv`du f–cjplcadtcbh f` l–cht`rhdut` `hv`rs l` prbfuct, abjj` jbfãrdtùr `htr`

l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h lcih` t`ll` qu–`ll`s sbht p`réu`s pdr l`s

chfcvcfus `t l–cjj`rscbh. @h èe`t, l`s cht`rhdut`s fbht l` hcv`du f–cjplcadtcbh `st ãl`vã sbht

pdrv`hus ï s–cjj`ri`r bu ï vcvr` qu`lqu`s ãpcsbf`s f` fãabhh`xcbh fu jbhf` rã`l, dlbrs qu`

l`s cht`rhdut`s edcnl`j`ht cjplcquãs, h–bht pds ãtã amdll`hiãs pdr l` fcspbsctce `xpãrc`htc`l fu

sct` jdramdhf. A` quc hbus djíh` ï prbpbs`r ;

Cl s–dict dlbrs f` t`st`r ld jbfãrdtcbh sur l`s r`ldtcbhs sucvdht`s ; Ld prãs`ha` (Us.

Dns`ha`) f–uh fãabr `h 1 `t l–cjj`rscbh 7 ld prãs`ha` (Us. Dns`ha`) f–uh` abjjdhf` f`

abhtröl` fdhs ̀ t l–cjj`rscbh 7 ld prãs`ha` (Us. Dns`ha`) f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l `t l–cjj`rscbh.

M= ; L–cjplcadtcbh jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu

sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh ;

M=.4 ; L–cjplcadtcbh jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`)

f–uh fãabr `h 1 F fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s

fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf

M=.> ; L–cjplcadtcbh jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs. d ns`ha`)

f–uh` abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s

cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf

M=.1 ; L–cjplcadtcbh jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`)

f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s


_rbpbsctcbh _6 ; L–cjplcadtcbh jbfír` l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu

sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh.



>4=

L–cjplcadtcbh fdhs ld adtãibrc` f` prbfucts `st uh abha`pt a`htrdl `h jdrg`tchi

pucsqu–`ll` deeàt` `h prbebhfùr ld prbfuatcbh f` rãpbhs`s deeàtcv`s `t ãjbtcbhh`ll`s dchsc

qu` l`s nãhãeca`s qu` l`s cht`rhdut`s r`tc`hh`ht suct` ï lùr cjj`rscbh. _dr dcllùrs, cl s–dvír`

qu` l–cjplcadtcbh cht`rvc`ht ãidl`j`ht sur ld r`ldtcbh cjj`rscbh ‑ vdlùr p`réu`, pucsqu` l`s

nãhãeca`s sbht p`réus fceeãr`jj`ht s`lbh qu` l`s prbfucts / s`rvca`s duxqu`ls cls sbht

dssbacãs, sbht ï ebrt` cjplcadtcbh bu pds. L–cjplcadtcbh r`hebra`rdct l–cht`hsctã fu lc`h

cjj`rscbh ‑ vdlùr p`réu`.

@t pdr abhsãqu`ht, cl s–dict f–ãtufc`r ld jbfãrdtcbh sur l` lc`h `htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t ld

vdlùr p`réu` (utclctdcr` `t mãfbhcqu`).

L`s hùe pr`jcír`s mypbtmís`s pr`hh`ht ld ebrj` sucvdht`.

M3 ; L–cjplcadtcbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt`

vcrtu`l jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr p`réu` f` ld vcsct`

M3.4 ; L–cjplcadtcbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`

abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` f` ld vcsct`

M3.> ; L–cjplcadtcbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`

abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr utclctdcr` f` ld vcsct`.

_rbpbsctcbh _0 ; L–cjplcadtcbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs

l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr p`réu` f` ld vcsct`



>>?

L–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` hbus d p`rjcs f` j`ttr` `h ãvcf`ha` l`s vdrcdnl`s quc sbht mbrs fu

abhtröl` fu sct`, t`ls qu` l` lcù `t l` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct`. A`s fùx vdrcdnl`s pburrdc`ht kbu`r

l` röl` f` jbfãrdtùr fdhs ld r`ldtcbh vdrcdnl`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s p`réu`s ‑ cjj`rscbh. @ll`s

cht`rvc`hh`ht sur l` prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh, a'`st-ï-fcr` qu` l`s ãlãj`hts `h f`mbrs fu sct`

kbu`ht uh röl` sur ld ebrjdtcbh f`s fcj`hscbhs abihctcv`s, ãjbtcbhh`ll`s, s`hsbrc`ll`s `t

sbacdl`s du abhtdat fu sct` jdramdhf.

A–`st pburqubc hbus prbpbsbhs ;

Hbus am`rambhs dlbrs ï t`st`r ;

A` quc r`vc`ht ï t`st`r ;

_rbpbsctcbh _9 ; L` lcù f` ld vcsct` jbfír` l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s

fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh.

M4? ; L` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s


M4?.4 ; L` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs.

d ns`ha`) f–uh fãabr `h 1F fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`sfdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf

M4?.> ; L` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs.

d ns`ha`) f–uh` abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s


M4?.1 ; L` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs.

dns`ha`) f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s


_rbpbsctcbh _5 ; L` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` jbfír` l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh.



>>4

Ld eciur` ac-f`ssbus samãjdtcs` l–mypbtmís` f`s vdrcdnl`s mbrs fu abhtröl` fu sct`jdramdhf.

Eciur` >? ; L` lcù `t l` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` fdhs l` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l

M44 ; L` lcù f` ld vcsct` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s


M44.4 ; L` lcù f` ld vcsct` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs.d ns`ha`) f–uh fãabr `h 1 fcj`hscbhs fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s


M44.4 ; L` lcù f` ld vcsct` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs.

d ns`ha`) f–uh` abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s


M44.4 ; L` lcù f` ld vcsct` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs.

d ns`ha`) f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s


M44

L`s abjpbsdht`s`xpãrc`htc`ll`s

p`réu`s

Fãabr 1F (prãs`haÙs dns`ha`)

Abjjdhf` fàbhtröl` (prãs`ha`

Us dns`ha`)Di`hts vcrtu`ls

(prãs`ha` Usdns`ha`)

Cjj`rscbh

L–`hvcrbhh`j`ht mbrs fuabhtröl` fu sct`

Lcù f` ldvcsct`

Jbj`htf` ldvcsct`

M4?



>>>

CCC. Abhaluscbh f` ld sàtcbh

Ld fùxcíj` sàtcbh f` a` amdpctr` hbus d p`rjcs, fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps, f` pbs`r l`s

nds`s f` hbtr` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l `h cf`htcecdht l`s fceeãr`ht`s vdrcdnl`s f` l–ãtuf` `t lùr

hdtur`. Fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps, `ll` hbus d p`rjcs f` ebrjul`r hbs mypbtmís`s f`

ràm`ram`s. Ac-f`ssbus, l` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l.



>>1

Eciur` >4 ; L` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l f` ld ràm`ram` ;l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`s sct`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

UCQCV@FP

QCV@


Cjj`rscbh

M1

Ld vdlùrmãfbhc u`

Ld vdlùrutclctdcr`

L` abjpbrt`j`htf`s cht`rhdut`s

_r`hfr` abhtdatAbjjdhf`r^`jplcr uhebrjuldcr`


M6

M0

M>

@hvcrbhh`j`ht mbrsfu abhtröl` fu sct`

Lcù f` ld vcsct`

Jbj`ht f` ld vcsct`

L`s jbfãrdtùrschfcvcfu`ls

Cj lcadtcbh

@xp`rtcs ̀

M3M5M= M9

M4

M4? M44

L`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`sp`réu`s

Fãabr 1F (prãs`ha`vs dns`ha`)


vs. dns`ha`)Di`hts vcrtu`ls

(prãs`ha` vs.dns`ha`)



>>6

Fdhs l` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus, uh` syhtmãtcs` f` hbs mypbtmís`s f` ràm`ram`.

M4 ; L`s abjpbsdht`s`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`chelu`ha`ht pbsctcv`j`htl–cjj`rscbh f`s

cht`rhdut`s fdhsl–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`ljdramdhf

M4.4 ; Ld prãs`ha` (vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh fãabr `h 1F fdhsl–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct`, chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjj`rscbh f`s


M4.> ; Ld prãs`ha` (vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh` abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct`, chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjj`rscbhf`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf

M4.1 ; Ld prãs`ha` (vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l fdhsl–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` chelu`ha`, pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjj`rscbh f`scht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf

_4 ; Ld vdlùr p`réu` jãfcdtcs` ld r`ldtcbh cjj`rscbh ‑ abjpbrt`j`ht f`s cht`rhdut`s

M> ; L–cjj`rscbh

chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht làbjpbrt`j`ht f`scht`rhdut`s.

M>.4 ; l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–chstruatcbh fuebrjuldcr` `h lcih`M>.> ; l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f` abhtdat`rld jdrqu`M>.1 ; l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l` nbuam` ï br`cll` M>.6 ; l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f–damdt M>.0 ; l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`rl` sct`

M1 ; L–cjj`rscbh

chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht ldvdlùr p`réu` f` ld vcsct`

M1.4 ; L–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` f`ld vcsct`M1.> ; L–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht ld vdlùr utclctdcr` f` ldvcsct`

M6 ; Ld vdlùrmãfbhcqu` chelu`ha`pbsctcv`j`ht l`

abjpbrt`j`ht f`scht`rhdut`s.

M6.4 ; Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l` r`jplcssdi`fu ebrjuldcr` `h lcih`M6.> ; Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh fàbhtdat`r ld jdrqu`M6.1 ; Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l` nbuam` ï

br`cll`M6.6 ; Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbhf–damdt M6.0 ; Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f`r`vcsct`r l` sct`

M0 ; Ld vdlùr utclctdcr`chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht làbjpbrt`j`ht f`scht`rhdut`s

M0.4 ; Ld vdlùr utclctdcr` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–chstruatcbh fuebrjuldcr` `h lcih`M0.> ; Ld vdlùr utclctdcr` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh fàbhtdat`r ld jdrqu`M0.1 ; Ld vdlùr utclctdcr` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l` nbuam` ï

br`cll`



>>0

M0.6 ; Ld vdlùr utclctdcr` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbhf–damdt M0.0 ; Ld vdlùr utclctdcr` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f`r`vcsct`r l` sct`

_> ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t jbfír` l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` surl–cjj`rscbh

M5 ; L–`xp`rtcs`

f–Cht`rh`t jbfír`pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat

f`s abjpbsdht`s`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`sur l–cjj`rscbh

M5.4 ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh fãabr `h 1F fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fusct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`ljdramdhf.

M5.> ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t jbfír ̀ pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh` abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` fdhsl–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l`

abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhfM5.1 ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld

prãs`ha` (vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fusct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`ljdramdhf

_1 ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs làbht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr p`réu` f` ld vcsct`

M9 ; L–`xp`rtcs` `h

Cht`rh`t chelu`ha`pbsctcv`j`ht, l–cjpdat f`

l–cjj`rscbh fdhs làbht`xt` vcrtu`ljdramdhf sur ld vdlùrp`réu` f` ld vcsct`

M9.4 ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f`l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr

mãfbhcqu` f` ld vcsct`

M9.> L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f`l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr utclctdcr` f` ld vcsct`

_6 ; L–cjplcadtcbh jbfír` l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` sur

l–cjj`rscbh

M= ; L–cjplcadtcbh

jbfír` pbsctcv`j`htl–cjpdat f`s

abjpbsdht`s`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`sur l–cjj`rscbh

M=.4 ; L–cjplcadtcbh jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha`(vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh fãabr `h 1F fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur

l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf M=.> ; L–cjplcadtcbh jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha`(vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh` abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`htfu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`ljdramdhf

M=.1 ; L–cjplcadtcbh jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha`(vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` surl–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf

_0 ; L–cjplcadtcbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`ljdramdhf sur ld vdlùr p`réu` f` ld vcsct`



>>5

M3 ; L–cjplcadtcbh

chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`htl–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh

fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l

jdramdhf sur ld vdlùrp`réu` f` ld vcsct`

M3.4 ; L–cjplcadtcbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f`l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` f` ld vcsct`

M3.> ; L–cjplcadtcbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f`l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr utclctdcr` f` ld vcsct`

_5 ; L` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` jbfír` l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` sur

l–cjj`rscbh

M4? ; L` jbj`ht f` ldvcsct` jbfír`pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat

f`s abjpbsdht`s`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`sur l–cjj`rscbh

M4?.4 ; L` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht, l–cjpdat f`ld prãs`ha` (vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh fãabr `h 1F fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`htfu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`ljdramdhf.

M4?.> ; L` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht, l–cjpdat f`ld prãs`ha` (vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh` abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` fdhsl–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs làbht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf

M4?.1 ; L` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht, l–cjpdat f`ld prãs`ha` (vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`htfu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`ljdramdhf

_9 ; L` lcù f` ld vcsct` jbfír` l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` surl–cjj`rscbh

M44 ; L` lcù f` ld vcsct`jbfír` pbsctcv`j`htl–cjpdat f`s

abjpbsdht`s`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`sur l–cjj`rscbh

M44.4 ; L` lcù f` ld vcsct` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh fãabr `h 1 fcj`hscbhs fdhsl–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs làbht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf

M44.> ; L` lcù f` ld vcsct` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh` abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` fdhsl–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l`

abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhfM44.1 ; L` lcù f` ld vcsct` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` ld

prãs`ha` (vs. d ns`ha`) f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fusct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`ljdramdhf

Vdnl`du >? ; Qyhtmís` f`s mypbtmís`s f` ràm`ram`



>>9

ABHALPQCBH FP AMD_CV^@ CU

Ld pr`jcír` sàtcbh f` a` amdpctr` s–`st vu` dttrcnu`r ld prãs`htdtcbh f` ld pmds`

qudlctdtcv` f` ld ràm`ram`. @ll` hbus d p`rjcs f` ecx`r l`s bnkàtces `t pbs`r l`s qu`stcbhs f` ld

ràm`ram`. @ll` d p`rjcs dussc f–`xpbs`r ld pr`jcír` pdrtc` f` ld jãtmbfblbic` qu` hbus dvbhs

dfbptã`, l`s rãsultdts bnt`hus `t l`s tmíj`s cf`htcecãs. L–dhdlys` tmãjdtcqu` fu abht`hu f`s

fcx muct `htr`tc`hs s`jc fcràtces d fãnbuamã sur scx tmíj`s prchacpdux, ï sdvbcr, l–`xpãrc`ha`

prãs`htã`, l–`xpãrc`ha` p`réu`, l` aőur f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, l–ãvdludtcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, l`s

rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s ̀ t l`s jbfãrdtùrs ãv`htu`ls.

Ld fùxcíj` sàtcbh d ãtã abhsdarã` ï l–ãldnbrdtcbh f–uh jbfíl` abha`ptu`l `t ld

ebrjuldtcbh f`s mypbtmís`s f` ràm`ram`. _bur a` edcr`, hbus dvbhs `xpbsã l`s dx`s f` ld

ràm`ram`, cf`htcecã l`s vdrcdnl`s quc abjpbs`ht hbtr` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l, `h l`s abherbhtdht ï

ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` `t ebrjulã hbs mypbtmís`s f` ràm`ram ,̀ ï sdvbcr, a`ll`s quc trdct`ht f`

l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`, a`ll`s quc abha`rh`ht l` röl`jãfcdtùr f` ld vdlùr pbst-vcsct`, a`ll`s r`ldtcv`s dux rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`s

cht`rhdut`s `t a`ll`s r`ldtcv`s du röl` f`s jbfãrdtùrs fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`. @hech,

hbus dvbhs prãs`htã hbtr` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l `h j`ttdht `h ãvcf`ha` l`s fceeãr`ht`s r`ldtcbhs

quc struatur`ht l`s lc`hs `htr` l`s vdrcdnl`s chctcã`s fdhs hbs trdvdux f` ràm`ram`.



>>=

ABHALPQCBH F@ LD _^@JC@^@ _D^VC@

Ld pr`jcír` pdrtc` f` a` trdvdcl f` ràm`ram` hbus d p`rjcs f` sdvbcr fdhs qu`ll`

j`sur` l`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l (c.`., l`s fcspbsctces f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

`t l` abhtröl` prbaurã pdr l` sct`) pbuvdc`ht chelu`ha`r l` fãrbul`j`ht f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` f`

vcsct` sur uh sct` w`n jdramdhf.

@ll` d ãtã abhsdarã` ï ld prãs`htdtcbh f`s hbtcbhs `t ï l–bridhcsdtcbh f`s abha`pts quc

sbht ï ld nds` f` hbtr` ràm`ram`. Ph` plda` cjpbrtdht` d ãtã dttrcnuã` dux ebhf`j`hts f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh, ï l–cjj`rscbh `t ï l–dfbptcbh f`s tàmhcqu`s f` rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` fdhs l`s sct`s jdramdhfs. L`s rãsultdts f` hbtr` ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` bht ãtã l–bnk`t f`

abherbhtdtcbh dvà ld lcttãrdtur` abrr`spbhfdht`.

Du echdl, ld pr`jcír` pdrtc` f` a`tt` tmís` hbus d eburhc l` adfr` tmãbrcqu` `t

abha`ptu l̀ dfdptã ï ld prbnlãjdtcqu` prbpbsã` `t prãdldnl` ï l–ãldnbrdtcbh f`s mypbtmís`s qu`

hbus t`stbhs fdhs ld fùxcíj` pdrtc`.



>>3

_D^VC@ CC ; JCQ@ @H B@PU^@ F@QUD^CDNL@Q FP JBFÍL@, V@QV F@Q

MS_BVMÍQ@Q @V ^@QPLVDVQ



>1?

CHV^BFPAVCBH F@ LD F@P]C@J@ _D^VC@

Ld fùxcíj` pdrtc` f` a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl s` fãrbul` `h trbcs t`jps. @ll` `st rãs`rvã` ï

ld jcs` `h őuvr` f` l–ãtuf` echdl`, ï ld fcsausscbh `t ï ld prãs`htdtcbh f`s rãsultdts.

L` achqucíj` amdpctr` `st f` hdtur` jãtmbfblbicqu`. Cl `st abhsdarã ï ld prãs`htdtcbh

f`s jãtmbf`s utclcsã`s `t du prã-t`st f` vdlcfdtcbh bu f` r`k`t f` hbs mypbtmís`s f` ràm`ram`.

L` scxcíj` amdpctr`, s` prbpbs` f` t`st`r l`s lc`hs quc abhstctu`ht l` jbfíl` `t l`s

mypbtmís`s quc y sbht rdttdamã`s. Ph` DHBUD s`rd èeàtuã` pbur l` pr`jc`r irbup`

f–mypbtmís s̀ `t l`s jãtmbf`s f–ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s pbur l` r`st` fu jbfíl`.

@hech, l`s rãsultdts cssus fu t`st f–mypbtmís s̀, buvr`ht ld pbrt` du f`rhc`r amdpctr`, quc

`st abhsdarã ï ld jcs` `h p`rspàtcv` f`s abhtrcnutcbhs tmãbrcqu`s, jdhdiãrcdl`s `t

jãtmbfblbicqu`s f` l–ãtuf` dchsc qu–dux lcjct`s f` a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl. F`s vbc`s eutur`s f`

ràm`ram` s`rbht prbpbsã`s ï ld ech fu s`ptcíj` `t f`rhc`r amdpctr`.



>14

_ ^ @ J C @ ^ @ _ D ^ V C

@







AMD_CV^@ CC ; L–CJJ@^QCBH FDHQ PH

@HUC^BHH@J@HV JD^AMDHF


F@ ABHQBJJDVCBH

F @ P ] C @ J @ _ D ^ V

C @



>1>

AMD_CV^@ U ; J@VMBFBLBIC@ @V

JCQ@ @H B@PU^@ F@Q UD^CDNL@QFP JBFÍL@



>16

C. L–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh

L'`xpãrcj`htdtcbh abhstctu` l–uh f`s butcls jdkùrs f` abllàt` f` fbhhã`s prcjdcr`s`h jdrg`tchi (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). @ll` jbnclcs` ï ld ebcs f`s abhstructs jdrg`tchi `t

f`s abha`pts f` psyamblbic` abihctcv` (Frbul`rs `t ^bull`t, >??6). L–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh `st uh`

ebrj` f'chv`stcidtcbh sac`htcecqu` quc « am`ram` ï vãrcec`r f`s r`ldtcbhs f` adus` ï èe`t `htr`

f`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s `t fãp`hfdht`s `h jdhcpuldht `t abhtröldht l`s pr`jcír`s `t `h

bns`rvdht `t j`surdht l`s vdrcdtcbhs abhabjctdht`s f`s f`rhcír`s · (Adlacu, >??1, p. >). @h

èe`t, abhtrdcr`j`ht dux `hquët`s pdr sbhfdi` bó l` am`ramùr h–cht`rvc`ht qu` sur l` pldh f`

l–cht`rrbidtcbh f` ld pbpuldtcbh ãtufcã`, l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh l` edct cht`rv`hcr prãdldnl`j`ht ï

l–bns`rvdtcbh pdr uh` jdhcpuldtcbh f` a`rtdch`s vdrcdnl`s. @vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux (>??3, p. 659)

`xplcqu`ht qu` l` nut `ss`htc`l f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh `st f` « j`ttr` `h ãvcf`ha` f`s r`ldtcbhs

f` adus` ï èe`t `t fbha f` vãrcec`r f`s mypbtmís s̀ f` adusdlctã ·.

Dchsc, hbus fcstchiubhs f` hbjnrùs`s ebrj`s f–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh abjj`

l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh fct` « hdtur`ll` · bu mbrs ldnbrdtbcr` bridhcsã` hbtdjj`ht pbur l`s

jdramãs t`st, l`s prbfucts t`st… `t l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh `h ldnbrdtbcr` prãvu` pbur jdhcpul`r l`s

edatùrs `xpãrc`htc`ls fdhs uh abht`xt` arãã drtcecac`ll`j`ht pdr l` am`ramùr, abjj` pdr

`x`jpl`, l` pdagdichi, l–`jplda`j`ht f`s prbfucts fdhs l` rdybh, ld lujcír`…Vbutèbcs,

fdhs l` ads f–uh` `xpãrcj`htdtcbh `h lcih`, Cht`rh`t amdhi` ld jdhcír` dvà ldqu`ll` bh

rdcsbhh`, bh abjjuhcqu` `t bh ãamdhi`. L` w`n beer` uh adfr` n`duabup plus dttcrdht pbur l`

abjj`ra` qu` l`s systíj`s aldsscqu`s quc l'bht prãaãfã. Cht`rh`t `t l` abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu`

dssur`ht fãsbrjdcs uh nbh suppbrt `t uh nbh t`rrdch f'`xpãrcj`htdtcbh pbur ld ràm`ram` `h

jdrg`tchi (Adlacu, >??1).

Hbtr` bnkàtce abhscst` ï ãtufc`r l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s f`s sct`s

jdramdhfs sur l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh. L`s `xpãrcj`htdtcbhs sur Cht`rh`t s` prãs`ht`ht

abjj` uh` jãtmbfblbic` p`rtch`ht` pbur l–cf`htcecadtcbh f` a` pmãhbjíh`, pucsqu–`ll`s

t`ht`ht f` abuvrcr f`s fbjdch`s vdrcãs quc vbht f'dpplcadtcbhs bpãrdtcbhh`ll`s (`.i., _`l`t,

>??=), kusqu'ï f`s ãtuf`s s`rvdht ld tmãbrc` `t ld ràm`ram` (`.i., Iuìu`h `t Kdabn, >??6).

@ll`s s'chtãr`ss`ht du prba`ssus fãacscbhh`l fu alc`ht `t/bu fu fãacfùr fdhs uh `hvcrbhh`j`ht

vcrtu`l. A`s ràm`ram`s j`tt`ht `h plda` f`s jãadhcqu`s f'`xpãrcj`htdtcbh fceeãr`ht`s `t

fãjbhtr`ht dchsc ld v`rsdtclctã qu'beer`ht l`s tàmhblbic`s Cht`rh`t (Adlacu, >??1).



>10

A`tt` pdrtc` fu amdpctr`, d pbur bnkàtce f` prãs`ht`r l` t`rrdch f` l–ãtuf`, l` pldh

f–`xpãrc`ha` `t l` fãrbul`j`ht f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh. Hbus prãs`ht`rbhs f–dnbrf l` pldh

f–`xpãrc`ha` ambcsc, pucs hbus prãacs`rbhs l`s jbfdlctãs f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh.

C.4. L` t`rrdch f–ãtuf`

Hbtr` ràm`ram` s̀ prbpbs` f–ãtufc`r l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh sur l`s sct`s jdramdhfs

f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. Cl s–dict f–uh typ` pdrtcaulc`r f` sct`s jdramdhfs quc jbnclcs` f`s

tàmhblbic`s ãj`ri`dht`s quc h` sbht pds utclcsã`s pdr ld jdkbrctã f`s `hs`cih`s prãs`ht`s sur

l` w`n. Cl edut fbha fcspbs`r f–uh sct` quc chabrpbr` a`s tàmhcqu`s fdhs ld abha`ptcbh `t

l–bridhcsdtcbh f` sbh cht`reda`, jdcs dussc quc sbct sueecsdjj`ht ràbhhu pbur iãhãr`r uh

trdeca f` erãqu`htdtcbh scihcecadtce. Ld ràm`ram` f` a`s arctír`s pdrtcaulc`rs hbus d iucfã v`rs

l–di`ha ̀Hbvdabj Irbup`.

Hbvdabj Irbup` 44 `st uh` di`ha` f` abjjuhcadtcbh spãacdlcsã` fdhs l` jdrg`tchi

fcràt. Ebhfã` `h 43=5, `ll` prbfuct f`s fcspbsctces cht`rdatces jdramdhfs, prchacpdl`j`ht pbur

l` w`n. Hbvdabj Irbup` arã`, prbfuct, mãn`ri` `t j`sur` f`s fcspbsctces brcichdux f`

abjjuhcadtcbh, quc ebht vcvr` dux vcsctùrs uh` `xpãrc`ha` dvà ld jdrqu`, l` prbfuct bu

l–chstctutcbh. L`s arãdtcbhs f` Hbvdabj Irbup` abjnch`ht f`s tàmhcqu`s 1F dux tàmhcqu`s

trdfctcbhh`ll`s irîa` ï f` hbuv`dux ebrjdts f` abjjuhcadtcbh, hbtdjj`ht l`s vcfãb-

prbirdjj`s cht`rdatces (Uc_C℮). A`s fcspbsctces sbht jultcadhdux `t fbha fãalchdnl`s sur l`

w`n. L` Uc_C℮ d ãtã chv`htã pdr l`s fãv`lbppùrs f` Hbvdabj Irbup`. A` prbirdjj` `h

lcih`, dssbac` f`s p r̀sbhhdi`s rã l̀s bu vcrtu`ls fdhs uh fãabr `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs `t dvà f`

hbjnrùx jãfcds syhamrbhcsãs (c.`., cjdi`s, t`xt`s, sbh). L` ambcx f` a`tt` di`ha` s–`st dvãrã

pdrtcaulcír`j`ht p`rtch`ht lbrs f` ld pmds̀ f–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh.

C.>. L` pldh f–`xpãrc`ha`

L` pldh f–`xpãrc`ha` abhstctu` uh « fcspbsctce `xpãrcj`htdl ebrjdlcsã · (@vrdrf, _rds

`t ^bux, >??3, p. 653). Cl p`rj`t f` fãechcr l`s jbfdlctãs f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh `h fãt`rjchdht

`t kustcecdht l` hbjnr` f–uhctãs `xpãrcj`htdl`s quc s`rbht sbujcs`s ï l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh.

44 mttp;//www.hbvdabj-irbup`.h`t/

http://www.novacom-groupe.net/






>15

@vrdr, _rds `t ^bux (>??3) suiiír`ht qu` l` pldh f–`xpãrc`ha` rãpbhf` dux qu`stcbhs

sucvdht`s ;

- Abjnc`h f` sct`s jdramdhfs edut-cl ambcscr 2

- Tu`ll`s vbht ëtr` l`s vdrcdnl`s abhtrölã`s 2

- Abjnc`h y durd-t-cl f` vdrcdnl`s abhtrölã`s 2

- F` qu`ll` edébh vd-t-bh deeàt`r l`s trdct`j`hts dux uhctãs `xpãrcj`htdl`s 2

Hbtr` pldh `xpãrcj`htdl ebrjdlcsã, s` fbct f` vãrcec`r l`s abhfctcbhs sucvdht`s ;

- L–deeàtdtcbh du mdsdrf f`s trdct`j`hts dux uhctãs `xpãrcj`htdl`s (bu rdhfbjcsdtcbh)

fbct ëtr` r`spàtã`

- Ld pbsscnclctã f` pbuvbcr abhtröl`r l–èe`t f` vdrcdnl`s `xt`rh`s

- Ld pbsscnclctã f` pbuvbcr j`sur`r l–èe`t f–uh bu pluscùrs edatùrs, `t fdhs l` ads f`

pluscùrs edatùrs l–èe`t f` lùr cht`rdatcbh.

L–cjpbrtdha` fu pldh f–`xpãrc`ha` pbur hbtr` ràm`ram` rãscf` fdhs l` abhtröl` f` ld

vdrcdnl` chfãp`hfdht` quc p`rj`t du am`ramùr f` vãrcec`r sbh èe`t sur ld vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht`

(@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux , >??3). Qdamdht qu` l` rãs`du Cht`rh`t p`rj`t f` rãdlcs`r f`s ãtuf`s hbh

chtruscv`s, a'`st-ï-fcr` sdhs qu` l'cht`rhdut` dct abhsac`ha` qu` sbh abjpbrt`j`ht sbct j`surã

(_`l`t, >??=), l`s ncdcs chmãr`hts ï l–ãtuf` s`rbht jbchs cjpbrtdhts pbur l` trdct`j`ht f`s

rãsultdts. @h èe`t, fdhs l`s abhfctcbhs hbrjdl`s f` t`st f–uh` r`ldtcbh adusdl`, l` am`ramùr h`

jdètrcs` pds l`s ncdcs lcãs ï l–`xcst`ha` f` jultcpl`s adus`s pbur `xplcqu`r uh jëj`

pmãhbjíh` bu `habr` l`s ncdcs lcãs du abht`xt` f` abllàt` f`s fbhhã`s (Vmcãtdrt, >??9).

Ld echdlctã f–uh` t`ll` `xpãrcj`htdtcbh `st fbha f` t`st`r l`s r`ldtcbhs adusdl`s fu

jbfíl` f` ràm`ram` cssu f` ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` `t f` l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv`. L` prchacp`

ebhfdj`htdl f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh `st f` edcr` vdrc`r f`s ãlãj`hts f–uh` sctudtcbh `t f`

j`sur`r l`s abhsãqu`ha`s f` a`s vdrcdtcbhs. L–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh edaclct` l`s ãtuf`s adusdl`s.@ll` abhstctu` ld ebrj` ld plus ãvbluã` f` ld ràm`ram` jdrg`tchi (`.i., Adlacu, >??1 7

Iuìu`h ̀ t Kdabn, >??6).

C.1. Jcs` `h plda` fu pldh f–`xpãrc`ha`

Hbtr` `xpãrcj`htdtcbh d pbur bnkàtce prchacpdl f–ãtufc`r l–cjpdat f`s ãlãj`hts

`xpãrc`htc`ls fu sct` f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sur l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh f` l–cht`rhdut` p`hfdhtld vcsct`. Ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` `t l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` hbus bht p`rjcs f–cf`htcec`r trbcs



>19

edatùrs prchacpdux dydht uh cjpdat sur l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` ; l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls, ld

abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `t l` fãabr ï trbcs fcj`hscbhs. Hbus hbus prbpbsbhs dlbrs f` prbaãf`r

ï f`s abjnchdcsbhs f` a`s trbcs edatùrs f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf, dech f–`h ãtufc`r l`s

èe`ts sur l`s rãdatcbhs deeàtcv`s, sbacdl`s, s`hsbrc`ll`s `t abihctcv`s f`s abhsbjjdtùrs `h

lcih`. @h èe`t, pbur dhdlys`r l'cht`rdatcbh `htr` l` abhsbjjdtùr-cht`rhdut` `t l`s

abjpbsdht`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`, l'`xpãrcj`htdtcbh pdr Cht`rh`t

abhstctu` uh jby`h f` ràm`ram` prcvclãicã. Ph` t`ll` jãtmbfblbic` p`rj`t ld rãplcadtcbh f`s

ãtuf`s, ldqu`ll` `st `ss`htc`ll` pbur vãrcec`r ld iãhãrdlctã f`s rãsultdts `t lùr abheãr`r uh`

vdlcfctã `xt`rh` (Adlacu, >??1).

Eciur` >> ; L–bnkàtce prchacpdl f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh.

_bur a` edcr`, uh pldh edatbrc`l abjpl`t d ãtã jcs `h plda`. L`s edatùrs fu pldh

`xpãrcj`htdl f` hbtr` trdvdcl abrr`spbhf`ht dux trbcs abjpbsdht`s f` l–dtjbspmír` fu sct`

jdramdhf, prãdldnl`j`ht cf`htcecã`s. F–uh pbcht f` vu` tàmhcqu`, pbur ld jdhcpuldtcbh f`

a`s trbcs edatùrs, hbus dvbhs ù ràburs du ^cam jãfcd pbur lùr abha`ptcbh `t lùr jcs` `h plda` sur l` sct`.

d. L` ^cam J`fcd

Ld tàmhblbic` utclcsã` pbur l` fãv`lbpp`j`ht f`s sct`s jdramdhfs f` ld rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` `st l` ^cam j`fcd. A`tt` tàmhblbic` d ãtã dfbptã` pdr l`s punlcactdcr`s quc s` sbht

edjclcdrcsãs dvà f`s lbicac`ls abjj` FMVJL, Kdvd, Dkdx `t prchacpdl`j`ht Dfbn` Eldsm.

L`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s p`réu`s

Ndrr` f` abhtröl` (prãs`ha` Us dns`ha`)

Fãabr 1F (prãs`ha` U s dns`ha`)

Di`hts vcrtu`ls (prãs`ha` Us dns`ha`)

Cjj`rscbh



>1=

L` ^cam j`fcd beer` dux dhhbhaùrs uh` ldri` idjj` f` pbsscnclctãs, t`ls qu` l`s mdnclldi`s,

l`s dhcjdtcbhs pl`ch-ãardh `t l`s pbp-ups4>.

L` ^cam j`fcd bu cht`reda` rcam`, `st fãechc abjj` uh s`rvca` chtãirdht fceeãr`hts

jãfcds (sbh, vcfãb, dhcjdtcbhs, cjdi`s), fbht l'cht`rdatcvctã `st scjplcecã` pdr uh` `ribhbjc`

quc s'dppuc` sur l'utclcsdtcbh f`s dhcjdtcbhs `t f` pluscùrs jãfcds. L–`hs`jnl` f`s

jdhcpuldtcbhs bht ãtã èeàtuã`s pdr l`s abha`ptùrs f` Hbvdabj. Cl s–dicssdct f` jdhc`r l`s

abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` irîa` ï f`s dhcjdtcbhs Dfbn` Eldsm. A`s dhcjdtcbhs sbht

l`s tàmhcqu`s l`s plus rãpdhfu`s sur Cht`rh`t. Cl s–dict f` lbicac`ls quc p`rj`tt`ht f` rãdlcs`r

`t f` fceeus`r f`s prãs`htdtcbhs jultcjãfcd syhamrbhcsã`s dssbacdht f`s cjdi`s, f`s

dhcjdtcbhs, f`s sbhs `t f`s vcfãbs. Ld adpdactã fu Eldsm ï syhamrbhcs`r l'dufcb `t/bu ld vcfãb

dvà l`s dutr`s suppbrts `st l'uh` f`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s fu ^cam J`fcd.

L'cht`reda` f` làtur`, Dfbn` Eldsm _ldy`r, `st fcspbhcnl` sbus ld ebrj` f'uh _lui-ch.

@ll` fbct ëtr` chstdllã` fdhs l` hdvcidtùr f` l'cht`rhdut` pbur qu` l` vcfãb-sct` ebhatcbhh`. L`

Eldsm _ldy`r `st prbpbsã pbur uh` irdhf` vdrcãtã f` pldt`-ebrj`s `t systíj`s f'`xplbctdtcbh. Cl

ebhatcbhh` dvà ld jdkbrctã f`s hdvcidtùrs, a` quc prãs`ht` uh dvdhtdi` abhscfãrdnl` pbur

hbtr` ̀ xpãrcj`htdtcbh.

L`s sãqu`ha`s vcfãb jcs`s `h lcih` sucvdht a`tt` tàmhblbic` fbcv`ht ëtr` `habfã`s

fdhs uh ebrjdt spãacecqu` (.elv)41. A` trdvdcl f'`habfdi` pùt ëtr` fcràt`j`ht rãdlcsã pdr

`xpbrtdtcbh ï pdrtcr f` a`rtdchs lbicac`ls f` trdct`j`ht bu f` jbhtdi` vcfãb bu `habr` pdr

l'utclcsdtcbh f–butcls spãacecqu`s dvà f`s ecamc`rs vcfãb f` typ` DUC, J_@I, FU, JBU, `ta.

L`s ecamc`rs arããs pùv`ht ëtr` fceeusãs `h str`djchi bu `h tãlãamdri`j`ht prbir`ssce. Cls sbht

dlbrs sbct stbagãs sãpdrãj`ht, sbct tbtdl`j`ht chtãirãs fdhs l` ecamc`r Eldsm.

_dr dcllùrs, Eldsm pbssíf` uh dutr` dtbut. @h èe`t, cl fcspbs` f` ebhatcbhhdlctãs

dvdhaã`s lcã`s ï l'cht`rdatcvctã f` ld vcfãb dvà l`s dutr`s ãlãj`hts quc abjpbs`ht ld pdi` Y`n

abjj` l` fãal`ham`j`ht dutbjdtcqu` f'ãvíh`j`hts ̀ h aburs f` làtur` (syhamrbhcsdtcbh dvà

f`s t`xt`s, f`s irdpmcqu`s, f`s cjdi`s...), bu `habr` l–chtãirdtcbh f` ld vcfãb fdhs f`sabjpbsctcbhs cht`rdatcv`s.

L` sct` f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh s'dppuc` sur uh` pldt`-ebrj` tàmhblbicqu` spãacdl`j`ht

fãfcã` du str`djchi j`fcd, fbht l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s sbht l`s sucvdht`s;

4> Ph` e`hëtr` sàbhfdcr` quc s'deecam`, pdrebcs sdhs dvbcr ãtã sbllcactã` pdr l'utclcsdtùr (e`hëtr` chtrus`), f`vdht lde`hëtr` f` hdvcidtcbh prchacpdl` lbrsqu'bh hdvciu` sur Cht`rh`t. (www.wcgcp`fcd.er)

41 .elv ; Eldsm vcf`b



>13

- Ph` fceeuscbh f` mdut` qudlctã `t f` irdhf` tdcll` `h baaupdht ld jdkùr` pdrtc` f`

l'`spda` vcsu`l f` l'cht`rhdut` `t trdhsj`ttdht l–uhcqu` j`ssdi` ï l'ãardh f–bó uh

jchcjuj f'`habjnr`j`ht

- Ph` stcjuldtcbh f`s s`hs f` l–utclcsdtùr `h ãj`ttdht f`s sbhs `t f`s cjdi`s

- Cl p`rj`t f'ãvct`r tbus l`s prbnlíj`s tàmhcqu`s lcãs dux làtùrs `t ï l'ãqucp`j`ht

jultcjãfcd f`s cht`rhdut`s

- Cl beer` uh abhtdat fcràt, cjjãfcdt `t syhamrbh` 7 l`s ãqucp`j`hts hãa`ssdcr`s sbht

r`ldtcv`j`ht edacl`s ï edcr` ebhatcbhh`r

- Cl idrdhtct uh` nbhh` `xpbsctcbh `t uh` j`cllùr` abjprãm`hscbh f` l–chebrjdtcbh.

L`s dpplcadtcbhs Eldsm pùv`ht chalur` l` Ucrtudl ^`dlcty Jbf`lchi Ldhiudi` (U^JL)

(Euams `t dl., >??5). Cl s–dict f–uh ldhidi` f` f`sarcptcbh f'uhcv`rs vcrtu`ls `h trbcs

fcj`hscbhs (Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339). @h èe`t, l`s ecamc`rs U^JL abhtc`hh`ht l`s

chebrjdtcbhs quc p`rj`tt`ht du abha`ptùr f` l–dpplcadtcbh f'deecam`r l`s abjpbsdht`s f`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` (ebrj`s, lujcír`s, èe`ts f` prbebhfùr, `ta.). L` U^JL `st fbha uh

ldhidi` f` prãs`htdtcbh.

_dr dcllùrs, a`s tàmhcqu`s p`rj`tt`ht ï l–cht`rhdut` f–dicr ï l–chtãrcùr f`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. @ll`s sbht f` plus `h plus dpplcquã`s pdr l`s

abha`ptùrs f'`hvcrbhh`j`hts vcrtu`ls (M``t`r, 433>), f`s cht`reda`s f'brfchdtùr (`.i.,

Ychfbws, sct`s Cht`rh`t U^JL) `t f`s irdpmcqu`s f` tãlãvcscbh (Hdss , ^``v`s `t L`smh`r,

4335) pbur arã`r l'clluscbh qu` l`s bnk`ts f` jãfcdtcbh bht f` ld prbebhfùr (Lbjndrf `t

Fcttbh, 4339). A`s tàmhcqu`s p`rj`tt`ht dussc, f–djãlcbr`r l`s datcbhs `t l`s cht`rdatcbhs

`htr` l–utclcsdtùr `t l`s abjpbsdht`s fu sct`, hbtdjj`ht, l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls, l` fãabr `h trbcs

fcj`hscbhs `t ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` quc sbht vcsudlcsdnl`s `t daa`sscnl`s `h t`jps rã`l.

n. L` f`scih f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh

L–dvdhtdi` prchacpdl f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh abhscst` ï hùtrdlcs`r f`s sbura`s f`

vdrcdtcbh dutr`s qu` a`ll`s qu` l–bh sbumdct` j`sur`r. Ld jdhcpuldtcbh abhscst` ï jdcht`hcr

abhstdht`s l`s vdrcdnl`s hbh jdhcpulã`s fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha`. L`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s sbht

ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`, l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls `t l` fãabr. A`s vdrcdnl`s abhstctu`ht l`s edatùrs

jdhcpulãs. _luscùrs v`rscbhs fceeãr`ht`s f–uh sct` w`n jdramdhf sbht dlbrs arãã`s. Cl s–dict

cac, f` jbfcec`r ï amdqu` ebcs uh` jbfdlctã f–uh stcjulus. L–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh eburhct du



>6?

am`ramùr uh butcl f` abllàt` f`s fbhhã`s quc rãfuct du jdxcjuj l–chacf`ha` f–ãv`htu`ls

ncdcs.

@lãj`ht fu sct` J`sur`

L` fãabr Jdhcpuldtcbh ; >F Us 1F

L`s di`hts vcrtu`ls Jdhcpuldtcbh ; prãs`ha` Us dns`ha`

Ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` Jdhcpuldtcbh ; prãs`ha` Us dns`ha`

Vdnl`du >4 ; Ld jdhcpuldtcbh f`s ãlãj`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls f` l–ãtuf`

L` f`scih f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh abjpr`hf fbha trbcs edatùrs. Cl y d fùx hcv`dux f`jbfdlctãs pbur amdqu` edatùr. Dchsc, uh pldh edatbrc`l abjpl`t `st jcs `h plda`. Cl cjplcqu` ld

abha`ptcbh f` >x>x> : = v`rscbhs f–uh sct` w`n abjj`racdl s`lbh l` tdnl`du quc suct.

U`rscbh fu sct` Fãabr Di`hts vcrtu`ls46 Abjjdhf` f`

abhtröl`

4 >F + +

> >F + -

1 >F - +

6 >F - -

0 1F + +

5 1F + -

9 1F - +

= 1F - -

Vdnl`du >> ; L` pldh edatbrc`l abjpl`t f` l–ãtuf`

46 + ; dvà 7 - ; sdhs.



>64

a. L`s fãalchdcsbhs fu sct` f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh

Dech f` rãdlcs`r l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh, muct fãalchdcsbhs bht ãtã abhéu`s. L`s fceeãr`ht`s

v`rscbhs fu fcspbsctce trdct`ht f` ld jëj` beer` `t bht l` jëj` abht`hu (Dhh`x` =). Cl s–dict

f–uh `spda` abhsdarã du fcspbsctce Qa`llc`r 40 . A`tt` j`sur` abha`rh` l`s pdrtcaulc`rs quc

chv`stcss`ht fdhs uh lbi`j`ht hùe bu dhac`h, f`stchãs ï ld lbadtcbh. ABI@FCJ45 prbpbs`

f–daabjpdih`r l`s pdrtcaulc`rs fdhs l` ambcx f` a`t chv`stcss`j`ht, `t prbpbs` f`s rãscf`ha`s

f` qudlctã. Vbutèbcs, l` fcspbsctce Qa`llc`r f`vrdct ãvblu`r `h >?4> `t vd ëtr` prbndnl`j`ht

jbchs dvdhtdiùx. ABI@FCJ abjjuhcqu` dutbur f` a` pbcht pbur ld edcr` abhhdctr` `t

daquãrcr f`s alc`hts dvdht ld ech >?44. L` j`ssdi` prchacpdl ; « a`tt` j`sur` p`rj`t f` rãfucr`

l`s cjpöts `h chv`stcssdht fdhs uh nc`h cjjbnclc`r hùe ; hbus saãhdrcsbhs l` qubtcfc`h f`s

euturs rãscf`hts fdhs l`s jbchfr`s fãtdcls, pbur prbpbs`r f`s nc`hs f` vdlùr quc s–chtíir`ht

pdredct`j`ht du pdysdi` urndch ̀ hvcrbhhdht ·.

D pdrtcr f–uh` v`rscbh prchacpdl`0 `t irîa` ï l–dcf` f–uh` ãqucp` f` spãacdlcst`s f`

Hbadabj, hbus dvbhs rãilã l`s pdrdjítr`s f` l'`xpãrc`ha`, a'`st ï fcr` abheciur`r `h ebhatcbh

f`s n`sbchs f` ld ràm`ram` l`s vdrcdnl`s ; fãabr `h 1F 7 dvdtdr 7 abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`,

abjj` prbpbsã fdhs l` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l.

L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus cllustr` l`s fceeãr`ht`s fãalchdcsbhs fu sct` f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh.

40 Ph dj`hf`j`ht quc r`jplda` l`s lbcs ^bnc`h `t lbc Nbrlbb `t sbutc`h l'chv`stcss`j`ht lbadtce prcvã, `h arcs`

f`pucs l` fãnut f` ld arcs` echdhacír`. Ld lbc Qa`llc`r p`rj`t uh` rãfuatcbh f'cjpöt ãqucvdl`ht` ï >0 % fujbhtdht fu prcx fu nc`h cjjbnclc`r, fdhs ld lcjct` f` 1?? ??? € `t f'uh `hidi`j`ht f` lbadtcbh f` 3 dhs. 45 mttp;//www.abi`fcj-lbi`j`ht.abj/cjjbnclc`r/cjjbnclc`rRr`scf`htc`l/hbsRabhs`cls/LbcRQa`llc`rRer.mtjl

http://www.cogedim-logement.com/immobilier/immobilier_residentiel/nos_conseils/Loi_Scellier_fr.html






>6>

U`rscbh Fãabr Di`htsvcrtu`ls

Abjjdhf`f` abhtröl`

Lc`h Cht`rh`t

4 (49) >F + + mttp;//hvaf`v.h`tvcf`babj.h`t/abi`fcj/tm`s`/_ldy`rR4/chf`xRebrjRtm4.mtjl

> (4=) >F + -mttp;//hvaf`v.h`tvcf`babj.h`t/abi`fcj/tm`s`/_ldy`rR>/chf`xRebrjRtm>.mtjl

1 (43) >F - +mttp;//hvaf`v.h`tvcf`babj.h`t/abi`fcj/tm`s`/_ldy`rR1/chf`xRebrjRtm1.mtjl

6 (>?) >F - -mttp;//hvaf`v.h`tvcf`babj.h`t/abi`fcj/tm`s`/_ldy`rR6/chf`xRebrjRtm6.mtjl

0 (>4) 1F + + mttp;//hvaf`v.h`tvcf`babj.h`t/abi`fcj/tm`s`/_ldy`rR0/chf`xRebrjRtm0.mtjl

5 (>>) 1F + -mttp;//hvaf`v.h`tvcf`babj.h`t/abi`fcj/tm`s`/_ldy`rR5/chf`xRebrjRtm5.mtjl

9 (>1) 1F - +mttp;//hvaf`v.h`tvcf`babj.h`t/abi`fcj/tm`s`/_ldy`rR9/chf`xRebrjRtm9.mtjl

= (>6) 1F - -mttp;//hvaf`v.h`tvcf`babj.h`t/abi`fcj/tm`s`/_ldy`rR=/chf`xRebrjRtm=.mtjl

Vdnl`du >1 ; L` pldh edatbrc`l fu sct` ABI@FCJ Lbc Qa`llc`r

L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus, eburhc uh` r`prãs`htdtcbh f`s pldhs edatbrc`ls f`l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh.

49mttps;//fbas.ibbil`.abj/spr`dfsm``t/vc`webrj2ml:er&ebrjg`y:f@EJ[?H@HVHySzUIS>w1fg?tdE34fha5JT#icf:? 4=mttps;//fbas.ibbil`.abj/spr`dfsm``t/vc`webrj2ml:er&ebrjg`y:fFS1JENGV>b4VU@tLUHTLUUs[Umvdg@5JT#icf:? 43mttps;//fbas.ibbil`.abj/spr`dfsm``t/vc`webrj2ml:er&ebrjg`y:fEP>YEUY^P0rd>fPH]N^a4lySP0lQE@5JT#icf:? >?mttps;//fbas.ibbil`.abj/spr`dfsm``t/vc`webrj2ml:er&ebrjg`y:f@lCV4C>PYT6P>UCQ4NH[@[B^lfzPE@5JT#icf:? >4mttps;//fbas.ibbil`.abj/spr`dfsm``t/vc`webrj2ml:er&ebrjg`y:fA?1TPHy^j[Gn>mbJ?a1n@04`]KcVE@5JD#icf:? >>

mttps;//fbas.ibbil`.abj/spr`dfsm``t/vc`webrj2ml:er&ebrjg ̀ y:fEN6Y@fQJY3lHlNEYE[e]4J1[Pa6BYa5JD#icf:? >1mttps;//fbas.ibbil`.abj/spr`dfsm``t/vc`webrj2ml:er&ebr jg`y:f@E4d?HKYgEFBMHTaP^YdMpkdPg1`Ya5JD#icf:? >6mttps;//fbas.ibbil`.abj/spr`dfsm``t/vc`webrj2ml:er&ebrjg`y:f@gt[F[>U@KUPYUIP]i1fUU@SUgznYa5JD#icf:?

http://nvcdev.netvideocom.net/cogedim/these/Player_1/index_form_th1.html
























https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/viewform?hl=fr&formkey=dEFMZ0NENTNyYzVGY2w3dk0taF91dnc6MQ#gid=0




https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/viewform?hl=fr&formkey=dDY3MFBKT2o1TVEtLVNQLVVsZVhvakE6MQ#gid=0





https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/viewform?hl=fr&formkey=dFU2WFVWRU5ra2dUNXBRc1lyYU5lSFE6MQ#gid=0




https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/viewform?hl=fr&formkey=dElIT1I2UWQ4U2VIS1BNZEZORldzUFE6MQ#gid=0




https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/viewform?hl=fr&formkey=dC03QUNyRmZKb2hoM0c3bE51eXJiTFE6MA#gid=0




https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/viewform?hl=fr&formkey=dFB4WEdSMW9lNlBFWFZfX1M3ZUc4OWc6MA#gid=0







https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/viewform?hl=fr&formkey=dEF1a0NJWkFDOHNQcURWaHpjaUk3eWc6MA#gid=0




https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/viewform?hl=fr&formkey=dEktZDZ2VEJVUWVGUXg3dVVEYVkzbWc6MA#gid=0































>61

_ldhAbjpbsdht ̀ xpãrc`htc`l jdhcpulã

U`rscbhFãabr

Di`htsvcrtu`ls


4 >F + +

> >F + -

1 >F - +

6 >F - -



>66

0 1F + +

5 1F + -

9 1F - +

= 1F - -

Vdnl`du >6 ; L` pldh edatbrc`l fu sct` ABI@FCJ (adptur`s f–ãardh)



>65

CC.>. L` ambcx fu typ` f` jãfcd f–dfjchcstrdtcbh fu qu`stcbhhdcr`

Ld ràm`ram` `h sac`ha`s f` i`stcbh j`t `h ãvcf`ha` pluscùrs typ`s f` jãfcds pbur

l–dfjchcstrdtcbh f–uh qu`stcbhhdcr` (tãlãpmbhcqu`, pbstdl, eda` ï eda` bu ãlàtrbhcqu`). Br,hbtr` ràm`ram` s–dttdam` pdrtcaulcír`j`ht dux sct`s jdramdhfs, dux p`ra`ptcbhs `t dux

rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`s cht`rhdut`s p`hfdht `t dprís l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`. _bur ld

pmds` qudhtctdtcv` f` a`ll`-ac, cl `st dfãqudt f–bpt`r pbur Cht`rh`t, abjj` typ` f` jãfcd

f–dfjchcstr dtcbh f` hbtr` qu`stcbhhdcr`.

Ld jãtmbfblbic` f` sbhfdi` pdr Cht`rh`t s` prãs`ht` abjj` uh jbf` p`rtch`ht f`

abllàt` f` fbhhã`s. Fcv`rs`s ãtuf`s scihdl`ht qu` a`tt` jãtmbfblbic` beer` ãidl`j`ht ld

pbsscnclctã f'uh` stdhfdrfcsdtcbh `t f'uh` abjpdrdnclctã f` ld j`sur` (Vmcãtdrt, >??9). L`

jãfcd Cht`rh`t edaclct` l` trdvdcl f` ràu`cl f` fbhhã`s qudhtctdtcv`s. A`p`hfdht, cl `st pbsscnl`

f–`hvcsdi`r Cht`rh`t abjj` uh` hbuv`ll` edébh f` j`h`r f`s `hquët`s, chtrbfucr` f`s

spãacecactãs utcl`s t̀ `h r`stctu`r l`s rãsultdts. Cl `st ãidl`j`ht `hvcsdi`dnl` f` abhscfãr r̀

qu–Cht`rh`t jbfcec` ebrt`j`ht ld r`ldtcbh bns`rvdtùr - rãpbhfdht, `h luc abheãrdht uh`

fyhdjcqu` p`rtch`ht` (Idldh `t U`rh`tt`, >??? 7 Iucllbux, Iduz`ht` `t Gdlcgd, >???,

Mbbhdgg`r ̀ t Adrdybh, >??3).

Fdhs a`tt` bptcqu`, cl s`jnl` pbsscnl` f` edcr` cht`rv`hcr Cht`rh`t f` edébh fyhdjcqu`

ï achq baadscbhs fdhs ld jcs` `h őuvr` f` ld ràm`ram` (Iuìu`h `t Sdjc, >??9) ;

- Lbrs f` ld abhstruatcbh fu qu`stcbhhdcr`, Cht`rh`t p`rj`t f–djãlcbr`r ld pmds` f` prã-t`st

- Lbrs f` l–dfjchcstrdtcbh fu qu`stcbhhdcr`, Cht`rh`t p`rj`t f` edaclct`r l` prba`ssus

f–bnt`htcbh f`s fbhhã`s

- Lbrs f` ld fceeuscbh f`s rãsultdts, Cht`rh`t p`rj`t f` edaclct`r l` prba`ssus f` r`stctutcbh

f`s rãpbhs`s

- _bur djãlcbr`r l–b nt`htcbh f` hbuv`ll`s fbhhã`s

- Eãfãr`r uh` abjjuhdutã f` am`ramùrs vcd Cht`rh`t.

CC.>.4. L`s tàmhcqu`s f–`hquët`s pdr Cht`rh`t

Ld ràm`ram` `h sac`ha`s f` i`stcbh cf`htcec` trbcs typ`s f` qu`stcbhhdcr`s `h lcih`

dssbacãs ï f`s suppbrts fceeãr`hts. L'cfã` `st f` sunstctu`r l` trdfctcbhh`l qu`stcbhhdcr` pbstdl

pdr l'utclcsdtcbh `xaluscv` f'Cht`rh`t.



>69

- Jãtmbf` 4 ; Cl s–dict f–`hvby`r ï l–cht`rrbiã, `h pcía` kbcht` f–uh j`ssdi`, uh

qu`stcbhhdcr` du ebrjdt Ybrf. L–cht`rrbiã fbct dlbrs rãpbhfr` sur l` suppbrt ãlàtrbhcqu`

`t r`hvby`r l` fbauj`ht du am`ramùr pdr `-jdcl.

- Jãtmbf` > ; Ph qu`stcbhhdcr` pùt ëtr` dssbacã ï uh prbirdjj` jchcjdl (c.`.,

`surv`ysprb, wysuebrjs, ircjj`rsbet, `ta.), `hsuct` `hvbyã `h pcía`- kbcht` f–uh j`ssdi`

ãlàtrbhcqu`. L–cht`rhdut` `xãaut` dlbrs a` prbir djj` `t trdhsj`t l`s rãsultdts pdr

j`ssdi`rc`.

- Jãtmbf` 1 ; Ph` jãtmbf` f` plus `h plus rãpdhfu` fdhs l`s `hquët`s `h lcih`, abhscst` ï

fãv`lbpp`r l` qu`stcbhhdcr` MVJL>0 sur uh sct` spãacdlcsã `h deecamdht uh qu`stcbhhdcr`

sur uh sct` w`n (c.`., Ibbil` Fbas, Qurv`y Jbhg`y, `ta.). Cl s–dict dlbrs f–chact`r l`s

chfcvcfus ï alcqu`r sur l` lc`h url fu qu`stcbhhdcr`, sbct `h lùr `hvbydht uh `-jdcl pbur

lùr f`jdhf`r f` s` abhhàt`r du sct`, sbct `h edcsdht eciur`r l` lc`h fu qu`stcbhhdcr` sur l`

sct` jëj` f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh.

Iuìu`h `t Sdjc (>??6, p. 5) ebht uh abjpdrdtce `htr` l` qu`stcbhhdcr` aldsscqu` `t l`

qu`stcbhhdcr` sur sct`. A`s dutùrs j`tt`ht `h ãvcf`ha` l` prba`ssus f–dfjchcstrdtcbh fu

qu`stcbhhdcr` ̀ h lcih`.

>0 Myp`rt`xt Jdrgup Ldhiudi` ; l` ebrjdt f` fbhhã`s abhéu pbur r`prãs`ht`r l`s pdi`s w`n. A–`st uh ldhidi` f` ndlcsdi` quc p`rj`t f–ãarcr` f` l–myp`rt`xt`. MVJL p`rj`t f` struatur`r sãjdhtcqu`j`ht `t f` j`ttr` `h ebrj`

l` abht`hu f`s pdi`s, f–chalur` f`s r`ssbura`s jultcjãfcds fbht f`s cjdi`s, f`s ebrjuldcr`s f` sdcsc`, `t f`sãlãj`hts prbirdjjdnl`s. mttp;//er.wcgcp`fcd.bri

http://fr.wikipedia.org/






>6=

Eciur` >1 ; L` prba`ssus f–dfjchcstrdtcbh fu qu`stcbhhdcr`

_bur l` ads prãacs f` hbtr` ràm`ram`, ld trbcscíj` tàmhcqu` s` prãs`ht` abjj` ld plus

èecada` pbur uh` `xpãrcj`htdtcbh `h lcih`. A`tt` tàmhcqu` `st ld plus cht`rdatcv` `t p`rj`t f`

ràu`cllcr f`s chebrjdtcbhs plus prãacs`s sur l`s rãdatcbhs, l`s ãjbtcbhs `t l`s ãtdts deeàtces f`l–cht`rhdut` suct` ï sbh `xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`.

@h a` quc abha`rh` ld p`rtch`ha` f` l'dfjchcstrdtcbh f` qu`stcbhhdcr`s MVJL, `h

t`rj`s f` vdlùr f`s rãpbhs`s, cl h'y d pds f` fceeãr`ha`s hbtdnl`s, abjpdrdtcv`j`ht ï uh`

`hquët` `h eda` ï eda` (Idhdssdlc `t Jbsadrbld, >??6 7 Uddst, >??1). A–`st a`tt` jãtmbf` quc d

ãtã r`t`hu` adr l–daaís du qu`stcbhhdcr` `st trís scjpl`, jdcs dussc adr `ll` `haburdi` l`s

chfcvcfus ï rãpbhfr` rdpcf`j`ht. @h t`rj`s qudhtctdtces, a` typ` f'dfjchcstrdtcbh abhstctu` uh

jby`h prcvclãicã f` ràu`cl f` fbhhã`s pbur l` am`ramùr (Iuìu`h `t Sdjc, >??9 7 Uddst,>??1). L'myp`rjãfcd d dppbrtã l`s chirãfc`hts `ss`htc`ls pbur ld jcs` `h plda` f`s

Am`ramùr ^ãpbhfdht

Jãtmbf` 4 `t > ; Aburrc`r ãlàtrbhcqu`

^`hvbc f`s rãpbhs`s ïl–`hquëtùr

^ãa`ptcbh fu qu`stcbhhdcr`fdhs ld nbct` jdcl

@hvbc fu qu`stcbhhdcr` fdhsuh `-jdcl

^ãa`ptcbh f`s rãpbhs`s fdhsld nbct` jdcl f` l–`hquëtùr

^ãpbhs` sur uh aburrc`r f`r`tbur

Jãtmbf` 1 ; Tu`stcbhhdcr` MVJL

^ãa`ptcbh fdhs ld nbct` jdcl_dssdi` sur l` lc`h

Chvctdtcbh ï rãpbhfr` duqu`stcbhhdcr` ;

- _dr aburrc`r- _dr lcst` f` fceeuscbh- _dr chvctdtcbh pbstã`- _dr lc`h sur sct`

^ãa`ptcbh f`s rãpbhs`s fdhsuh` nds` f` fbhhã`s

Abhh`xcbh sur l` sct`,rãpbhs` `h lcih` `t vdlcfdtcbh

Qct` dvà qu`stcbhhdcr`



>0?

CC.>.>. L`s abhscih`s tàmhcqu`s lcã`s ï Cht`rh`t

L`s spãacdlcst`s `h systíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh (`.i., ^`cx, >??1 7 >??0) scihdl`ht qu`

a`rtdchs prbnlíj`s pùv`ht surv`hcr lbrs f` ld hdvcidtcbh sur uh` pdi` w`n. Jcs `h lcih` suruh sct` spãacdlcsã fdhs l`s qu`stcbhhdcr`s ãlàtrbhcqu`s. D a`t èe`t, fùx ãvdludtcbhs

tàmhcqu`s aruacdl`s quc fbcv`ht ëtr` rãdlcsã`s, dvdht l` ldha`j`ht f–uh qu`stcbhhdcr` ;

- Ld qudlctã fu s`rvùr mãn`ri`dht l` qu`stcbhhdcr` ; L` sct` w`n quc mãn`ri` hbtr`

qu`stcbhhdcr` fbct ëtr` adpdnl` f` suppbrt`r uh elux cjpbrtdht f` fbhhã`s r`éu`s. A`tt`

abhfctcbh p`rj`t f` hbus dssur`r qu`, l–daaís du qu`stcbhhdcr` `t l` stbagdi` f`s rãpbhs`s

h` sbc`ht pds lcjctãs pdr ld vct`ss` f` abhh`xcbh, bu pdr l–deecamdi` f–uh j`ssdi` f–`rrùr

pbur l`s rãpbhfdhts sur l` sct` fu qu`stcbhhdcr`. Hbus dvbhs fbha f÷ t`st`r l–mãn`riùr

(mttps;//fbas.ibbil`.abj/) quc s–`st rãvãlã p`rebrjdht.

- L–chtãirctã f` ld jcs` `h pdi` fu qu`stcbhhdcr` `t sbh fãrbul`j`ht ; Ld prbaãfur`

prãabhcsã` pdr ^bldhf (>??1) abhscst` ï `xpãrcj`ht`r l` qu`stcbhhdcr` dvdht l–ãtuf` `h l`

sbuj`ttdht ï f`s cht`rhdut`s dydht uh` abheciurdtcbh fceeãr`ht` `h t`rj`s f` rãs`du, f`

hdvcidtùr `t f` pbst`. Hbus dvbhs fbha èeàtuã a`tt` vãrcecadtcbh `h dfjchcstrdht l`

qu`stcbhhdcr` `h lcih` ï f`s rãpbhfdhts dydht f`s brfchdtùrs f` jdrqu`s fceeãr`ht`s, f`

systíj`s f–`xplbctdtcbh fceeãr`hts (Ychfbws, Jda, Lyhux, `ta.), f` hdvcidtùrs fceeãr`hts

(Jbzclld Ecrèbx, Cht`rh`t `xplbr`r, Ibbil` amrbj`, `ta.) `t f` abheciurdtcbhs fceeãr`ht`s.

_dr dcllùrs, hbus dvbhs pbsã fùx qu`stcbhs lbrs fu prã-t`st tàmhcqu` ;

« Dv`z-vbus ù f`s fceecaultãs tàmhcqu`s pbur daaãf`r ï a` qu`stcbhhdcr` sur vbtr` pbst`

chebrjdtcqu` 2 · 7 « Dv`z-vbus ù f`s fceecaultãs tàmhcqu`s dvà vbtr` pbst` chebrjdtcqu`

pbur rãpbhfr` ï uh` f`s qu s̀tcbhs pbsã`s 2 ·.

D l–cssu` f` a` t`st, duauh f`s chfcvcfus cht`rrbiãs h–d r`habhtrã f` prbnlíj`s f`

hdvcidtcbh. L–chtãirctã f` ld jcs` `h pdi` fu qu`stcbhhdcr` `t sbh fãrbul`j`ht sbht vãrcecãs.

CC.1. Ld pbpuldtcbh ãtufcã`

L`s `hquët`s `h lcih` p`rj`tt`ht f–bnt`hcr f`s chebrjdtcbhs prãacs`s sur f`s

pbpuldtcbhs trís hbjnrùs`s, dvà f`s tdcll`s f–ãamdhtcllbh trís jbf`st`s (@vrdrf, _rds `t

^bux, >??3). Vbutèbcs, l–bnkàtce prchacpdl f` hbtr` ràm`ram` `st f–cf`htcec`r l`s ãjbtcbhs

r`ss`htc`s, l`s rãdatcbhs sunkàtcv`s pdr l`squ`ll`s pdss`ht l`s abhsbjjdtùrs `t f` qudhtcec`r

https://docs.google.com/






>04

l`s abjpbrt`j`hts abhsãautces ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`, lbrsqu` a`s f`rhc`rs

vcsct`ht uh sct` jdramdhf quc jbnclcs` f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. Ld pbpuldtcbh f`s

rãpbhfdhts pdrtcacpdht ï l–`xpãrc`ha` prãs`ht` dlbrs l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s sucvdht`s ;

- F`s utclcsdtùrs f'Cht`rh`t

- F`s chfcvcfus edjclc`rs f` ld ldhiu` erdhédcs`

- @v`htu`ll`j`ht f`s abhsbjjdtùrs sur Cht`rh`t

- F`s chfcvcfus dydht vcsctã l` sct` spbhtdhãj`ht

- F`s vcsctùrs edjclc`rs ï ABI@FCJ

L` jbf` f` acnldi` p`rj`t f–dvbcr f`s rãpbhs`s p`rtch`ht`s `t uh jbchfr` rcsqu` f`

ncdcs. L` arctír` f` qudlctã f` ld acnl` chelu`ha` ebrt`j`ht l` tdux f` rãpbhs` `t ld vdlcfctã f`

l–ãtuf` (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). L`s `hquët`s sur Cht`rh`t ebhatcbhh`ht f–dutdht jcùx

qu` ld acnl` `st adptcv`, sbct pdr uh lc`h abhtrdatu`l, sbct pdr uh lc`h f–chtãrët cht`llàtu`l bu

deeàtce (^blldhf, >??1). Fdhs l` adfr` f` a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl, l` pdrt`hdrcdt dvà Hbvdabj

Dssbacãs (l–di`ha` f` abjjuhcadtcbh abha`ptrca` fu sct` `xpãrcj`htdl), hbus d p`rjcs

f–daaãf`r dux nds`s f` fbhhã`s alc`hts f` ABI@FCJ, dech f–dvbcr f`s rãpbhs`s f–uh hcv`du

f` qudlctã ãl`vã. @h èe`t, a` pdrt`hdrcdt hbus dutbrcs` ï daaãf`r ï f`s acnl`s ecdnl`s,

pucsqu–`ll`s vcsct`rbht l` sct` f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh suct` ï l–`-jdcl `hvbyã `t dvdht f` r`jplcr

l` qu`stcbhhdcr`.

_`hfdht a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl, hbus dvbhs sbumdctã prcvclãic`r l–`hquët` duprís

f–cht`rhdut`s - abhsbjjdtùrs. A` ambcx s` kustcec` f–dnbrf pdr uh` ebrt` vblbhtã f` rãdlcsj`

`t `hsuct` pdr l` sbumdct f` idrf`r l` abhsbjjdtùr echdl du aőur f` ld rãel`xcbh. _dr dcllùrs,

l–ãtuf` fu abhsbjjdtùr du a`htr` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh, hbus s`rvcrd plus tdrf

fdhs l` fãv`lbpp`j`ht f`s dppbrts jdhdiãrcdux `t tmãbrcqu`s f` a`tt` ãtuf`.

CCC. L`s chstruj`hts f` j`sur`

Fdhs a`tt` sbus-sàtcbh, hbus prãs`ht`rbhs l–`hs`jnl` f`s j`sur`s utclcsã`s fdhs l`

adfr` f` a`tt` ràm`ram`.

CCC.4. L`s j`sur`s utclcsã`s

Fdhs l` adfr` f` a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl, l`s j`sur`s f`s fceeãr`hts abhstructs bht ãtãfãrcvã`s f'ãam`ll`s prã`xcstdht`s fdhs ld lcttãrdtur` `t dfdptã`s du abht`xt` f` a`tt` ãtuf`.



>0>

L–`hs`jnl` f`s fcj`hscbhs f` l–ãtuf` bht ãtã j`surã`s sur uh` ãam`ll` f` Lcg`rt f–daabrf ï

s`pt pbchts. A`tt` ãam`ll` f–ãvdludtcbh p`rj`t du rãpbhfdht f–chfcqu`r sbh bpchcbh bu sbh

dttctuf` pbur amdqu` prbpbsctcbh. D amdqu` ct`j, `st dssbacã` uh` ãam`ll` `h s`pt pbchts quc

ebrj` uh abhtchuuj `htr` uh pöl` hãidtce (pds fu tbut f–daabrf) `t uh pöl` pbsctce (tbut ï edct

f–daabrf) (vbcr tdnl`du 4=). Abhscfãrã` abjj` uh` vdrcdnl` f–cht`rvdll`s, a`tt` ãam`ll` `st

trdfctcbhh`ll`j`ht ld plus utclcsã` `h sac`ha`s f` i`stcbh. @ll` beer` uh trdct`j`ht stdtcstcqu`

f` qudlctã `t uh` irdhf` rcam`ss` f` l–dhdlys` (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux >??3).

Amdqu` ãam`ll` f` j`sur` s`rd sbujcs` dux t`sts f` ecdnclctã `t f` vdlcfctã, fdhs l` nut

f` vãrcec`r sd vdlcfctã jãtmbfblbicqu` `t s`s qudlctãs psyambjãtrcqu`s.

_ds futbut

f–daabrf

_lutöt pds

f–daabrf

Lãiír`j`ht

pds f–daabrf Hùtr`

Lãiír`j`ht

f–daabrf

_lutöt

f–daabrf

Vbut ïedct

f–daabrf

Ct`j 4 > 1 6 0 5 9

Vdnl`du >0 ; L–ãam`ll` f` Lcg`rt

CCC.>. L`s vdrcdnl`s fãp`hfdht`s

Ld ràm`ram` `h jdrg`tchi d p`rjcs l` fãv`lbpp`j`ht f` hbjnrùs`s ãam`ll`s pbur

j`sur`r l`s abha`pts qu` hbus dvbhs cf`htcecãs fdhs a` trdvdcl. Fdhs a` quc suct, hbus

prãs`htbhs l s̀ ãam`ll`s, qu` hbus dvbhs utclcsã`s dchsc qu` ld kustcecadtcbh f` hbtr` ambcx.

d. L–cjj`rscbh

L–ãam`ll` f` l–cjj`rscbh `st cssu` f`s trdvdux f` Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t

Ibtt`ldhf (>??=). A`tt` ãam`ll` d ãtã ãldnbrã` fdhs l` abht`xt` f–uh` `xpãrc`ha`

achãjdtbirdpmcqu`. Ld ràm`ram` jbhtr` qu` a`t chstruj`ht f` j`sur` prãs`ht` f`s qudlctãs

psyambjãtrcqu s̀ sdtcsedcsdht`s. Vrbcs `hvcrbhh`j`hts achãjdtbirdpmcqu`s sbht abhscfãrãs

dech f` s–dssur`r f` ld rbnust`ss` f`s butcls f` j`sur` `t f` j`ttr` `h ãvcf`ha` f`s vdrcdtcbhs

f–cht`hsctã f`s vdrcdnl`s `t f` ld ebra` f`s lc`hs (Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf,

>??=). L–ãam`ll` f` j`sur` f` l–cjj`rscbh `st abjpbsã` f` scx ct`js ;



>01

- « L` sct` d arãã uh jbhf` hbuv`du quc d nrutdl`j`ht fcspdru ï ld ech f` ld vcsct` ·

- « _dr jbj`hts, k–dc p`rfu abhsac`ha` f` a` quc j–`htburdct ·

- « _`hfdht ld vcsct`, jbh abrps ãtdct f`vdht l–ãardh jdcs jbh `sprct ãtdct fdhs l` jbhf`

arãã pdr l` sct` ·

- « L` sct` j–d edct bunlc`r l`s rãdlctãs fu jbhf` `xtãrcùr ·

- « _`hfdht ld abhsultdtcbh fu sct`, a` quc s–ãtdct pdssã dvdht ld vcsct` bu a` quc s`

pdss`rdct dprís h` abjptdct plus ·

- « Ld vcsct` fu sct` j–d edct bunlc`r jbh `hvcrbhh`j`ht cjjãfcdt ·.

A`tt` ãam`ll` prãs`ht` d prcbrc f`s qudlctãs psyambjãtrcqu`s sdtcsedcsdht`s.

Fdhs ld lcttãrdtur`, hbus r`trbuvbhs uh` dutr` ãam`ll` f` l–cjj`rscbh, dfdptã` f`

l–ãam`ll` ï trbcs ct`js chtctulã` « ãvdscbh · f` Jdtmwcag `t ^cifbh (>??6, p. 11?) `t trdfuct`

pdr Qcjbh (>??9) ;

- « D a`rtdchs jbj`hts, ld ràm`ram` sur l` sct` ] j` edcsdct bunlc`r ld rãdlctã djncdht` ·

- « Tudhf k–ãtdcs sur l` sct` ], k–dvdcs l–cjpr`sscbh f–ëtr` cjj`riã(`) fdhs uh dutr`

jbhf` ·

- « _`hfdht ld abhsultdtcbh fu sct` ], k–ãtdcs t`ll`j`ht dnsbrnã(`) pdr a` qu` k` edcsdcs

qu` k–`h dvdcs p`rfu ld hbtcbh fu t`jps ·.

A` abhstruct `xprcj` l` hcv`du f–`hidi`j`ht fdhs uh` datcvctã. Cl trdfuct ld fcstbrscbh

fu t`jps quc s` jdhce`st` am`z l–cht`rhdut` `t l–chs`hscnclctã ï tbut` sbllcactdtcbh dtt`htcbhh`ll`

`h f`mbrs f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`. A`tt` ãam`ll` h–`st pds dfãqudt` ï l–cjj`rscbh pucsqu–`ll`

h` pr`hf `h abjpt` qu` l` edatùr « ãvdscbh · cf`htcecã pdr Jdtmwcag `t ^cifbh (>??6, p.

11?).

Vbutèbcs, l` ambcx f` l–ãam`ll` rãa`ht` f` Ebrh`rchb, M`lj`-Iuczbh `t Ibtt`ldhf

(>??=) s` kustcec` prchacpdl`j`ht pdr l` edct qu–`ll` pr`hf `h abjpt` l`s fcj`hscbhs abihctcv`,

s`hsbrc`ll`, deeàtcv` `t sbacdl` qu` hbus dvbhs cf`htcecã`s lbrs f` l–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv` `t qu`

hbus dvbhs abherbhtã`s ï ld lcttãrdtur`.

n. L–cht`htcbh f–damdt

L–ãam`ll` f` l–cht`htcbh f–damdt f` _utr`vu `t Lbrf (4336) abjpbrt` uhcqu`j`ht fùx

ct`js ;- « K–damít`rdc a` prbfuct ·



>06

- « K–damít`rdc f`s prbfucts sur a` sct` Y`n ·.

L` rãpbhfdht `xprcj` sbh fìrã f–daabrf bu f` fãsdaabrf sur l` edct f–dam`t`r

ultãrcùr`j`ht uh prbfuct r`pãrã p`hfdht ld vcsct` qu–cl vc`ht f–èeàtu`r. A`tt` ãam`ll` d edct

s`s prùv`s fdhs l–ãtuf` fu abjj`ra` `h lcih` (`.i., G`gèe `t Y`nst`r, >??5), `t sbh

dfdptdtcbh ï hbtr` ràm`ram` s`jnl` p`rtch`ht`.

a. L–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct` ;

Dech f` j`sur`r l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct` hbus dvbhs bptã pbur l–ãam`ll` jbhb-

ct`j f` Quppm`ll`h `t Hysv``h (>??4) ;

- « K` vcsct`rdc a` sct` Y`n ï hbuv`du ·.

A`tt` ãam`ll` d ãtã vdlcfã` fdhs fcv`rs`s ràm`ram`s dhtãrcùr`s (`.i., Mbhi `t Gcj,

>??6 7 Elbrís `t dl., >??=).

f. _r`hfr` abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu`

Abha`rhdht ld vdrcdnl` « _r`hfr` abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu` ·, hbus hbus sbjj`s

ebrt`j`ht chspcrãs f`s rãsultdts f` ld pmds` qudlctdtcv` f` ld ràm`ram`. D hbtr` abhhdcssdha`,

ld lcttãrdtur` h` trdct` pds a`tt` vdrcdnl`. Hbus dvbhs fbha fãv`lbppã a`s fùx ct`js pbur

j`sur`r l–cht`htcbh f` prcs` f` abhtdat ;

- « K` abhtdat`rdc a`tt` jdrqu` pbur dvbcr plus f–chebrjdtcbhs sur l` prbfuct ·.

- « K–crdc ï l–di`ha` pbur dvbcr plus f–chebrjdtcbhs sur l` prbfuct ·.

A`tt` ãam`ll` s`rd prã-t`stã` `t s`s qudlctãs psyambjãtrcqu`s s`rbht ãtufcã`s fdhs l`

prbamdch amdpctr` (ae. Amdpctr` 5).

`. ^`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr`

L–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` s–damív` pdr ld prãs`htdtcbh f–uh ebrjuldcr` ï l–cht`rhdut`,

duqu`l cl fbct rãpbhfr` s–cl l` sbumdct`. A` ebrjuldcr` p`rj`t ï ld jdrqu` f` arã`r uh` nds` f`

fbhhã`s rdss`jnldht f`s chebrjdtcbhs abhecf`htc`ll`s sur l`s vcsctùrs fu sct`. Hbus dvbhs



>05

L–drtcauldtcbh mãfbhcqu` / utclctdcr` f` a`tt` ãam`ll` p`rj`t f–dhdlys`r l`s dspàts fu

jdidschdi` rã`l bu vcrtu`l f` jdhcír` sdtcsedcsdht`.

CCC.6. L`s vdrcdnl`s jbfãrdtrca`s

L`s vdrcdnl`s jbfãrdtrca`s abha`rh`ht l–cjplcadtcbh `hv`rs ld adtãibrc` f` prbfuct, l–`xp`rtcs`

f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t, l` lcù `t l` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct`.

d. L–cjplcadtcbh

L–`stcjdtcbh f` a`tt` vdrcdnl` `st ndsã` sur l–ãam`ll` f` Qtrdzzcãrc (4336) quc tc`ht

abjpt` f` ld p`rtch`ha`, f` l–chtãrët `t f` l–dttcrdha` f` l–datcvctã abhscfãrã`. @ll` s` prãs`ht`

f` ld jdhcír` sucvdht` ;

Cjplcadtcbh furdnl` `hv`rs ld adtãibrc` f` prbfuct (Qtrdzzcãrc, 4336)

_`rtch`ha`- K` j` s`hs pdrtcaulcír`j`ht dttcrã (`) pdr a` prbfuct

- A–`st uh prbfuct duqu`l k–daabrf` uh` cjpbrtdha` pdrtcaulcír`

Chtãrët- K–dcj` pdrtcaulcír`j`ht pdrl`r f` a` prbfuct

- Bh pùt fcr` qu` a–`st uh prbfuct quc j–chtãr`ss`

Dttcrdha`- L` sùl edct f` j` r`hs`cih`r pbur `h dam`t`r `st uh pldcscr

- A–`st uh prbfuct quc abjpt` n`duabup pbur jbc

Vdnl`du >5 ; L–ãam`ll` _CD (Qtrdzzcãrc, 4336)

L–ãam`ll` _CD (_`rtch`ha`, Chtãrët, Dttrdct) f` Qtrdzzcãrc (4336) d ãtã rãfuct` `t dfdptã`

pdr Ubll` (4335). @ll` s` abjpbs` f` trbcs ãhbhaãs ;

- « L` prbfuct prãs`htã `st uh prbfuct duqu`l k–daabrf` n`duabup f–cjpbrtdha` ·

- « Bh pùt fcr` qu` l` prbfuct prãs`htã `st uh prbfuct quc j–chtãr`ss` ·

- « K` j` s`hs pdrtcaulcír`j`ht dttcrã pdr l` prbfuct prãs`htã ·.



>09

n. L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t

L–ãam`ll` f` j`sur` f` l–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t prbvc`ht f`s trdvdux f` Nàmùr `t

Ibll`ty (>??5). @ll` s` abjpbs` f` achq ct`js ;

- « K` abhhdcs l`s f`rhcír`s chhbvdtcbhs sur Cht`rh`t ·

- « K–`h sdcs plus qu` ld jby`hh` f`s i`hs sur Cht`rh`t ·

- « K–dc uh` irdhf` prdtcqu` sur Cht`rh`t ·

- « K–`xpãrcj`ht` f`s sctudtcbhs trís fcv`rs`s `h jdtcír` f–utclcsdtcbh f–Cht`rh`t ·

- « K–dc f`s abjpãt`ha`s trís vdrcã`s sur l–utclcsdtcbh f–Cht`rh`t ·.

L` abhstruct r`prãs`ht` l` kui`j`ht f` l–chfcvcfu sur s`s prbpr`s dptctuf`s `t

abjpãt`ha`s ï hdvciu`r sur Cht`rh`t, a`ll`s-ac ãtdht lcã`s ï ld erãqu`ha` jby`hh` f–utclcsdtcbh

f` l–butcl.

a. Lcù f` ld vcsct`

L–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` hbus d p`rjcs f–cf`htcec`r qudtr` lcùx prbndnl`s bó l–cht`rhdut`

pùt s` trbuv`r du jbj`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` sur l` sct` f` l–ãtuf`. Cl s–dict ; fu nur`du,

fu fbjcacl`, f` l–`xtãrcùr, fu r`stdurdht `t dutr`.

L` lcù f` ld vcsct` abhstctu` d prcbrc uh jbfãrdtùr cjpbrtdht, pucsqu–cl chelu`ha` ld

p`ra`ptcbh fu sct` p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`.

f. L` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct`

L` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` `st cf`htcecã dutbjdtcqu`j`ht irîa` du sct` fu qu`stcbhhdcr`.

@h èe`t, amdqu` qu`stcbhhdcr` vdlcfã `st fdtã. @hsuct`, ld fdt` `t l–mùr` f` l–dfjchcstrdtcbh

fu qu`stcbhhdcr` s`rbht trdhsjcs`s dutbjdtcqu`j`ht sur uh ecamc`r @]A@L, rdss`jnldht ld

tbtdlctã f`s fbhhã`s f` l–`hquët`. A`tt` vdrcdnl` hbus p`rj`ttrd f–dvbcr f`s chebrjdtcbhs

prãacs`s sur l` prbecl f`s cht`rrbiãs, dchsc qu` sur lùrs mdnctuf`s qubtcfc`hh`s `t sur lùr

jbf` f` vc`.

CCC.0. L` prbecl f`s Cht`rhdut`s



>0=

Fdhs l` qu`stcbhhdcr`, hbus dvbhs tbukburs am`ramã ï jcùx abhhdètr` l`s cht`rhdut`s

quc bht vcsctã l` sct` f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh. A`s chebrjdtcbhs hbus s`rvcrbht plus tdrf ï jcùx

cf`htcec`r hbtr` ãamdhtcllbh, dchsc qu` sd r`prãs`htdtcvctã fdhs ld pbpuldtcbh jír`. L`s

pbpuldtcbhs f`s ãamdhtcllbhs sbht fceeãr`hacã`s `h t`rj`s f–îi`, f` i`hr ,̀ f` hcv`du f–ãtuf` ̀ t

f` adtãibrc`s sbacbprbe`sscbhh`ll`s. Hbus dvbhs ràburus ï ld « Hbj`haldtur` f`s _AQ-

@Q@>5 · pbur cf`htcec`r a`s f`rhcír`s.

Di` I`hr`Hcv`duf–ãtuf`

_AQ-@Q@

4=->6 dhs

>0-16 dhs

10-66 dhs

60-06 dhs

00 dhs `t +

Mbjj`s

E`jj`s

Nda bu -

Lca`ha`

Jdst`r

Jdst`r bu +

Dircaultùr

Drtcsdh, abjj`rédht bu amè f–`htr`prcs`

Adfr` ̀ t prbe`sscbhs cht`llàtu`ll`ssupãrcùr`s

_rbe`sscbh cht`rjãfcdcr`

@jplbyã

Buvrc`r

@tufcdht

^`trdctã

F`jdhfùr f–`jplbc

Dutr`

Vdnl`du >9 ; L`s qu`stcbhs r`ldtcv`s du prbecl f`s cht`rrbiãs

CCC.5. Ld vãrcecadtcbh ̀ xpãrcj`htdl`

Hbus h` pbuvbhs pds cht`rprãt`r l`s rãsultdts f'uh` t`ll` `xpãrcj`htdtcbh ï jbchs qu`hbus sdamcbhs sc ld jdhcpuldtcbh `xpãrcj`htdl` ebhatcbhh`. Ph` « vãrcecadtcbh bu abhtröl` f`

ld jdhcpuldtcbh ·, dpp`lã` dussc « Jdhcpuldtcbh amàg · abhstctu` uh` j`sur`, abhstruct`

p`hfdht ld abha`ptcbh f` l'ãtuf` `t quc hbus p`rj`ttrd f` sdvbcr abjj`ht hbus dvbhs prbaãfã

(Bpp`hm`cj`r, J`yvcs `t Fdvcf`hgb, >??3). Ld plupdrt « f`s abhtröl`s f` jdhcpuldtcbh ·

>5 Hbj`haldtur` f`s prbe`sscbhs `t adtãibrc`s sbacbprbe`sscbhh`ll`s - @jplbyãs sdldrcãs f–`htr`prcs`s (_AQ-

@Q@) - _rãs`htdtcbh syhtmãtcqu` ; U`rscbh ï utclcs`r ï pdrtcr fu fãnut >??6 - mttp;//www.trdvdcl-`jplbc-sdht`.ibuv.er/CJI/pfe/LdRhbj`haldtur`Rf`sRprbe`sscbhs-1.pfe

http://www.travail-emploi-sante.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/La_nomenclature_des_professions-3.pdf








>03

sbht chabrpbrãs fcràt`j`ht fdhs ld abha`ptcbh fu qu`stcbhhdcr`. _dr dcllùrs, ld hdtur` f` ld

« vãrcecadtcbh · vdrc` s`lbh l` typ` f` ràm`ram` (B–G`è`, >??1).

Ph` qu`stcbh cjpbrtdht` lcã` ï ld vdrcdnl` chfãp`hfdht` `st l` abha`pt f` vãrcecadtcbh

f` ld jdhcpuldtcbh. @h èe`t, pbur fãjbhtr`r lùr èecadactã, l`s `xpãrcj`htdtcbhs hãa`ssct`ht

f`s abhtröl`s f` jdhcpuldtcbh `t dech f` tcr`r f`s abhaluscbhs vdldnl`s f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, ld

jdhcpuldtcbh fbct ebhatcbhh`r. L`s « jdhcpuldtcbhs amàg · hbus p`rj`tt`ht f` sdvbcr sc ld

jdhcpuldtcbh f`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s d ãtã p`réu` bu pds pdr l`s rãpbhfdhts.

_`hfdht ld hdvcidtcbh sur uh sct` f` `-abjj`ra`, l`s pdrtcacpdhts ï l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh

h` sbht pds tbukburs dussc vcicldhts qu–bh pùt l` p`hs`r. F` plus, fdhs hbs chv`stcidtcbhs,

hbus am`rambhs ï fãa`l`r l–èe`t f`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s (di`hts vcrtu`ls, abjjdhf` f`

abhtröl` `t fãabr `h 1F) sur l` fãrbul`j`ht f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `t sur l`s abjpbrt`j`hts

euturs f`s cht`rhdut`s. Ld « jdhcpuldtcbh amàg · abhstctu` nc`h, uh butcl quc p`rj`t f`

fãtàt`r l`s rãpbhfdhts quc h–bht pds sucvc l`s chstruatcbhs f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh (B–G`è`,

>??1). Hbus dvbhs fbha chtrbfuct l` abha`pt f` vãrcecadtcbh f` ld jdhcpuldtcbh ï ld ech f`

hbtr` qu`stcbhhdcr`. Cl s–dict f–uh` lcst` f` qudtr` qu`stcbhs ilcssã`s fdhs l` qu`stcbhhdcr` f`

l–ãtuf`, dech qu` hbs prãbaaupdtcbhs h` sbc`ht pds sc ãvcf`ht`s. A`tt` lcst` s` abjpbs` f` a`s

qudtr` cht`rrbidtcbhs ;

A`rtdchs sct`s w`n abhtc`hh`ht f`s prãs`htdtùrs, uh fãabr `h 1F `t uh` abjjdhf` f`

abhtröl` f` ld vcfãb. L` sct` qu` k–dc vcsctã, abhtc`ht du jbchs l–uh f` a`s ãlãj`hts ;

- « Qur l` sct` qu` k–dc vcsctã, k–dc trbuvã uh prãs`htdtùr ·

- « Qur l` sct` qu` k–dc vcsctã, k–dc trbuvã uh fãabr `h 1F ·

- « Qur l` sct` qu` k–dc vcsctã, k–dc trbuvã abjj`ht dvdha`r, ràul`r ld vcfãb,

l–drrët`r, abup`r l` sbh… ·.

L`s vãrcecadtcbhs p`rj`tt`ht f–ãvdlu`r l` suaaís f` hbtr` jdhcpuldtcbh (Nbulfchi `t

dl., 4331). @h èe`t, sc l`s pdrtcacpdhts h` p`rébcv`ht pds ld prãs`ha` bu l–dns`ha` f–uh edatùrjdhcpulã, l` am`ramùr h` pùt pds `xdjch`r ld r`ldtcbh `htr` l`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s `t

l`s vdrcdnl`s fãp`hfdht`s (abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` `t cjj`rscbh) (Qmrbut `t

Nbli`r, >??>). Hbtbhs qu` l`s « jdhcpuldtcbhs amàg · duij`ht`ht ld pucssdha` stdtcstcqu` `t

ld ecdnclctã f` l–`hs`jnl` f` fbhhã`s (B–G`è`, >??1).



>5?

CU. Ld vdlcfctã fu pldh `xpãrcj`htdl

Ph pldh `xpãrcj`htdl èecada` `st uh pldh fdhs l`qu`l ld vdrcdha` f` l–`rrùr d ãtã

rãfuct` du jchcjuj. Cl s–dict f–uh pldh fdhs l`qu`l ld vdrcdtcbh fu` dux edatùrs dutr`s quàùx quc ebht l–bnk`t f` l–ãtuf` d ãtã rãfuct` d ãtã rãfuct` ï uh hcv`du trís nds (Ncagchi, 435>).

Cl `st fbha qu`stcbh f` vãrcec`r ld vdlcfctã cht`rh` `t ld vdlcfctã `xt`rh`.

Ld vdlcfctã cht`rh` s` prbpbs` f` sdvbcr sc l`s èe`ts bns`rvãs pùv`ht nc`h ëtr`

dttrcnuãs ï uh` r`ldtcbh adusdl` prãacs`. Tudht ï ld vdlcfctã `xt`rh`, `ll` abha`rh` ld

iãhãrdlcsdtcbh, a–`st-ï-fcr` ld pbsscnclctã f` trdhspbs`r l`s rãsultdts f`s pbpuldtcbhs ï f`s

sctudtcbhs `t f`s hbrj`s fceeãr`ht`s.

CU.4. Ld vdlcfctã cht`rh` f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh

Cl `xcst` pluscùrs edatùrs quc pùv`ht j`hda`r ld vdlcfctã cht`rh` f` ld ràm`ram`. Ac-

f`ssbus hbus prãs`htbhs l`s j`sur`s prcs`s pdr @vrdf, _rds `t ^bux (>??3) pbur l`s lcjct`r.

- L–èe`t f–chstruj`htdtcbh ̀ st lcã du rcsqu` f` jbfcecadtcbh f`s chstruj`hts f` j`sur` du

aburs fu t`jps. Du aburs f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh, a`t èe`t d ãtã jdctrcsã adr l–chstruj`ht, l`

jbf` f` rãpbhs` `t l` jbf` f–dfjchcstrdtcbh h–bht pds ãtã jbfcecãs du aburs f`

l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh.

- L–èe`t f–mcstbcr` `st r`ldtce ï tbut ãvíh`j`ht, quc d lcù `h jëj` t`jps qu`

l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh. A`s ãvãh`j`hts hbh sbht duauh`j`ht lcãs ï l–bnk`t ãtufcã, jdcs cls

pùv`ht chelu`ha`r l`s dttctuf`s `t abjpbrt`j`hts f` l–cht`rhdut` pdrtcacpdht, `t fbha s`s

rãpbhs`s. A`s ãvãh`j`hts sbht chabhtröldnl`s pdr l` am`ramùr. Hbus l`s dvbhs fbha prcs

`h abjpt` du aburs f` l–dhdlys` f` s`s rãsultdts. Cl s–dict hbtdjj`ht, fu lcù `t fu

jbj`ht f` ld vcsct`. _dr dcllùrs, cl d ãtã rdpp`lã du pdrtcacpdht f` r`jplcr sbcihùs`j`ht

l` qu`stcbhhdcr` tbut `h ãvctdht f–ëtr` pbt`htc`ll`j`ht fãrdhiã pdr l`s ãvãh`j`hts`xtãrcùrs.

- L–èe`t f` sãlàtcbh abha`rh` ld pbsscnclctã qu` l`s p`rsbhh`s cht`rrbiã`s fdhs l`s

fceeãr`ht`s abhfctcbhs s` fcstchiu`ht du fãnut f` l–ãtuf`, Cl h–`xcst` pds f` rcsqu` f` a`tt`

hdtur`.

- L–èe`t f` abhtdjchdtcbh s` rãeír` ï ld pbsscnclctã qu` l`s suk`ts f` l–`xpãrc`ha`

dppr`hh`ht l–bnk`t f` l–ãtuf` pdr f–dutr`s. L`s pdrtcacpdhts ï l–ãtuf` sbht f`s cht`rhdut`s

`h sctudtcbh rã`ll`, cl h–y d pds f` pbsscnclctã f` abjjuhcadtcbh `htr` ùx.



>54

- L–èe`t f` jdturdtcbh pr`hf `h abjpt` l`s jbfcecadtcbhs qu` l` t`jps pùt `htrdèh`r sur

l` suk`t `xpãrcj`htdl, chfãp`hfdht`s f` ld r`ldtcbh adusdl`, jdcs pùv`ht l–chelu`ha`r (c.`.,

edtciu`, `hhuc, `ta.). Hbtr` qu`stcbhhdcr` h` f`jdhf` pds uh t`jps trís cjpbrtdht `t hbus

e`rbhs l–mypbtmís` qu–cl h–y d pds ù f` irdhfs amdhi`j`hts am`z l`s p`rsbhh`s

cht`rrbiã`s.

- L–èe`t f` jbrtdlctã `xpãrcj`htdl` `st r`ldtce dux rcsqu`s lcãs ï l–dndhfbh f`s suk`ts

pdrtcacpdhts du aburs f` l–ãtuf`. L` lbicac`l `h lcih` quc pbur tîam` ld rãablt` f`s fbhhã`s,

h` pùt `h duauh ads vdlcf`r uh qu`stcbhhdcr` chdam`vã.

CU.>. Ld vdlcfctã `xt`rh` f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh

Ld vdlcfctã `xt`rh` abha`rh` l`s qu`stcbhs r`ldtcv`s ï ld rbnust`ss` f`s r`ldtcbhs

adusdl`s f` ld ràm`ram`. Cl `st qu`stcbh f` iãhãrdlcs`r l`s r`ldtcbhs f` adus`s ï èe`ts jcs`s `h

ãvcf`ha` du f`lï fu adfr` f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh. _bur kustcec`r ld vdlcfctã `xt`rh` f` hbtr`

`xpãrcj`htdtcbh pbur l` t`st hbtr` jbfíl`, hbus dvbhs èeàtuã trbcs typ`s f` abhtröl` ; L`

abhtröl` pdr deeàtdtcbh dlãdtbcr`, ld jcs` `h plda` f` vdrcdnl`s f` abhtröl`, quc pùv`ht dvbcr

uh èe`t fcràt bu uh chfcràt sur ld vdrcdnl` ï `xplcqu`r, `t l` abhtröl` stdtcstcqu`, quc p`rj`t

f` hùtrdlcs`r f–ãv`htu`ls ̀ ee`ts f`s vdrcdnl`s ̀ xt`rh`s.

CU.>.4. L` abhtröl` pdr deeàtdtcbh dlãdtbcr`

L` abhtröl` pdr deeàtdtcbh dlãdtbcr` p`rj`t f` jdhcpul`r f`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s

pdr l–deeàtdtcbh dlãdtbcr` f`s uhctãs `xpãrcj`htdl`s dux fceeãr`hts trdct`j`hts. L–deeàtdtcbh

du mdsdrf f`s fceeãr`ht`s v`rscbhs fu sct` du s`ch f` amdqu` irbup` p`rj`t f` rãpdrtcr l–èe`t

f`s vdrcdnl`s `xt`rh`s ([drrbug, >??=). Ph daabrf dvà Hbvdabj dssbacãs hbus d p`rjcs f`j`ttr` `h plda` uh prbtbabl` quc p`rj`t f` amdhi`r l–dfr`ss` f` ld pdi` ï amdqu` `htrã` sur l`

sct`, p`rj`ttdht ;

- L–deeàtdtcbh dlãdtbcr` f`s chfcvcfus dux a`llul`s f` t`st

- L–deeàtdtcbh dlãdtbcr` f`s trdct`j`hts dux fceeãr`ht`s a`llul`s

A`ld hbus p`rj`t fbha uh` rãpdrtctcbh dlãdtbcr` f`s muct v`rscbhs f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh

sur l–`hs`jnl` f` l–ãamdhtcllbh.



>5>

CU.>.>. L`s vdrcdnl`s f` abhtröl`

L`s vdrcdnl`s f` abhtröl` abhstctu`ht tbut`s l`s vdrcdnl`s chtãirã`s bu hbh, fdhs

l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh `t quc, `h f`mbrs f`s vdrcdnl`s `xplcadtcv`s, pùv`ht ãidl`j`ht `x`ra`r uhèe`t fcràt bu uh chfcràt sur ld vdrcdnl` ï `xplcqu`r. Cl s–dict fbha f` abhtröl`r a`s edatùrs

pbur qu–cls h–chelu`ha`ht pds l`s rãsultdts f`s t`sts stdtcstcqu`s f`s fbhhã`s. @h abhsãqu`ha`,

hbus dvbhs idrfã abhstdht` f`s vdrcdnl`s `xt`rh`s pbur tbus l`s suk`ts cht`rrbiãs. L`s

vdrcdnl`s abhtröldht l`s èe`ts suppbsãs sur l`s vdrcdnl`s fãp`hfdht`s, sbht jcs`s `h plda` `h

rdcsbh f` ld prãs`ha` pbsscnl` f` pluscùrs fceeãr`ha`s hbh abhtröldnl`s `xpãrcj`htdl`j`ht.

_bbrtchid `t Udh f` Uckv`r (43=9) `haburdi`ht l'utclcsdtcbh f`s vdrcdnl`s f` abhtröl` pdra`

qu'`ll`s abhstctu`ht uh jby`h èecada` f'ãlcjch`r f`s cht`rprãtdtcbhs abhaurr`ht`s.

_dr dcllùrs, hbus dvbhs fãacfã f–chtrbfucr` f`s vdrcdnl`s f` abhtröl` fdhs hbtr`

qu`stcbhhdcr`. A`s vdrcdnl`s bht pbur bnkàtce f` jcùx fãt`rjch`r l–chelu`ha` f`s vdrcdnl`s

fãp`hfdht`s fdhs hbtr` jbfíl`. Q`lbh Vmcãtdrft (>??9, p. >=>), l–chaluscbh f`s vdrcdnl`s f`

abhtröl` p`rj`t f–djãlcbr`r l` fìrã f` vdlcfctã `xt`rh` f`s rãsultdts. L` ràburs ï

l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh p`rj`t f` abhtröl`r f–dutr`s vdrcdnl`s susa`ptcnl`s f–dicr sur l–èe`t j`surã

`t f` s` abha`htr`r sur ld j`sur` f–èe`ts r`ldtcv`j`ht scjpl`s. @h èe`t, fdhs l` adfr` f`

hbtr` ãtuf`, l–chs`rtcbh f`s vdrcdnl`s f` abhtröl` p`rj`t f` jcùx abhtröl`r l`s vdrcdnl`s quc

pùv`ht chelu`ha`r l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l, vdlùr p`réu` `t l`s rãpbhs`s

abjpbrt`j`htdl s̀ f`s cht`rhdut`s. Fùx vdrcdnl`s f` abhtröl` bht ãtã sãlàtcbhhã`s ;

- Ld arãfcnclctã fu j`ssdi`

- Ld abhecdha` ï l–ãidrf fu sct`

Ld arãfcnclctã fu j`ssdi` `t ld abhecdha` ï l–ãidrf fu sct`, abhstctu`ht l`s vdrcdnl`s quc

hbus p`rj`ttrbht f` vãrce c`r l` suaaís f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh. @h èe`t, l–uh` f`s abhfctcbhs

pbur daaãf`r ï l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` `st ld hãa`ssctã qu` l` abht`xt` f` `xpãrc`htc`l sbct

sãaurcsã (Adró `t Abvd, >??1). Cl s–dict f` p`rj`ttr` ï l–cht`rhdut` f` s` s`htcr rdssurã,

fãt`hfu `t ï l–dnrc f` tbut` chtruscbh bu rcsqu` `xt`rh`, lbrsqu–cl `st fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

jdramdhf. A`s vdrcdnl`s pburrdc`ht chelu`ha`r f` ld jëj` jdhcír` l`s rãpbhfdhts f`s muct

irbup`s, cl s–dict fbha f–chalur` a`s vdrcdnl`s `xt`rh`s `h tdht qu` edatùrs, quc pburrdc`ht

kbu`r l` röl` f` abvdrcdhts lbrs f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh. L` abhtröl` stdtcstcqu` `st uh abhtröl` ï

pbst`rcbrc, quc ï trdv`rs l–dhdlys`, p`rj`t f` hùtrdlcs`r f–ãv`htu`ls èe`ts f`s vdrcdnl`s

`xt`rh`s j`surã`s.



>51

d. Ld abhecdha` vcs-ï-vcs fu sct`

Amdqu` sct` jdramdhf r`prãs`ht` uh` sbura` f'chebrjdtcbh pbur l`s cht`rhdut`s irîa` ï

ld qudhtctã `t ï ld qudlctã f` l'chebrjdtcbh qu'cl trdhsj`t. Vbutèbcs, chfãp`hfdjj`ht f`s

fcspbsctces jcs `h plda`, a`s sbura`s r`st`ht chfcràt`s `t sbujcs`s ï l–daa`ptdtcbh fu

abhsbjjdtùr. @h abhsãqu`ha`, ld abhecdha` vcs-ï-vcs fu sct` pburrdct kbu`r uh röl` p`hfdht

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih`. Cl s–dict f–uh ãtdt psyamblbicqu` `h djbht f` l–cht`htcbh f`

abjpbrt`j`ht (prãsbjptcbh, dtt`ht`, arbydha`) (Ambug ̀ t _`rrc`h, >??6).

Qc ld abhecdha` ï l–ãidrf f–uh sct` jdramdhf chelu`ha` l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s

f`s cht`rhdut`s (`.i., Ambug `t _`rrc`h, >??6 7 Dhcj`sm `t dl., >?44 7 L`jbch` `t Hbt`nd`rt,

>?44), `ll` s`jnl` dvbcr f`s èe`ts sur l`s rãdatcbhs deeàtcv`s, ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t abihctcv`s

r`ss`htc`s pdr l–cht`rhdut` p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih` (F`nndnc, Fddssc `t Ndcl`, >?4? 7

Iuptd `t Gdndfdyc, >?4?). Ld abhecdha` `st fãechc` abjj` « uh` vdrcdnl` psyamblbicqu` quc

rèlít` uh `hs`jnl` f` prãsbjptcbhs aujulã`s qudht ï ld arãfcnclctã, ï l–chtãirctã `t ï ld

nc`hv`clldha` qu` l` abhsbjjdtùr dttrcnu` ï ld jdrqu` · (Iurvc`z `t Gbramcd, >??>, p. 9). Ld

abhecdha` fãp`hf f` ld qudhtctã `t ld qudlctã f` l–chebrjdtcbh fcspbhcnl` sur l` prbfuct, sd

arãfcnclctã `t sd abmãr`ha` (Qjctm `t Qwchydrf, 43==). Fdhs l` abht`xt` f–Cht`rh`t, ld

abhecdha` fãabul` f` ld p`rtch`ha` f`s r`hs`cih`j`hts abllàtã`s `t f` ld rcam`ss` f`s

cht`rdatcbhs (Iuptd `t Gdndfdyc, >?4?). @h f–dutr`s t`rj`s, sc l–cht`rhdut` h–d pds abhecdha`

vcs-ï-vcs fu sct` sur l`qu`l cl hdvcqu`, cl h` pburrdct pds s–cjj`ri`r fdhs l` abt`xt`

`xpãrc`htc`l prbpbsã `t sd p`ra`ptcbh f` ld vdlùr f` ld vcsct` `h s`rd deeàtã`.

_dr dcllùrs, L`jbch` `t Hbt`nd`rt (>?44) ̀ xplcqu`ht qu` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l f–uh

jdramdhf chelu`ha` ld abhecdha` f`s cht`rhdut`s `hv`rs l` sct`. Dchsc, cls `xplcqu`ht qu'uh sct`

dvà uh di`ht vcrtu`l susact` am`z l`s chfcvcfus plus f` abhecdha` qu–uh sct` sdhs di`ht, `t pdr

abhsãqu`ht f`s cht`htcbhs f'damdt fdhs l` jdidsch `t f'cht`htcbhs f` ràbjjdhf`r l` sct` `t

l'`hs`cih` plus cjpbrtdht`s. Ld abhecdha` vcs-ï-vcs fu sct` d ãtã chtrbfuct` pbur fãjbhtr`r qu–cl h–y d pds f`

fceeãr`ha` `htr` l`s irbup`s du hcv`du f`s p`ra`ptcbhs `t f`s r`ss`htcs p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha`

f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. A`tt` vdrcdnl` fbct ëtr` jdcht`hu` abhstdht`, bu sbh cjpdat s`rd r`tcrã

dech f'dhdlys`r ld r`ldtcbh `htr` l`s dutr`s vdrcdnl`s f` hbtr` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l sdhs

cht`reãr`ha`.

Ld abhecdha` `hv`rs l` sct` w`n d ãtã j`surã` ï pdrtcr f` l–ãam`ll` f` Iurvc`z `t

Gbramcd (>??>), dfdptã` dux sct`s jdramdhfs pdr L`jbch` `t Hbt`nd`rt (>?44). A`tt` ãam`ll`s`jnl` p`rtch`ht` fdhs ld j`sur` f` ld abhecdha` ï l–ãidrf f–uh sct` jdramdhf. @ll` s`



>56

abjpbs` f` muct ct`js rìrbupãs `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs ; (ld arãfcnclctã, l–chtãirctã `t ld

nc`hv`clldha`)

Ld abhecdha` ï l–ãidrf fu sct` (Iurvc`z `t Gbramcd, >??>) dfdptã` pdr L`jbch` `t

Hbt`nd`rt (>?44)

Arãfcnclctã fu sct`

- K–dc abhecdha` fdhs ld qudlctã fu sct`

- L`s prbfucts bu s`rvca`s fu sct` sbht s÷rs

- K` h` aburs duauh rcsqu` `h dam`tdht f`s prbfucts f` a` sct`

Nc`hv`clldha` fu sct`

- A` sct` edct dtt`htcbh ï a` quc j` abhvc`ht l` jcùx

- A` sct` tc`ht abjpt` f` j`s chtãrëts

- A` sct` j` prbpbs` a` quc abrr`spbhf l` jcùx ï j`s dtt`ht`s

Chtãirctã fu sct`- K` arbcs `h ld schaãrctã f` a` sct`

- A` sct` `st mbhhët` dvà jbc

Vdnl`du >= ; L–ãam`ll` f` ld abhecdha` ï l–ãidrf fu sct` (Iurvc`z `t Gbramcd, >??>)

n. Ld arãfcnclctã fu j`ssdi`

L`s hbtcbhs f` arãfcnclctã `t f` abhecdha` sbht f`s abha`pts trís prbam`s. Ld arãfcnclctã

s` rèlít` fdhs ld r`ldtcbh `htr` uh abhsbjjdtùr `t uh` sbura` f–chebrjdtcbh, `htrdht dchsc

fdhs l` prba`ssus f` trdct`j`ht f` l–chebrjdtcbh, quc s–èeàtu` ï pdrtcr f` ld p`ra`ptcbh f`s

chebrjdtcbhs prbv`hdht f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht abjj`racdl `t sbacdl, dj`hdht l` abhsbjjdtùr ï

s–cht`rrbi`r sur ld arãfcnclctã qu–cl pùt daabrf`r ï lùrs sbura`s (Ldra`hùx, >??4).

L`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s fcstchatcv`s fu j`ssdi` sur Cht`rh`t, pùv`ht abhfucr` ï f`s

prbnlíj`s dssbacãs ï l'chsãaurctã `t ld abhecf`htcdlctã f`s chebrjdtcbhs `htr` l`s utclcsdtùrs fu

Y`n (Sbbh >??>). F`s ãtuf`s dhtãrcùr`s bht jbhtrã qu` l` fãedut f'ãtdnlcr uh j`ssdi`

arãfcnl`, pùt abhfucr` ï f`s èe`ts hãidtces sur l`s cht`htcbhs f'damdt plus edcnl` sur l` sct`

(Sbbh >??>), ld vdlùr p`réu` `t plus iãhãrdl`j`ht sur l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` (Yblg `t

Vm`ysbmh, >??9). Dchsc, uh j`ssdi` arãfcnl`, pùt abhtrcnu`r ï rdssur`r l–cht`rhdut` `t ï luc

beercr uh` j`cllùr` idrdhtc` f` sãaurctã. @h abhsãqu`ha`, l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h

lcih` s`rd prbpca` ï l–cjj`rscbh, ï f`s p`ra`ptcbhs pbsctcv`s f` ld vdlùr `t f`s

abjpbrt`j`hts `hv r̀s l` sct`, ld jdrqu` `t l` prbfuct.



>50

Dech f–cf`htcec`r l` hcv`du f` arãfcnclctã f` l–beer`, hbus dvbhs ràburu ï l–ãam`ll` f`

Acssã-F`pdrfbh `t H–Ibdld (>??3). @h èe`t, ld qu`stcbh f` ld arãfcnclctã s`jnl` abhfucr`

l–cht`rhdut` ï rãfucr` ld fceeãr`ha` p`réu` `htr` l` stcjulus `t l` pbcht f–dhardi`. Cl f`vrdct

dlbrs prbaãf`r ï uh` fcstbrscbh f` ld rãdlctã `t fu s`hs fu j`ssdi` (Acssã-F`pdrfbh `t

H–Ibdld, >??3), pbuvdht chelu`ha`r l`s pmãhbjíh s̀ ãtufcãs. L–ãam l̀l` f` j`sur` f` ld

arãfcnclctã fu j`ssdi` s` prãs`ht` f` ld jdhcír` sucvdht` ;

- « A` qu` fct l` sct` `st fcih` f` abhecdha` ·

- « A` qu` fct l` sct` `st ecdnl` ·

- « A` qu` fct l` sct` `st `xdat ·.

A`tt` ãam`ll` f` j`sur` kbuc` f–uh` vdlcfctã `t f–uh` ecdnclctã daa`ptdnl`.

L–utclcsdtcbh f` ld vdrcdnl` arãfcnclctã fu j`ssdi` abjj` vdrcdnl` f` abhtröl`, s`jnl`

p`rtch`ht` pdr rdppbrt ï hbtr` prbnlãjdtcqu` `t f`s vdrcdnl`s l`s plus sbuv`ht j`surã`s fdhs

l`s trdvdux sur l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh, pucsqu–`ll` `st susa`ptcnl` f–dvbcr uh`

chelu`ha` sur l`s prba`ssus ãtufcãs.

CU.>.1. L` abhtröl` stdtcstcqu`

L` abhtröl` stdtcstcqu` `st uh abhtröl` ï pbst`rcbrc quc p`rj`t f` hùtrdlcs`r

f–ãv`htu`ls èe`ts f`s vdrcdnl`s `xt`rh`s j`surã`s, hbtdjj`ht irîa` ï l–dhdlys` f` ld

abvdrcdha`. _bur a` edcr`, hbus utclcs`rbhs ld tàmhcqu` f` l–dhdlys` f` ld vdrcdha` `h

chtrbfucsdht l`s vdrcdnl`s f` abhtröl` abjj` f`s abvdrcdnl`s (Mdcr `t dl. >??5). L–dhdlys` f`

vdrcdha` p`rj`t fbha f` t`st`r l`s èe`ts f`s vdrcdnl`s « pdrdsct`s · sur l`s vdrcdnl`s

fãp`hfdht`s.

Fdhs l` ads prãacs, l–dpprbam` f` l–dhdlys` f` ld vdrcdha` d pbur bnkàtce f–`xtrdcr`

l–èe`t f`s vdrcdnl`s f` abhtröl` ï l–dcf` f–uh` rãir`sscbh jultcpl` sur l`s vdrcdnl`s

fãp`hfdht`s. Hbus rãdlcsbhs fbha uh` rãir`sscbh sur l`s vdrcdnl`s f` abhtröl`s (arãfcnclctã fu

j`ssdi` `t abhecdha` ï l–ãidrf fu sct`) `hsuct`, hbus rãdlcsbhs uh` dhdlys` f` vdrcdha` jultc

vdrcã` sur l`s edatùrs prchacpdux.



>55

U. Ld jãtmbf` f–dhdlys`

Fdhs a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl, hbus am`rambhs ï t`st`r hbtr` jbfíl` ilbndl. A`luc-ac s`

abjpbs` f` r`ldtcbhs adusdl`s `htr` irbup`s f` vdrcdnl`s, quc s–`xprcj`ht `h trbcs irbup`s

f–mypbtmís`s. A`rtdch`s f`s vdrcdnl`s, abjj` l` sbulcih` l` qudtrcíj` amdpctr`, s`

adrdatãrcs`ht pdr f`s èe`ts jbfãrdtùrs `t f`s èe`ts jãfcdtùrs. @h èe`t, l` t`st f`s

mypbtmís`s hãa`ssctã f` jbnclcs`r fceeãr`ht`s tàmhcqu`s stdtcstcqu`s `h rdcsbh f` ld fcv`rsctã

f` ld hdtur` f`s vdrcdnl`s `t f`s r`ldtcbhs jcs`s `h dvdht fdhs l` adfr` abha`ptu`l.

Dech f` t`st`r l–`hs`jnl` f`s lc`hs `htr` l`s vdrcdnl`s f` hbtr` jbfíl`, trbcs typ`s

f–dhdlys`s, f`s dhdlys`s f` ld vdrcdha`, f`s rãir`sscbhs `t f`s jbfãlcsdtcbhs pdr ãqudtcbhs

struatur`ll`s, s`rbht ãldnbrã`s. Fdhs a` quc suct, hbus hbus prbpbsbhs f` prãs`ht`r, ld jãtmbf`

f–dhdlys` prãabhcsã` pbur l` t`st f`s fceeãr`hts irbup`s f–mypbtmís`s `t dchsc qu` a`ll` utclcsã`

pbur l` t`st f`s ̀ ee`ts f`s jbfãrdtùrs `t f`s jãfcdtùrs.

U.4. L–dhdlys` f` vdrcdha`

L` pr`jc`r irbup` f–mypbtmís` `st r`ldtce ï ld jdhcpuldtcbh f`s vdrcdnl`s f`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l jdramdhf fu sct`. A`s jdhcpuldtcbhs s`rbht dhdlysã`s d trdv`rs

l`s dhdlys`s f` vdrcdha` uhcvdrcã`s (DHBUD) bu jultcvdrcã`s (Jdhbvd). @h èe`t, l–dhdlys`

f` vdrcdha` `st uh` dpprbam` quc s–chsarct fdhs uh` fãjdram` quc vcs` ï ãtufc`r `t ï cht`rprãt`r

f`s pldhs f–`xpãrc`ha` (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). A`tt` tàmhcqu` s`rd utclcsã` fdhs l` nut

f` vãrcec`r l`s èe`ts f`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s (di`ht vcrtu`l, abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`, fãabr

`h trbcs fcj`hscbhs) sur ld vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` (cjj`rscbh).

L–dhdlys` f` ld vdrcdha` abâhacf` l` jcùx dvà hbs bnkàtces, pucsqu–`ll` p`rj`t f`

abjpr`hfr` l`s r`ldtcbhs quc lc`ht uh` bu pluscùrs vdrcdnl`s `xplcadtcv`s hbjchdl`s, dydht

amdauh` pluscùrs hcv`dux pbsscnl`s, dvà uh` vdrcdnl` `xplcquã`. _dr abhsãqu`ht, hbtr` tîam`

abhscst` f–dnbrf ï vãrcec`r sc l`s jby`hh`s bnt`hu`s pbur l`s fceeãr`ht`s vdrcdnl`s f` rãpbhs`

sbht scihcecadtcv`j`ht fcstchat`s f–uh irbup` ï l–dutr`. Ld vdrcdtcbh hbus p`rj`ttrd f` sdvbcr

sc l` hcv`du f–cjj`rscbh vdrc` f–uh` jdhcír` scihcecadtcv` s`lbh l`s jdhcpuldtcbhs.

_dr dcllùrs, plus ld fcsp`rscbh f`s jby`hh`s f`s irbup`s dutbur f` ld jby`hh`

iãhãrdl` (bu l–ãadrt `htr` l`s jby`hh`s) s`rd irdhf` `t plus ld fcsp`rscbh f`s chfcvcfus dutbur

f` ld jby`hh` f` lùr prbpr` irbup` s`rd p`tct`, plus l`s fceeãr`ha`s `htr` l`s trdct`j`hts

s`rbht jdrquã`s. F` plus, l–dhdlys` f` ld vdrcdha` dcf` ï abjpr`hfr` l` i`hr` f` r`ldtcbh quc



>59

`xcst` `htr` l`s fùx `hs`jnl`s f` vdrcdnl`s, fdhs ld j`sur` bó `ll` beer` ld pbsscnclctã f`

fãabjpbs r̀ ld vdrcdha` tbtdl`.

U.4.4. L`s chfcadtùrs f–cht`rprãtdtcbh f`s rãsultdts

_bur t`st`r l–chelu`ha` f`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s sur uh` vdrcdnl` chfãp`hfdht`,

l–dhdlys` f` vdrcdha` prbpbs` f` hbjnrùx chfcadtùrs. A`p`hfdht, l` t`st E `t @td du adrrã

abhstctu`ht l`s chfcadtùrs l`s plus utclcsãs fdhs ld ràm`ram` `h jdrg`tchi. L–@td du adrrã j`t

`h ãvcf`ha` l` pbura`htdi` f` vdrcdha` f` ld vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` `xplcquã` lchãdcr`j`ht bu

hbh lchãdcr`j`ht pdr ld vdrcdnl` chfãp`hfdht` abhscfãrã`.

U.4.>. L`s abhfctcbhs f` l–utclcsdtcbh f` l–DHBUD

Dvdht f–èeàtu`r l` trdct`j`ht f`s fbhhã`s, trbcs abhfctcbhs sbht hãa`ssdcr`s ï

l–utclcsdtcbh f` l–DHBUD. L`s abhfctcbhs f–dpplcadtcbh f` l–dhdlys` f` vdrcdha` s`lbh

Idvdrf-_`rr`t `t dl. (>??=) sbht l`s sucvdht`s ;

4- Ld hbrjdlctã f` ld vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` ; ld vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` fbct dvbcr uh`

fcstrcnutcbh hbrjdl` ï l–chtãrcùr f` amdqu` irbup`. L`s abèecac`hts f–dpldtcss`j`ht `t

f–dsyjãtrc` p`rj`tt`ht f` vãrcec`r a`tt` abhfctcbh.

>- L–mbjbsaãfdstcactã ; cl s–dict f` vãrcec`r l–mbjbiãhãctã f`s vdrcdha`s f`s vdrcdnl`s

fãp`hfdht`s fdhs amdauh f`s irbup`s trdctãs. Qur Q_QQ, l` t`st f` L`v`h` hbus p`rj`t

f` vãrcec`r a`tt` abhfctcbh. Qc l` t`st `st stdtcstcqu`j`ht scihcecadtce, l–mypbtmís`

f–ãidlctã f`s vdrcdha`s `htr` l`s irbup`s s`rd r`t`hu`.

1- Ld jultcablchãdrctã ; l`s vdrcdnl`s ï `xplcqu`r h` fbcv`ht pds prãs`ht`r uh` trbp ebrt`

jultcablchãdrctã. Cl s–dict f` vãrcec`r fdhs ld jdtrca` f` abrrãldtcbh qu–duauh` pdcr` f`

vdrcdnl` ”`st abrrãlã` du-f`lï f` ?,9.

U.>. L–dhdlys` f` rãir`sscbh

Ld rãir`sscbh scjpl` bu jultcpl` abhstctu` uh` jãtmbf` p`rtch`ht` f–dhdlys` f`s

r`ldtcbhs `htr` uh` vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` jãtrcqu` `t uh` bu pluscùrs vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s

(@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). @ll` s–dpplcqu` dux vdrcdnl`s j`surã`s sur f`s ãam`ll`s



>5=

f–cht`rvdll`s. A`tt` tàmhcqu` p`rj`t f` vãrcec`r sc uh` r`ldtcbh `xcst` `htr` l`s vdrcdnl`s

chfãp`hfdht`s `t ld vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` 7 f–`stcj`r l–cjpbrtdha` f` a`tt` r`ldtcbh `t f`

abhtröl`r l`s dutr`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s lbrs f` l–ãvdludtcbh f`s abhtrcnutcbhs f–uh`

vdrcdnl` spãacecqu` bu f–uh `hs`jnl` f` vdrcdnl`s.

L`s chfcadtùrs l`s plus utclcsãs pbur a` typ` f–dhdlys`s sbht l` abèecac`ht f`

fãt`rjchdtcbh ^¾ `t l` t`st t f` Qtuf`ht quc abhstctu` l'`stcjdtcbh f`s pdrdjítr`s f` ld

rãir`sscbh, cl p`rj`t f` fãt`rjch`r sc l` abèecac`ht f` rãir`sscbh bnt`hu `st scihcecadtcv`j`ht

fceeãr`ht f` ?.

U.1. L`s jãtmbf`s f–ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s

L`s jbfíl`s f–ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s ebrj`ht uh` jãtmbfblbic` iãhãrdl` quc vcs` ï

spãacec`r, `stcj`r, abjpdr`r `t ãvdlu`r f`s jbfíl`s f` r`ldtcbhs `htr` vdrcdnl`s (^buss`l `t dl.,

>??>). A` sbht f`s jbfíl`s lchãdcr`s quc `hilbn`ht `t iãhãrdlcs`ht l`s jãtmbf`s lchãdcr`s

aldsscqu`s (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). Cls sbht ldri`j`ht utclcsãs `h sac`ha`s mujdch`s `t

sbacdl`s, hbtdjj`ht pbur l–ãtuf` f` abha`pts tmãbrcqu`s chbns`rvdnl`s (^buss`l `t dl., >??>).

Cls s–dppuc`ht sur l` t`st f`s r`ldtcbhs `htr` vdrcdnl`s bns`rvã`s `t vdrcdnl`s ldt`ht`s, a–`st-ï-

fcr` hbh fcràt`j`ht bns`rvdnl`s jdcs fbht l`s vdlùrs pùv`ht ëtr` `stcjã`s ï pdrtcr f`

fbhhã`s bns`rvdnl`s (Mbyl`, 4330). Cls p`rj`tt`ht ld prcs` `h abjpt` f`s `rrùrs f` j`sur`

du hcv`du f` l–`stcjdtcbh f`s chfcadtùrs f`s vdrcdnl`s ldt`ht`s.

L`s jbfíl`s f–ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s p`rj`tt`ht dussc f–chtrbfucr` scjultdhãj`ht

pluscùrs vdrcdnl`s ï `xplcqu`r fdhs uh` jëj` dhdlys` `t f` trdct`r l–`hs`jnl` f`s r`ldtcbhs

adusdl`s ebhfã`s tmãbrcqu`j`ht `htr` l`s vdrcdnl`s fãp`hfdht`s `t l`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht s̀

(Udl`tt`-Elbr`ha`, 43== 7 ^buss`l `t dl., >??>). Udl`tt`-Elbr`ha` (43==, p. >6) `xplcqu` qu`

a`s jãtmbf`s prãs`ht`ht l`s prbprcãtãs sucvdht`s ;

- @ll`s chtrbfucs`ht ld hbtcbh f` vdrcdnl`s ldt`ht`s bu hbh bns`rvdnl`s

- @ll`s p`rj`tt`ht f` spãacec`r ld hdtur` f`s r`ldtcbhs `htr` a`s vdrcdnl`s ldt`ht`s `t lùrs

j`sur`s

- @ll`s beer`ht ld pbsscnclctã f` prãacs`r l` typ` f`s r`ldtcbhs `hvcsdiã`s `htr` l`s

vdrcdnl`s ldt`ht`s

- @ll`s sbht adpdnl`s f–dhdlys`r l`s cheãr`ha`s adusdl`s `htr` pluscùrs `hs`jnl`s f`

vdrcdnl`s ̀ xplcadtcv`s ̀ t ̀ xplcquã`s

- @ll`s sbht susa`ptcnl`s f–utclcsdtcbh abhecrjdtbcr`.



>53

Fdhs l` adfr` f` hbtr` ràm`ram`, ld vdlùr p`réu` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `st adusã`

pdr l–cjj`rscbh. Tudht dux rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`s cht`rhdut`s, `ll`s sbht adusã s̀ ï

ld ebcs pdr l–cjj`rscbh `t pdr ld vdlùr p`réu` fdhs s`s fcj`hscbhs mãfbhcqu`s `t utclctdcr`s.

L–cjj`rscbh abhstctu` fbha uh` vdrcdnl` `xbiíh` pucsqu–`ll` chelu`ha` ld vdlùr p`réu` `t l`s

rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s `t `ll` h–`st chelu`haã` pdr duauh` vdrcdnl` f` hbtr` jbfíl`.

L–utclcsdtcbh f`s jãtmbf`s f–ãqudtcbh struatur`ll`s hbus p`rj`ttrd f` l`s dpplcqu`r sbct

abjj` jãtmbf`s f`sarcptcv`s f`stchã`s ï j`sur`r f`s vdrcdnl`s, sbct abjj` jãtmbf`s

`xplcadtcv`s pbur l`s t`sts f` r`ldtcbhs adusdl`s mypbtmãtcqu`s. @h f–dutr`s t`rj`s, bh pbs` f`s

mypbtmís`s sur l`s r`ldtcbhs `htr` l`s vdrcdnl`s, pucs bh rìdrf` ld vdlcfctã bu l–chvdlcfctã f`

a`s mypbtmís`s pdr l` jbfíl`.

U.1.4. Ld jãtmbf` f–dhdlys` f`s vdrcdnl`s jãfcdtrca`s ; ld prbpbsctcbh _4

Fdhs l` adfr` f` hbtr` ràm`ram`, ld vdlùr p`réu` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` s–cllustr`

abjj` uh` vdrcdnl` cht`rjãfcdcr` `htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`s

cht`rhdut`s. @h èe`t, cl s`jnl` qu` ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` `t ld vdlùr utclctdcr` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`

kbu`ht uh röl` f` vdrcdnl`s jãfcdtrca`s. Ph` vdrcdnl` jãfcdtrca` cht`rvc`ht fdhs ld r`ldtcbh

`htr` uh` vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` `t uh` vdrcdnl` chfãp`hfdht`. Ndrbh `t G`hhy (43=5)

`xplcqu`ht qu` l` jãfcdtùr r`prãs`ht` l` jãadhcsj` iãhãrdtce pdr l`qu`l ld vdrcdnl`

chfãp`hfdht` chelu`ha` ld vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht`. _bur `xplcqu`r ld jãtmbfblbic` t`stdht

l–mypbtmís` s`lbh ldqu`ll` ld vdlùr p`réu` `st uh` jãfcdtrca`, hbus hbus ndsbhs sur l`

samãjd ac-f`ssbus.

Eciur` >0 ; Qamãjdtcsdtcbh f–uh` jãfcdtcbh

] S

J

a

nd



>9?

Ld jãtmbf` ld plus utclcsã` `h jdrg`tchi `st a`ll` f` Ndrbh `t G`hhy (43=5)

(Amujpctdz Ada`r`s `t Udhmdjj`, >??1 7 [mdb, Lyham `t Am`h, >?44). _bur a`s mdutùrs uh`

vdrcdnl` `st jãfcdtrca` sc `ll` r`jplct l`s abhfctcbhs sucvdht`s ;

- L`s vdrcdtcbhs f` ld vdrcdnl` chfãp`hfdht` ] deeàt`ht scihcecadtcv`j`ht l`s vdrcdtcbhs

f` ld vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` S ; « a · `st scihcecadtce

- L`s vdrcdtcbhs f` ld vdrcdnl` chfãp`hfdht` ] deeàt`ht scihcecadtcv`j`ht l`s vdrcdtcbhs

f` ld vdrcdnl` jãfcdtrca` J ; « d · `st scihcecadtce

- L`s vdrcdtcbhs f` ld vdrcdnl` jãfcdtrca` J deeàt`ht scihcecadtcv`j`ht l`s vdrcdtcbhs f`

ld vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` S ; « n · `st scihcecadtce

- Lbrsqu` ld jãfcdtcbh f` J `st abhtrölã`, l–èe`t f` ld vdrcdnl` chfãp`hfdht` ] sur ld

vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` S fbct ëtr` hul, a'`st-ï-fcr` qu` ld r`ldtcbh `htr` ] `t S h–`st plus

scihcecadtcv`.

Fdhs l` adfr` f` a` trdvdcl f` ràm`ram`, hbus hbus trbuvbhs fdhs l` ads f` r`ldtcbhs

dvà f`s jãfcdtùrs jultcpl`s. @h èe`t, ld vdlùr p`réu` abhstctu` uh jãfcdtùr quc abhtc`ht

fùx vdrcdnl`s fcstchat`s, cl s–dict f` ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` `t f` ld vdlùr utclctdcr`. A`s

r`ldtcbhs pr`hh`ht ld ebrj` sucvdht` ;

Eciur` >5 ; L–chelu`ha` jãfcdtrca` f` ld vdlùr p`réu`

_bur uh` jãfcdtcbh pdr fùx vdrcdnl`s, Fdrpy (ch @vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3, p. 055)

scihdl` qu` l`s èe`ts f`s jãfcdtùrs pùv`ht ëtr` edacl`j`ht dhdlysãs pdr l`s jãtmbf`s

struatur`ll`s. @h èe`t, cl s`rdct prãeãrdnl` f` prbpbs`r uh t`st ilbndl f`s r`ldtcbhs adusdl`s, quchbus p`rj`ttrd f–cf`htcec`r l` typ` f` jãfcdtcbh prbfuct`, a'`st-ï-fcr` uh` jãfcdtcbh abjplít`

Cjj`rscbh Udlùr mãfbhcqu` ^ãpbhs`sabjpbrt`j`htdl`s

Cjj`rscbh Udlùr utclctdcr` ^ãpbhs`sabjpbrt`j`htdl`s



>94

bu uh` jãfcdtcbh pdrtc`ll`. Fdhs a` s`hs, Amujpctdz Ada`r`s `t Udhmdjj` (>??1, p. =4)

scihdl`ht qu` « sc l'chelu`ha` f` ] sur S fcspdrdèt tbtdl`j`ht `h prãs`ha` f` ld vdrcdnl`

suppbsã` jãfcdtrca`, bh s` sctu` fdhs uh ads f` jãfcdtcbh fct` abjplít` ·, dchsc l–èe`t tbtdl

f` ] sur S pdss` pdr l` jãfcdtùr (J). Vdhfcs qu–bh s` r`trbuv` fdhs l` ads f–uh` jãfcdtcbh

pdrtc`ll`, lbrsqu` l'chelu`ha` f` ] sur S `st scjpl`j`ht rãfuct` jdcs h` fcspdrdèt pds

tbtdl`j`ht lbrsqu` l'chelu`ha` fu jãfcdtùr (J) `st abhtrölã` (Ndrbh `t G`hhy, 43=5). Qùl`

uh` pdrtc` f` l'èe`t f` ] sur S s'`x`ra` ï trdv`rs ld vdrcdnl` jãfcdtrca` `t l'dutr` pdrtc` f` a`t

èe`t s'`x`ra` fcràt`j`ht sur ld vdrcdnl` S (Amujpctdz Ada`r`s `t Udhmdjj`, >??1).

_bur l` t`st f` jãfcdtcbh f`s fùx fcj`hscbhs f` ld vdlùr p`réu`, [drrbug (>??=, p.

>=6) prbpbs` uh` dfdptdtcbh f` ld prbaãfur` prbpbsã` pdr Ndrbh `t G`hhy (43=5). Cl s`

fãrbul` `h qudtr ̀ ãtdp`s, pbur amdauh` f–`htr` `ll`s, ld abhfctcbh prchacpdl` `st qu` l`s

jbfíl`s sbc`ht abrràt`j`ht dkustãs ;

- @tdp` 4 ; V`st fu jbfíl` sdhs l` jãfcdtùr f` edébh ï vãrcec`r qu–cl `xcst` uh lc`h

fcràt scihcecadtce `htr` ld vdrcdnl` `xplcadtcv` (] ; cjj`rscbh) `t ld vdrcdnl` ï

`xplcqu`r (S ; rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl s̀).

- @tdp` > ; V`st fu jbfíl` `h r`tcrdht ld vdrcdnl` `xplcquã` (S ; rãpbhs`

abjpbrt`j`htdl`) f` edébh ï vãrcec`r qu` ld vdrcdnl` `xplcadtcv` (cjj`rscbh) d nc`h uh

cjpdat sur l`s vdrcdnl`s jãfcdtrca`s (vdlùr mãfbhcqu` `t vdlùr utclctdcr`).

- @tdp` 1 ; V`st fu jbfíl` `h ldcssdht lcnr` l` lc`h `htr` ld vdrcdnl` `xplcadtcv` (] ;

cjj`rscbh) `t ld vdrcdnl` `xplcquã` (S ; rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s) pbur vãrcec`r

qu` ;

L` jãfcdtùr (J ; vdlùr p`réu`) pbssíf` nc`h uh èe`t scihcecadtce sur ld

vdrcdnl` ̀ xplcquã`

L–èe`t fcràt f` ld vdrcdnl` `xplcadtcv` ] sur ld vdrcdnl` `xplcquã` S `st

jbchfr`.

L`s rãsultdts f`s èe`ts f` jãfcdtcbh s`rbht jcs `h ãvcf`ha` fdhs l` amdpctr` 5.

U.1.>. Ld jãtmbf` f–dhdlys` f`s vdrcdnl`s jbfãrdtrca`s ; _rbpbsctcbh _>

Ph` vdrcdnl` jbfãrdtrca` `st uh` vdrcdnl` quc jbful` l` s`hs `t / bu ld ebra` f` l'èe`t f`

] sur S (Ndrbh `t G`hhy, 43=5 ch Amujpctdz Ada`r`s `t Udhmdjj`, >??1, p. 53). Cl s–dict

f–uh` vdrcdnl` f` hdtur` qudlctdtcv` bu qudhtctdtcv` quc deeàt` ld r`ldtcbh `htr` ld vdrcdnl`



>9>

`xplcadtcv` `t ld vdrcdnl` `xplcquã` (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). Fdhs l` adfr` f` hbtr`

ràm`ram`, qudtr` vdrcdnl`s s`jnl`ht kbu`r l` röl` f` jbfãrdtrca`s, hbtdjj`ht l` lcù f` ld

vcsct`, l` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct`, l–cjplcadtcbh `t l–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t. L–èe`t jbfãrdtùr pr`hf

ld ebrj` sucvdht` ;

Eciur` >9 ; Ld samãjdtcsdtcbh f–uh` jbfãrdtcbh

Ld jãtmbfblbic` ràbjjdhfã` pdr Fdrpy fdhs @vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux (>??3) pbur l`

t`st f` l'èe`t jbfãrdtùr f'uh` vdrcdnl` Jb sur ld r`ldtcbh `htr` uh` vdrcdnl` ] `t uh`

vdrcdnl` S, qu–cl `xcst` trbcs chelu`ha`s ; (d) `st l'chelu`ha` f` ] sur S, (n) `st l'chelu`ha` f`

Jb sur S, `t (a) `s l'chelu`ha` f` l'cht`rdatcbh f` ] `t Jb(]*Jb) >9

sur S. L'èe`t jbfãrdtùr`st vãrcecã qudhf l` lc`h (a) `st scihcecadtce.

Eciur` >= ; V`st f`s vdrcdnl`s jbfãrdtrca`s

>9

Ph` hbuv`ll` vdrcdnl` ]*Jb bu t`rj` f–cht`rdatcbh `st arãã `h jultcplcdht ld vdrcdnl` jbfãrdtrca` Jb pdr ldvdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` ].

] S

Jb

]

Jb

]*Jb

Udrcdnl`fãp`hfdht` S

a

n

d



>91

Hbus dvbhs utclcsã a`tt` jãtmbf` pdr l` ncdcs f` rãir`sscbhs jultcpl`s pbur t`st`r

l–èe`t f` l–cjplcadtcbh `t f` l–`xp`rtcs`. Hbus prbaãfbhs dlbrs ï ;

- Ph` rãir`sscbh f` ld vdrcdnl` chfãp`hfdht` (]) sur ld vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` (S)

- Ph` rãir`sscbh f` ld vdrcdnl` jbfãrdtrca` (Jb) sur ld vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` (S)

- Ph` rãir`sscbh fu prbfuct f`s fùx vdrcdnl`s sur ld vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht`.

L–èe`t jbfãrdtùr `st dlbrs jcs `h ãvcf`ha` s–cl `xcst` uh èe`t scihcecadtce f` ]*Jb sur

S dlbrs qu` ] `t Jb sbht jdètrcsãs.



>96

UC. Abhaluscbh f` ld sàtcbh

Ld pr`jcír` sàtcbh f` a` achqucíj` amdpctr` hbus d p`rjcs f` prãs`ht`r ld

jãtmbfblbic` prãabhcsã` pbur a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl. L–bnkàtce ãtdct f` prãs`ht`r, fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps ld jãtmbfblbic` f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh f` hbtr` ràm`ram`. @h èe`t, muct

v`rscbhs f` sct` ABI@FCJ (Lbc Qa`llc`r) bht ãtã abhéu`s. Fdhs a`s v`rscbhs hbus dvbhs

am`ramã ï jdhcpul`r l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` quc bht uh cjpdat sur

l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh. Cl s–dict f`s di`hts vcrtu`ls, f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `t fu

fãabr `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs. A`s ãlãj`hts abhstctu`ht l`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

jbnclcsãs pdr l` sct` jdramdhf.

Fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps hbus dvbhs prãs`htã ld tàmhcqu` f–`hquët` dfbptã` tbut `h

hbus abhebrjdht dux abhscih s̀ tàmhcqu`s ̀ t jãtmbfblbicqu s̀ f`s qu`stcbhhdcr`s dfjchcstrãs

vcd Cht`rh`t. Cl s–dict f` l–`hquët` pdr qu`stcbhhdcr` MVJL. L` lc`h fu qu`stcbhhdcr` `st

fcràt`j`ht cjpldhtã sur l` sct` w`n f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh, sur uh` ndhhcír` vcscnl` pbur l` s

vcsctùrs. Cl p`rj`t f` ràu`cllcr fcràt`j`ht f`s fbhhã`s duprís f`s rãpbhfdhts, f` jdhcír`

tbtdl`j`ht dutbjdtcsã`.

@hsuct`, hbus dvbhs prãs`htã l`s chstruj`hts f` j`sur` utclcsãs pbur hbtr` `hquët` `h

lcih`. _bur a` edcr`, hbus dvbhs `xpbsã l`s fceeãr`ht`s ãam`ll`s f` j`sur` f`s vdrcdnl`s f`

hbtr` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l dchsc qu` l`s abhtröl`s f` ld jdhcpuldtcbh `xpãrcj`htdl` hãa`ssdcr`s

du nbh fãrbul`j`ht f` hbtr` `hquët`, hãa`ssdcr` du qu`stcbhhdcr` echdl (Dhh`x` ‑ 9)

@hech, hbus hbus sbjj`s chtãr`ssãs ï ld jãtmbf` f–dhdlys` f` hbs fbhhã`s, bó hbus

kustcecbhs l` ambcx f` l–utclcsdtcbh f`s jãtmbf`s f–ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s pbur l` t`st fu

jbfíl` ilbndl, ld jãtmbf` f–dhdlys` f`s vdrcdnl`s jãfcdtrca`s `t a`ll` f`s vdrcdnl`s

jbfãrdtrca`s.

http://www.xxxx.xxx/

http://www.xxxx.xxx/



>95

Ld pmds` f` prã-t`st d ãtã j`hã` fu jbcs f` Jdc du jbcs f` Kucll`t >?4?.

L–dfjchcstrdtcbh fu qu`stcbhhdcr` s–`st èeàtuã` vcd l`s lcst`s f` fceeuscbh f` l–Phcv`rsctã

_drcs-Fdupmch`, dchsc qu` fcv`rs rãs`dux sbacdux (c.`., Eda`nbbg, JQH, ̀ ta.).

A`tt` pmds` hbus d p`rjcs f` ràu`cllcr 161 qu`stcbhhdcr`s, fbht 16? bht ãtã kuiãs

daa`ptdnl`s pbur l–ãtuf`. L`s 1 qu`stcbhhdcr`s r`stdhts h–bht pds ãtã vdlcfãs pbur adus`

f–chabmãr`ha` du hcv`du f` l–îi`, ld prbe`sscbh `t l` hcv`du f–ãtuf`. A` amceer` `st

r`ldtcv`j`ht nds adr hbus dvbhs sucvc rciburùs`j`ht l`s abhscih`s ãhbhaã`s ï ld sàtcbh

prãaãf`ht` f` a` amdpctr`.

C.>. L` ambcx fu sct` fu prã-t`st

L` sct` sãlàtcbhhã pbur ld pmds` f` prã-t`st `st a`luc f` ^`hdult H`w F`dl

(mttp;//h`wf`dl.h`tvcf`babj.h`t). Cl s–dict fu jëj` sct` qu` a`luc sãlàtcbhhã pbur l–ãtuf`

qudlctdtcv` f` ld ràm`ram`. A` sct` rìrbup` l`s abhfctcbhs hãa`ssdcr`s ï l–`xpãrc`ha`

f–cjj`r scbh `h lcih` `t j`t `h saíh` l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s cf`htcecã`s lbrs f`

l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` (Ae., Amdpctr` 6).

C.1. L–ãamdhtcllbh

L`s 16? cht`rhdut`s quc bht daa`ptã f` rãpbhfr` ï hbtr` qu`stcbhhdcr`, bht uh îi`

vdrcdht `htr` 4= `t 54 dhs. L` tdnl`du >? ac-f`ssbus, prãs`ht` l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s chfcvcfu`ll`s

f`s rãpbhfdhts. L–ãamdhtcllbh f` prã-t`st `st uh ãamdhtcllbh f` abhv`hdha` quc trdfuct ld

fcv`rsctã f` ld pbpuldtcbh ãtufcã` (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). Vbus l`s rãpbhfdhts bht alcquã

sur l` lc`h fu qu`stcbhhdcr` `t bht sucvc l`s abhscih`s suiiãrã s̀ sur a` f`rhc`r.

http://newdeal.netvideocom.net/






>99

Di` I`hr` _AQ Hcv`du f–ãtuf`

4=->6 dhs ; 1?,1?%

>0-16 dhs ; 03,94%

10-66 dhs ; =,>6%

60-06 dhs ; ?,==%

00 dhs `t + ; ?,03%

Mbjj`s ; 64%

E`jj`s ; 03%

Ãtufcdht ; 0>%

Adfr` `t prbe`sscbhs cht`llàtu`ll`s

supãrcùr`s ; 11%

_rbe`sscbh cht`rjãfcdcr` ; 0%

@jplbyã ; 0%

Drtcsdh, abjj`rédht bu amè

f–`htr`prcs` ; 4%

Buvrc`r ; 4%

F`jdhfùr f–`jplbc ; 4%

Nda bu - ; 6%

Lca`ha` ; 4=%

Jdst`r ; >9%

Jdst`r bu + ;

0>%

Vdnl`du >3 ; L` prbecl f`s p`rsbhh`s cht`rrbiã`s p`hfdht ld pmds` f` prã-t`st

C.6. L–èecadactã f`s ãam`ll`s f` j`sur` utclcsã`s

Dech f` hbus dssur`r f` l–èecadactã f`s ãam`ll`s f` j`sur` utclcsã`s, hbus dvbhs bptã

pbur l–dhdlys` edatbrc`ll`.

L–dhdlys` edatbrc`ll` abhstctu` l–uh` f`s plus dhac`hh`s jãtmbf`s f–dhdlys`s `t `ll` d

edct l–bnk`t fu plus irdhf hbjnr` f–dpplcadtcbhs `h sac`ha`s sbacdl`s (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux,

>??3). @ll` abrr`spbhf ï uh` fãjdram` stdtcstcqu` f` struaturdtcbh f`s fbhhã`s. @ll` eburhct

du am`ramùr uh` jãtmbfblbic` quc s`rt du fãv`lbpp`j`ht f–ãam`ll`s `t ï ld rãfuatcbh fu

hbjnr` f`s ct`js. Cl s–dict fbha f–uh` fãjdram` psyambjãtrcqu` f` j`sur` f` abha`pts hbh

bns`rvdnl`s (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). L–dhdlys` edatbrc`ll` pùt ëtr` `xplbrdtbcr`

(cf`htcecadtcbh f` edatùrs ï pdrtcr f` vdrcdnl`s bns`rvdnl`s) bu abhecrjdtbcr` (p`rj`t f`

s–dssur`r qu` l`s fbhhã`s vãrcec`ht uh` struatur` fãechc` `h ebhatcbh f–mypbtmís`s tmãbrcqu`s

bu ï pdrtcr f` rãsultdts f–ãtuf`s dhtãrcùr`s).

Hbus hbus prbpbsbhs fdhs a`tt` pdrtc` f` prã-t`st`r hbs chstruj`hts f` j`sur`. Hbus

dllbhs fbha èeàtu`r f`s dhdlys`s edatbrc`ll`s `xplbrdtbcr`s. @vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux (>??3)

suiiír`ht f` vãrcec`r fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps sc l`s vdrcdnl`s sbht edatbrcsdnl`s, a'`st-ï-fcr`

qu–`ll`s ebrj`ht uh `hs`jnl` sueecsdjj`ht abmãr`ht. Fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps, cl s–dict fu

ambcx f` ld jãtmbf` f` l–dhdlys`. Hbus dllbhs fbha prbaãf`r ï uh` dhdlys` `h abjpbsdht`s

prchacpdl`s (DA_), adr l–`hs`jnl` f`s vdrcdnl`s edcsdht l–bnk`t f` hbtr` ãtuf` `st qudhtctdtce.

A`tt` dhdlys` hbus p`rj`ttrd f` rãfucr` l`s fbhhã`s `h uh p`tct hbjnr` f` fcj`hscbhs.



>9=

L–dhdlys` edatbrc`ll` `h Abjpbsdht`s _rchacpdl`s, p`rj`t f–ãj`ri`r ld struatur` fu abhstruct

(@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3).

_dr dcllùrs, hbus prbaãf`rbhs ãidl`j`ht ï uh` dhdlys` abhecrjdtbcr`. A`ll`-ac,

dssbacã` dux jbfíl`s f–ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s, hbus p`rj`ttrd f–`xplcqu`r amdauh f`s ct`js

f` l–ãam`ll` pdr uh` vdrcdnl` ldt`ht` quc rèlít` l` abhstruct j`surã.

Dchsc f`s dhdlys`s edatbrc`ll`s `xplbrdtbcr`s `t abhecrjdtbcr`s s`rbht rãdlcsã`s ï pdrtcr

f`s fbhhã`s ràu`cllc`s lbrs fu prã-t`st. A`s dhdlys`s p`rj`tt`ht f–bnt`hcr f`s j`sur`s

èecada`s `h t`rj`s f` vdlcfctã `t f` ecdnclctã. _bur a` edcr`, hbus dvbhs ù ràburs dux

lbicac`ls f–dhdlys` f` fbhhã`s Q_QQ 49.? `t DJBQ 4=.

C.6.4. Hbrjdlctã f`s fbhhã`s

Dvdht f` prbaãf`r ï l–dhdlys` edatbrc`ll` `xplbrdtbcr` `t ï l–dhdlys` edatbrc`ll`

abhecrjdtbcr`, cl `st hãa`ssdcr` f` s–dssur`r qu` l`s fbhhã`s sbht hbrjdl`s. Cl s–dict f` vãrcec`r

sc hbs chstruj`hts f` j`sur` bht uh` fcstrcnutcbh prbam` f` ld fcstrcnutcbh hbrjdl` (aburn`

Ldplda` Iduss). Hbus dvbhs fbha rãdlcsã l`s t`sts f–dsyjãtrc` (t`st f` Qgw`h`ss) `t

f–dpldtcss`j`ht bu f` abha`htrdtcbh (t`st f` Gurtbscs). @h ríil` iãhãrdl`, ld vdlùr fu

Qg`wh`ss fbct ëtr` abjprcs` `htr` W-4, 4Z `t ld vdlùr fu Gurtbscs `htr` W-4,0, 4,0Z. Qc l`s

abèecac`hts dppdrtc`hh`ht ï a`s cht`rvdll`s, bh pùt dlbrs abhscfãr`r qu` l`s fcj`hscbhs `t l`s

abhstructs bht uh` fcstrcnutcbh hbrjdl`.



>93

Ct`js Dsyjãtrc` Dpldtcss`j`htCJJ@^QCBH

CJJ4 ,?4= -4,>50CJJ> ,>=4 -4,161CJJ1 -,?>5 -4,150CJJ6 ,1>9 -4,>3>CJJ0 ,569 -,=63CJJ5 ,1?0 -4,>>?

UDL@P^ _@^AP@UM4 -,463 -4,4=?UM> -,13= -4,?04UM1 -,>04 -4,>?3UP4 ,495 -,33?UP> ,>10 -,306UP1 -,45> -4,4>>

NBPAM@ D B^@CLL@NDB4 -,496 -4,>=1NDB> -,06> -,3?>NDB1 -,44? -4,14=

CHV@HVCBH F–DAMDV CD4 ,163 -,34>CD> ,0>1 -,336

CHV@HVCBH F@ ̂ @UCQCV@

C^ ,>31 ,>56CHV@HVCBH F@ _^@HF^@ ABHVDAVC_AJ4 -,?91 -4,160C_AJ> -,??6 -4,115

CJ_LCADVCBHCJ_4 -,?46 -4,>55CJ_> -,405 -4,>94CJ_1 -,?9> -4,146

@]_@^VCQ@ F–CHV@^H@V@]_4 -,>3? -,953@]_> -,491 -,363@]_1 -,644 -,=0>@]_6 -,>>? -4,4?9@]_0 -,433 -,36=

Vdnl`du 1? ; V`st f` hbrjdlctã

L`s rãsultdts `xpbsãs fdhs l` tdnl`du ac-f`ssus, hbus chfcqu`ht qu` hbus pbuvbhs

abhscfãr`r hbs fbhhã`s abjj` hbrjdl`s, pucsqu` l–`hs`jnl` f`s ct`js prãs`ht` f`sab`eecac`hts daa`ptdnl`s. Hbus pbuvbhs fbha pbursucvr` l–dhdlys`.



>=?

C.6.>. L–dhdlys` edatbrc`ll` ̀ xplbrdtbcr`

L–dhdlys` edatbrc`ll` `h abjpbsdht`s prchacpdl`s, cssu` f` l–dhdlys`jultcfcj`hscbhh`ll`, `st uh` tàmhcqu` f`sarcptcv` bu `xplbrdtbcr`. @ll` p`rj`t ld

r`prãs`htdtcbh scjultdhã` f` pluscùrs fcj`hscbhs ï pdrtcr f` edatùrs syhtmãtcqu`s.

Qbumdctdht rãfucr` ld fcj`hscbhhdlctã f` l–`hs`jnl` f`s fbhhã`s, l–dhdlys` `h

abjpbsdht`s prchacpdl`s `st utcl` pbur ld abjpr`sscbh `t ld aldsscecadtcbh f`s fbhhã`s. @ll`

p`rj`t uh` rãfuatcbh f` l–chebrjdtcbh. L`s vdrcdnl`s sbht rìrbupã`s `h uh p`tct hbjnr` f`

hbuv`ll`s vdrcdnl`s dpp`lã`s abjpbsdht`s prchacpdl`s. A`s edatùrs chfãp`hfdhts p`rj`tt`ht

f` rãsuj`r l–`hs`jnl` f`s ct`js fu abhstruct. F–dutr` pdrt, du hcv`du f–uh` ãam`ll` f`j`sur`, l–DA_ p`rj`t f` r`ssbrtcr l`s ct`js l`s plus ecdnl`s pbur j`sur`r l` abhstruct.

_dr dcllùrs, a`rtdch`s vdrcdnl`s pburrdc`ht dvbcr f`s pbcfs edatbrc`ls ãl`vãs sur uh bu

pluscùrs dx`s. L–DA_ pùt suiiãr`r uh` rbtdtcbh brtmbibhdl` bu bnlcqu` f`s dx`s edatbrc`ls.

Ld rbtdtcbh p`rj`t f` edaclct`r l–bnt`htcbh f–uh` struatur` jultcfcj`hscbhh l̀l` f`s ãam`ll`s f`

j`sur`. Fdhs l` adfr` f` hbtr` pmds` f` prã-t`st, hbs ãam`ll`s f` j`sur` sbht cssu`s f`

trdvdux quc bht edct lùrs prùv`s fdhs ld ràm`ram` `h jdrg`tchi. L`s chstruj`hts sbht

ãldnbrãs fdhs l` nut f` prbfucr` f`s fbhhã`s edatbrcsdnl`s. L`s fbhhã`s sbht fbha dfãqudt`s ï

a` typ` f–dhdlys` `t l`s fcj`hscbhs jdtãrcdlcs`ht l`s abha`pts tmãbrcqu`s pbur tbus l`s

chstruj`hts f` j`sur` sdhs hãa`ssctã f` rbtdtcbh.

@hsuct`, cl `st hãa`ssdcr` f` fãechcr l` hbjnr` f` edatùrs r`t`hus ï pdrtcr f` aùx

prãs`htãs fdhs l`s rãsultdts f` l–DA_. A` hbjnr` p`rj`t f` fãt`rjch`r ld fcj`hscbhhdlctã fu

abhstruct. _bur a` edcr`, fùx t`sts p`rj`tt`ht f` rãpbhfr` ï a`tt` qu`stcbh ;

- L` t`st f` spmãrcactã f` Ndrtl`tt ; cl p`rj`t f` t`st`r l–mypbtmís` s`lbh ldqu`ll` ld jdtrca`

f`s abrrãldtcbhs prbvc`ht f–uh` pbpuldtcbh f` vdrcdnl`s quc sbht chfãp`hfdht`s. Ph r`k`t

f` a`tt` mypbtmís` scihcec` qu` l`s fbhhã`s sbht dpprbprcã`s pbur uh` dhdlys` edatbrc`ll`.

Cl `st scihcecadtce pbur p < ?,?0.

- L` t`st GJB f` Gdcs`r, J`y`r `t Blgch ; cl hbus p`rj`t f` sdvbcr sc l`s fbhhã`s sbht

dpprbprcã`s pbur uh` dhdlys` edatbrc`ll` `t sc l`s fbhhã`s sbht edatbrcsdnl`s. Cl `st daa`ptã

sc ?,?0 < GJB < 4.

L`s ct`js abhs`rvãs pbur amdauh` f`s ãam`ll`s fbcv`ht dlbrs r`jplcr fùx abhfctcbhs

pdr l` adlaul fu ;



>=4

- _bura`htdi` f` vdrcdha` `xplcquã` pdr l`s vdrcdnl`s sur ld fcj`hscbh `xtrdct` ; l`s

vdrcdnl`s fbcv`ht pdrtcacp`r f` jdhcír` scihcecadtcv` ï ld qudlctã f` r`prãs`htdtcbh f`s

edatùrs. L` rãsultdt f` a`tt` dhdlys` p`rj`t f` sdvbcr sc l`s ct`js sbht nc`h r`prãs`htãs pdr

l`s fcj`hscbhs fu abhstruct. A`tt` abhfctcbh s` trdfuct pdr uh` `xtrdatcbh, bu

abjjuhdlctc`s, supãrcùr` ï ?,0.

- _bcfs Edatbrc`l ; a'`st-ï-fcr` ëtr` dttdamãs ï uh f`s edatùrs rãsultdht f` l–DA_ pdr uh

pbcfs edatbrc`l supãrcùr ï ?,5.

C.6.1. Dhdlys` f` ld ecdnclctã

Butr` l`s rãsultdts f` l–dhdlys` edatbrc`ll` `xplbrdtbcr`, cl `st chfcsp`hsdnl` f–ãtufc`r ld

ecdnclctã f`s abhstructs. Ld ecdnclctã `st fãechc` abjj` « ld qudlctã f–uh chstruj`ht quc,

dpplcquã pluscùrs ebcs ï uh jëj` pmãhbjíh`, fbct fbhh`r l`s jëj`s rãsultdts · (@vrdrf,

_rds `t ^bux, >??3). L` abèecac`ht l` plus erãqu`jj`ht utclcsã pbur j`sur`r ld ecdnclctã f`s

fceeãr`hts ct`js quc pdrtcacp`ht ï ld j`sur` f–uh pmãhbjíh` `st uh `stcjdtùr f` ld abmãr`ha`

cht`rh` ; l–Dlpmd f` Arbhndam (Arbhndam, 4304). Cl p`rj`t f` j`sur`r l` fìrã

f–cht`rr`ldtcbhs (abrrãldtcbhs, abvdrcdha`s) `xcstdht `htr` l`s ct`js. ^bssct`r (>??>) `xplcqu`

qu` a` abèecac`ht `st s`hscnl` du hbjnr` f–ct`js `t uh` vdlùr trbp cjpbrtdht` fbct dj`h`r l`

am`ramùr ï s–cht`rrbi`r sur ld r`fbhfdha` f–ct`js sdhs scihcecadtcbh abha`ptu`ll`.

L–Dlpmd f` Arbhndam p`rj`t fbha f` vãrcec`r sc uh chstruj`ht fbhh` l` jëj` rãsultdt

qudhf cl `st utclcsã fdhs l`s jëj`s abhfctcbhs (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). L` tdnl`du ac-

f`ssbus prãs`ht` l–cht`rprãtdtcbh ̀ jpcrcqu` f` l–Dlpmd f` Arbhndam.

Abèecac`ht f` ecdnclctã Hdtur` fu t`st Qùcl f–daa`ptdnclctã

Dlpmd f` Arbhndamilbndl

V`st f` abmãr`ha` cht`rh`

fu abhstruct

Dlpmd < ?,5 ; Chdaa`ptdnl`?,5 < Dlpmd < ?,= ; Daa`ptdnl`

pbur uh` ràm`ram` `xplbrdtbcr`Dlpmd 8 ?.= ; Daa`ptdnl` pbur uh`ràm`ram` abhecrjdtbcr`

Dlpmd f` Arbhndam pdrCt`j

V`st f` abmãr`ha` sc uhct`j `st `hl`vã

Qc Dlpmd sdhs ct`j 8 DlpmdIlbndl ; l–ct`j fbct ëtr` r`tcrã `tuh` hbuv`ll` dhdlys` edatbrc`ll`rãdlcsã`Qc Dlpmd sdhs ct`j < DlpmdIlbndl ; l–ct`j `st idrfã

Vdnl`du 14 ; Cht`rprãtdtcbh f` l–Dlpmd f` Arbhndam



>=>

_dr dcllùrs, l`s `stcjdtcbhs eburhc`s pdr l`s dhdlys`s edatbrc`ll`s abhecrjdtbcr`s

p`rj`tt`ht f` abjplãt`r l–ãtuf` f` ld ecdnclctã f` l–ãam`ll` pdr l` adlaul fu abèecac`ht f`

abmãr`ha` ; l` τ f` Kõr`sgbi (4394). A`t chfca` f` ecdnclctã chtíir` l`s t`rj`s f–`rrùrs. D ld

fceeãr`ha` f` l–dlpmd f` Arbhndam (^buss`l `t dl., >??>), cl s`jnl` plus dfdptã dux jãtmbf`s

f–ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s. Q`lbh ^buss`l `t dl. (>??>), l` τ f` Kõr`sgbi `st jbchs s`hscnl` qu`

l–dlpmd f` Arbhndam du hbjnr` f–ct`js. Hbus fãacfbhs dlbrs f` l–chtãir`r ï hbs prã-t`sts. L`

tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus prãs`ht` l–cht`rprãtdtcbh `jpcrcqu` fu τ Kõr`sgbi.

Abèecac`ht f` ecdnclctã Hdtur` fu t`st Qùcl f–daa`ptdnclctã

τ f` Kõr`sgbi V`st f` abmãr`ha` cht`rh`

fu abhstruct

τ < ?,5 ; Chdaa`ptdnl`

?.5 < τ < ?.= ; Daa`ptdnl` pbur

uh` ràm`ram` ̀ xplbrdtbcr`

τ 8 ?,= ; Daa`ptdnl` pbur uh`

ràm`ram` abhecrjdtbcr`

Vdnl`du 1> ; Cht`rprãtdtcbh fu τ f` Kõr`sgbi

L–dhdlys` `xplbrdtbcr` rãdlcsã` pdr l–dhdlys` `h abjpbsdht` prchacpdl` r`prãs`ht` uh`

pr`jcír` dpprbam` f` ld struatur` f`s ãam`ll`s f` j`sur`. Vbutèbcs a`s ãam`ll`s f` j`sur` s`

fbcv`ht f–ëtr` vdlcfã`s ï l–dcf` f` tàmhcqu`s f–dhdlys̀ abhecrjdtbcr`.

C.6.6. L–dhdlys` f` ld vdlcfctã f`s ãam`ll`s

Edcsdht suct` dux dhdlys`s edatbrc`ll`s `xplbrdtbcr`s, f`s dhdlys`s edatbrc`ll`s

abhecrjdtbcr`s fbcv`ht ëtr` rãdlcsã`s. Hbus utclcs`rbhs ï a`t èe`t, l` lbicac`l DJBQ 4=. A`

lbicac`l p`rj`t f` edcr` f`s dhdlys`s pdr ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s. L–dhdlys` abhecrjdtbcr`

p`rj`t f` a`rtcec`r ld qudlctã psyambjãtrcqu` f`s rãsultdts bnt`hus ï l–cssu` f` ld pmds`

`xplbrdtbcr` (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). A`tt` pmds` fbct ëtr` rãdlcsã` ï pdrtcr f–ãam`ll`s f`

j`sur` ãpurã`s, dech f–`h vãrcec`r l`s struatur`s edatbrc`ll`s. _bur a` edcr`, cl edut t`st`r duprís

f` hbtr` ãamdhtcllbh f` prã-t`st ld struatur` f`s abhstructs. Fdhs a` quc suct, hbus am`ram`rbhs

ï rãpbhfr` ï a`tt` qu`stcbh ; « J`sur`-t-bh a` qu–bh am`ram` ï j`sur`r 2 ·. Jdcs f–dnbrf,

qu`ls sbht l`s fceeãr`hts typ`s f` vdlcfctã 2



>=1

d. Ld vdlcfctã edacdl`

Ld vdlcfctã edacdl` bu f` abht`hu, `st ebhfã` sur l` kui`j`ht fu am`ramùr, dppuyã pdr

l`s pdcrs f` sd abjjuhdutã sac`htcecqu` (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). A`tt` vdlcfctã `st

ebhfã` sur l` kui`j`ht f`s `xp`rts. Hbus dvbhs fbha sbujcs hbtr` qu`stcbhhdcr` ï qu`lqu`s

`xp`rts fu fbjdch`, quc bht abhecrjã hbtr` chtuctcbh.

n. Ld vdlcfctã f` trdct

Ld vdlcfctã f` trdct bu f` abhstruct, hbus p`rj`t f` sdvbcr sc l`s chfcadtùrs abhstructs

sbht uh` nbhh` r`prãs`htdtcbh fu pmãhbjíh` ï ãtufc`r (@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). Ld

vdlcfctã f` abhstruct pr`hf fùx ebrj`s ;

- Ld vdlcfctã abhv`ri`ht` ; @ll` abhstctu` ld adpdactã f` l–chstruj`ht ï eburhcr f`s rãsultdts

scjcldcr`s pdr ld j`sur` fu jëj` abhstruct pdr uh dutr` chstruj`ht. Cl y d fbha vdlcfctã

abhv`ri`ht`, sc l–ãhbhaã abhv`ri` dvà l`s dutr`s ãhbhaãs dssbacãs du jëj` abhstruct.

_ucsqu–cls sbht a`hsãs j`sur`r l` jëj` pmãhbjíh`, l`s ãhbhaãs fbcv`ht ëtr` « abrrãlãs ·

`htr` ùx (Qduvã, >??0). _luscùrs tàmhcqu`s p`rj`tt`ht f` t`st`r ld vdlcfctã abhv`ri`ht`.

Ph` pr`jcír` abhscst` ï vãrcec`r qu` amdauh` f`s abhtrcnutcbhs edatbrc`ll`s f`s ct`js ï ld

vdrcdnl` ldt`ht` `st scihcecadtcv`, a'`st-ï-fcr` 8 4,35, s`lbh l` t`st f` Qtuf`ht du hcv`du

?,?0%. Ph` fùxcíj`, a`ll` f` Ebrh`l `t Ldrag`r (43=4), stcpul` qu` ld vdlcfctã

abhv`ri`ht` f–uh` ãam`ll` `st dssurã` sc l`s vdrcdnl`s ldt`ht`s abjpbsdht a`tt` ãam`ll`

pdrtdi`ht plus f` 0?% f` lùr vdrcdha` dvà lùrs j`sur`s. Dutr`j`ht fct ld vdrcdha`

jby`hh` `xtrdct` τva (bu DU@ ; Dv`rdi` vdrcdha` @xtrdat`f ) `st supãrcùr` ï ?,0 7 a` quc

scihcec` qu` ld vdrcdha` fu abhstruct `st fdvdhtdi` `xplcquã` pdr s`s j`sur`s qu` pdrl–`rrùr (Ebrh`l `t Ldrag`r, 43=4). Fdhs l` adfr` f` hbs prã-t`sts, hbus bptbhs pbur ld

tàmhcqu` f` Ebrh`l `t Ldrag`r (43=4).

- Ld vdlcfctã fcsarcjchdht` ; @ll` p`rj`t f` vãrcec`r qu` l–chstruj`ht f` j`sur` `st nc`h

spãacecqu` `t qu–cl h` s` abhebhf pds dvà ld j`sur` f` abhstructs fceeãr`hts. Cl y d vdlcfctã

fcsarcjchdht` sc l`s ãhbhaãs quc sbht a`hsãs j`sur`r f`s pmãhbjíh`s fceeãr`hts sbht

edcnl`j`ht abrrãlãs. Q–cls ãtdc`ht ebrt`j`ht abrrãlãs, cls pburrdc`ht h` pds fcsarcjch`r `htr`

l`s fceeãr`hts pmãhbjíh`s qu` l–bh am`ram` ï j`sur`r (Ndtrd `t Dmtbld, 4334 7 Qduvã,>??0). Ld vdlcfctã fcsarcjchdht` abhtrcnu` ï vãrcec`r sc l`s fceeãr`ht`s fcj`hscbhs sbht



>=6

p`rtch`ht`s `t fcstchat`s `htr` `ll`s. _luscùrs tàmhcqu`s p`rj`tt`ht f` t`st`r ld vdlcfctã

fcsarcjchdht`. _drjc a`s tàmhcqu`s, ld abjpdrdcsbh ï l–dcf` f–uh t`st fu ω > f–uh jbfíl`

abhtrdcht ï a`ll`s f–uh jbfíl` hbh abhtrdcht (^buss`l `t dl., >??>). Fdhs l` adfr` f` hbs

prã-t`sts, hbus r`t`hbhs l–dpprbam` f` Ebrh`ll `t Ldrag`r (43=4) quc abhscst` ï vãrcec`r qu`

ld vdrcdha` jby`hh` `xtrdct` pbur amdqu` edatùr `st supãrcùr` du adrrã` f`s abrrãldtcbhs

`htr` l`s edatùrs.

_dr dcllùrs, l–dhdlys` edatbrc`ll` abhecrjdtbcr` j`t ï hbtr` fcspbsctcbh f`s chfcadtùrs

stdtcstcqu`s quc trdct`ht f` ld qudlctã f`s ãam`ll`s. _bur ld vdlcfdtcbh f` hbs ãam`ll`s f` j`sur`,

hbus r`tc`hfrbhs l`s chfcadtùrs l`s plus aburdhts fdhs ld lcttãrdtur` `h jdrg`tchi. Cl s–dict

hbtdjj`ht fu ;

- ω¾ (Kõr`sgbi `t Qõrnbj, >??5) r`prãs`ht` uh chfcadtùr fu hcv`du f` abrr`spbhfdha` `htr`

uh` struatur` edatbrc`ll` prbpbsã` `t l`s fbhhã`s abllàtã`s

- L` « ibbfh`ss-be ect chf`x · ; l` IEC (Kõr`sgbi `t Qõrnbj, 4333) `t l–DIEC chfcqu`ht ld

prbpbrtcbh f` vdrcdha`

- L` ^JQ@D; « ^bbt J`dh Qqudr` @rrbr be Dpprbxcjdtcbh · r`prãs`ht` l–dpprãacdtcbh

jby`hh` f`s rãscfus (Nrbwh` `t Auf`g, 43=6)

- L` « Hbrj`f Ect Chf`x · ; HEC (N`htl`r `t Nbh`tt, 43=?) ãvdlu` l'chfãp`hfdha` `htr` l`s

vdrcdnl`s

- L` VLC ; « Vuag`r-L`wcs chf`x · (Vuag`r `t L`wcs, 4391) t`st` l'djãlcbrdtcbh dppbrtã` pdr

l` jbfíl` t`stã `h pr`hdht `h abjpt` ld pdracjbhc` fu jbfíl`.

- L` AEC ; « Abjpdrdtcv` Ect Chf`x · j`sur` ld fcjchutcbh r`ldtcv` du jdhqu` f–dkust`j`ht

(N`htl`r, 433?)

- l` ω¾ hbrjã fãaíl` l`s jbfíl`s sur -dkustãs bu sbus dkustãs (Kõr`sgbi, 4353).

A`s chfca`s `t lùr daa`ptdnclctã sbht `xpbsãs fdhs l` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus ;



>=0

Chfca`s Udlùrs sbumdctã`

Chfca`s dnsblus

ω¾ + p`tct` pbsscnl` (vbcr p dssbacã)

IEC, DIEC 8 ?,=?

^JQ@D < ?,4 bu jcùx < ?,?0

Chfca`s

charãj`htdux

HEC 8 ?,3?

VLC 8 ?,3?

AEC 8 ?,3?

Chfca`s f`

pdracjbhc`

ω ¾ hbrjã + p`tct` pbsscnl`, ̀ htr` 4, >-1, vbcr` 0

Vdnl`du 11 ; L`s chfca`s f–dkust`j`ht r`t`hus pbur l` prã-t`st f`s chstruj`hts f`j`sur`

L–dhdlys` edatbrc`ll` abhecrjdtbcr` p`rj`t fbha f` vdlcf`r l`s butcls f` j`sur`, pdr

l–dpplcadtcbh f`s jbfíl`s f–ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s. Dchsc ld vdlcfctã fu abhstruct pburrd ëtr`

vãrcecã` bnkàtcv`j`ht pdr l–dhdlys` f`s fbhhã`s.



>=5

CC. L` rãsultdt f`s dhdlys`s f` vdlcfdtcbh f`s j`sur`s

Fdhs a` quc suct, hbus dllbhs f–dnbrf ãtufc`r ld struatur` `t ld ecdnclctã f`s abhstructs,

`hsuct` hbus am`ram`rbhs ï kustcec`r lùr vdlcfctã.

CC.4. Ld struatur` `t ld abmãr`ha` cht`rh` f`s chstruj`hts f` j`sur`

CC.4.4. L–ãam`ll` f` j`sur` f` l–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`

_`hfdht sbh fãv`lbpp`j`ht pdr Ebrh`rchb `t dl. (>??=), l–ãam`ll` f` l–cjj`rscbh d edct

l–bnk`t f–dhdlys`s edatbrc`ll`s `xplbrdtbcr`s (DA_) sur uh ãamdhtcllbh f` 1=1 chfcvcfus fdhs l`

abht`xt` f–uh eclj f–mbrrùr 7 pucs f–uh` dhdlys` abhecrjdtbcr` f` ld struatur`. @hech, ld

vdlcfctã `t ld ecdnclctã f` l–ãam`ll` d ãtã vãrcecã` fdhs fùx hbuv`dux abht`xt`s

achãjdtbirdpmcqu`s ; ld abjãfc` (415 chfcvcfus) `t ld abjãfc` frdjdtcqu` (46? chfcvcfus).

Cl hbus d fbha s`jnlã abha`ptu`ll`j`ht chtãr`ssdht f` rãplcqu`r a`tt` ãam`ll`, vdlcfã`

fdhs uh abht`xt` rã`l, fdhs l` abht`xt` f–Cht`rh`t. @ll` pdrdèt dfãqudt` pbur l`s n`sbchs f`

hbtr` ãtuf`. L` prã-t`st sur hbs 16? cht`rhdut`s d rãvãlã l`s rãsultdts sucvdhts.



>=9

Chtctulãs Ct`js Abjjuhdutã Abjpbsdht`

CJJ4L` sct` d arãã uh jbhf` hbuv`du quc d

nrutdl`j`ht fcspdru ï ld ech f` ld vcsct`,0== ,959

CJJ>_dr jbj`hts, k–dc p`rfu abhsac`ha` f` a`

quc j–`htburdct ,513 ,=??

CJJ1

_`hfdht ld vcsct`, jbh abrps ãtdct f`vdht

l–ãardh jdcs jbh `sprct ãtdct fdhs l` jbhf`

arãã pdr l` sct`

,96? ,=5?

CJJ6L` sct` j–d edct bunlc`r l`s rãdlctãs fu jbhf`

`xtãrcùr,959 ,=95

CJJ0

_`hfdht ld abhsultdtcbh fu sct`, a` quc s–ãtdct

pdssã dvdht ld vcsct` bu a` quc s` pdss`rdct

dprís h` abjptdct plus

,5?6 ,999

CJJ5Ld vcsct` fu sct` j–d edct bunlc`r jbh

`hvcrbhh`j`ht cjjãfcdt,944 ,=61

_bura`htdi` f` vdrcdha` `xplcquã ̀ 59,6=1

Dlpmd f` Arbhndam ?,3?1

τ f` Kõr`sgbi ?,3>5

Qcihcecadtcvctã fu t`st f` Ndrtl`tt ?,???

Chfca` GJB ?,=33

Vdnl`du 16 ; _rã-t`st f` l–ãam`ll` f` l–cjj`rscbh

L`s chfcadtùrs lcãs ï l–ãam`ll` f` j`sur` f` l–cjj`rscbh sbht sdtcsedcsdhts dvà uh`

vdrcdha` `xplcquã` daa`ptdnl` `t uh` abmãr`ha` cht`rh` j`surã` pdr l–dlpmd f` Arbhndam f`

?,3? `t τ f` Kõr`sgbi f` ?,3> trís abhv`hdnl s̀.

CC.4.>. L–ãam`ll` f` j`sur` f` ld vdlùr p`réu`

_bur j`sur`r ld vdlùr utclctdcr` `t mãfbhcqu`, l–ãam`ll` f` Ndnch, Fdrf`h `t Irceech

(4336) d ãtã utclcsã`. Hbus dvbhs dussc ambcsc a`tt` ãam`ll`, t`ll` qu–`ll` d ãtã dfdptã` `t

rãfuct` pdr _lcambh (4333) fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps, `t pdr Abtt`t, Lcamtlã `t _lcambh (>??0)fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps. Ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` jbhtr` qu` l–drtcauldtcbh mãfbhcqu` /



>==

utclctdcr` f` a`tt` ãam`ll` p`rj`t f–dhdlys`r l`s dspàts fu jdidschdi` rã`l bu vcrtu`l f`

jdhcír` sdtcsedcsdht`. A`tt` ãam`ll` d ãtã `jplbyã`, ï f` jultcpl`s r`prcs`s, fdhs f`s

ràm`ram`s sur ld p`ra`ptcbh f`s pbchts f` v`ht`. Q`s rãsultdts sbht pbsctces du rìdrf f`s

arctír`s f` ecdnclctã `t f` vdlcfctã f`s ãam`ll`s.

L–dhdlys` edatbrc`ll` f` a`tt` ãam`ll` s` prãs`ht` fdhs l` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus.

Chtctulã Ct`j Abjjuhdutã Abjpbsdht`

UM4 K'dc r`ss`htc l` pldcscr f` ld fãabuv`rt` ,95> ,=43

UM>@h f`mbrs f`s chebrjdtcbhs bu f`s prbfucts qu`

k'dc trbuvãs, vcsct`r a` sct` w`n d ãtã uh pldcscr,993 ,=54

UM1 Ad j'd p`rjcs f` j` amdhi`r l`s cfã`s ,940 ,=?4

UP4K'dc trbuvã `xdat`j`ht l`s prbfucts bu l`s

chebrjdtcbhs fbht k'dvdcs n`sbch,5=1 ,991

UP> K'dc edct `xdat`j`ht a` qu` k'dvdcs prãvu f` edcr` ,99> ,565

UP1K` h'dc pds trbuvã a` fbht k'dvdcs prãacsãj`ht

n`sbch,0?0 ,>00

_bura`htdi` f` vdrcdha` `xplcquã ̀ 0>,>>

Dlpmd f` Arbhndam ,930 τ f` Kõr`sgbi ,=0=

Qcihcecadtcvctã fu t`st f` Ndrtl`tt ,???

Chfca` GJB ,=?4

Vdnl`du 10 ; _rã-t`st f` l–ãam`ll` f` ld vdlùr p`réu`

L`s chfcadtùrs lcãs ï l–ãam`ll` f` j`sur` h` sbht pds trís sdtcsedcsdhts dvà uh`vdrcdha` `xplcquã` f` 0> %, uh` abmãr`ha` cht`rh` j`surã` pdr l–dlpmd f` Arbhndam ãidl` ï

?,930, jëj` sc l` τ f` Kõr`sgbi f` ?,=0=.

Ld edcnl` vdrcdha` pùt ëtr` `xplcquã` pdr ld abheuscbh r`ss`htc` pdr l`s rãpbhfdhts lbrs

f` ld làtur` f` l–ct`j chv`rsã (UP1). Aàc `st f÷, s`lbh hbus, du jbf` f–`hquët` pdr Cht`rh`t

quc daaãlír` l` prba`ssus jdamchdl f` jduvdcs` rãpbhs` lbrsqu` ld qu`stcbh h–`st pds

aldcr`j`ht dsscjclã` pdr l` vcsctùr.



>=3

Hbus dvbhs dlbrs ãlcjchã l–ct`j chv`rsã « K` h'dc pds trbuvã a` fbht k'dvdcs prãacsãj`ht

n`sbch ·. L–Dlpmd f` Arbhndam `xprcj` uh` abmãr`ha` cht`rh` sdtcsedcsdht` (?,=61) `t ld

vdrcdha` `xplcquã` jbht` ï 54,99%. L`s rãsultdts sbht chfcquãs fdhs l` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus.


UM4 K'dc r`ss`htc l` pldcscr f` ld fãabuv`rt` ,5== ,=>3

UM>@h f`mbrs f`s chebrjdtcbhs bu f`s prbfucts qu`

k'dc trbuvãs, vcsct`r a` sct` w`n d ãtã uh pldcscr,906 ,=5=

UM1 Ad j'd p`rjcs f` j` amdhi`r l`s cfã`s ,509 ,=44

UP4K'dc trbuvã `xdat`j`ht l`s prbfucts bu l`s

chebrjdtcbhs fbht k'dvdcs n`sbch,59= ,954

UP> K'dc edct `xdat`j`ht a` qu` k'dvdcs prãvu f` edcr` ,0=? ,564

_bura`htdi` f` vdrcdha` `xplcquã ̀ 54,994

Dlpmd f` Arbhndam ?,=61

τ f` Kõr`sgbi ,==3

Qcihcecadtcvctã fu t`st f` Ndrtl`tt ,???

Chfca` GJB ,=?6

Vdnl`du 15 ; _rã-t`st echdl f` l–ãam`ll` f` ld vdlùr p`réu`

Dprís ãlcjchdtcbh f` l–ct`j UP1, l`s chfcadtùrs lcãs ï l–ãam`ll` f` j`sur` sbht

f`v`hus sdtcsedcsdhts dvà uh` vdrcdha` `xplcquã` f` plus f` 54 % `t uh` abmãr`ha` cht`rh`

j`surã` pdr l–Dlpmd f` Arbhndam quc s–ãlív` ï ?,=6=. A–`st a`tt` j`sur` f` ld vdlùr p`réu`

quc s`rd utclcsã` fdhs l` adfr` f` hbtr` ràm`ram`.

CC.4.1. Ld p`rebrjdha` `h lcih` fu sct`

Ld p`rebrjdha` `h lcih` fu sct` jdramdhf s` j`sur` ï trdv`rs l–cht`htcbh f–damdt, l`

nbuam` ï br`cll`, l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct` `st l–cht`htcbh f` prcs` f` abhtdat.



>3?

d. L–cht`htcbh f–damdt

L–ãam`ll` f` l–cht`htcbh f–damdt f` _utr`vu `t Lbrf (4336) abjpbrt` uhcqu`j`ht fùx

ct`js. L–`hs`jnl` f`s ct`js `st nc`h r`prãs`htã f–dutdht plus qu` a`tt` ãam`ll` ï edct l–bnk`t f`

hbjnrùs`s ràm`ram`s quc bht jcs `h ãvcf`ha` sd nbhh` ecdnclctã. L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus

prãs`ht` f`s abèecac`hts sdtcsedcsdhts.


CD4 K–damít`rdc a` prbfuct ?,=54 ?,3>=

CD> K–damít`rdc f`s prbfucts sur a` sct` Y`n ?,=54 ?,3>=

_bura`htdi` f` vdrcdha` `xplcquã ̀ =5,4>9Qcihcecadtcvctã fu t`st f` Ndrtl`tt ?,???

Chfca` GJB ?,0??

Vdnl`du 19 ; _rã-t`st f` l–ãam`ll` f` l–cht`htcbh f–damdt

n. L` nbuam` ï br`cll`

L–`hs`jnl` f`s j`sur`s f`s vdrcdnl`s f` ld qudlctã r`ldtcbhh`ll` `st ecdnl` ; l`sabèecac`hts Dlpmd f` Arbhndam (?,3>1) `t τ f` Kõr`sgbi (?,30>) sbht h`tt`j`ht ãl`vãs. L`

tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus r`prbfuct l–`hs`jnl` f`s rãsultdts ;


NDB4 K` pdrl`rdc `h nc`h f` a` sct` ï jbh `htburdi` ,=54 ,3>=

NDB>K` ràbjjdhf`rdc a` sct` ï aùx quc j`

f`jdhf`rbht abhs`cl

,=5? ,3>9

NDB1K–`haburdi`rdc j`s prbam`s `t djcs ï vcsct`r a`

sct`,=93 ,31=

_bura`htdi` f` vdrcdha` `xplcquã ̀ =5,559

Dlpmd f` Arbhndam ?,3>1

τ f` Kõr`sgbi ?,30>


Chfca` GJB ?,95>Vdnl`du 1= ; _rã-t`st f` l–ãam`ll` fu nbuam` ï br`cll`



>34

a. L–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct`

L–ãam`ll` f` l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct` `st uh` ãam`ll` jbhb-ct`j f` Quppm`ll`h `t

Hysv``h (>??4). « K` vcsct`rdc a` sct` Y`n ï hbuv`du ·. A`tt` ãam`ll` d ãtã vdlcfã` fdhs

fcv`rs`s ràm`ram s̀ dhtãrcùr`s (`.i., Mbhi `t Gcj, >??6).

f. _r`hfr` abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu`

L–ãam`ll` pr`hfr` « abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu` · `st abhstctuã` f` fùx ct`js. L` tdnl`du

ac-f`ssbus jbhtr` qu` l–`hs`jnl` f`s j`sur`s f`s vdrcdnl`s `st ecdnl`.


_AJ4K` abhtdat`rdc a`tt` jdrqu` pbur dvbcr plus

f–chebrjdtcbhs sur l` prbfuct ?,=33 ?,36=

_AJ>K–cr dc du pbcht f` v`ht` pbur dvbcr plus

f–chebrjdtcbhs sur l` prbfuct ?,=33 ?,36=

_bura`htdi` f` vdrcdha` `xplcquã ̀ =3,346


Chfca` GJB ?,0??

Vdnl`du 13 ; _rã-t`st f` l–ãam`ll` f` prcs` f` abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu`

CC.4.6. L`s jbfãrdtùrs

d. L–ãam`ll` f` l–cjplcadtcbh

L–ãam`ll` f` l–cjplcadtcbh prãs`ht` f`s vdlùrs `xa`ll`ht`s pbur Dlpmd f` Arbhndam

(?,36=) `t τ f` Kõr`sgbi (?,359). F` jëj`, ld vdrcdha` jby`hh` `xplcquã` `st trís

sdtcsedcsdht`. A`tt` ãam`ll` prãs`ht` fbha l`s qudlctãs psyambjãtrcqu`s sdtcsedcsdht`s `t s`rd

abhs`rvã` pbur l` t`st echdl.



>3>

Chtctulãs Ct`js Abjjuhdutãs Abjpbsdht`

CJ_4 L` prbfuct prãs`htã `st uh prbfuct duqu`l k–daabrf` n`duabup f–cjpbrtdha`

,=30 ,365

CJ_> Bh pùt fcr` qu` l` prbfuct prãs`htã `st uh

prbfuct quc j–chtãr`ss ̀ ,36> ,39?CJ_1 K` j` s`hs pdrtcaulcír`j`ht dttcrã pdr l`

prbfuct prãs`htã,==4 ,313

_bura`htdi` f` vdrcdha` `xplcquã ̀ 3?,03=

Dlpmd f` Arbhndam ?,36=

τ f` Kõr`sgbi ?,359


Chfca` GJB ?,913

Vdnl`du 6? ; _rã-t`st f` l–ãam`ll` f` l–cjplcadtcbh

n. L–ãam`ll` f` l–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t

L–ãam`ll` f–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t (0 ct`js) f` Nàmùr `t Ibll`ty (>??5) d ãtã t`stã`

sur hbtr` ãamdhtcllbh. @ll` prãs`ht` uh Dlpmd f` Arbhndam f` ?,349 `t uh τ f` Kõr`sgbi f`

?,313. L–`hs`jnl` f`s chfca`s sbht trís sdtcsedcsdhts. L`s rãsultdts sbht `xpbsãs ac-f`ssbus.

Chtctulãs Ct`js Abjjuhdutãs Abjpbsdht`

@]_4 K` abhhdcs l`s f`rhcír`s chhbvdtcbhs sur Cht`rh`t ,511 ,930

@]_> K–`h sdcs plus qu` ld jby`hh` f`s i`hs surCht`rh`t

,56? ,=??

@]_1 K–dc uh` irdhf` prdtcqu` sur Cht`rh`t ,=43 ,3?0

@]_6 K–`xpãrcj`ht` f`s sctudtcbhs trís fcv`rs`s ̀ h

jdtcír` f–utclcsdtcbh f–Cht`rh`t

,=43 ,3?0

@]_0 K–dc f`s abjpãt`ha`s trís vdrcã`s surl–utclcsdtcbh f–Cht`rh`t

,=56 ,31?

_bura`htdi` f` vdrcdha` `xplcquã ̀ 90,0?1

Dlpmd f` Arbhndam ?,349

τ f` Kõr`sgbi ?,313


Chfca` GJB ?,=94

Vdnl`du 64 ; _rã-t`st f` l–ãam`ll` f` l–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t



>31

L–`hs`jnl` f`s dhdlys`s èeàtuã`s ac-f`ssus tãjbcih` f` ld nbhh` ecdnclctã f`s

ãam`ll`s f` j`sur`s qu` hbus utclcs`rbhs pbur l` t`st echdl f` a` trdvdcl f` ràm`ram`.

CC.>. Ld vdlcfctã f`s abhstructs

Ld fùxcíj` ãtdp` `st ndsã` sur uh` dhdlys` edatbrc`ll` abhecrjdtbcr` dech f–ãvdlu`r ld

vdlcfctã f`s abhstructs r`t`hus lbrs f` l–dhdlys` `xplbrdtbcr`. Ld vdlcfctã fu abhstruct, hbus

p`rj`t f` vãrcec`r sc l`s chfcadtùrs abhstructs r`prãs`ht`ht nc`h l` pmãhbjíh` ï ãtufc`r

(@vrdrf, _rds `t ^bux, >??3). @h èe`t, a`tt` fãjdram` abhscst` ï abherbht`r l`s fbhhã`s

`jpcrcqu`s dux fbhhã`s `stcjã`s sur ld nds` fu jbfíl` edatbrc`l, `t f–`h dpprãac`r l` nbh

dkust`j`ht. L–ãvdludtcbh f` l–dfãqudtcbh fu jbfíl` f` j`sur` `st t`stã` pdr f`s jbfíl`s

f–ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s vcd l` lbicac`l DJBQ 4=. L`s chfca`s f–dkust`j`hts bnt`hus sbht

r`prbfucts fdhs l` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus. A`s chfcadtùrs, fãjbhtrdht l` nbh dkust`j`ht fu

jbfíl`, bh pùt abhscfãr`r qu–cl `st fbha daa`ptdnl` (Nyrh`, >??4 7 Drnuagl`, >??1 7 Mdcr `t

dl., >??5).

Chfca`s ω ¾ ω ¾ hbrjã IEC DIEC HEC VLC AEC ^JQ@DUdlùrs 164,1> >,>4 ?,34 ?,== ?,36 ?,30 ?,35 ?,?5 W?,?0-?,?5=Z

Qùcls

f`

fãacscbh

-< 0

Ld plusedcnl`

pbsscnl`

8 ?,3 8 ?,= 8 ?,3 8 ?,3 8 ?,3 < ?,?=

Vdnl`du 6> ; L`s chfca`s f–dkust`j`ht fu jbfíl` ilbndl prã-t`stã

L–dhdlys` edatbrc`ll` abhecrjdtbcr` abhfuct ï ãvdlu`r ld nbhh` qudlctã psyambjãtrcqu`

f`s abhstructs. @ll` cjplcqu` ld abhscfãrdtcbh f` fùx arctír`s ; ld vdlcfctã abhv`ri`ht` `t ld

vdlcfctã fcsarcjchdht`.

CC.>.>. Ld vdlcfctã abhv`ri`ht`

Ebrh`l `t Ldrag`r (43=4), chfcqu`ht qu` ld vdlcfctã abhv`ri`ht` f–uh` ãam`ll` `stdssurã` sc l`s vdrcdnl`s ldt`ht`s abjpbsdht a`tt` ãam`ll` pdrtdi`ht plus f` 0?% f` lùr



>36

vdrcdha` dvà lùrs j`sur`s. _dr abhsãqu`ht, sc ld vdrcdha` jby`hh` `xtrdct` `st supãrcùr` ï

?,0, a`ld cjplcqu` qu` ld vdrcdha` fu abhstruct `st fdvdhtdi` `xplcquã` pdr s`s j`sur`s qu`

pdr l–`rrùr (Ebrh`l `t Ldrag`r, 43=4). L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus r`pr`hf l`s τ f` ld vdlcfctã

abhv`ri`ht` bu vdrcdha`s jby`hh`s ̀ xplcquã`s f` amdqu` abhstruct.

J`sur`s τ f` ld vdlcfctã abhv`ri`ht` (UJ@)

Cjj`rscbh ?,5=?

Udlùr p`réu` ?,54=

Cht`htcbh f–damdt ?,=54

Nbuam` ï br`cll` ?,=95

_r`hfr` abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu` ?,=33Cjplcadtcbh ?,3?5

@xp`rtcs` ?,900

Vdnl`du 61 ; Ld vdlcfctã abhv`ri`ht` f`s j`sur`s

Ld vdlcfctã abhv`ri`ht` `st abhscfãrã` abjj` trís sdtcsedcsdht`, ãtdht fbhhã qu` tbut`s

l`s abhtrcnutcbhs edatbrc`ll`s sbht scihcecadtcv`s `t supãrcùr`s ï ?,9? (Ae. _drdirdpm` CC.4). _dr

dcllùrs, ld vdlcfctã abhv`ri`ht` `st r`hebraã` pdr ld vdrcdha` jby`hh` `xtrdct` pbur amdqu`

vdrcdnl` `habr` dp p`lã` τ f` vdlcfctã abhv`ri`ht` quc, f–dprís l`s suii`stcbhs f` Ebrh`ll `t

Ldrag`r (43=4), fbct ëtr` supãrcùr` ï ?,0?. A`tt` abhfctcbh d ãtã sdtcsedct` pbur tbut`s l`s

vdrcdnl`s fu jbfíl`, abjj` l` prãs`ht` l` tdnl`du prãaãf`ht.

CC.>.1. Ld vdlcfctã fcsarcjchdht`

Ld vdlcfctã fcsarcjchdht` hbus chfcqu` qu` l–chstruj`ht qu` hbus utclcsbhs `st nc`h

spãacecqu` ï a` qu` hbus j`surbhs, a'`st-ï-fcr` qu` l` abhstruct `st plutöt abrrãlã ï s`s

j`sur`s (chfcadtùrs bu vdrcdnl`s jdhce`st`s) qu–dux dutr`s abhstructs (vdrcdnl`s ldt`ht`s)

(Durc`r, N`hdv`ht `t H'Ibdld, >??4). A`tt` vdlcfctã `st kustcecã` sùl`j`ht sc l`s fceeãr`ht`s

fcj`hscbhs sbht p`rtch`ht`s `t fcstchat`s `htr` `ll`s. Abjj` hbus l–dvbhs j`htcbhhã plus

mdut, cl `xcst` pluscùrs dpprbam`s pbur ld vdlcfctã fcsarcjchdht`. Hbus r`t`hbhs a`ll` f`



>30

Ebrh`ll `t Ldrag`r (43=4). @ll` abhscst` ï vãrcec`r qu` ld vdrcdha` jby`hh` `xtrdct` (τva) pbur

amdqu` edatùr `st supãrcùr` du adrrã f`s abrrãldtcbhs `htr` l`s edatùrs.

Ld abrrãldtcbh jby`hh` f` ld vdrcdnl` ldt`ht` dvà s`s vdrcdnl`s jdhce`st`s `st

ilbndl`j`ht supãrcùr` du adrrã f`s abrrãldtcbhs. L` tdnl`du 19 jbhtr` qu` l`s abhstructs sbht

sueecsdjj`ht fcsarcjchãs ̀ htr` ̀ ux.

Cjj`rscbhUdlùr

p`réu`

Cht`htcbh

f–damdt

Nbuam` ï

br`cll`

_r`hfr`

abhtdat

^`vcsct`r

l` sct`

τva ?,5=? ?,54= ?,=54 ?,=95 ?,=33 -

Cjj`rscbh 4

Udlùr p`réu` ,6== 4

Cht`htcbh f–damdt ,454 ,>6= 4

Nbuam` ï br`cll` ,194 ,5?4 ,45? 4

_r`hfr` abhtdat ,1?1 ,63> ,45? ,619 4

^`vcsct`r l` sct` ,6?? ,541 ,>1= ,5?5 ,69> 4

Vdnl`du 66 ; Ld jdtrca` f` abrrãldtcbhs cht`r-abhstructs

CCC. Abhaluscbh f` ld sàtcbh

A`tt` sàtcbh hbus d p`rjcs f` prãs`ht`r l–ãtuf` fu prã-t`st f`s j`sur`s f` hbtr`

ràm`ram`. L` prã-t`st hbus d p`rjcs f` vdlcf`r l`s ãam`ll`s quc s`rvcrbht ï l–`x pãrcj`htdtcbh.

Fdhs a` adfr`, hbus dvbhs `xpbsã l`s prãdldnl`s dux t`sts f`s mypbtmís`s hbtdjj`ht, l`

ràu`cl f`s fbhhã`s, l` ambcx fu sct` fu prã-t`st, l–ãamdhtcllbh f` abhv`hdha` `t ld jãtmbf`

f–dhdlys` quc hbus s`rvcrd ï vãrcec`r l–èecadactã f`s ãam`ll`s f` j`sur` utclcsã`s, a'`st-ï-fcr`

l–dhdlys` edatbrc`ll`. Ld fùxcíj` pdrtc` f` a`tt` sàtcbh, hbus d abhfuct ï vãrcec`r, fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps,

ld struatur` `t ld abmãr`ha` f`s chstruj`hts f` j`sur`, dchsc qu` ld vdlcfctã abhv`ri`ht` `t

fcsarcjchdht` f`s abhstructs fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps. @h èe`t, l–`hs`jnl` f`s ãam`ll`s f`

j`sur` ãtdct sdtcsedcsdht, sdue pbur ld vdlùr utclctdcr` bó l`s rãsultdts f` l–dhdlys` edatbrc`ll`

hbus bht abhfuct ï ãlcjch`r uh ct`j. L` jbfíl` ilbndl `st abhv`hdnl`j`ht dkustã `t l`s

ãam`ll`s sãlãatcbhhã`s pbur hbtr` ãtuf` prãs`ht`ht f`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s psyambjãtrcqu`s trís

daa`ptdnl`s.



>35

ABHALPQCBH FP AMD_CV^@ U

A` amdpctr` `st f–brfr` jãtmbfblbicqu`. Cl fãarct l`s prbaãfur`s f–dfjchcstrdtcbh, f`

ambcx `t f` abhstruatcbh f`s chstruj`hts f` j`sur` hãa`ssdcr`s pbur l–bpãrdtcbhhdlcsdtcbh fu

jbfíl` f` ràm`ram`.

Ld pr`jcír` sàtcbh f` a` achqucíj` amdpctr` hbus d p`rjcs f` prãs`ht`r ld

jãtmbfblbic` `hvcsdiã` pbur ld jcs` `h plda` f` l–`hquët` pdr Cht`rh`t `t pbur l–dhdlys` f`

fbhhã`s. L–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh vcd muct v`rscbhs f–uh sct` jdramdhf, am`ram` ï jdhcpul`r l`s

fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` jbnclcsãs pdr l` sct`, quc bht uh cjpdat sur l` fãrbul`j`ht f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh. L–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh hbus p`rj`ttrd f` rãablt`r l`s fbhhã`s

hãa`ssdcr`s dux t`sts f` hbs mypbtmís`s. @h èe`t, pbur a` edcr`, hbus dvbhs ù ràburs dux

jbfíl`s f–ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s, `t plus prãacsãj`ht ï ld jãtmbf` f` Ndrbh `t G`hhy (43=5)

pbur l` t`st f`s èe`ts jãfcdtùrs `t a`ll` f` Qdua`r `t Fcag (4331) pbur l` t`st f`s èe`ts

jbfãrdtùrs.

Ld sàbhf` sàtcbh pbrtdct sur ld vdlcfdtcbh f`s ãam`ll`s f` j`sur`. @ll` kustcec` l`s

ambcx qu` hbus dvbhs èeàtuãs `h jdtcír` f` j`sur`s. L–`hs`jnl` f`s abhstructs fãjbhtr`

uh dkust`j`ht daa`ptdnl` fu jbfíl` ilbndl `t l` prã-t`st j`t `h ãvcf`ha` f`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s

psyambjãtrcqu s̀ sdtcsedcsdht`s, uh` nbhh` ecdnclctã `t uh` vdlcfctã abhv`hdnl .̀ L`s rãsultdts

cssus f` a` achqucíj` amdpctr` hbus p`rj`ttrbht f` t`st`r l`s mypbtmís`s f` hbtr` ràm`ram`

fdhs l` amdpctr` sucvdht (Ae. Amdpctr` 5).



>3=

AMD_CV^@ UC ; L@ ^@QPLVDV F@L–@]_@^CJ@HVDVCBH ; L@ V@QV F@Q

MS_BVM@Q@Q



>33

CHV^BFPAVCBH FP AMD_CV^@ UC

L–bnkàtce f` hbtr` ràm`ram` `st f–cf`htcec`r l`s ãlãj`hts quc abhabur`ht l` plus ïl–ãv`htudlctã f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`, `t f–`h j`sur`r l–cjpdat sur ld vdlùr p`réu` `t ld

p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi f–uh sct` jdramdhf f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. Ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` `t

l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` hbus bht p`rjcs f` fãt`rjch`r l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll` f–uh sct`

jdramdhf, quc edvbrcs`ht l–cjj`rscbh, hbtdjj`ht l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls, l` fãabr `h 1F `t ld

abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`. F`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s sur l`squ`ll`s cl `st cjpbrtdht

f–chv`stcr.

L` scxcíj` amdpctr` prãs`ht` l`s t`sts f`s mypbtmís`s f` ld ràm`ram` `t l`s rãsultdts

bnt`hus irîa` du prbtbabl` ̀ xpãrcj`htdl.

Dprís ld prãs`htdtcbh f` l–ãamdhtcllbh f` l–ãtuf`, a` amdpctr` s` abhsdar` `hsuct` du t`st

fu jbfíl` f` ràm`ram`, `h prbpbsdht fùx typ`s f` jãtmbfblbic`s ;

- L–dhdlys` f` ld vdrcdha`, sbus l` lbicac`l Q_QQ pbur t`st`r l–èe`t f`s vdrcdnl`s

jdhcpulã`s (l–di`ht vcrtu`l, l` fãabr `h 1F `t ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`) sur ld vdrcdnl`

fãp`hfdht` ; l–cjj`rscbh. L–dhdlys` f` vdrcdha` (DHBUD), p`rj`t f` t`st`r

l–chelu`ha` f` ld prãs`ha` bu f` l–dns`ha` f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s

jdhcpulã`s, sur l`s hcv`dux f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` jdramdhf lcã` du sct` Y`n.

Cl s–dict f` sdvbcr, sc l`s ãlãj`hts sct`, chelu`ha`ht l` hcv`du f–cjj`rscbh f`s

cht`rhdut`s 2 @t fdhs qu`ll` j`sur` l`s jbfãrdtùrs (c.`., l–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t,

l–cjplcadtcbh, l` lcù `t l` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct`) pbhfír`ht a`tt` chelu`ha` 2 Amdqu`

fãalchdcsbh fu sct` j`t `h dvdht f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` fcstchats. Ld

qu`stcbh quc s` pbs` `st, qu`l saãhdrcb fu sct` `st l` plus prbpca` ï l–`xpãrc`ha`

cjj`rscv` `h lcih` 2 @h f–dutr`s t`rj`s, qu`ll` `st ld j`cllùr` abjnchdcsbh f`s

fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sur uh sct` jdramdhf 2

- Ld jbfãlcsdtcbh pdr ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s sbus l` lbicac`l DJBQ, pbur t`st`r f`

jdhcír` scjultdhã` l–`hs`jnl` f`s r`ldtcbhs fcràt`s `t chfcràt`s fu jbfíl` f`

ràm`ram`. Cl s–dict f` abhhdctr` ld hdtur` f`s lc`hs `htr` l–cjj`rscbh, ld vdlùr p`réu``t l`s fãt`rjchdhts f` ld p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi fu sct`. @hech, hbus tîam`rbhs



1??

f–ãtufc`r l` röl` jãfcdtùr f` ld vdlùr p`réu` (mãfbhcqu` `t `xpãrc`htc`ll`) `t l` röl`

jbfãrdtùr f` l–`xp`rtcs` `t f` l–cjplcadtcbh sur ld r`ldtcbh cjj`rscbh ‑ vdlùr p`réu`.

L`s rãsultdts f` a` amdpctr`, hbus s`rvcrbht f` suppbrt, sur l`qu`l hbus hbus nds`rbhs

pbur prbpbs`r l`s cjplcadtcbhs tmãbrcqu`s, jãtmbfblbicqu`s `t jdhdiãrcdl`s f` a` trdvdcl

fbatbrdl.



1?4

D. Ld prãs`htdtcbh f` ld nds` f`s fbhhã`s l–ãamdhtcllbh echdl

Ld abllàt` f`s fbhhã`s, ld vãrcecadtcbh f` ld jdhcpuldtcbh `t l–ãamdhtcllbh utclcsã` sbht

fãarcts fdhs a`tt` sàtcbh.

C. Ld abllàt` f`s fbhhã`s

Ld adjpdih` f` abllàt` f`s fbhhã`s echdl`s hãa`ssdcr`s du trdct`j`ht f`s fbhhã`s

s–`st fãrbulã` `h trbcs vdiu`s f–`-jdclchi. @h èe`t, Abi`fcj hbus d p`rjcs f–daaãf`r ï sd

nds` f` fbhhã`s alc`ht. Ld pr`jcír` vdiu` d ãtã ldhaã` du jbcs f` Hbv`jnr` >?44, `ll` d

abjptã =433 `-jdcls `hvbyãs `t daabjpdihãs fu t`xt` f` prãs`htdtcbh f` l–ãtuf` (Dhh`x` ‑

3). A`tt` pr`jcír` abjpdih` h–d tbutèbcs iãhãrã` qu` 4?0 qu`stcbhhdcr`s, sbct 4,>=% f` tdux

f` abhv`rscbh.

UDIP@ 4 8 HBU@JN^@ >?44 (>6/44/>?44 ï 40m) U`rscbh @-jdcls

`hvbyãs@-jdclsfãlcvrãs

@-jdclsbuv`rts

Vdux fàlcag

Tu`stcbhhdcr`svdlcfãs

4 31> 9=4(=1,=?%) 4>? (40,15%) 4= (>,1?%) 4>> 4?64 =30 (=0,3=%) 40? (45,95%) 14 (1,65%) >41 4??5 ==> (=9,59%) 496 (43,91%) 1? (1,6?%) 436 391 =40 (=1,95%) 463 (4=,>=%) 45 (4,35%) 4>0 4>35 4465 (==,61%) >>= (43,3?%) 55 (0,95%) >>5 4??= =09 (=0,?>%) 441 (41,43%) 43 (>,>>%) 449 4?41 ==6 (=9,>9%) 415 (40,1=%) >4 (>,1=%) 44= 31? =>?(==,49%) 4?5 (4>,31% 41 (4,03%) 9

Vbtdl =433 9?=? (=5,10%) 4495 (45,54%) >46 (4=,>?%) 440 (01,96%)

Vdnl`du 60 ; ^ãsultdt f` ld pr`jcír` vdiu` f'`-jdcl

Quct` ï a`s amceer`s, hbus dvbhs `hal`hamã uh` sàbhf` abjpdih`, `h jbfcecdht hbtr`

t`xt` f` prãs`htdtcbh (Dhh`x` ‑ 4?) `t `h èeàtudht qu`lqu`s pdrdjãtrdi`s sur l`s vcfãbs. @h

èe`t, uh` jbfcecadtcbh du hcv`du fu lc`h sur l` fcspbsctce, quc chvct` l–cht`rhdut` ï rãpbhfr` l`

qu`stcbhhdcr`. Qur a`s hbuv`ll`s v`rscbhs (pldh `xpãrcj`htdux), l` lc`h `h qu`stcbh f`vc`ht

vcscnl` ï ld ech f` amdqu` sãqu`ha`. Vbutèbcs, a`tt` vdiu` d ãtã ldhaã` l`s >= fãa`jnr` >?44.

Ph` pãrcbf` f` vdadha`, p`hfdht ldqu`ll` l`s cht`rhdut`s h–bht pds ãtã cht`rp`lãs pdr hbs ` -

jdcls. L` tdux f` abhv`rscbh ãtdct f` ?,>=%.



1?>

Vdnl`du 65 ; ^ãsultdt f` ld fùxcíj` vdiu` f'`-jdcl

@hvcrbhs uh jbcs plus tdrf, uh` trbcscíj` vdiu` `st `hal`hamã`, `ll` d iãhãrã 45

qu`stcbhhdcr`s f` plus pbur drrcv`r ï uh tbtdl f` 404 qu`stcbhhdcr`s. L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus j`t

`h ãvcf`ha` l`s amceer`s rãsultdht f` ld trbcscíj` vdiu` f–`-jdclchi.

Vdnl`du 69 ; ^ãsultdt f` ld trbcscíj` vdiu` f'`-jdcl

L`s tdnl`dux ac-f`ssus fãjbhtr`ht f` ld edcnl`ss` fu tdux f` rãpbhs` f`s `-jdcls

`hvbyãs dux alc`hts f` Abi`fcj (401 qu`stcbhhdcr`s). _bur djãlcbr`r a`s amceer`s, hbus dvbhs

f÷ ràburcr ï f–dutr`s jby`hs f` abllàt`, hbtdjj`ht, dux lcst`s f` fceeuscbhs f` _drcs -

Fdupmch` (lcst`s `hs`cihdhts am`ramùrs `t p`rsbhh`l). A`p`hfdht hbus dvbhs t`hu ï

UDIP@ > 8 F@A@JN^@ >?44 (>?/4>/>?44 ï 4?m)

U`rscbh @-jdcls`hvbyãs

@-jdclsfãlcvrãs

@-jdclsbuv`rts

Vdux fàlcag

Tu`stcbhhdcr`svdlcfãs

4 505 035 (3?,=0%) >> (1,53%) 0 (?,=6%) 6

> 96> 556 (=3,63%) 43 (>,=5%) > (?,1?%) >1 9?1 5>5 (=3,?0%) >? (1,43%) > (?,1>%) 46 503 031 (=3,3=%) >1 (1,==%) 0 (?,=6%) 10 9?4 543 (==,1?%) >0 (6,?6%) = (4,>3%) 05 913 596 (34,>?%) >6 (1,05%) 1 (?,60%) >9 966 5=? (34,6?%) >6 (1,01%) 4 (?,40%) ?= 9?3 56= (34,6?%) >> (1,6?%) 1 (?,65%) >

Vbtdl 0501 04?? (3?,>4%) 406 (1,66%) >3 (4=,14%) 43 (50,5>%)

UDIP@ > 8 F@A@JN^@ >?44 (>=/4>/>?44 ï 4?m)

U`rscbh @-jdcls

`hvbyãs

@-jdcls

fãlcvrãs

@-jdcls

buv`rts

Vdux f`

alcag

Tu`stcbhhdcr`s

vdlcfãs4 096 0>0 (34,6>%) >3 (6,=5%) > (?,16%) >> 5>5 099 (=3,61%) 10 (0,1?%) 6 (?,54%) 11 560 064 (=3,>5%) >> (1,01%) > (?,1>%) 46 5?5 059 (33,06%) 60 (5,3>%) 1 (?,65%) >0 505 0=> (==,94%) 64 (9,?6%) 6 (?,5=%) >5 09? 03> (34,41%) 16 (0,?3%) 1 (?,60%) >9 50? 5?? (34,61%) 69 (5,33%) 0 (?,96%) 6= 505 009 (==,36%) 15 (0,96%) 1 (?,6=%) 1

Vbtdl 61>9 1303 (34,63%) >6= (5,>5%) >> (=,=9%) 43 (=5,15%)



1?1

sãlàtcbhh`r hbs rãpbhfdhts. Cls f`vdc`ht ëtr` edjclc`rs dvà l`s s`rvca`s prbpbsãs pdr

Abi`fcj, qu–cls dc`ht f`s r`v`hus ecx`s `t qu–cls sbc`ht edjclc`rs ï l–butcl Cht`rh`t.

Du echdl, hbus dvbhs abllàtã >== qu`stcbhhdcr`s, fcsp`rsãs sur l`s = v`rscbhs fu sct`

w`n f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh.

CC. _rãs`htdtcbh f` l–ãamdhtcllbh

L–uh f`s bnkàtces f` hbtr` ràm`ram` `st f` abjpr`hfr` l`s fceeãr`ha`s f` p`ra`ptcbh

`htr` l`s cht`rhdut`s quc erãqu`ht`ht fceeãr`ht`s v`rscbhs f–uh jëj` sct`, `h jdhcpuldht s`s

abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s. Muct ãamdhtcllbhs bht ãtã abhstctuãs ï l–dcf` f–uh qu`stcbhhdcr`

dutb-dfjchcstrã.L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus prãs`ht` ld rãpdrtctcbh f`s >== rãpbhfdhts sur l`s muct

fãalchdcsbhs fu sct` pbur l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh.

_ldh`xpãrcj`htdl

Fãabr Di`ht vcrtu`l Abjjdhf` f`

abhtröl` @eeàtce

4 >F + + 19> >F + - 161 >F - + 16

6 >F - - 100 1F + + 165 1F + - 199 1F - + 13= 1F - - 1=

@eeàtce tbtdl >==

Vdnl`du 6= ; Ld rãpdrtctcbh f` l–ãamdhtcllbh fdhs l`s muct a`llul`s

L–`hs`jnl` f`s qu`stcbhhdcr s̀ d ãtã dfjchcstrã `t rãabltã `h lcih`. Ld struatur` f`

hbtr` ãamdhtcllbh, `h t`rj`s f–îi`, f` hcv`du f–ãtuf`, f` AQ_ `t f` i`hr`, s` prãs`ht` fdhs l`

tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus.



1?6

@eeàtce _bura`htdi`

L` hcv`du f'ãtuf`

Nda bu - 4? 1,69 %

Nda +1 bu - 66 40,>= %Nda + 6 6> 40,0= %

Nda + 0 `t + 43> 55,59 %Vbtdl >== 4?? %

Vdnl`du 63 ; Qtruatur` f` l–ãamdhtcllbh echdl `h t`rj`s f` hcv`du f–ãtuf`


L–îi`

40->? 0 4,96 %>4-1? 4>1 6>,94 %

14-6? 31 1>,>3 %64-0? 14 4?,95 %

04-5? >5 3,?1 %54 `t plus 4? 1,69 %

Vbtdl >== 4?? %

Vdnl`du 0? ; Qtruatur` f` l–ãamdhtcllbh echdl `h t`rj`s f–îi`


Ld Adtãibrc`sbacbprbe`sscbhh`ll`

Dircaultùr 4 ?,10 %

Drtcsdh, abjj`rédht bu amèf–`htr`prcs`

490,3? %

Adfr` `t prbe. cht`llàtu`ll`ssupãrcùr`s

40101,4> %

_rbe`sscbh cht`rjãfcdcr` >1 9,33 %

@jplbyã 61 46,31 %Buvrc`r ?

@tufcdht ?^`trdctã = >,9= %

F`jdhfùrs f–`jplbc 61 46,31 %

Vbtdl >== 4?? %

Vdnl`du 04 ; Qtruatur` f` l–ãamdhtcllbh echdl `h t`rj`s f` AQ_



1?0


L` i`hr`Jdsaulch 419 69,09 %

Eãjchch 404 0>,61 %

Vbtdl >== 4??%

Vdnl`du 0> ; Qtruatur` f` l–ãamdhtcllbh echdl `h t`rj`s f` i`hr`

Fdhs l` adfr` f` a`tt` ãtuf`, l`s pdrtcacpdhts bht ãtã deeàtãs dlãdtbcr`j`ht ï amdauh

f`s = irbup`s abrr`spbhfdht amdauh ï uh` v`rscbh fceeãr`ht` fu sct`. Amdqu` irbup` `st

chfãp`hfdht du s`ch f` ld pbpuldtcbh ãtufcã`, a` quc hbus p`rj`t f–èeàtu`r f`s

abjpdrdcsbhs f` jby`hh`. _dr dcllùrs, hbus dvbhs prcs sbch f` edcr` `h sbrt` qu–duauh

rãpbhfdht h` pdrtcacp` plus f–uh` ebcs ï l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh (irbup`s hbh dppdrcãs).

Fdhs l` ads f–ãamdhtcllbhs fbht l–èeàtce `st supãrcùr ï 1? (h : 1?), ld fcstrcnutcbh

jby`hh` `st hbrjdl` (Qum `t L``, >??0 7 Kcdhi `t N`hndsdt, >??9). Cl hbus `st dlbrs pbsscnl`

f` abhscfãr`r qu` l–`stcjdtcbh f` ld vdrcdha` f` amdqu` irbup` `st sdtcsedcsdht` adr l` hbjnr`

f` fìrãs f` lcn`rtã `st irdhf. Dech f` r`spàt`r ld vdlcfctã stdtcstcqu`, `h t`rj`s f` hbrjdlctã

f` ld fcstrcnutcbh f`s vdrcdnl`s fãp`hfdht`s, cl ãtdct hãa`ssdcr` f–cht`rrbi`r du jbchs 1?

cht`rhdut`s pbur amdqu` a`llul` `xpãrcj`htdl` (G`m `t _dhi, >?4?).

L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus prãs`ht` ld struatur` f` l–ãamdhtcllbh pbur amdqu` pldh

`xpãrcj`htdl.

_ldh ̀ xpãrcj`htdl 4 > 1 6 0 5 9 =

L–îi`

40->? 1 ? ? ? 4 ? ? 4

>4-1? 9 41 4? 45 46 >= 4= 49

14-6? 49 9 43 9 = 0 4> 4=

64-0? 0 1 6 9 0 > 0 ?

04-5? > 44 4 1 0 4 1 ?

54 dhs `t plus 1 ? ? > 4 4 4 >Vbtdl 19 16 16 10 16 19 13 1=

Vdnl`du 01 ; Qtruatur` fu pldh `xpãrcj`htdl `h t`rj`s f–îi`



1?5

_ldh ̀ xpãrcj`htdl 4 > 1 6 0 5 9 =

L`hcv`duf'ãtuf`

Nda `t - 1 ? ? 1 ? ? ? 6

Nda +1 bu - 6 4 9 > 6 > ? >6

Nda +6 6 0 > 3 = 9 6 1

Nda +0 `t + >5 >= >0 >4 >> >= 10 9Vbtdl 19 16 16 10 16 19 13 1=

Vdnl`du 06 ; Qtruatur` fu pldh `xpãrcj`htdl `h t`rj`s f` hcv`du f–ãtuf`

_ldh ̀ xpãrcj`htdl 4 > 1 6 0 5 9 =

Ld AQ_

Dircaultùr 4 ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Drtcsdh, abjj`rédht

bu amè f–`htr`prcs`

6 > ? 4 6 1 4 >

Adfr` `t prbe.cht`llàtu`ll`ssupãrcùr`s

4= >? >1 45 >6 >1 >? 3

_rbe`sscbhcht`rjãfcdcr`

1 ? > 1 4 4 0 =

@jplbyã 3 44 0 0 > 4 4 3

Buvrc`r ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

@tufcdht ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

^`trdctã > ? ? > 4 4 4 4F`jdhfùr f–`jplbc ? 4 6 = > = 44 3

Vbtdl 19 16 16 10 16 19 13 1=

Vdnl`du 00 ; Qtruatur` fu pldh `xpãrcj`htdl `h t`rj`s f` AQ_

_ldh ̀ xpãrcj`htdl 4 > 1 6 0 5 9 =

L` i`hr`Jdsaulch 40 >4 >4 49 >4 40 40 4>

Eãjchch >> 41 41 4= 41 >> >6 >5Vbtdl 19 16 16 10 16 19 13 1=

Vdnl`du 05 ; Qtruatur` fu pldh `xpãrcj`htdl `h t`rj`s f` i`hr`

Dech f–bnt`hcr uh hbjnr` cf`htcqu` f` qu`stcbhhdcr`s pbur amdqu` pldh `xpãrcj`htdl

fu pldh edatbrc`l, hbus dvbhs ambcsc f–dvbcr l` jëj` hbjnr` f` rãpbhfdhts pdr a`llul`.

L–ãamdhtcllbh f` hbtr` `hquët`, abjpbsã f` >== chfcvcfus rãpdrtcs `h = irbup`s. L`

hbjnr` jchcjuj f` rãpbhfdhts `hrìcstrã fdhs l`s = a`llul`s `st f` 16. Hbus dvbhs dlbrs fu



1?9

supprcj`r f`s chfcvcfus du mdsdrf fdhs l`s pldhs 4, 6, 5, 9, =. @h èe`t, fdhs l` adfr` f` hbtr`

ràm`ram`, cl s–dict f–uh` `xpãrcj`htdtcbh cht`r -suk`ts adr l`s = irbup`s `xãaut`ht ld jëj`

tdam` sbus f`s abhfctcbhs fceeãr`ht`s (Qum `t L``, >??0 7 Mblzwdrtm `t dl., >??5 7 Kcdhi `t

N`hndsdt, >??9 7 G`m `t _dhi, >?4?). Du echdl, 45 bns`rvdtcbhs bht ãtã ãlcjchã`s, rdj`hdht ld

tdcll` f` l–ãamdhtcllbh ï >9>, a'`st-ï-fcr` 16 bns`rvdtcbhs pdr pldh `xpãrcj`htdl.

CCC. Ld vãrcecadtcbh f`s jdhcpuldtcbhs `xpãrcj`htdl`s

L`s rãpbhfdhts bh vcsctã uh sct` jdramdhf quc prbpbs` uh` beer` f` echdha`j`ht

cjjbnclc`r ; l` fcspbsctce Qa`llc`r. Ld vcsctã s–`st èeàtuã sdhs ld prãs`ha` fu am`ramùr. Ph`

vãrcecadtcbh f` ld jdhcpuldtcbh s–cjpbs` dlbrs. @h èe`t, cl `st ebrt`j`ht dpprãacdnl` f` sdvbcrsc l`s rãpbhfdhts bh ãtã abrràt`j`ht abherbhtãs dux jdhcpuldtcbhs (Mblzwdrtm `t dl., >??5 7

G`m `t _dhi, >?4?). @h abhsãqu`ha`, dprís dvbcr ãtã `xpbsãs du sct` f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, l`s

cht`rhdut`s bht f÷ rãpbhfr` ï trbcs qu`stcbhs f` abhtröl`. Ld pr`jcír` d pbur bnkàtce f` sdvbcr

sc l`s rãpbhfdhts bh trbuvã l–ãlãj`ht « di`ht vcrtu`l · sur l` sct`. Ld fùxcíj` am`ram` ï

chfcqu`r s–cls bht fcstchiuã l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h 1F `t `hech, ld f`rhcír` p`rj`ttdct f` vãrcec`r

sc l`s cht`rrbiãs dvdc`ht p`réu bu pds ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`. L`s trbcs qu`stcbhs f` abhtröl`

s` prãs`ht`ht sur uh` ãam`ll` f` 9 ãam`lbhs, dlldht f` « pds fu tbut f–daabrf · ï « tbut ï edct

f–daabrf ·.

L`s jdhcpuldtcbhs s` sbht rãvãlã`s sdtcsedcsdht`s, pucsqu–uh` abjpdrdcsbh f`s

jby`hh`s iãhãrdl`s d abhecrjã ld p`ra`ptcbh f` ld prãs`ha` bu f` l–dns`ha` f` amdqu`

ãlãj`ht `xpãrc`htc`l jdhcpulã. @h èe`t, l` t`st jbhtr` qu` l–dns`ha` Us ld prãs`ha` f` l–di`ht

vcrtu`l d nc`h ãtã p`réu`. Ld abjpdrdcsbh f`s jby`hh`s f` a`t ãlãj`ht d abhecrjã l–èecadactã

f` ld jdhcpuldtcbh ; J sdhsRdi`ht : 4,5? 7 J dvàRdi`ht : 5,54 7 E : >616,169 7 p : ?,???.

Jdhcpuldtcbh Jby`hh` @adrt-typ` E

QdhsRDi`ht 4,5? ,3=9>616,169

p : ?,???DvàRDi`ht 5,54 ,941

Vbtdl 6,?9 >,505

Vdnl`du 09 ; L`s jby`hh`s f`s sabr`s bnt`hus ; prãs`ha`/dns`ha` f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l

Abha`rhdht l` fãabr `h 1 fcj`hscbhs, l`s cht`rhdut`s bht pu p`ra`vbcr sbh prãs`ha` bu

sbh dns`ha` ; J QdhsR1F : >,?4 7 J DvàR1F : 0,=5 7 E : 30?,05? 7 p : ?,???.



1?=

Fãabr `h 1F Jby`hh` @adrt-typ` E

QdhsR1F >,?4 4,?4630?,05?

p : ?,???

DvàR1F 0,=5 4,4??

Vbtdl 1,33 >,433

Vdnl`du 0= ; L`s jby`hh`s f`s sabr`s bnt`hus ; prãs`ha`/dns`ha` f–uh fãabr `h 1F

@hech, l`s jby`hh`s t`stdht ld p`ra`ptcbh f` l–dns`ha` `t f` ld prãs`ha` f` ld

abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` bht ãtã abjpdrã`. Ld abjpdrdcsbh f`s jby`hh`s abhecrj` l–èecadactã

f` ld jdhcpuldtcbh ; J QdhsRAbhtöl ̀: 4,9? 7 J DvàRAbhtröl ̀: 5,41 7 E : 4664,166 7 p : ?,???.

Abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` Jby`hh` @adrt-typ` E

QdhsRAbhtöl` 4,9? ,36>4664,166

p : ?,???DvàRAbhtröl` 5,41 4,?15

Vbtdl 1,31 >,61?

Vdnl`du 03 ; L`s jby`hh`s f`s sabr`s bnt`hus ; prãs`ha`/dns`ha` f–uh` abjjdhf` f`

abhtröl`

L–`hs`jnl` f`s t`sts èeàtuãs jbhtr`ht qu` p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`, l`s

cht`rhdut`s bht ãtã abherbhtãs abrràt`j`ht dux jdhcpuldtcbhs f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

`xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`. Hbus pbuvbhs dlbrs abhtchu`r hbs dhdlys`s.



1?3

N. L` t`st fu jbfíl` f` ràm`ram`

A`tt` sàbhf` sàtcbh s` prbpbs` f` t`st`r hbtr` jbfíl` f` ràm`ram`. Dprís dvbcr

rdpp`lã hbs mypbtmís`s f` ràm`ram`, hbus hbus abhsdar`rbhs fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps du t`stfu pr`jc`r irbup` f–mypbtmís`, r`ldtce dux lc`hs abha`rhdht l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s

fu sct` `t l–cjj`rscbh. _ucs, hbus hbus ebadlcs`rbhs sur l` fùxcíj` irbup` f–mypbtmís`s,

r`ldtce ï l–èe`t jãfcdtùr f` ld vdlùr p`réu` fdhs ld r`ldtcbh cjj`rscbh ‑ rãpbhs`s

abjpbrt`j`htdl`s. @hech, hbus prãs`ht`rbhs l` trbcscíj` irbup` f–mypbtmís`s, quc abha`rh`

l` röl` f`s jbfãrdtùrs p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`.

C. L` rdpp`l fu jbfíl` f` ràm`ram`

Fdhs a` amdpctr`, hbus `xpbsbhs l`s rãsultdts f` l–ãtuf` `jpcrcqu` `h vu` f` vdlcf`r

(bu r`k`t`r) l`s mypbtmís`s fãv`lbppã`s fdhs l` amdpctr` 6. A`s mypbtmís`s r`pbs`ht sur l` lc`h

`htr` l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll` f–uh sct` jdramdhf, l–cjj`rscbh, ld vdlùr p`réu` `t l`s

rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`s cht`rhdut`s.

Hbus dvbhs rdss`jnlã hbs mypbtmís`s f` ràm`ram` `h trbcs irbup`s ;

-

L` pr`jc`r irbup` f–mypbtmís`s ; l`s mypbtmís`s abha`rhdht l–cjj`rscbh fdhsl–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`

- L` fùxcíj` irbup` f–mypbtmís`s ; L–èe`t jãfcdtùr f` ld vdlùr p`réu` fdhs ld

r`ldtcbh cjj`rscbh ‑ rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s

- L` trbcscíj` irbup` f–mypbtmís`s ; l`s mypbtmís`s abha`rhdht l` röl` f`s jbfãrdtùrs

fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`

L–`hs`jnl` f`s mypbtmís`s `st cllustrã fdhs l` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l f` ld ràm`ram`,

rdpp`lã fdhs ld eciur` quc suct.



14?

Eciur` >3 ; L` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l f` ld ràm`ram` ; l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`s sct`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`


Cjj`rscbh

M1

Ld vdlùrmãfbhcqu`

Ld vdlùrutclctdcr`

L` abjpbrt`j`ht

f`s cht`rhdut`s

_r`hfr` abhtdatAbjjdhf`r^`jplcr uhebrjuldcr`


M6

M0

M>

@hvcrbhh`j`ht mbrs fuabhtröl` fu sct`

Lcù f` ld vcsct`

Jbj`ht f` ld vcsct`

L`s jbfãrdtùrschfcvcfu`ls

Cjplcadtcbh

@xp`rtcs`

M3M5M= M9

M4

M4? M44

L`s abjpbsdht`s`xpãrc`htc`ll`s

p`réu`s

Fãabr 1F (prãs`ha`vs dns`ha`)


vs. dns`ha`) Di`hts vcrtu`ls

( prãs`ha` vs. dns`ha`)

DHBUD

[email protected]



144

CC. L` t`st fu pr`jc`r irbup` f–mypbtmís`s ; l`s mypbtmís`s abha`rhdht

l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`

A` irbup` f–mypbtmís`s pbrt` sur l`s èe`ts f`s abjpbsdht`s fu sct` jdhcpulã`s (l`sdi`hts vcrtu`ls, l` fãabr `h 1F `t ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`) sur l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt`

`xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`. @h abhsãqu`ha`, hbus suppbsbhs qu` ld prãs`ha` f`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` jdramdhf d uh cjpdat pbsctce sur l–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. _bur vdlcf`r bu

rãeut`r a`tt` mypbtmís`, hbus dvbhs èeàtuã f`s dhdlys`s f` vdrcdha` (Dhbvd). Fdhs a` pldh

`xpãrcj`htdl `xcst`ht fùx vdrcdnl`s ;

4. Ld vdrcdnl` chfãp`hfdht` « abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` w`n · dvà =

jdhcpuldtcbhs ; Dvà bu sdhs di`ht vcrtu`l 7 dvà bu sdhs fãabr `h 1F `t dvà bu sdhsabjjdhf` f` abhtröl`

>. Ld vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` « cjj`rscbh ·, quc r`hvbc` du fìrã cjplcadtcbh, f–`hidi`j`ht `t

f–dnsbrptcbh fdhs l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih`. @ll` abrr`spbhf ï uh sabr`.

L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus jbhtr` l` hcv`du f–cjj`rscbh pbur amdqu` ãlãj`ht jdhcpulã,

dchsc qu` pbur amdqu` pldh `xpãrcj`htdl. Cl hbus p`rj`t f–dvdha`r qu` ld s`hsdtcbh

f–cjj`rscbh vdrc` s`lbh l–dns`ha` bu ld prãs`ha` f` l–di`ht vcrtu`l, f` ld abjjdhf` f`

abhtröl`, fu fãabr `h 1F `t f` ld abjnchdcsbh f`s 1 abjpbsdht`s.

Fãabr 1FAbjjdhf` f`

abhtröl`Di`ht vcrtu`l Jby`hh` H @adrt-typ`

Dns`ha`

Dns`ha`Dns`ha` -,56>?45> 16 ,9965=>53

_rãs`ha` ,?94???? 16 4,?64?950?

Vbtdl -,>=00?=4 5= ,39=3=551

_rãs`ha`Dns`ha` -,4911051 16 ,=45=>?>>

_rãs`ha` ,?5?15>9 16 ,9141633?

Vbtdl -,?05635= 5= ,99=64?96

_rãs`ha`

Dns`ha`Dns`ha` -,4?0?009 16 ,=35?6>01

_rãs`ha` ,1>06995 16 4,44=3601>

Vbtdl ,44?>44? 5= 4,?>340094

_rãs`ha`Dns`ha` -,4>39699 16 4,?0154?54

_rãs`ha` ,93043=1 16 ,=5446344

Vbtdl ,11>9>01 5= 4,?5>0=9>1



14>

Vdnl`du 5? ; V`st f` l–èe`t ilbndl f`s abjpbsdht`s ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll`s jdhcpulã`s sur

l–cjj`rscbh

CC.4. L–chelu`ha` fu fãabr `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs sur l–cjj`rscbh

Ph `xdj`h f`s èe`ts cht`r-suk`ts s–cjpbs` dech f` t s̀t`r l–mypbtmís` M4.d r`ldtcv` ï

l–chelu`ha` pbsctcv` f` ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f–uh fãabr `h 1F fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu

sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf.

Jby`hh` H@adrt-typ`

Jby`hh`f`s adrrãs

E(p-vdlu`)

@tdadrrã

Fãabr `h1F

Dns`ha` 1F -,494??>6 415 ,===0=01>4?,696

44,?30(,??4)

,?13_rãs`ha` 1F ,>>465=> 415 4,?6=?=30

Vbtdl ,?>0>1>3 >9> ,3=306994Vdnl`du 54 ; L–èe`t fu fãabr `h 1F sur l–cjj`rscbh

F–dprís l`s tdnl`dux 5? `t 54, ld prãs`ha` f–uh fãabr `h 1F sur l` sct` djãlcbr` ld

s`hsdtcbh f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. @h èe`t, J Dns`ha`R1F (: -,494??>6) < J _rãs`ha`R1F

(:,>>465=>) dvà E : 44,?30 (p : ,??4). @h bns`rvdht l` abèecac`ht @td adrrã, quc r`prãs`ht`

ld prbpbrtcbh f` vdrcdha` `xplcquã` f` l–cjj`rscbh pdr ld vdrcdnl` chfãp`hfdht` (fãabr `h

1F) (Abm`h, 43==), hbus abhecrjbhs qu–cl `xcst` nc`h uh èe`t fu fãabr `h 1F sur

l–cjj`rscbh. A`s rãsultdts hbus p`rj`tt`ht fbha f` vdlcf`r l–mypbtmís` M4.d.

CC.>. L–chelu`ha` f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` sur l–cjj`rscbh

Abha`rhdht l–mypbtmís` r`ldtcv` ï l–cjpdat pbsctce f` ld prãs`ha` f` ld abjjdhf` f`

abhtröl` sur l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`, l` t`st s` prãs`ht` fdhs l`tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus.

Jby`hh` H@adrt-typ`

Jby`hh`f`s adrrãs

E(p-

vdlu`)

@tdadrrã


Dns`ha` A

abhtröl` -,?=956=0 415 4,?>?4910

6,4?16,4==(,?6>)

,?40_rãs`ha` A

abhtröl`

,4093=93 415 ,30=0>>39

Vbtdl ,?104539 >9> ,33051>=0



141

Vdnl`du 5> ; L–èe`t f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` sur l–cjj`rscbh

Ld prãs`ha` bu l–dns`ha` f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` edct vdrc`r l` edatùr cjj`rscbh ;

J Dns`ha` abhtröl` (: -,?=956=0) < J _rãs`ha` abhtröl` (:,4093=93) dvà E : 6,4== (p : ,?6>).

Vbutèbcs, E `st scihcecadtce du sùcl f` 0%, a` quc vùt fcr` qu–cl `xcst` nc`h uh èe`t pbsctce f`

ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` sur l–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. _dr dcllùrs l–@td adrrã f` l–brfr` f` ?,?40,

kustcecdht l–cjpdat f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`. F–bó ld vdlcfdtcbh f` l–mypbtmís` M4.n.

CC.1. L–chelu`ha` f`s di`hts vcrtu`ls sur l–cjj`rscbh

Ld f`rhcír` mypbtmís` f` a` pr`jc`r irbup`, pbrt` sur l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` v`rsus

dns`ha` f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l sur l–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. L–dhdlys` j`t `h ãvcf`ha` l`s rãsultdts

fu tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus.

Jby`hh` H@adrt-typ`

Jby`hh`f`s adrrãs

E(p -

vdlu`)

@tdadrrã

Di`htvcrtu`l

Dns`ha` D

vcrtu`l -,>5>0613 415 ,3?3?6=?1

>>,0>5>0,?60(,???)

,?=0_rãs`ha` D

vcrtu`l ,141??39 415 ,3=54>430

Vbtdl ,?>0>1>3 >9> ,3=306994

Vdnl`du 51 ; L–èe`t f` l–di`ht vcrtu`l sur l–cjj`rscbh

Ld prãs`ha` f` l–dvdtdr djãlcbr` ld s`hsdtcbh f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l `h

lcih` ; J Dns`ha` Di`ht (: -,>5>0613) < J _rãs`ha` Di`ht (: ,141??39) dvà E : >0,?60 (p : ,???).

F` plus, l–@td adrrã fbht ld vdlùr `st f` ?,?=0 `xprcj` l–èe`t jbfãrã f` ld prãs`ha` f`

l–di`ht vcrtu`l sur l–cjj`rscbh. L–mypbtmís` M4.a `st dlbrs vdlcfã`.



146

Qyhtmís`

D ld làtur` f`s rãsultdts prãs`htãs ac-f`ssus, hbus pbuvbhs abhstdt`r qu` l`s trbcs

abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` jdramdhf, cf`htcecã`s pdr ld lcttãrdtur` `t pdr l–ãtuf`

qudlctdtcv` `x`ra`ht uh` chelu`ha` pbsctcv` sur ld vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht ; l–cjj`rscbh.

Ld fceeãr`ha` scihcecadtcv` `htr` l`s ãamdhtcllbhs `xprcj` l–cjpbrtdha` f`s trbcs

abjpbsdht`s jdhcpulã`s. _dr dcllùrs, l` tdnl`du 56 j`t `h ãvcf`ha` uh` jby`hh` ãl`vã` fu

sabr` f` l–cjj`rscbh r`ldtcv` du pldh `xpãrcj`htdl hujãrb 0 (J: ,93043=1), a'`st-ï-fcr` ld

prãs`ha` abjnchã` f`s 1 abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s cf`htcecã`s (prãs`ha` f` fãabr `h 1F,

prãs`ha` f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `t prãs`ha` f–di`ht vcrtu`l) (E:46,9?> 7 p : ,???). Dvà

uh @td adrrã f` ?,464 `xplcqudht uh èe`t f` irdhf` tdcll` (Abm`h, 43==). L`s mypbtmís`s

trdctã`s fdhs f`tt` sàtcbhs sbht r`prcs`s fdhs l` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus.

Mypbtmís` ^ãsultdt

M4 ; L`s abjpbsdht`s`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`chelu`ha`htpbsctcv`j`htl–cjj`rscbh f`s

cht`rhdut`s fdhsl–`hvcrbhh`j`ht

vcrtu`l jdramdhf

M4.d ; Ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f–uh fãabr`h 1F fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct`, chelu`ha`

pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`sfdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf

Udlcfã`

M4.n ; Ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f–uhàbjjdhf` f` abhtröl` fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`htfu sct`, chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjj`rscbhf`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`ljdramdhf

Udlcfã`

M4.a ; Ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f–uh di`htvcrtu`l fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct`,

chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjj`rscbh f`scht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf

Udlcfã`

Vdnl`du 56 ; L` t`st fu pr`jc`r irbup` f'mypbtmís`s



145

CCC.>. L–dkust`j`ht `jpcrcqu` fu jbfíl` ilbndl

Ph` dhdlys` edatbrc`ll` abhecrjdtbcr` d ãtã èeàtuã` pbur ãvdlu`r l–dfãqudtcbh fu jbfíl`f` j`sur` `h utclcsdht l`s r`ldtcbhs suppbsã`s sbht t`stã`s pdr f`s jbfíl`s f–ãqudtcbhs

struatur`ll`s vcd l` lbicac`l DJBQ. L`s rãsultdts f`s chfca`s f–dkust`j`ht fu jbfíl` ilbndl

sbht prãs`htãs fdhs l` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus.

Chfca`s Jbfíl` ilbndl Qùcl

ω¾ 14>,9Duauh sùcl

ω¾ /fl >,?1 < 0, ld plus edcnl` pbsscnl`

IEC(Ibbfh`ss be Ect chf`x)

?,34@htr` W?-4Z 7 Udlùr usu`ll` prãabhcsã` 8?,3

DIEC(Dfkust`f Ibbfh`ss be Ect

chf`x )?,=9

@htr` W?-4Z 7 Udlùr usu`ll` prãabhcsã` 8?,=

^J@QD(^bbt J`dhs Qqudr` @rrbr

be Dpprbxcjdtcbh)

?,?5W?,?0>-?,?94Z

<?,?5, kusqu–ï ?,?= l` jbfíl` `st daa`ptdnl`

HEC(Hbrj`f Ect Chf`x)

?,36 @htr` W?-4Z 7 Udlùr usu`ll` prãabhcsã` 8?,3

VLC(Vuag`r-L`wcs Chf`x)


AEC(Abjpdrdtcv` Ect Chf`x)


Vdnl`du 55 ; L`s chfca`s f–dkust`j`ht f`s fu jbfíl` ilbndl

A`s chfcadtùrs fãjbhtr`ht fu nbh dkust`j`ht fu jbfíl`, cl `st fbha daa`ptdnl` (Nyrh`,

>??4 7 Drnuagl`, >??5 7 Mdcr `t dl., >??5).

CCC.1. L–èe`t fcràt f`s vdrcdnl`s f` abhtröl` sur l–cjj`rscbh

Dech f` hbus dssur`r qu` l`s fceeãr`ha`s bns`rvã`s `htr` l`s irbup`s h` sbht pds f`s

fceeãr`ha`s lcã`s ï ld abhecdha` ï l–ãidrf fu sct` bu ï ld arãfcnclctã fu j`ssdi`, f`s j`sur`s f`

abhtröl` bht ãtã edct`s p`hfdht l`s `xpãrcj`htdtcbhs. Ld abjpdrdcsbh f`s jby`hh`s bnt`hu`s

fdhs amdqu` irbup` p`rj`t f` vbcr qu–cl h–`xcst` pds f` fceeãr`ha` `htr` l`s irbu p`s.



149

E Qci

Abhecdha` vcs-ï-vcs fu sct` 4,>?3 ,1?>

Arãfcnclctã fu j`ssdi` >,=05 ,?3>Vdnl`du 59 ; L–chelu`ha` f`s vdrcdnl`s f` abhtröl` sur l–cjj`rscbh

L`s dhdlys`s prãlcjchdcr`s dchsc abhfuct`s bht p`rjcs f` jcùx abjpr`hfr` l`

ebhatcbhh`j`ht `t ld struatur` f`s vdrcdnl`s utclcsã`s. @ll`s bht ãidl`j`ht p`rjcs ld

vãrcecadtcbh f` ld vdlcfctã `t f` ld ecdnclctã f`s abhstructs. A`s pr`jcír`s dhdlys`s hbus

p`rj`tt`ht f–`hvcsdi`r jdcht`hdht l–dhdlys` fu jbfíl` struatur`l.

CCC.6. L` t`st fu jbfíl` struatur`l

Jdcht`hdht qu` l`s ãam`ll`s f` j`sur` sbht sdtcsedcsdht`s `t qu` l` jbfíl` ilbndl `st

stdtcstcqu`j`ht daa`ptã, cl r`st` ï ãtufc`r l`s fceeãr`ht`s r`ldtcbhs adusdl`s `htr` l`s vdrcdnl`s.

Fdhs a` quc suct, hbus prãs`htbhs l` jbfíl` struatur`l, pucs hbus `xpbsbhs l`s prchacpdux t`sts

èeàtuãs pdr mypbtmís`s, dchsc qu` l`s rãsultdts quc `h fãabul`ht.

Eciur` 1? ; L` jbfíl` struatur`l t`stã

Cjj`rscbh

Udlùrutclctdcr`

Udlùrmãfbhcqu`

Cht`htcbhf–damdt

Cht`htcbh fàbhtdat`r

Cht`htcbh f`r`vcsct`

^`jplcr lèbrjuldcr`

Nbuam` ïbr`cll`



14=

Hbus rdpp`lbhs qu` fdhs a` irbup` f–mypbtmís`s, hbus am`rambhs ï vdlcf`r bu r`k`t`r

qudtr` mypbtmís`s prchacpdl`s (M>, M1, M6, M0) `t ld prbpbsctcbh quc abha`rh` l–èe`t

jãfcdtùr f` ld vdlùr p`réu`, fdhs s`s fcj`hscbhs mãfbhcqu` `t utclctdcr`, sur ld r`ldtcbh

cjj`rscbh ‑ abjpbrt`j`ht f`s cht`rhdut`s `h lcih`. Fdhs a` ads f` eciur`, l–cjj`rscbh `st ld

vdrcdnl` chfãp`hfdht` `t hbus am`rambhs ï abhhdctr` sbh èe`t sur l–`hs`jnl` f`s vdrcdnl`s fu

jbfíl`.

L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus prãs`ht` l`s rãsultdts f` l–dhdlys` pdr l`s jbfíl`s f–ãqudtcbhs

struatur`ll`s ̀ eeàtuã`.

Lc`hs ξ

t f`

Qtuf`ht

p -vdlu`

^¾Cjj`rscbh Udlùr mãfbhcqu` ,09= 1,69> *** ,16

Cjj`rscbh Udlùr utclctdcr` ,009 3,5=9 *** ,14Cjj`rscbh Nbuam` ï br`cll` -,15= ->,669 ,?46 (*)

,31Udlùr mãfbhcqu` Nbuam` ï br`cll` ,55> 4?,>46 ***Udlùr utclctdcr` Nbuam` ï br`cll` ,9=3 6,=>1 ***Cjj`rscbh Cht`htcbh f–damdt -,>39 -4,=55 ,?5>

,=3Udlùr mãfbhcqu` Cht`htcbh f–damdt ,019 9,9=9 ***Udlùr utclctdcr` Cht`htcbh f–damdt ,=>= 6,93> ***

Cjj`rscbh Cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct` -,1=5 ->,5?3 ,??3 (**),95Udlùr mãfbhcqu` Cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct` ,090 =,=04 ***

Udlùr utclctdcr` Cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct` ,950 6,=?0 ***Cjj`rscbh Cht. f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu` -,603 ->,315 ,??1 (**)

,53Udlùr mãfbhcqu` Cht. f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu` ,0>9 9,436 ***Udlùr utclctdcr` Cht. f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu` ,9=9 6,943 ***Cjj`rscbh ^`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr` ,?55 ?,5=6 ?,636

,4>Udlùr mãfbhcqu` ^`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr` ,?=0 4,44> ?,>55Udlùr utclctdcr` ^`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr` ,>51 >,=50 ?,??6 (**)

***p < ?,??4 7 **p<?,?4 7 *p<?,?0 7 ξ ; Abèecac`hts f` ^ãir`sscbh Qtdhfdrfcsãs

Vdnl`du 5= ; Ld scihcecadtcvctã f`s abèecac`hts f` rãir`sscbh stdhfdrfcsã fu jbfíl`

ilbndl

d. L–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh sur l` abjpbrt`j`ht f`s cht`rhdut`s.



143

Ld scihcecadtcvctã f`s abèecac`hts f` rãir`sscbh jbhtr` qu` l–cjj`rscbh h–chelu`ha`

pds ld vdrcdnl` « ^`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr` · (p : ?,636). L` lc`h h–ãtdht pds scihcecadtce,

l–mypbtmís` M>.4 `st r`k`tã`.

L–`xdj`h f`s rãsultdts hbus rãvíl` pdr dcllùrs, qu` l` lc`h `htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t

l–cht`htcbh f` pr`hfr` abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu` `st scihcecadtce (p : ,??1 7 t f` Qtuf`ht : ->,315),

a`p`hfdht a`tt` chelu`ha` `st hãidtcv` (ξ : -,603). L–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` hãidtcv`j`ht

l–cht`htcbh f` pr`hfr` abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu`. L–mypbtmís` M>.> `st r`k`tã`.

Abjj` l` jbhtr` l` tdnl`du ac-f`ssus, l`s fceeãr`ht`s r`ldtcbhs `htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t l`s

abjpbrt`j`hts f`s cht`rhdut`s `h lcih`, sbht pr`squ` tbut`s scihcecadtcv`s. @h èe`t, l–cjpdat

f` l–cjj`rscbh sur l` nbuam` ï br`cll` `st scihcecadtce du sùcl f` 0% (p : ,?46 7 t f` Qtuf`ht :

->,669), a`p`hfdht l` abèecac`ht f` rãir`sscbh stdhfdrfcsã ξ (: -,15=) `st hãidtce. A` quc

chfcqu` qu` l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` hãidtcv`j`ht l` nbuam` ï br`cll`. Hbus r`k`tbhs fbha

l–mypbtmís` M>.1.

L–mypbtmís` M>.6 stcpul` qu` l–cjj`rscbh dct uh cjpdat pbsctce sur l–cht`htcbh f–damdt.

L` abèecac`ht f` rãir`sscbh ξ h–ãtdht pds scihcecadtce (p : ,?5> 7 t f` Qtuf`ht : -4,=55), hbus

r`k`tbhs dlbrs l–mypbtmís` M>.6.

@hech, l` tdnl`du f`s rãsultdts j`t `h ãvcf`ha` uh lc`h scihcecadtce `htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t

Cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct` ; ξ : -,1=5 (t f` Qtuf`ht : ->,5?3 7 p : ,??3). Aàc vùt fcr`, qu`

l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` hãidtcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`. L–mypbtmís` M>.0 h–`st pds

vdlcfã`.

n. L–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh sur ld vdlùr p`réu` f` ld vcsct`

L`s abèecac`hts f` j`sur` fu jbfíl` ilbndl chfcqu`ht qu` l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha`

pbsctcv`j`ht ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` ; ξ : ,09= (t f` Qtuf`ht : 1,69> 7 p < ,??4) `t ld vdlùr

utclctdcr` ; ξ : ,009 (t f` Qtuf`ht : 3,5=9 7 p < ,??4). L–cjj`rscbh `xplcqu` ld vdlùrmãfbhcqu` ï 16 % `t ld vdlùr utclctdcr` ï 14%. L`s mypbtmís`s M1.4 `t M1.> sbht fbha

vdlcfã`s.

a. L–cjpdat f` ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` sur l` abjpbrt`j`ht f`s cht`rhdut`s

L` abèecac`ht f` rãir`sscbh stdhfdrfcsã (ξ) chfcqu` qu–cl h–`xcst` pds f` lc`h

scihcecadtce `htr` ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` `t l–chstruatcbh fu ebrjuldcr` `h lcih` (t f` Qtuf`ht :4,44> `t p : ?,>55). L–mypbtmís` M6.4 `st r`k`tã`.



1>?

A`p`hfdht, cl s`jnl` qu` ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f`

abhtdat`r ld jdrqu` (ξ : ,0>9 7 t f` Qtuf`ht : 9,436 7 p < ,??4), l` nbuam` ï br`cll` (ξ : ,0>9 7

t f` Qtuf`ht : 9,436 p < ,??4), l–cht`htcbh f–damdt (ξ : ,019 7 t f` Qtuf`ht : 9,9=9 7 p < ,??4)

dchsc qu` l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct` (ξ : ,090 7 t f` Qtuf`ht : =,=04 7 p < ,??4). Udlcfdht

l`s mypbtmís`s M6.>, M6.1, M6.6 `t M6.0.

f. L–cjpdat f` ld vdlùr utclctdcr` sur l` abjpbrt`j`ht f`s cht`rhdut`s

@hech, ld p`ra`ptcbh f` ld vdlùr utclctdcr` p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`, `ll` d uh

cjpdat pbsctce sur tbus l`s abjpbrt`j`hts pbsscnl`s f`s cht`rhdut`s. @h èe`t, cl s–dict f–uh

edatùr edvbrdnl` ï l–chstruatcbh fu ebrjuldcr` `h lcih` (ξ : ,>51 7 t f` Qtuf`ht : >,=50 7 p :

?,??6), du nbuam` ï br`cll` (ξ : ,9=3 7 p < ,??4), ï l–cht`htcbh f–damdt (ξ : ,=>= 7 p < ,??4), ï

l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct` (ξ : ,950 7 p < ,??4). L`s mypbtmís`s M0.4, M0.>, M0.1, M0.6 `t

M0.0 sbht fbha vdlcfã`s.

`. L–èe`t jãfcdtùr f` ld vdlùr p`réu`

Ld vdlùr p`réu` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` s–cllustr` f–uh` pdrt, abjj` uh` rãsultdht` ï

l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih` `t f–dutr` pdrt, abjj` uh dhtãaãf`ht

f`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`s cht`rhdut`s. @ll` s`jnl` jãfcdtcs`r ld r`ldtcbh cjj`rscbh

‑ rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s. _bur rãpbhfr` ï a` qu`stcbhh`j`ht, cl `xcst` pluscùrs

dpprbam`s pbur t`st`r ld jãfcdtcbh `htr` l`s vdrcdnl`s (Cdabnuaac, >??=). Dech f` abhstdt`r

l–èe`t jãfcdtùr f` ld vdlùr p`r éu`, l`s jãtmbf`s f–ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s abhstctu`ht l–butcl

dpprbprcã pbur a` t`st ([mdb , Lyham `t Am`h, >?44). _bur a` edcr`, qudtr` abhfctcbhs sbht ï

vãrcec`r ;

- L–cjj`rscbh deeàt` scihcecadtcv`j`ht l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl s̀

- L–cjj`rscbh deeàt` scihcecadtcv`j`ht ld vdlùr p`réu` (mãfbhcqu` `t utclctdcr`)

- Ld vdlùr p`réu` deeàt` scihcecadtcv`j`ht l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s

- Lbrsqu` ld vdrcdnl` vdlùr p`réu` `st abhtrölã`, l–èe`t f` l–cjj`rscbh sur l`s rãpbhs`s

abjpbrt`j`htdl`s fbct ëtr` hul ; jãfcdtcbh tbtdl`. Qc l` abèecac`ht f` rãir`sscbh `htr`

l–cjj`rscbh `t l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s `st scihcecadtce, cl edut `stcj`r l–djplùr `t



1>4

ld scihcecadtcbh f` l–èe`t Jãfcdtùr. L–èe`t jãfcdtùr `st pdrtc`l ï pdrtcr fu jbj`ht bó l`

abèecac`ht f`jùr` scihcecadtce

Lc`h ξ t f`

Qtuf`htp -vdlu` @tdt

Abhfctcbh 4Cjj`rscbh ↞ ^`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr` ,>96 6,015 ***

vãrcecã`Cjj`rscbh ↞ Cht. f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu` ,103 6,555 ***Cjj`rscbh ↞ Nbuam` ï br`cll` ,69= 9,==9 ***Cjj`rscbh ↞ Ch. Damdt ,0?? 9,9=4 ***Cjj`rscbh ↞ Ch. ^`vcsct` ,6?? 5,=4? ***

Abhfctcbh >Cjj`rscbh ↞ Udlùr Mãfbhcqu` ,09= 1,69> ***vãrcecã`

Cjj`rscbh ↞ Udlùr Ptclctdcr` ,009 3,5=9 ***Abhfctcbh 1

U mãfbhcqu` ↞ Cht. f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu` ,63= =,100 ***

vãrcecã`

Udlùr mãfbhcqu` ↞ ^`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr` ,439 1,491 ,??>(**)Udlùr mãfbhcqu` ↞ Nbuam` ï br`cll` ,5== 4>,544 ***Udlùr mãfbhcqu` ↞ Ch. Damdt ,540 4?,691 ***Udlùr mãfbhcqu` ↞ Ch. ^`vcsct` ,0=? 4?,394 ***U utclctdcr` ↞ Cht. f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu` ,551 6,334 ***Udlùr utclctdcr` ↞ ^`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr` ,>>3 >,3=> ,??1(**)Udlùr utclctdcr` ↞ Nbuam` ï br`cll` ,59> 0,4>4 ***Udlùr utclctdcr` ↞ Ch. Damdt ,9?9 0,?96 ***Udlùr utclctdcr` ↞ Ch. ^`vcsct` ,565 0,4?4 ***

Abhfctcbh 6Cjj`rscbh ↞ ^`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr` ,?55 ,5=6 ?,636

vãrcecã`Cjj`rscbh ↞ Cht. f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu` -,603 ->,315 ,??1 (**)Cjj`rscbh ↞ Nbuam` ï br`cll` -,15= ->,669 ,?46 (*)Cjj`rscbh ↞ Ch. Damdt -,>39 -4,=55 ,?5>Cjj`rscbh ↞ Ch. ^`vcsct` -,1=5 ->,5?3 ,??3 (**)

Vdnl`du 53 ; L–dhdlys` f` ld jãfcdtcbh

L`s qudtr` abhfctcbhs sbht vãrcecã`s. Ld vdlùr p`réu` fdhs s`s fcj`hscbhs mãfbhcqu`

`t utclctdcr` kbu` l` röl` f` jãfcdtùr fdhs ld r`ldtcbh cjj`rscbh ‑ abjpbrt`j`hts `h lcih`.

[mdb , Lyham `t Am`h (>?44) `xplcqu`ht qu` l–bh pùt aldss`r l`s èe`ts jãfcdtùrs `h achq

typ`s ;

- jãfcdtcbh abjplãj`htdcr`

- jãfcdtcbh abhaurr`ht`- jãfcdtcbh chfcràt`



1>>

- hbh-jãfcdtcbh sùl`j`ht fcràt`

- hbh-jãfcdtcbh sdhs ̀ ee`ts

L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssus jbhtr` qu` l`s lc`hs cjj`rscbh ‑ cht`htcbh f–damdt `t cjj`rscbh

‑ r`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr`, f` ld abhfctcbh 6, h` sbht pds scihcecadtces, a'`st-ï-fcr` qu` l–èe`t

jãfcdtcsã (d*n) `xcst`, jdcs pds l–èe`t fcràt. A`ld cjplcqu` qu` ld jãfcdtcbh `st chfcràt` bu

tbtdl`, a`ld chfcqu` qu` ld jãfcdtrca` `st cf`htcecã` abhebrjãj`ht du jbfíl` tmãbrcqu` fbht

bh d edct l–mypbtmís` ([mdb, Lyham `t Am`h, >?44).

_dr dcllùrs, l`s lc`hs cjj`rscbh ‑ cht`htcbh f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu`, cjj`rscbh ‑

nbuam` ï br`cll` `t cjj`rscbh ‑ cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct` sbht scihcecadtces. Fùx

jãtmbfblbic`s `xcst`ht pbur ãtufc`r ld pucssdha` f` ld jãfcdtcbh ;

- V`st`r ld fceeãr`ha` f`s abèecac`hts f` rãir`sscbh (∅ξ) (Kuff `t G`hhy, 43=4). A` t`st

`st scihcecadtce. A`ld cjplcqu` qu` ld vdlùr p`réu` dict abjj` uh` vdrcdnl`

suppr`sscv ,̀ cl s–dict dlbrs f–uh` jãfcdtcbh `st pdrtc`ll`.

- @tufc`r l`s abèecac`hts f` fãt`rjchdtcbh (^¾) (^buss`l `t dl., >??>). Qc ^¾ f` ld

abhfctcbh 4 `st supãrcùr ï a`luc f` ld abhfctcbh 6, dlbrs l–èe`t jbfãrdtùr `st ãtdnlc

(^¾ Nbuam` ï br`cll` : ,31 -,>1 8 ? 7 ^¾ Cht`htcbh f–damdt : ,=3 -,>0 8 ? 7 ^¾ Cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct` : ,95-

,45 8 ? 7 ^¾ Cht. f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu` : ,53-,41 8 ? 7 ^¾ ^`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr` : 4>-,?90 8 ?)

Hbus sbjj`s ̀ h prãs`ha` f–uh èe`t qudsc-jbfãrdtùr f` ld vdlùr p`réu`.

_dr dcllùrs, [mdb, Lyham `t Am`h (>?44) suiiír`ht f` vãrcec`r l` scih` fu prbfuct d*n*a.

A`luc-ac ãtdht hãidtce, cl chfcqu` qu` l`s lc`hs f` jãfcdtcbh `xcst`ht, jdcs vbht fdhs f`s s`hs

fceeãr`hts. A` quc cjplcqu` uh` jãfcdtcbh abhaurr`ht`. A`s rãsultdts chfcqu`ht qu–cl `xcst` n`l

`t nc`h uh èe`t jãfcdtùr f` ld vdlùr p`réu` fdhs s`s fcj`hscbhs mãfbhcqu` `t utclctdcr`, ld

prbpbsctcbh _4 `st r`t`hu`.



1>1

Qyhtmís`

L–`xdj`h f`s rãsultdts prãs`htãs ac-f`ssus, hbus p`rj`t f` abhstdt`r, fdhs uh pr`jc`r

t`jps, qu` l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` hãidtcv`j`ht l` nbuam` ï br`cll`, l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l`

sct` `t l–cht`htcbh f` pr`hfr` abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu`. _dr dcllùrs, `ll` h–chelu`ha` pds ld

vdrcdnl` « ^`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr` · `t l–cht`htcbh f–damdt.

@hsuct`, l–dhdlys` jbhtr` qu` l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu`

`t ld vdlùr utclctdcr`, abhecrjdht l`s prbpbs dvdhaã`s fdhs l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv`. A`p`hfdht, cl

h–`xcst` pds f` lc`h scihcecadtce `htr` ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` `t l–chstruatcbh fu ebrjuldcr` `h

lcih`, jdcs l–cjpdat pbsctce f` a`tt` eda`tt` f` ld vdlùr p`réu` `st abhecrjã pbur l` nbuam` ï

br`cll`, l–cht`htcbh f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu`, l–cht`htcbh f–damdt `t l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct`.

Tudht ï ld vdlùr utclctdcr` p`réu` p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`, `ll` d uh cjpdat pbsctce sur

tbut`s l`s cht`htcbhs abjpbrt`j`htdl`s `h lcih`.

@hech, l–dhdlys` rãvíl` qu–cl `xcst` n`l `t nc`h uh èe`t jãfcdtùr f` ld vdlùr p`réu`

fdhs s`s fcj`hscbhs mãfbhcqu` `t utclctdcr`, sur ld r`ldtcbh cjj`rscbh ‑ abjpbrt`j`hts `h

lcih`.

L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus, rãsuj` l`s rãsultdts abha`rhdht l` fùxcíj` irbup`

f–mypbtmís`s.



1>6

Mypbtmís`s ^ãsultdt

M> ; L–cjj`rscbh

chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`htl` abjpbrt`j`ht f`s

cht`rhdut`s.

M>.4 ; l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`htl–chstruatcbh fu ebrjuldcr` `h lcih`

^`k`tã`

M>.> ; l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht

l–cht`htcbh f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu` ^`k`tã`M>.1 ; l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l`

nbuam` ï br`cll`^`k`tã`

M>.6 ; l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`htl–cht`htcbh f–damdt

^`k`tã`

M>.0 ; l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`htl–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct`

^`k`tã`

M1 ; L–cjj`rscbh

chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`htld vdlùr p`réu` f` ld

vcsct`

M1.4 ; L–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht ldvdlùr mãfbhcqu` f` ld vcsct` Udlcfã`

M1.> ; L–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht ldvdlùr utclctdcr` f` ld vcsct` Udlcfã`

M6 ; Ld vdlùrmãfbhcqu` chelu`ha`

pbsctcv`j`ht làbjpbrt`j`ht f`s

cht`rhdut`s.

M6.4 ; Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l` r`jplcssdi` fu ebrjuldcr` `hlcih`

^`k`tã`

M6.> ; Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f` abhtdat`r ldjdrqu`

Udlcfã`

M6.1 ; Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha`

pbsctcv`j`ht l` nbuam` ï br`cll` Udlcfã`M6.6 ; Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha`

pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f–damdtUdlcfã`

M6.0 ; Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct ̀

Udlcfã`

M0 ; Ld vdlùr

utclctdcr` chelu`ha`pbsctcv`j`ht l`

abjpbrt`j`ht f`scht`rhdut`s

M0.4 ; Ld vdlùr utclctdcr` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–chstruatcbh fu ebrjuldcr` `hlcih`

Udlcfã`

M0.> ; Ld vdlùr utclctdcr` chelu`ha`

pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f` abhtdat`r ldjdrqu`

Udlcfã`

M0.1 ; Ld vdlùr utclctdcr` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l` nbuam` ï br`cll`

Udlcfã`

M0.6 ; Ld vdlùr utclctdcr` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f–damdt

Udlcfã`

M0.0 ; Ld vdlùr utclctdcr` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct ̀

Udlcfã`

Vdnl`du 9? ; L` t`st fu fùxcíj` irbup` f'mypbtmís`s



1>0

CU. L` trbcscíj` irbup` f–mypbtmís`s ; l`s mypbtmís`s abha`rhdht l` röl` f`s

jbfãrdtùrs fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`

Fdhs l` adfr` f` a` trdvdcl f` ràm`ram`, hbus dvbhs dvdhaã scx prbpbsctcbhs. A`s

prbpbsctcbhs bht pbur bnkàtce f` fãt`rjch`r l` röl` jbfãrdtùr f`s qudtr` vdrcdnl`s

ultãrcùr`j`ht cf`htcecã`s. Cl s–dict hbtdjj`ht, fu lcù f` ld vcsct`, l` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct`,

l–cjplcadtcbh `hv`rs ld adtãibrc` f` prbfuct `t l–`xp`rtcs` f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t.

F–uh pbcht f` vu` stdtcstcqu`, uh èe`t jbfãrdtùr f` [ sur S s` adrdatãrcs` pdr uh

èe`t f–cht`rdatcbh ]*[ scihcecadtce (Amujpctdz Ada`r`s `t Udhmdjj`, >??1 7 [mdb, Lyham `t

Am`h, >?44). Fceeãr`ht`s tàmhcqu`s pùv`ht ëtr` utclcsã`s `h ebhatcbh f` ld hdtur` f`s

vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s. Fdhs amdauh f`s èe`ts jbfãrdtùrs t`stãs, l`s vdrcdnl`s sbht

jãtrcqu`s. L–èe`t jbfãrdtùr `st fbha fãjbhtrã pdr l` ndcs f` rãir`sscbhs jultcpl`s. Vrbcs

rãir`sscbhs sbh èeàtuã`s ;

- Ph` rãir`sscbh f` ld vdrcdnl` chfãp`hfdht` sur ld vdrcdnl` chfãp`hfdht`

- Ph` rãir`sscbh f` ld vdrcdnl` jbfãrdtrca` suppbsã` sur ld vdrcdnl` fãp`hfdht`

- @t uh` rãir`sscbh pbrtdht sur l` prbfuct f`s fùx prãaãf`ht`s

L–èe`t `st fãjbhtrã sc l` prbfuct f`s fùx vdrcdnl`s (l–èe`t f–cht`rdatcbh) `st

scihcecadtce.

CU.4. L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t jbfír` l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` sur

l–cjj`rscbh

F`s rãir`sscbhs jultcpl`s bht ãtã rãdlcsã`s dech f–cf`htcec`r l–èe`t jbfãrdtùr f`l–`xp`rtcs` f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t sur ld r`ldtcbh ; abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s `h lcih` ‑

cjj`rscbh. L`s rãsultdts sbht syhtmãtcsãs fdhs l` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus.



1>5

Lc`hs JbfílÀbèecac`hts hbh

stdhfdrfcsãsAbèecac`htsstdhfdrfcsãs t Qci. ^¾

n @rrùr stdhfdrf ξ FãabrR1F

‑ cjj`rscbh

FãabrR1F ,0=5 ,?03 ,4=0 1,?35 ,??>,?=4@xp`rtcs` ,?=3 ,?36 ,?05 ,36= ,161

@xp * 1F -,>?9 ,4=3 -,>?3 -1,636 ,???Abjjdhf`

‑ cjj`rscbh

Abjjdhf` ,6>> ,434 ,416 >,>4? ,?>9,?65@xp`rtcs` -,>51 ,?35 -,459 ->,963 ,??5

@xp * Abj ,?49 ,54 ,?49 ,>90 ,9=1Di`ht

‑ cjj`rscbh

Di`ht 4,?49 ,4=6 ,1?9 0,0>1 ,???,>>9@xp`rtcs` ,>1= ,?34 ,461 >,545 ,??3

@xp* Di`ht -,164 ,?09 -,110 -5,??1 ,???Udrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` ; Cjj`rscbh

Vdnl`du 94 ; ^ãir`sscbhs jultcpl`s t`stdht l–èe`t jbfãrdtùr f` l–`xp`rtcs` sur l` lc`h

abjpbsdht`s ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll`s ‑ cjj`rscbh

L`s rãsultdts f`s rãir`sscbhs jultcpl`s chfcqu`ht qu` l` hcv`du f–`xp`rtcs` jbfír` l`s

r`ldtcbhs fãabr 1F ‑ cjj`rscbh `t Di`ht vcrtu`l ‑ cjj`rscbh (p : ,???). Vbutèbcs, l–èe`t

f–cht`rdatcbh f`s fùx r`ldtcbhs `st hãidtce (ξ @xp*1F : -,>?3 7 ξ @xp*Di`ht : -,110). A`ld vùtfcr` qu` plus l–cht`rhdut` `st `xp`rt, ld prãs`ha` f` l–di`ht vcrtu`l `t fu fãabr `h 1F durd uh

èe`t hãidtce sur l–cjj`rscbh. L`s mypbtmís`s M5.4 `t M5.1 sbht pdrtc`ll`j`ht r`k`tã`s.

Tudht ï ld r`ldtcbh abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` ‑ cjj`rscbh, l–èe`t jbfãrdtùr f`

l–`xp`rtcs` h–`st pds fãjbhtrã adr l–èe`t f–cht`rdatcbh h–`st pds scihcecadtce (p : ,9=1).

L–mypbtmís` M5.> `st r`k`tã`. _dr abhsãqu`ht ld prbpbsctcbh _> h–`st pds daa`ptã`.

CU.>. L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t jbfír` l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh sur ld vdlùr p`réu`

Dech f–ãtufc`r l–èe`t jbfãrdtùr f` l–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t sur ld r`ldtcbh cjj`rscbh ‑

vdlùr p`réu`, f`s rãir`sscbhs jultcpl`s bht ãtã rãdlcsã`s. @ll`s sbht prãs`htã`s fdhs l` tdnl`du

ac-f`ssbus.



1>9



n @rrùr stdhfdrf ξ

Cjj`rscbh

‑ vdlùrmãfbhcqu`

Cjj`rscbh ,3=> ,?30 ,059 4?,14

=

,???

,1>6@xp`rtcs` ,?61 ,?3> ,?>0 ,690 ,510

Cjj`r*@xp -,?=? ,?3> -,?69 -,=99 ,1=?Cjj`rscbh ‑ vdlùrutclctdcr`

Cjj`rscbh ,>53 ,?3= ,>1> >,911 ,??5

,?56@xp`rtcs` ,?9= ,?=0 ,?59 ,340 ,15?

Cjj`r*@xp ,?=3 ,?=0 ,?99 4,?60 ,>35Udrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` ; Udlùr mãfbhcqu`

Vdnl`du 9> ; ^ãir`sscbhs jultcpl`s t`stdht l–èe`t jbfãrdtùr f` l–`xp`rtcs` sur l` lc`h

cjj`rscbh ‑ vdlùr p`réu`

Abhtrdcr`j`ht ï a` quc ãtdct pbstulã, l`s rãsultdts chfcqu`ht qu` l–`xp`rtcs` f` l–butcl

Cht`rh`t h–`st pds uh` vdrcdnl` jbfãrdtrca`. L`s chfca`s f` rãir`sscbh stdhfdrfcsãs h` sbht pds

scihcecadtces pbur ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` (p : ,1=?) `t pbur ld vdlùr utclctdcr` (p : ,>35). @h

f–dutr` t`rj`, l`s chfcvcfus `xp`rts h` p`rébcv`ht pds f–dvdhtdi` ld vdlùr f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f`

vcsct`. L–dhdlys` rãvíl` qu` l–cjj`rscbh `st f` lbch ld vdrcdnl` quc d l` pbuvbcr `xplcadtce l`

plus ãl`vã (ξ UdlRmãfbhcqu ̀: ,059 `t ξ vdlRutclctdcr` : ,>1>). @h abhsãqu`ha`, l`s mypbtmís`s M9.4 `tM9.> sbht r`k`tã`s `t ld prbpbsctcbh _1 ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht

l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr p`réu` f` ld vcsct` ,

h–`st pds r`t`hu`.

CU.1. L–cjplcadtcbh `hv`rs ld adtãibrc` f` prbfuct jbfír` l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh

Hbus dvbhs pbstulã prãaãf`jj`ht, uh èe`t jbfãrdtùr f` l–cjplcadtcbh `hv`rs ld

adtãibrc` f` prbfuct sur ld r`ldtcbh abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` ‑ cjj`rscbh. L`s

rãsultdts f`s rãir`sscbhs jultcpl`s sbht prãs`htãs fdhs l` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus.



1>=



n @rrùr stdhfdrf ξ FãabrR1F

‑ cjj`rscbh

FãabrR1F ,594 ,4=? ,>43 1,9>= ,???

,4>>Cjplcadtcbh ,153 ,?3? ,>6? 6,?=1 ,???Cjp * 1F ,4>> ,?05 ,4>= >,4=9 ,?>3

Abjjdhf` ‑

cjj`rscbh

Abjjdhf` ,600 ,4=> ,41= >,0?= ,?4>

,>40cjplcadtcbh ,9?3 ,?36 ,61? 9,000 ,???Cjp*Abj -,44? ,?09 -,4?5 -4,31> ,?06

Di`ht ‑

cjj`rscbh

Di`ht ,59= ,493 ,>40 1,993 ,???,490Cjplcadtcbh -,44? ,?=3 -,?53 -4,>14 ,>43

Cjp*Di`ht ,106 ,?0= ,101 5,4?> ,???Udrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` ; Cjj`rscbh

Vdnl`du 91 ; ^ãir`sscbhs jultcpl`s t`stdht l–èe`t jbfãrdtùr f` l–cjplcadtcbh sur l` lc`h

abjpbsdht`s ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll`s ‑ cjj`rscbh

L–`xdj`h f`s rãsultdts rãvíl` qu` l` hcv`du f–cjplcadtcbh jbfír` l`s r`ldtcbhs fãabr

1F ‑ cjj`rscbh `t Di`ht vcrtu`l ‑ cjj`rscbh (p < ,?0). @h èe`t, l–èe`t f–cht`rdatcbh f`s

fùx r`ldtcbhs `st scihcecadtce (ξ @xp*1F : ,4>= 7 ξ @xp*Di`ht : ,101). A`ld vùt fcr` qu` plus

l–cht`rhdut` `st cjplcquã, plus ld prãs`ha` f` l–di`ht vcrtu`l `t fu fãabr `h 1F durd uh èe`tcjpbrtdht sur l–cjj`rscbh. L`s mypbtmís`s M=.4 `t M=.1 sbht vdlcfã`s.

Abha`rhdht ld r`ldtcbh abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` ‑ cjj`rscbh, l–èe`t jbfãrdtùr f`

l–cjplcadtcbh h–`st pds fãjbhtrã du sùcl f` 0% (p : ?,06). L–mypbtmís` M=.> `st r`k`tã`.

Ld prbpbsctcbh _6 `st pdrtc`ll`j`ht daa`ptã`.

CU.6. L–cjplcadtcbh `hv`rs ld adtãibrc` f` prbfuct jbfír` l–cjpdat f`s l–cjj`rscbh sur

ld vdlùr utclctdcr`

L`s dhdlys`s jbhtr`ht qu` l–cjplcadtcbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f`

l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` f` ld vcsct` (ξ : ,4?= 7

p : ,?6>). _lus l` hcv`du f–cjplcadtcbh `st ãl`vã, plus l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` ld vdlùr

mãfbhcqu`. L–cjplcadtcbh kbu` cac l` röl` f` jbfãrdtùr, f–bó ld vdlcfdtcbh f` l–mypbtmís`

M3.4.



1>3

Tudht ï ld r`ldtcbh cjj`rscbh ‑ vdlùr utclctdcr`, a`ll`-ac h–`st pds jbfãrã` pdr

l–cjplcadtcbh. @h èe`t, l–èe`t f–cht`rdatcbh h–`st pds scihcecadtce du sùcl f` 0% (p : ,?=?).

L–mypbtmís` M3.> `st r`k`tã`.



n @rrùr stdhfdrf ξ

Cjj`rscbh ‑ vdlùrmãfbhcqu`

Cjj`rscbh ,9== ,?3? ,6=4 =,935 ,???

,11>Cjplcadtcbh ,6== ,?== ,>33 0,054 ,???

Cjj`r*cjp ,455 ,?=> ,4?= >,?10 ,?6>Cjj`rscbh ‑ vdlùr

utclctdcr`

Cjj`rscbh ,44> ,?03 ,441 4,=31 ,?0=

,?6>Cjplcadtcbh ,410 ,?03 ,415 >,>34 ,?>>

Cjj`r*cjp ,?39 ,?00 ,4?6 4,904 ,?=?Udrcdnl` fãp`hfdht` ; Udlùr mãfbhcqu`

Vdnl`du 96 ; ^ãir`sscbhs jultcpl`s t`stdht l–èe`t jbfãrdtùr f` l–cjplcadtcbh sur l` lc`h

cjj`rscbh ‑ vdlùr p`réu`

Ld prbpbsctcbh 0 ; L–cjplcadtcbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`

abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr p`réu` f` ld vcsct`, `st pdrtc`ll`j`ht r`t`hu`.

CU.0. L` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` jbfír` l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` sur

l–cjj`rscbh

L–mypbtmís` ï t`st`r abha r̀h` l–èe`t jbfãrdtùr fu jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` (Jdtch ‑ Jcfc

‑ Qbcr) sur ld r`ldtcbh ; abjpbsdht`s fu sct` ‑ cjj`rscbh. Ld vdrcdnl` « lcù f` ld vcsct` · h–`st

pds uh` vdrcdnl` du « jbchs cht`rvdll` ·. Cl s–dict dlbrs f–èeàtu`r f`s dhdlys`s f` vdrcdha`s

dech f` t`st`r ld scihcecadtcvctã f` l–cht`rdatcbh `htr` l`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s `t ld vdrcdnl`

jbfãrdtrca` fcambtbjcqu` (Ndrbh `t G`hhy, 43=5). Ld vdrcdnl` jbfãrdtrca` ; « jbj`ht f` ld

vcsct` ·, s`rd chsãrã` abjj` edatùr ecx`. L–èe`t jbfãrdtùr f` ld vdrcdnl` `st daa`ptã s–cl y d

uh èe`t f–cht`rdatcbh scihcecadtce.



11?

Qbjj` f`sadrrãs

feJby`hh` f`s

adrrãsE Qcihcecadtcbh

Jbj`ht * Fãabr ,364 4 ,364 4,3?? ,453Jbj`ht * Abjjdhf` >,44= 4 >,44= ,=61 ,133

Jbj`ht * Di`ht ,41> 4 ,41> ,>55 ,5?9

Vdnl`du 90 ; L–èe`t jbfãrdtùr fu jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` sur ld r`ldtcbh `htr` l`s

abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s `t l–cjj`rscbh

L` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` h` jbfír` pds l–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f`s

abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s cf`htcecã`s, fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s

cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf. L`s mypbtmís`s M4?.4, M4?.> `t M4?.1 sbht

r`k`tã`s `t h` hbus p`rj`tt`ht pds f–daa`pt`r ld prbpbsctcbh _5

CU.5. L` lcù f` ld vcsct` jbfír` l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` sur

l–cjj`rscbh

L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus, prãs`ht` l`s dhdlys`s f` vdrcdha`.

Qbjj` f`sadrrãs fe

Jby`hh` f`sadrrãs E Qcihcecadtcbh

Lcù * Fãabr ,>3= 4 ,>3= 4,409 ,>=1Lcù * Abjjdhf` >,>3= 4 >,>3= 3,4== ,??1

Lcù * Di`ht ,660 4 ,660 4,914 ,4=3

Vdnl`du 95 ; L–èe`t jbfãrdtùr fu lcù f` ld vcsct` sur ld r`ldtcbh `htr` l`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s `t l–cjj`rscbh

L`s rãsultdts jbhtr`ht qu` l`s fceeãr`ht`s cht`rdatcbhs `htr` l`s vdrcdnl`s chfãp`hfdht`s

`t l` lcù f` ld vcsct` h` sbht pds scihcecadtcv`s. @h èe`t, ld r`ldtcbh `htr` l`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` `t l–cjj`rscbh, h` vdrc` pds s`lbh l`s lcùx f` ld vcsct`.

L`s mypbtmís`s M44.4, M44.> `t M44.1 sbht fbha r`k`tã`s `t ld prbpbsctcbh _9 h–`st pds

daa`ptã`.



114

Qyhtmís`

L` tdnl`du ac-f`ssbus, rãsuj` l`s rãsultdts abha`rhdht l` trbcscíj` irbup`

f–mypbtmís`s.

Mypbtmís` ^ãsultdt

M5 ; L–`xp`rtcs`

f–Cht`rh`t jbfír`pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat

f`s abjpbsdht`s`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`

sur l–cjj`rscbh

M5.4 ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t jbfír` pbsctcv`j`htl–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f–uh fãabr `h 1Ffdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`scht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf.

_drtc`ll`j`htr`k`tã`

M5.> ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t jbfír` pbsctcv`j`htl–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f–uh` abjjdhf`f` abhtröl` fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` surl–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`ljdramdhf

^`k`tã`

M5.1 ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t jbfír` pbsctcv`j`htl–cjpdat f` ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f–uh di`ht vcrtu`lfdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`scht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf

_drtc`ll`j`htr`k`tã`

M9 ; L–`xp`rtcs` `h

Cht`rh`t chelu`ha`

pbsctcv`j`ht, l–cjpdat

f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`ljdramdhf sur ld

vdlùr p`réu` f` ldvcsct`

M9.4 ; L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`htl–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l

jdramdhf sur ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` f` ld vcsct`

^`k`tã`

M9.> L–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`htl–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`ljdramdhf sur ld vdlùr utclctdcr` f` ld vcsct` ^`k`tã`

M= ; L–cjplcadtcbhjbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht

l–cjpdat f`s

abjpbsdht`s`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`

sur l–cjj`rscbh

M=.4 ; L–cjplcadtcbh jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f`ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f–uh fãabr `h 1F fdhsl–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`s


Udlcfã`

M=.> ; L–cjplcadtcbh jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cj pdat f`ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f–uh` abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`scht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf

^`k`tã`

M=.1 ; L–cjplcadtcbh jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f`ld prãs`ha` (vs. dns`ha`) f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l fdhsl–`hvcrbhh`j`ht fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f`scht`rhdut`s fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l jdramdhf

Udlcfã`



111

ABHALPQCBH FP AMD_CV^@ UC

Hbus dvbhs prbaãfã ï uh `hs`jnl` f` t`sts stdtcstcqu`s f`stchãs ï j`sur`r f–uh` pdrt,

l`s èe`ts f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` w`n jdramdhfs sur l–cjj`rscbh. @t f–dutr`

pdrt l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh sur ld vdlùr p`réu` `t sur l`s abjpbrt`j`hts f`s cht`rhdut`s `h

lcih`.

L`s rãsultdts bnt`hus j`tt`ht `h ãvcf`ha` abhtrcnutcbhs chtãr`ssdht`s, hbtdjj`ht

l–èe`t f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `h 1F, f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `t f` l–di`ht vcrtu`l sur

l–cjj`rscbh, f–uh abtã, `t l–cjpdat f` l–cjj`rscbh sur ld vdlùr p`réu` `t sur l`s

abjpbrt`j`hts `h lcih` f–uh dutr` abtã. _dr dcllùrs, a` amdpctr` j`t `h ãvcf`ha` l` röl`

jãfcdtùr f` ld vdlùr p`réu` sur ld r`ldtcbh `htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t l`s fãt`rjchdhts f` ld

p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi fu sct` f` `-abjj`ra`.

@hech, a` amdpctr` s–`st p`hamã sur l–èe`t f`s jbfãrdtùrs. Cl s–dvír` qu` l–cjplcadtcbh

jbfír` l–èe`t f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh f–uh` pdrt, `t l–èe`t f`

l–cjj`rscbh sur ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` f–dutr` pdrt. Tudht ï l–`xp`rtcs` f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t, scl–èe`t jbfãrdtùr h–`st pds pbsctce, l`s rãsultdts jbhtr`ht qu–cl `st scihcecadtce.

A` pr`jc`r abhstdt r`vët uh` cjpbrtdha` hbh hãilci`dnl`. L`s cht`rhdut`s s–cjj`ri`ht

n`l `t nc`h fdhs l` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l arãã pdr l` sct` jdramdhf. Aàc s`jnl` f–dutdht plus

vrdc lbrsqu` l–dtjbspmír` jdramdhf` jbnclcs` f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`.

@h iucs` f` abhaluscbh, l` amdpctr` sucvdht prbpbs` f–cht`rprãt`r `t f` fcsaut`r l`sfceeãr`hts rãsultdts f` hbtr` `hquët`, dchsc qu–uh` jcs` `h p`rspàtcv` f`s rãsultdts f` ld

ràm`ram`. Hbus cf`htcecbhs `hsuct` l`s lcjct`s f` a` trdvdcl `t l`s vbc`s eutur`s qu` l`s

am`ramùrs pùv`ht `hvcsdi`r, pbur abhalur` sur l`s dppbrts f` hbtr` trdvdcl.



116







AMD_CV^@ CC ; L–CJJ@^QCBH FDHQ PH

@HUC^BHH@J@HV JDVAMDHF


F@ ABHQBJJDVCBH

_ ^ @ J C @ ^ @

_ D ^ V C @

F @ P ] C @ J @ _ D ^ V C @



115

CHV^BFPAVCBH FP AMD_CV^@ UCC

A` trdvdcl fbatbrdl vcs` ï cf`htcec`r l`s rãdatcbhs prbvbquã`s pdr l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts

vcrtu`ls p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh ̀ t f` abjpr`hfr` l` pmãhbjíh` f–cjj`rscbh

`h lcih` dchsc qu` l–`hs`jnl` f`s abhsãqu`ha`s quc `h fãabul`ht. L`s rãsultdts jcs `h

ãvcf`ha`s fdhs l` amdpctr` prãaãf`ht, hbus p`rj`tt`ht f` sdvbcr qu`ls sbht l`s ãlãj`hts fu

abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih` quc chelu`ha`ht l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `t l`s rãdatcbhs quc

s–`h sucv`ht.

A` f`rhc`r amdpctr` s` prbpbs` fbha f` fcsaut`r `t f` j`ttr` `h p`rspàtcv` l`s

rãsultdts f` ld ràm`ram`.

Ld pr`jcír` sàtcbh s` abhsdar` ï ld fcsausscbh f`s rãsultdts `t f`s pmãhbjíh`s

bns`rvãs furdht l–dhdlys` f`s fbhhã`s. Hbus hbus abha`htr`rbhs sur l`s dppbrts tmãbrcqu`s,

jdhdiãrcdux rãsultdht f` ld ràm`ram`.

@h suct`, fdhs ld fùxcíj` sàtcbh, hbus prãs`ht`rbhs l`s lcjct`s f` ld ràm`ram` `t

hbus j`ttbhs `h p`rspàtcv` l`s vbc`s eutur`s f` ràm`ram` quc alötur`ht a` amdpctr`.



119

D. Ld fcsausscbh f`s prchacpdux rãsultdts

L` amdpctr` prãaãf`ht hbus d p`rjcs f` prãs`ht`r l`s fceeãr`hts rãsultdts r`ldtces dux t`sts

f–mypbtmís`s. A`tt` sàtcbh s` prbpbs` f` fcsaut`r l`s rãsultdts f` l–ãtuf` qudhtctdtcv` dech

f–`h fãfucr` l`s prchacpdux `hs`cih`j`hts, lcjct`s `t vbc`s f` ràm`ram`.

C. L` rdpp`l f`s prchacpdux rãsultdts

L`s rãsultdts f` a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl prãs`htãs furdht ld pmds` f` t`st f`s mypbtmís`s, sbht

rãsujãs fdhs a` quc suct. L` abhstdt tcrã f` l–ãtuf` `xprcj` l–cjpbrtdha` f`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` f` `-abjj`ra`. @h èe`t, l`s rãsultdts jbhtr`ht qu` l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts

`h 1F, ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `t l–di`ht vcrtu`l bht uh èe`t pbsctce sur l–cjj`rscbh `h

lcih`. @h abhsãqu`ha`, l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht ld p`ra`ptcbh f`s nãhãeca`s

iãhãrãs `t f`s p`rt`s sunc`s p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`. @hech, l–dhdlys` jbhtr` qu` ld

vdlùr p`réu` (mãfbhcqu` `t utclctdcr`) d uh cjpdat pbsctce sur l`s fãt`rjchdhts f` ld

p`rebrjdha` fu sct` jdramdhf, hbtdjj`ht l` nbuam` ï br`cll`, l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct`,

l–cht`htcbh f–damdt, l–cht`htcbh f` pr`hfr` abhtdat fcràt`j`ht dvà ld jdrqu` `t r`jplcr l`

ebrjuldcr` `h lcih`.

Hbus prãs`htbhs amdauh f`s rãsultdts bnt`hus p`rj`ttdht f–ãtdnlcr f–ãv`htu`ll`s

ràbjjdhfdtcbhs dux Y`nf`scih r̀s ̀ t dux r`spbhsdnl`s f` sct`s Y`n jdramdhfs.

4. L`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` Y`n chelu`ha`ht pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjj`rscbh


>. L–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht ld vdlùr p`réu`

1. L–cjj`rscbh h–d pds f–èe`ts fcràts pbsctces `hv`rs l`s cht`htcbhs abjpbrt`j`htdl`s

f`s cht`rhdut`s

6. Ld vdlùr p`réu` chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l`s cht`htcbhs abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`s

cht`rhdut`s

0. Ld vdlùr p`réu` kbu` l` röl` f` jãfcdtùr `htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t l`s cht`htcbhs

abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`s cht`rhdut`s

5. L–`xp`rtcs` f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t h` jbfír` hãidtcv`j`ht l–èe`t f`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh

9. L–`xp`rtcs` f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t h` jbfír` pds l–èe`t f` l–cjj`rscbh sur ld vdlùr p`réu`



11=

=. L–cjplcadtcbh jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l–cjpdat f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll` fu sct` sur

l–cjj`rscbh

3. L–cjplcadtcbh `hv`rs ld adtãibrc` f` prbfuct / s`rvca` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht l` lc`h

cjj`rscbh ‑ vdlùr mãfbhcqu`, jdcs `ll` h–d duauh èe`t sur l` lc`h cjj`rscbh ‑ vdlùr

utclctdcr`

4?. L` jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` h` jbfír` pds l–èe`t f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s `h lcih`

sur l–cjj`rscbh

44. L` lcù f` ld vcsct` h` jbfír` pds l–èe`t f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s `h lcih` sur

l–cjj`rscbh

A`s rãsultdts p`rj`tt`ht f` rãuhcr l`s abhfctcbhs hãa`ssdcr`s pbur qu` l`s cht`rhdut`s

vcv`ht uh` `xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. Fdhs l` abht`xt` fu abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu` , l`

sct` fbct rãpbhfr` dux dtt`ht`s, `xci`ha`s `t fãscrs `xpãrc`htc`ls f`s cht`rhdut`s. L'usdi` f`s

fcspbsctces f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sur Cht`rh`t p`rj`t f` iãhãr`r `t f` jdhdi`r f`s abht`xt`s

fdhs l`squ`ls l`s abhsbjjdtùrs pburrbht s'cjj`ri`r `t daaãf`r pl`ch`j`ht ï l–`xpãrc`ha`.

Hbus prãs`htbhs amdqu` rãsultdt f` jdhcír` fãtdcllã` pdr ld suct`.

CC. L`s èe`ts f`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`

L–bnkàtce f` a`tt` ràm`ram` `st f–ãtufc`r l`s butcls quc p`rj`tt`ht dux cht`rhdut`s f`

s–cjj`ri`r fdhs f`s abht`xt`s jdramdhfs. `h suppbrt ï ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur`, l–ãtuf`

qudlctdtcv` `xplbrdtbcr` d p`rjcs f–cf`htcec`r l`s prchacpdl`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu

sct` jdramdhf, susa`ptcnl`s f–chelu`ha`r l–daaís ï l–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. Cl s–dict hbtdjj`ht,

f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h 1F `t f` l–di`ht vcrtu`l. _dr dcllùrs, l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` d jcs `h

ãvcf`ha` uh` trbcscíj` abjpbsdht`, quc s`jnl` `ss`htc`ll` fdhs l` prba`ssus f–daaís ï

l–cjj`rscbh. Cl s–dict f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`. @h èe ̀ t, a`t ãlãj`ht abhstctu` l` edatùr

f` f`scih fu sct`, l` plus actã. Cl `xprcj` l` n`sbch f` abhtröl` `t f` jdctrcs` r`ss`htc pdr

l–cht`rhdut` p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`.

L`s rãsultdts f`s dhdlys`s f` vdrcdha` rãdlcsã`s pbur t`st`r hbtr` pr`jc`r irbup`

f–mypbtmís`s, r`ldtce dux èe`ts f`s abjpbsdht s̀ f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`, bht

jbhtrã qu` l`s fceeãr`hts ãlãj`hts jdhcpulãs fdhs l` abht`xt` jdramdhf, bht uh cjpdat sur

l–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. Ld prãs`ha` f–uh fãabr `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`ht l`s

rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s, deeàtcv`s `t abihctcv`s r`ldtcv`s ï l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh (E : 44,?30 7 p



113

: ?,??4). Cl `h `st f` jëj` pbur l–`xcst`ha` f–uh` abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` (E : 6,4== 7 p :

?,?6>) `t f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l (E : >0,?60 7 p : ?,???). A` pr`jc`r rãsultdt hbus p`rj`t

f–dvdha`r qu` l`s abjpbsdht`s ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll`s ãtufcã`s, bht uh röl` cjj`rsce abhscfãrdnl`.

CC.4. L`s èe`ts fu fãabr `h 1F

Qc l–bh s` p`ham` sur l`s edatùrs l`s plus fãt`rjchdhts pbur idrf`r uh alc`ht fdhs uh

jdidsch, l`s `xp`rts s–daabrf`ht tbus sur l–cjpbrtdha` l–dtjbspmír` jdramdhf` (L`jbch`,

>??=). Qur Cht`rh`t, ld hbtcbh jëj` f` fcstdha` pr`hf uh` fcj`hscbh plus psyamblbicqu`

(Ubll`, >???) `t l`s `hkùx f` prbxcjctã s–`xprcj`ht plus `h t`rj`s f–djncdha` f`

l–dtjbspmír` (c.`., fãabr `h 1F) ‑ fdhs uh abht`xt` trís abhaurr`htc`l ‑ qu–`h t`rj`s f–beer`.

Ld scihcecadtcvctã fu t`st s–`xplcqu` pdr l–èe`t f`s stcjuldtcbhs s`hsbrc`ll`s vãmcaulã`s

pdr l–cht`reda` f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. A`s stcjuldtcbhs arã`ht am`z l–cht`rhdut` l–clluscbh f'ëtr`

prãs`ht fdhs l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l `t `hidi`ht l` abhsbjjdtùr fdhs l` abht`xt` f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` (Qum `t L``, >??0). L`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `h 1F, dppbrt`ht plus f` rãdlcsj` du

pbcht f` v`ht` vcrtu`l, sbht qudlcecãs f–cjj`rsces (Qtu`r, 4331). Cls sbht adpdnl`s f` prbfucr`

f`s rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t deeàtcv`s am`z l`s cht`rhdut`s. L–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` abhstctu`

ld rãsultdht` f` ld sbllcactdtcbh f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h 1F (Kch, >??3). Nurg` (>??>) `xplcqu`

qu` l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts vcrtu`ls abhstctu`ht f`s adtdlysùrs abjj`racdux, cls rãfucs`ht l`s

bnstdal`s lcãs du prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh, irîa` hbtdjj`ht ï ld stcjuldtcbh vcsu`ll` `t

dufctcv`. Cls eburhcss`ht f`s vbluj`s f'chebrjdtcbh prbfuct `t edaclct`ht ld ràm`ram` (Lyham `t

Drc`ly, >???) `t djãlcbr`ht l–daaís du aőur f` l–`xpãrc`ha`. L`s fãabrs `h 1F rãpbhf`ht ï

hbjnr` cjpbrtdht f` fceecaultãs duxqu`ll`s l`s abhsbjjdtùrs sbht abherbhtãs p`hfdht ld

vcsct` `h lcih` `t l`s èebrts abhs`htcs pdr l`s i`stcbhhdcr`s f` sct` pbur arã`r f`s

`hvcrbhh`j`hts jdramdhfs dttrdatces `t dttrdydht.

CC.> L`s èe`ts f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`

L`s rãsultdts f` l–dhdlys` f` vdrcdha` abha`rhdht l–cjpdat f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`

sur l–cjj`rscbh, abhecrj`ht l`s trdvdux f` Kcdhi `t N`hndsdt (>??0). A`s dutùrs abhstdt`ht

qu` l` abhtröl` vcrtu`l f` prbfucts `h lcih` (irîa` ï uh abhtröl` vcsu`l `t ebhatcbhh`l),

djãlcbr` l`s r`ss`htcs p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `t l`s abhsãqu`ha`s quc `h fãabul`ht.



16?

Dchsc, l` abhtröl` p`réu abhtrcnu` ï djãlcbr`r l'`xpãrc`ha` f` elux `h lcih`, `h fcjchudht ld

p`ra`ptcbh fu rcsqu` f` p`rt` f` jdctrcs` (Qum `t Amdhi >??5).

Ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` p`rj`t dux abhsbjjdtùrs f` jdhcpul`r f`s cjdi`s, f`s

vcfãbs, `t l–`hs`jnl` f`s abjpbsdht`s fu sct`. _dr dcllùrs, sc l–cjj`rscbh s` rdppbrt` ï ld

aurcbsctã `t l'ãvdscbh (S``, >??9), a`t butcl f` abhtröl` p`rj`t dux abhsbjjdtùrs f'`xplbr`r

`t f` fãabuvrcr f`s fceeãr`ht`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s `t l`s ebhatcbhs fu sct`.

Udlcf`r l–cjpdat pbsctce f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` sur l–cjj`rscbh `h l cih`, p`rj`t

f–ãj`ttr` f`s ràbjjdhfdtcbhs ï l–dtt`htcbh f`s jdhdi`rs f` sct`s hbtdjj`ht, prbpbs`r f`s

hdvcidtcbhs bó l–cht`rhdut` rà`vrd plus l–chebrjdtcbh sur l`s prbfucts prãs`htãs f` jdhcír`

pdsscv`, jdcs luc p`rj`ttr` f` s`htcr `t f` jdhcpul`r l` abht`hu `h lcih`. Cl s–dict f–dttrcnu`r

dux alc`hts plus f` pbuvbcr p`hfdht ld vcsct`, dech qu` a`s f`rhc`r s–`hidi`ht datcv`j`ht fdhs

l` prba`ssus `t daabrf`ht uh jdxcjuj f–dtt`htcbh du abht`hu f` l–beer`.

@hech, l–ãtuf` rãvíl` qu` ld abjnchdcsbh f`s a`s trbcs rìcstr`s f–datcbh edct d ppdrdctr`

l`s j`cllùrs sabr`s `h jdtcír` f–cjj`rscbh. L`s cht`rhdut`s dydht ù daaís ï ld v`rscbh quc

jbnclcs` l`s 1 ãlãj`hts `h jëj` t`jps, sbht drrcvãs dux hcv`dux f–cjj`rscbh l`s plus ãl`vãs.

CC.1. L`s èe`ts f` l–di`ht vcrtu`l

Abha`rhdht l`s èe`ts r`ldtces dux di`hts vcrtu`ls, l`s rãsultdts f` hbtr` `xpãrcj`htdtcbh

abhecrj`ht lùr röl` cjj`rsce, fãtàtã fdhs ld lcttãrdtur` `t du aburs f` l–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv`.

Ld prãs`ha` f–uh dvdtdr sur l` sct` chelu`ha` l–daaís ï l–cjj`rscbh f s̀ cht`rhdut`s. Cls

arã`ht uh` cjpr`sscbh f` prãs`ha` sbacdl` `h j`ttdht `h őuvr` l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s f`s

r`ldtcbhs cht`rp`rsbhh`ll`s. A` rãsultdt abhecrj` l`s ràm`ram`s dhtãrcùr`s trdctdht f`s èe`ts

f`s di`hts vcrtu`ls sur l`s rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s, deeàtcv`s `t abihctcv`s (Mblzwdrtm `t dl.,

>??5). L–dhdlys` jbhtr` qu` ld prãs`ha` f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l djãlcbr` l–`xpãrc`ha`

f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` (tdnl`du 5?). @h èe`t, l`s pldhs `xpãrcj`htdux dvà ld prãs`htdtrca`

`hi`hfr`ht f`s hcv`dux f–cht`hsctã f` l–cjj`rscbh plus ãl`vãs (pldhs 4, >, 0, 5). Hbs rãsultdts

dppbrt`ht uh sbutc`h `jpcrcqu` fdhs l` amdjp f`s èe`ts f` ld prãs`ha` sbacdl` sur Cht`rh`t ï

l–chstdr f` ràm`ram`s rãa`ht`s (`.i., Amuhi, >??0 7 L`jbch` `t Hbt`nd`rt, >?44).



164

CCC. L–èe`t f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih` sur ld

vdlùr p`réu` `t l`s abjpbrt`j`hts euturs f`s cht`rhdut`s

L–uh f`s dppbrts prchacpdux f` a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl `st a`luc f` l–ãtuf` fu sct` jdramdhfquc jbnclcs` f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, ï trdv`rs l` adfr` abha`ptu`l fu jdrg`tchi

`xpãrc`htc`l. @h èe`t, dutdht l`s am`ramùrs qu` l`s prbe`sscbhh`ls abhscfír`ht qu` l–cht`reda`

jdramdhf` f–uh` jdrqu`, abhstctu` uh l`vc`r `ss`htc`l pbur l` fãv`lbpp`j`ht `t ld arbcssdha`

f–uh` `htr`prcs`, kbudht uh röl` ï ld ebcs abjj`r acdl, lbicstcqu` `t echdhac`r.

L`s rãsultdts prãlcjchdcr`s jbhtr`ht qu–cl `xcst` n`l `t nc`h uh pmãhbjíh`

f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` f–Cht`rh`t (hbh-cjj`riãs ; 69,6% 7 cjj`riãs ; 0>,5%) `t

l–dhdlys` fu jbfíl` struatur`l t`stã sbus DJBQ, jbhtr` l–cjj`rscbh chelu`ha` pbsctcv`j`htld vdlùr p`réu` fdhs s`s fùx fcj`hscbhs mãfbhcqu` `t utclctdcr` (r`spàtcv`j`ht ; ^¾ : ,16

`t ,14). Cl `st hãa`ssdcr` f` sbulcih`r qu` a` lc`h h–d pds edct l–bnk`t f` ràm`ram`s dhtãrcùr`s,

sd vdlcfdtcbh abhstctu` l–uh f`s dppbr ts f` ld ràm`ram`. _dr dcllùrs, ld ràm`ram` j`t `h

ãvcf`ha` uh sàbhf dppbrt. Cl s–dict f` l–èe`t scihcecadtce f` l–cjj`rscbh sur l–cht`htcbh f`

abhtdat`r ld jdrqu`, l` nbuam` ï br`cll` `t l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct`.

@hech, sc uh` irdhf` jdkbrctã f`s trdvdux `h jdrg`tchi s–`st chtãr`ssã` ï l–chelu`ha` f` ld

vdlùr p`réu` sur ld sdtcsedatcbh (`.i., Mdrtjdh `t Qdjrd, >??= 7 Ndnch, Fdrf`h `t Irceech,

4336 7 @rbilu, Jdaml`ct `t Ndrr, >??0) bu ï ld vdlùr p`réu` dprís l` prba`ssus f–damdt (`.i.,

Fmbldgcd `t Pusctdlb, >??> 7 Idll`h `t Nbuf`r-_dcll`r, >?4?) hbtr` ràm`ram` d ãtufcã sbh

cjpdat sur l`s prbndnl`s abjpbrt`j`hts trdhsdatcbhh`ls `t r`ldtcbhh`ls f`s cht`rhdut`s. L`s

rãsultdts bht rãvãlã uh cjpdat scihcecadtce f` ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` `t utclctdcr` sur l`s

fceeãr`ht`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s cf`htcecã`s lbrs l–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv`. Tudht ï ld

fcj`hscbh utclctdcr`. A`tt` ràm`ram` `st ld pr`jcír` ï fãjbhtr`r qu` ld vdlùr p`réu` kbu` uh

röl` jãfcdtùr `htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t l`s abjpbrt`j`hts f`s cht`rhdut`s (_rbpbsctcbhs _4 `t

_>).

CU. L–èe`t f`s vdrcdnl`s jbfãrdtrca`s

Qc l`s mypbtmís`s abha`rhdht l` röl` jbfãrdtùr f` l–`xp`rtcs` f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t sur ld

r`ldtcbh `htr` l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll` fu sct` `t l–cjj`rscbh sbht r`k`tã`s, l` lc`h `st

scihcecadtce. L–`xp`rtcs` kbu` n`l `t nc`h uh röl` jbfãrdtùr jdcs `ll` chelu`ha` hãidtcv`j`ht

l–èe`t f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h 1F `t f` l–di`ht vcrtu`l sur l–cjj`rscbh. Tudht ï l–cjplcadtcbh,



16>

`ll` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht a`tt` r`ldtcbh. A`p`hfdht, l–dhdlys` h` rãvíl` pds f–èe`ts

scihcecadtces fu röl` jbfãrdtùr fu lcù `t fu jbj`ht f` ld vcsct`.

Tudht ï ld r`ldtcbh cjj`rscbh ‑ vdlùr p`réu`, sùl` ld vdrcdnl` cjplcadtcbh

`hv`rs ld adtãibrc` f` prbfuct `st jbfãrdtrca`. Hbus prãs`htbhs fdhs ld sàtcbh sucvdht` l`s

abhtrcnutcbhs tmãbrcqu`s, jãtmbfblbicqu s̀ ̀ t jdhdiãrcdl`s f` a`tt` ràm`ram`.

U. L`s rãsultdts abjplãj`htdcr`s

F`s dhdlys`s abjplãj`htdcr`s bht ãtã rãdlcsã`s, `ll`s hbus bht p`rjcs f` abjpdr`r l`s

abht`xt`s `xpãrc`htc`ls ãtufcãs ï trdv`rs ld jdhcpuldtcbh f`s abjpbsdht`s fu sct` w`n. Fdhs

uh pr`jc`r t`jps, hbus dvbhs am`ramã ï abhhdctr` l`s hcv`dux f–cht`hsctã f` l–cjj`rscbh am`z

l`s cht`rhdut`s. _ucs fdhs uh fùxcíj` t`jps, ãtufc`r ld ebra` f`s lc`hs `htr` l`s vdrcdnl`s fu

jbfíl` struatur`l.

4. L–cht`hsctã f` l–cjj`rscbh

L–cht`hsctã jby`hh` f` l–cjj`rscbh `st ld plus ãl`vã` fdhs l` ads f` ld v`rscbh 0 fu

sct` (prãs`ha` f` fãabr `h 1F, prãs`ha` f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `t prãs`ha` f–uh di`ht

vcrtu`l). A`tt` cht`hsctã r`st` supãrcùr` ï > pbur ld v`rscbh 5 (prãs`ha` f` ld 1F `t f` l–di`ht

vcrtu`l). Aàc `xplcqu` qu` l` röl` kbuã pdr l`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `st plus èecada`

lbrsqu` l`s abjpbsdht`s fu sct` sbht abjnchã`s. L` fãabr `h 1F `t l–di`ht vcrtu`l r`hebra`ht

l` pmãhbjíh` f–dnsbrptcbh `t ld s`hsdtcbh f` fãabhh`xcbh fu jbhf` rã`l. Ld abjjdhf` f`

abhtröl` qudht ï `ll`, djãlcbr` ld p`ra`ptcbh f` jdètrcs` `t ld hdvcidtcbh sur l` sct`.

_ldh 4 > 1 6 0 5 9 =

Cht`hsctã f`

l–cjj`rscbh 4,5> 4,95 4,0? 4,>6 >,1= >,?4 4,50 4,50

Vdnl`du 9= ; L–cht`hsctã fu hcv`du f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`s muct `hvcrbhh`j`hts ãtufcãs

4 : _ds f–cjj`rscbh 7 > : Cjj`rscbh edcnl` 7 1 : Cjj`rscbh ebrt`

>. Abjpdrdcsbh f` ld ebra` f`s lc`hs `htr` l`s vdrcdnl`s



161

@h rdcsbh f`s sabr`s f` l–cht`hsctã jby`hh` f` l–cjj`rscbh, hbus h–dvbhs sbumdctã

ãvdlu`r qu` l`s fceeãr`ha`s `htr` ld v`rscbh 6 (dns`ha` f` 1F, dns`ha` f` abjjdhf` f`

abhtröl`, dns`ha` f–di`ht vcrtu`l) `t ld v`rscbh 0 (prãs`ha` f` fãabr `h 1F, prãs`ha` f` ld

abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `t prãs`ha` f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l). Qc l–bh abjpdr` l`s lc`hs

scihcecadtces, l`s èe`ts plus ebrts lbrsqu` l` sct` w`n jbnclcs` l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s

ãtufcã`s.

A`p`hfdht, l`s rãsultdts chfcqu`ht qu` l` pldh 6 s`jnl` ï ebrt` vdlùr ebhatcbhh`ll`, qudht du

pldh 0, cl suiiír` uh` ebrt` vdlùr mãfbhcqu`.

Lc`hs ξ6 ξ0 Cjj`rscbh Udlùr mãfbhcqu` h.s ,99***

Cjj`rscbh Udlùr utclctdcr` h.s ,04***Cjj`rscbh Nbuam` ï br`cll` h.s h.sUM Nbuam` ï br`cll` ,06** 4,>***UP Nbuam` ï br`cll` ,3?*** h.sCjj`rscbh Cht`htcbh f–damdt h.s h.sUM Cht`htcbh f–damdt ,6>** ,33***UP Cht`htcbh f–damdt ,3?*** h.sCjj`rscbh Cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct` h.s h.sUM Cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct` ,0?*** ,=5***UP Cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct` ,=4*** h.sCjj`rscbh Cht`htcbh f` abhtdat h.s h.sUM Cht`htcbh f` abhtdat h.s ,39***UP Cht`htcbh f` abhtdat ,=?*** h.sCjj`rscbh ^`j ebrjuldcr` h.s h.sUM ^`j ebrjuldcr` h.s h.sUP ^`j ebrjuldcr` ,0?** ,1=*

Vdnl`du 93 ; Ld scihcecadtcvctã f`s abèecac`hts f` rãir`sscbh stdhfdrfcsã f` amdqu`v`rscbh fu sct`

L`s rãsultdts f`s tdnl`dux prãaãf`hts j`tt`ht `h ãvcf`ha` qu` l`s abht`xt`s ãtufcãs

chfucs`ht f`s hcv`dux spãacecqu`s f–cjj`rscbh, f` vdlùr p`réu` `t f–cht`htcbhs eutur`s. L`s

hcv`dux l`s plus ãl`vãs sbht bns`rvãs pbur pldh `xpãrcj`htdl hujãrb 0. F–uh` pdrt, cl s–dict

fu sùl abht`xt` quc rãuhct l`s 1 abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s ãtufcã`s, a` quc d pu edvbrcs`r

l–cjplcadtcbh fdhs l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` quc pdr abhsãqu`ht edvbrcs` l–cjj`rscbh(Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339).



166

F–dutr` pdrt, hbus abhstdtbhs qu` fdhs l` qudtrcíj` pldh `xpãrcj`htdl, l`s èe`ts f` ld

vdlùr utclctdcr` sbht plus cjpbrtdhts, a` quc edct p`hs`r ï uh` ãvdludtcbh f`s dttrcnuts fu

sct` f` ld pdrt f`s cht`rhdut`s, brc`htã` v`rs l–dspàt ebhatcbhh`l f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`. L`

sct` `st prãs`htã sbus ld ebrj` Mtjl aldsscqu` (t`xt` `t cjdi`s) h–dict pds sur l`s rãdatcbhs

ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t deeàtcv`s f`s abhsbjjdtùrs, jdcs plutöt sur ld iãhãrdtcbh f`

abhhdcssdha`s. Ph` adrdatãrcstcqu` cjpbrtdht` lbrs f`s vcsct`s utclctdcr`s bu brc`htã`s v`rs uh

nut. @h èe`t, lbrs f` vcsct`s brc`htã`s v`rs uh nut l–cht`rhdut` h` jdhqu` pds f–chebrjdtcbhs

sunstdhtc`ll`s abha`rhdht l–beer`. L` alc`ht sdct a` qu–cl ràm`ram`, cl bptcjcs` sd vcsct`. Ld

vdlùr mãfbhcqu` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` s` j`t `h fùxcíj` pldh, sùl` ld p`ra`ptcbh f` ld

vdlùr utclctdcr` abjpt`.

Fdhs l` ads f` vcsct`s `xplbrdtbcr`s, l–cht`rhdut` s` fbhh` plus ï ld elîh`rc`. Cl

am`ram`rd ï abhhdctr` l`s j`cllùr`s beer`s, l`s hbuv`dutãs, sdhs dvbcr uh` cfã` prãacs` `h tët`.

A` prba`ssus f` fãacscbh h–`st pds iucfã pdr uh bnkàtce 7 l`s jbtcvdtcbhs f` vcsct` sbht plutöt

mãfbhcst`s (fãabuvrcr uh` beer` brcichdl`, s` edcr` surpr`hfr`, s` prbj`h`r, `ta.). Fdhs a` ads

f` eciur`, a–`st surtbut ld vdlùr utclctdcr` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsc t` quc durd l` plus

f–cjpbrtdha`.



160

N. L`s abhtrcnutcbhs tmãbrcqu`s, jãtmbfblbicqu`s `t jdhdiãrcdl`s f` ld

ràm`ram`

A`tt` ràm`ram` dppbrt` f`s abhtrcnutcbhs `h ràm`ram` jdrg`tchi, tdht du hcv`dutmãbrcqu`, jãtmbfblbicqu` qu` jdhdiãrcdl. Cl s`jnl` qu–`ll` pucss` beercr f`s rãpbhs`s ï uh

amdjp f` ràm`ram` `habr` rãa`ht vcsdht ï abjpr`hfr` l`s rãdatcbhs f`s abhsbjjdtùrs sur

l`s sct`s w`n abjj`racdux.

C. L`s dppbrts tmãbrcqu`s f` ld ràm`ram`

L`s trdvdux f` ràm`ram` `h jdrg`tchi sur l`s `xpãrc`ha`s f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`

r`st`ht lcjctãs. Aàc `st f–dutdht plus `xdat lbrsqu` hbus hbus p`hambhs sur l`s abjpbsdht`s

f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf fu sct`, quc pburrdc`ht chelu`ha`r l` pmãhbjíh` cjj`rscbh `h

lcih`. L`s `xpãrc`ha`s sur rãdatcbhs sunkàtcv`s f` l–cht`rhdut` sbht `habr` r`ldtcv`j`ht rdr`s,

a`ll`s f` a` trdvdcl dppbrt` uh` abhtrcnutcbh fdhs l` amdjp f` ràm`ram` f` l–cjj`rscbh, quc

r`st` trís vdst` ï chv`stciu`r.

d. L`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` abjj` pbcht f` fãpdrt

L`s rãsultdts f` a`tt` ràm`ram` jbhtr`ht qu–ï l–chstdr f`s pbchts f` v`ht`s pmyscqu`s,

l–utclcsdtcbh f` fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sur l`s sct`s jdramdhfs, pùt prbvbqu`r am`z l`s

cht`rhdut`s f`s rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t deeàtcv`s kusqu–ï l–cjj`rscbh. Fdhs l`

prblbhi`j`ht f` Adró `t Abvd (>??1), a`tt` cjj`rscbh `st sbuv`ht pdrtc`ll` `t chstdnl`. Cl h`

s–dict pds f–uh` chfuatcbh ãjbtcbhh`ll` bu f–uh` cjj`rscbh chstdhtdhã`, l` edjùx

« plbhi`bh ·, jdcs nc`h f` jchc-ayal`s f–cjj`rscbh quc r`pbs`ht sur ld jcs` `h őuvr` f`

abjpãt`ha`s prbpr`s ï l–chfcvcfu.

A`p`hfdht cl `st cjpbrtdht f` sbulcih`r qu` l–cjj`rscbh `st abhfctcbhhã` pdr l`s

abjpbsdht`s ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`.

_r`jcír`j`ht, hbtr` ràm`ram` `h vdlcf` l–chelu`ha` f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h trbcs

fcj`hscbhs. @h èe`t, l` hcv`du f–cjj`rscbh duij`ht` `h prãs`ha` f–uh t`l fcspbsctce `t

p`rj`t f` arã`r uh` `xpãrc`ha` vcrtu`ll` fcràt` dvà l` prbfuct, dj`hdht l–cht`rhdut` ïs–cjplcqu`r `t ï s–`hidi`r fdvdhtdi` fdhs l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`. @h èe`t, l` fãabr `h



165

1F djãlcbr` ld rãdatcbh f`s abhsbjjdtùrs v`rs uh sct` jdramdhf bu uh prbfuct `h lcih`

(Mbeejdh, Hbvdg `t Suhi, >??? 7 Lc `t dl., >??4). Qc l`s ãtuf`s dhtãrcùr`s s` sbht chtãr`ssã`s

dux èe`ts f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `h 1F sur ld tãlãprãs`ha` (Ecbr` `t dl., >??0 ), bu l–ãtdt f` elbw

(Mudhi, >??1), hbtr` ãtuf` abhecrj` l–èe`t f` ld 1F sur l–cjj`rscbh `t `h d fãjbhtrã

l–èe`t. Hbs rãsultdts sbht fdhs l` jëj` s`hs f`s ràm`ram`s plus rãa`ht`s (`.i., Vdgdtdlb `t

dl., >??= 7 Ibrchc `t dl., >?44) quc stcpul`ht qu` l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `h 1F sur Cht`rh`t

djãlcbr`ht l–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh.

@hsuct`, ld r`prãs`htdtcbh vcrtu`ll` f`s lcùx pmyscqu`s eburhct uh abht`xt` pucssdht `t

sbuv`ht ebrt`j`ht amdriã ãjbtcbhh`ll`j`ht. _dr abhsãqu`ht, ld abhstruatcbh fu s`htcj`ht

f'dppdrt`hdha` (Jdhzb >??07 Qm`rry >???) pburrdct ëtr` chtrbfuct` f` jdhcír` dpprbprcã`

abjj` uh dhtãaãf`ht ï l–cjj`rscbh. Hbtr` ràm`ram` jbhtr` qu` ld hdtur` f`s `spda`s

vcrtu`ls pùt ãidl`j`ht dvbcr uh cjpdat sur l–`xpãrc`ha` vãau`. @h èe`t, sc a`rtdch

am`ramùrs bht abhstdtã qu` l–mdutùr f` pldebhf f`s jdidschs trdfctcbhh`ls, chelu`hédct l`

trdct`j`ht f` l'chebrjdtcbh `t ld s`hsdtcbh f` lcn`rtã (J`y`rs-L`vy `t [mu, >??9), hbs rãsultdts

dppuc`ht a`tt` abhstdtdtcbh `t ld trdhspbs`ht dux jbhf`s vcrtu`ls, pucsqu` ld hdtur` jëj` f`s

`spda`s vcrtu`ls (>F vs. 1F) pùt abhtrcnu`r ï l'`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh.

Fùxcíj`j`ht, abha`rhdht l–butcl r`ldtce du abhtröl` p`réu `h lcih`, ld ràm`ram` j`t

`h ãvcf`ha` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`, abjj` uh ãlãj`ht cjpbrtdht f` l–dtjbspmír`

jdramdhf`. L`s ãtuf`s dhtãrcùr`s bht rãvãlã uh èe`t scihcecadtce f` l–utclcsdtcbh f–uh

fcspbsctce f` abhtröl` sur ld « fcdihbstcactã p`réu` f`s prbfucts · (Kcdhi `t N`hndsdt, >??0),

sur ld ecfãlcsdtcbh f`s alc`hts (Gbuedrcs, >??>) bu `habr` fdhs l` prba`ssus f` ràm`ram`

f–chebrjdtcbh fdhs l` abht`xt` f`s sct`s jdramdhfs (Dlnd `t dl., 4339 7 Nurg`, >??> 7 _`t`rsbh

`t dl., 4339). Hbtr` ràm`ram` jbhtr` qu` ld prãs`ha` f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` p`rj`t

f–djãlcbr`r l'`hs`jnl` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` vãau`, `ll` abhtrcnu` ï l–daaís ï l–cjj`rscbh.

L` abhtröl` djãlcbr` l`s arbydha`s `t ld abhhdcssdha` f`s prbfucts. Làbhsbjjdtùr `st plus abhecdht fdhs s`s ambcx (G`jpe `t Qjctm, 433= 7 Kcdhi `t N`hndsdt,

>??0), cl s'`hidi` `t `xplbr` l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l. Hbtr` ãtuf` jbhtr` qu–cl `st pbsscnl` f`

j`ttr` `h őuvr` f`s butcls quc p`rj`tt`ht f–djãlcbr`r l` abhtröl` p`réu. Ph dhtãaãf`ht

cjpbrtdht ï l–cjj`rscbh `t fdhs l–daaís ï l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih`.

Vrbcscíj`j`ht, l`s trdvdux `h Qystíj`s f–Chebrjdtcbh sur l`s Di`hts Ucrtu`ls

Cht`llci`hts, rãvíl`ht qu` l`s cht`reda`s jdramdhf`s sur Cht`rh`t, arã`ht f`s r`ldtcbhs f` typ`cht`rp`rsbhh`l. @h butr`, f`s ãtuf`s dhtãrcùr`s `h Jdrg`tchi fãjbhtr`ht l`s èe`ts f` ld



169

prãs`ha` mujdch` fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts rã`ls `t vcrtu`ls, sur ld sdtcsedatcbh, l`s cht`htcbhs

`t ld abhecdha` (`.i., Mblzwdrtm `t dl., >??5 7 L`jbch` `t Hbt`nd`rt, >?44). D hbtr`

abhhdcssdha`, duauh` ràm`ram` h–d ãtufcã l–cjpdat f`s di`hts vcrtu`ls sur l–cjj`rscbh `h

lcih`.

F–dnbrf, a`tt` ãtuf` rãvíl` qu` l'ãt`hfu` `t ld vdrcãtã f` l'cht`rdatcvctã fdhs l`s jbhf`s

vcrtu`ls `st nc`h du-f`lï f` l'cht`rdatcbh f`s abhsbjjdtùrs dvà f`s sct`s Y`n jdramdhfs.

Butr` l'cht`rdatcbh dvà l`s prbfucts prãs`htãs, uh` hbuv`ll` ebrj` f–cht`rdatcbh `st arãã`,

hbtdjj`ht dvà l`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` ; l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`

(c.`., l–di`ht vcrtu`l `t l` fãabr `h 1F). Qc a`tt` cht`rdatcbh `st ebrt`, ld ràm`ram` rãvíl`

qu–cl `st chfcsp`hsdnl` f` aãf`r fu abhtröl` du abhsbjjdtùr (abjjdhf` f` abhtröl`),

hãa`ssdcr` du fãal`ham`j`ht f`s rãdatcbhs sunkàtcv`s, ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t deeàtcv`s p`hfdht

l–ãpcsbf` f` hdvcidtcbh (Tcu `t N`hndsdt, >??3). A`tt` ebrj` f–ãamdhi` s–èeàtu` f`

jdhcír` scjultdhã` `t ld prãs`ha` f` a`s butcls, d uh` chacf`ha` pbsctcv` sur l–`xpãrc`ha`

cjj`rscv` `h lcih`. F` jëj`, sc l`s ràm`ram`s dhtãaãf`ht`s h–dvdha`ht pds f` kustcecadtcbhs

`jpcrcqu`s sur ld prbpbsctcbh qu` l`s ãlãj`hts sbacdux sbht sbura` f–cjj`rscbh (`.i.,

Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc, >??? 7 Mbeejdh, Hbvdg `t Suhi, >???), hbtr` ràm`ram` `h fbhh` ld

prùv`. @h èe`t, a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl vc`ht dppuy`r l`s ràm`ram`s quc s` sbht ebadlcsã`s sur

f'dutr`s edatùrs `xplcadtces fu pmãhbjíh` f–cjj`rscbh. Cl sbulcih` l'chelu`ha` f`s edatùrs

sbacdux f` l–cht`reda` jdramdhf` sur l`s rãdatcbhs bnkàtcv`s `t sunkàtcv`s f`s

cht`rhdut`s.

@hsuct`, fdhs l` prblbhi`j`ht f`s trdvdux prãaãf`hts, l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls

daabjpdih`ht l` vcsctùr, abjj` l` iucf` (Drhbulf `t _rca`, 4331) bu l` jd`strb (Adró `t

Abvd, >??1). Cls edvbrcs`ht l–cjj`rscbh rãpãtã` p`hfdht l–ãpcsbf` f` hdvcidtcbh. Hbtr`

ràm`ram` dppbrt` uh sbutc`h `jpcrcqu` fdhs l` amdjp f`s èe`ts f`s scihdux sbacdux

fdhs l` abht`xt` f` ld v`ht` `h lcih`. @h èe`t, sc a`rtdchs am`ramùrs bht `xprcjã f`s fbut`s

qudht ï l'`xcst`ha` f` t`ls èe`ts (`.i., @rbilu `t dl., >??4), l`s rãsultdts f` hbtr` ãtuf` `habhecrj`ht l–`xcst`ha`, ï l–chstdr f` ràm`ram`s plus rãa`ht`s (`.i., Amuhi, >??0 7 Mblzwdrtm

`t dl., >??5 7 L`jbch` t̀ Hbt`nd`rt, >?44).

Tudtrcíj`j`ht, hbtr` ràm`ram` abjnch` ï ld ebcs ld lcttãrdtur` r`ldtcv` du

pdrdfcij` Q.B.^ (Qtcjulus ‑ Bridhcsj` ‑ ^ãpbhs`) `t ld lcttãrdtur` r`ldtcv` du

jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l `t ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh, fdhs ld fãt`rjchdtcbh f`s

abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. @h èe`t, l`s trdvdux sur l–dtjbspmír`f`s sct`s w`n hbus bht p`rjcs f–cf`htcec`r l`s abjpbsdht`s fu sct` (di`hts vcrtu`ls, abjjdhf`



16=

f` abhtröl` `t `hvcrbhh`j`ht `h 1F) s`lbh lùrs edatùrs f–dppdrt`hdha` (edatùrs sbacdux,

f` f`scih `t f–djncdha`). Hbus p`rj`ttdht f` fãt`rjch`r qu`ls stcjulc, pdrjc aùx quc

abjpbs`ht l` sct`, bht uh cjpdat sur l–cjj`rscbh. Vbutèbcs, sc l–bh s–drrët` du pdrdfcij`

Q.B.^ hbus h` pdrl`rbhs hbh pds f–cjj`rscbh (prbpr` ï ld lcttãrdtur` `xpãrc`htc`ll`) jdcs

uhcqu`j`ht f–ãjbtcbhs. L–ãtuf` j`t `h ãvcf`ha` qudtr` fcj`hscbhs r`ss`htc`s pdr l`s

rãpbhfdhts p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` quc p`rj`tt`ht f` abhebrt`r a` rdcsbhh`j`ht, f`s

fcj`hscbhs prbpr`s ï l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh. L–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv` e dct ãj`ri`r l` pmãhbjíh`

f–cjj`rscbh p`rj`ttdht dchsc f` r`vcsct`r l` pdrdfcij` Q.B.^ `t fãpdss`r l` adfr`

aldsscqu` f`s trdvdux sur l–dtjbspmír`.

n. L–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`

L` abha`pt a`htrdl f` trdvdcl fbatbrdl `st l` pmãhbjíh` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. @h èe`t

a` abha`pt d edct l–bnk`t f–uh a`rtdch hbjnr` f` trdvdux cssus f` amdjps fcsacplchdcr`s trís

fcv`rs. A` h–`st qu` f`pucs uh` fczdch` f–dhhã`s, qu` l` jdrg`tchi s–y chtãr`ss`. _dr dcllùrs,

sc ld lcttãrdtur` r`ldtcv` dux `xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh trdct` prchacpdl`j`ht f–`xpãrc`ha`s

aultur`ll`s du s`hs ldri` (c.`., abha`rts, spàtdal`s, t`xt`s, ecljs, kùx vcfãb, vbydi`s) (`.i.,

Adró `t Abvd, >??1 7 Ebrh`rchb `t dl.>??=), l` prchacpdl dppbrt tmãbrcqu` f` a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl

`st f` abhecrj`r ld vdlcfctã `xt`rh` fu pmãhbjíh` f–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` fdhs l`

abht`xt` fu abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu` `t plus prãacsãj`ht, a`luc f`s sct`s jdramdhfs quc

utclcs`ht f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`.

Vbukburs f–uh pbcht f` vu` tmãbrcqu`, l–ãtuf` jbhtr` qu` l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` `h

lcih` abjpbrt` l–`hs`jnl` f`s fcj`hscbhs cf`htcecã`s pbur l`s `xpãrc`ha`s f`

abhsbjjdtcbh trdfctcbhh`ll`s (`.i., Ebrh`rchb `t dl., >??=), ï l–`xa`ptcbh f` ld fcj`hscbh

pmyscqu` quc h–d pds ãtã r`pãrã` fdhs hbtr` abht`xt`. @h èe`t, ld fcj`hscbh pmyscqu` fÈbrh`rchb `t dl. (>??=) `st r`ldtcv` dux jdhce`stdtcbhs pmyscqu`s bu abjpbrt`j`htdl`s, lcã`s

dux jbj`hts l`s plus cht`hs`s f` l–`xpãrc`ha`. Cl s–dict f–uh` fcj`hscbh r`ldtcv` dux

jbuv`j`hts fu abrps (fdhs`, dppldufcss`j`hts, sduts…). Br fdhs l` abht`xt` f` ld

hdvcidtcbh `h lcih` l–cht`rhdut` `st `h pbsctcbh dsscs`, `t sbh cjj`rscbh s` jdhce`st` pdr f`s

rãdatcbhs, `h jdkbrctã, psyamblbicqu`s. L–cjj`rscbh `st uh` `xpãrc`ha` p`rsbhh`ll`,

sunkàtcv` `t schiulcír` quc h` pùt `xcst`r qu` pbur uh abhsbjjdtùr quc s–`hidi`

psyamblbicqu`j`ht (Fc`sndam t̀ K`dhfrdch, >??0).



163

@h a` quc abha`rh` ld fcj`hscbh deeàtcv`, ld ràm`ram` jbhtr` qu` l–`xpãrc`ha`

cjj`rscv` `st dssbacã` ï f`s ãjbtcbhs pbsctcv`s `t hãidtcv`s, abjj` fdhs l`s

`hvcrbhh`j`hts pmyscqu`s. A` rãsultdt hbus p`rj`t f` fceeãr`hac`r l` abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh

fu elbw, pucsqu` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` elux `st uhcqu`j`ht dssbacã` ï f`s rãdatcbhs pbsctcv`s `t du

pldcscr. L–ãtdt f` elux abrr`spbhf ï uh ads pdrtcaulc`r f–cjj`rscbh, a l̀uc f` l–cjj`rscbh tbtdl`

bu f` l–`xpãrc`ha` bptcjdl`.

_dr dcllùrs, l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` suiiír` qu–cl s`jnl` hãa`ssdcr` f` ldcss`r ï l–cht`rhdut`

l` abhtröl` fu elux, sbus p`ch` f` iãhãr`r f`s ãjbtcbhs hãidtcv`s ebrt`s, hbtdjj`ht duprís

f`s plus `xp`rts `t f`s jbchs cjplcquãs. @h èe`t, ld ràm`ram` jbhtr` qu` sc ld trdhspbsctcbh

f` l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` f`s sct`s jdramdhfs `st pbsscnl`, `ll` `st abhfctcbhhã` ï

pluscùrs jbfãrdtùrs. Cl s–dict hbtdjj`ht f` l–cjplcadtcbh `hv`rs ld adtãibrc` f` prbfuct

bu l–`xp`rtcs` f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t. D a` stdf`, cl s`jnl` cjpbrtdht f` abhscfãr`r a`s fùx

adrdatãrcstcqu`s scjultdhãj`ht, adr l`s cht`rhdut`s l`s plus susa`ptcnl`s f` vcvr` uh`

`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` sbht l`s cht`rhdut`s cjplcquãs, jdcs hbh `xp`rts.

L` röl` jbfãrdtùr f` l–cjplcadtcbh d fãkï ãtã sbulcihã pdr f` hbjnrùx dutùrs (`.i.,

Mblzwdrtm `t dl., >??5 7 Jdtmwcag `t dl., >??4). @h èe`t, l`s p`rsbhh`s cjplcquã`s bht

jdhce`stã uh` buv`rtur` pbur a` typ` f` sct` w`n . Fdhs lùr ads, l`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` bht ãtã p`réu`s f` jdhcír` ï l`s dcf`r ï vcvr` pl`ch`j`ht l–`xpãrc`ha` ̀ t

daaãf`r ï l–cjj`rscbh. Bht ãtã `xalu`s fu prba s̀sus, tbut`s l`s p`rsbhh`s quc bht `xprcjã uh

fãschtãrët tbtdl pbur l` s`rvca` prãs`htã `h lcih` `t ï l–mcstbcr` rdabhtã pdr ld jdrqu` (`.i.,

Ambu dhf Vchi, >??1 7 Mudhi, >??5 7 Kch, >??3).

Tudht ï l–`xp`rtcs`, `ll` kbu` cac uh röl` s`hscnl`j`ht fceeãr`ht. @h èe`t, l`s

rãir`sscbhs ãtdht f` scih` hãidtce, l–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t jbfír` hãidtcv`j`ht l–èe`t f`s

dttrcnuts fu sct` sur l–cjj`rscbh. Abhtrdcr`j`ht ï Adró `t Abvd (>??1), bó l`

abhsbjjdt̀ ur abhhdcssùr bu mdnctuã rdaaburact l–daaís ï l–cjj`rscbh pdr uh` prbxcjctã

deeàtcv` `t abihctcv` dvà l–`xpãrc`ha` dvdht qu` a`ll`-ac h` s–datudlcs`. L–cjj`rscbh fdhsuh` t`ll` `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `st edaclctã` pdr l` edct bu hbh f–ëtr` fãkï edj clc`r ï

l–`xpãrc`ha` (Durc`r `t _dss`nbcs, >??>). Fdhs l` adfr` f` hbtr` ràm`ram`, a` sbht plutöt l`s

cht`rhdut`s hbh `xp`rts quc sbht susa`ptcnl`s f` s–cjj`ri`r plus edacl`j`ht. L–`xp`rtcs`

`st cac plutöt uh bnstdal` ï l–cjj`rscbh. @h èe`t, sc l`s abjpãt`ha`s chfcvcfu`ll`s h` sbht

pds sbllcactã`s, fu edct f` sd jdctrcs` f`s fcspbsctces utclcsãs sur Cht`rh`t, l–chfcvcfu h–`st pds

dnsbrnã pdr l–cht`rdatcbh dvà l`s ãlãj`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls f` l–cht`reda` jdramdhf` adr s`s

edaultãs h` sbht pds `htcír`j`ht jbnclcsã`s pdr a`tt` cht`rdatcbh.



10?

@hech, hbtr` ràm`ram` jbhtr` qu` l–cjj`rscbh abhstctu` uh` `xpãrc`ha` ï pdrt `htcír`.

Ph` `xpãrc`ha` `h lcih` quc chtíir` uh` cht`hsctã f–dtt`htcbh, uh s`htcj`ht f–cjplcadtcbh

cht`hs` `t f–dnsbrptcbh psyamblbicqu`. Qc a`rtdchs dutùrs abhscfír`ht qu` l–cjj`rscbh

fãabul` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` jdidschdi` (Ebrh`rchb `t dl., >??0 7 >??5), hbtr` rdcsbhh`j`ht s`

sctu` fdhs ld lcihã` f–dutr`s am`ramùrs (Abvd `t Abvd, >??6 7 Adró `t Abvd, >??5d-n). _lus

ilbndl`j`ht, l'`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh p`rj`t f` fãpdss`r ld lbicqu` utclctdrcst` f`

l'dat` f` abhsbjjdtcbh quc `ss`htc`ll`j`ht ãabhbjcqu`, pbur `hilbn`r f`s bnkàtces

mãfbhcqu`s `t syjnblcqu`s. F` jdhcír` dhdlbicqu`, l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`

p`rj`t f` fãpdss`r ld lbicqu` utclctdcr`, `h l–baaurr`ha` pur`j`ht ebhatcbhh`ll`, pbur

dtt`chfr` uh` fcj`hscbh ãjbtcbhh`ll`, bó l–chfcvcfu `st cjj`riã fdhs l` abht`xt` f`

l–`xpãrc`ha` furdht uh` pãrcbf` fbhhã`.

a. L`s abhsãqu`ha`s f` l–cjj`rscbh

A`tt` ràm`ram` abhecrj` l–`xcst`ha` f` abhsãqu`ha`s ultãrcùr`s ï l–`xpãrc`ha`

cjj`rscv ,̀ hbtdjj`ht ld p`ra`ptcbh f` ld vdlùr f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `t f`s cht`htcbhs

abjpbrt`j`htdl`s eutur`s, abjj` ld vblbhtã f` jdcht`hcr l` abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu` bu f–`h

pdrl`r dutbur f` sbc. L–`xpãrc`ha` h–d pds sùl`j`ht uh` vdlùr `h `ll`-jëj`, ï l–chstdr f`s

rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s fdhs ld lcttãrdtur` sur l`s èe`ts dtjbspmãrcqu`s, l–cjj`rscbh `st

susa`ptcnl` f–chfucr` f`s abhsãqu`ha`s sur ld r`ldtcbh du sct` `t ï ld jdrqu`, `h plus f`s

abhsãqu`ha`s abihctcv`s bu trdhsdatcbhh`ll`s mdnctu`ll`j`ht r`pãrã`s (`.i., Nrcfi`s `t

Elbrsm`cj, >??= 7 Mblzwdrtm `t dl., >??5).

A`p`hfdht, l`s rãsultdts f` ld ràm`ram` h` j`tt`ht `h ãvcf`ha` duauh èe`t pbsctce

`htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t l`s abjpbrt`j`hts euturs f`s cht`rhdut`s (l–chsarcptcbh du

ebrjuldcr`, l–cht`htcbh f–damdt, l` nbuam` ï br`cll`, l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct` `t l–cht`htcbh

f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu`). Hbs rãsultdts h` abhecrj`ht pds l`s trdvdux dhtãrcùrs qucpbrt`ht sur l`s rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s, deeàtcv`s `t abihctcv`s `h lcih`. @h èe`t, l`s

ãtuf`s pbrtdht sur l–ãtdt f` elbw, jbhtr`ht qu–cl iãhír` f`s èe`ts pbsctces sur l` abjpbrt`j`ht

`xplbrdtbcr` f` l–cht`rhdut`, l–dttctuf` `hv`rs l` sct`, l–cht`htcbh f–damdt bu `habr` ld

sdtcsedatcbh (Gbrzddh, >??1 7 Luhd, _`rrdamcb `t f` Kudh, >??> 7 Qjctm `t Qcvdgujdr, >??6 7

^camdrf `t Amdhfrd, >??0 7 Qmch, >??5). A`p`hfdht a`s rãsultdts abhecrj`ht a` qu` hbus dvbhs

dvdhaã plus töt, a'`st-ï-fcr` qu` l–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` `st lcã` ï ld ebcs, ï f`s rãdatcbhs

pbsctcv`s `t hãidtcv`s. @ll` h–`st pds stdnl` `t abhtchu`, `ll` suct uh` trdkàtbcr` quc `xprcj`f`s ãtdts f` sunj`rscbh, ãj`rscbh `t f` r`k`t (Dht`nlcdh `t dl., >?4?), f`s sctudtcbhs quc h`



104

ebht pds pdrtc` f` l–ãtdt f` elux. A`tt` ràm`ram` suiiír` pdr dcllùrs, l–`xcst`ha` f–uh a`rtdch

hbjnr` f–ãtdts abhh`x`s (ãj`rscbh, sunj`rscbh `t r`k`t) suncs bu sbumdctãs pdr l`s

chfcvcfus `t quc vc`hh`ht ̀ htràbup`r l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh ̀ h lcih`.

Vbukburs abha`rhdht l`s abhsãqu`ha`s f` l–cjj`rscbh, ld ràm`ram` rdppbrt` qu` ld

vdlùr p`réu` kbu` l` röl` f` jãfcdtùr p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` . @h èe`t, sc uh` irdhf`

jdkbrctã f`s trdvdux `h jdrg`tchi s–`st chtãr`ssã` ï l–chelu`ha` f` ld vdlùr p`réu` sur ld

sdtcsedatcbh (`.i., Mdrtjdh `t Qdjrd, >??= 7 Ndnch `t dl., 4336 7 @rbilu `t dl., >??0) bu f` ld

vdlùr p`réu` dprís l` prba`ssus f–damdt (`.i., Fmbldgcd `t Pusctdlb, >??> 7 Idll`h `t Nbuf`r-

_dcll`r, >?4?) hbtr` ràm`ram` d ãtufcã sbh cjpdat sur l`s prbndnl`s abjpbrt`j`hts

trdhsdatcbhh`ls `t r`ldtcbhh`ls f`s cht`rhdut`s. L`s rãsultdts bht rãvãlã uh cjpdat scihcecadtce

pbsctce f` ld vdlùr p`réu`, fdhs s`s fùx eda`tt`s (mãfbhcqu` `t utclctdcr`), sur ld

p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi `h lcih` (l` nbuam` ï br`cll`, l–cht`htcbh f–damdt, l–chsarcptcbh du

ebrjuldcr`, l–cht`htcbh f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu` `t l–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct`). L–cjj`rscbh

s`rdct dlbrs `st uh dhtãaãf`ht f` ld vdrcdnl` vdlùr p`réu`, pucsqu–`ll` `x`ra` uh`

chelu`ha` scihcecadtcv` sur l`s nãhãeca`s p`réus `t l`s p`rt`s sunc`s, fdhs s`s fcj`hscbhs

mãfbhcqu`s `t utclctdcr`s, `t a`tt` f`rhcír` chelu`ha` ï sbh tbur l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s

f`s cht`rhdut`s, pbur t`hcr l` röl` f` prãfcadtùr fu abjpbrt`j`ht eutur f` l–chfcvcfu pbur s`

sunstctu`r ï ld sdtcsedatcbh (`.i., Ecls`r, >??9). Ld vdlùr p`réu` d f–uh` pdrt, uh èe`t f`

jãfcdtcbh chfcràt` bu tbtdl` sur l`s lc`hs cjj`rscbh ‑ cht`htcbh f–damdt `t cjj`rscbh ‑

r`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr`, a` quc chfcqu` qu` ld jãfcdtrca` `st cf`htcecã` abhebrjãj`ht du

jbfíl` tmãbrcqu` fbht bh d edct l–mypbtmís` ([mdb, Lyham `t Am`h, >?44). F–dutr` pdrt, `ll`

kbuct f–uh èe`t f` qudsc-jãfcdtcbh abhaurr`ht` sur l`s lc`hs ; cjj`rscbh ‑ cht`htcbh f`

abhtdat`r ld jdrqu`, cjj`rscbh ‑ nbuam` ï br`cll` `t cjj`rscbh ‑ cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r

l` sct` ([mdb, Lyham `t Am`h, >?44). Abhebrjãj`ht ï hbs rãsultdts, f` hbjnrùx trdvdux

l–`hvcsdi`ht abjj` uh dhtãaãf`ht f` l–cht`htcbh f–damdt (`.i., [`ctmdjl, 43== 7 Ir`wdl,

Jbhrb` `t Grcsmhdh, 433=), fu nbuam` ï br`cll` (`.i., F`rndcx `t dl., >?4?) `t f` l–`hs`jnl`f`s cht`htcbhs abjpbrt`j`htdl`s (`.i., Jchvc`ll` `t Jdrs, >?4?).

@h abhaluscbh f`s dppbrts tmãbrcqu`s, hbs rãsultdts hbus djíh`ht ï abhscfãr`r

l–`xpãrc`ha` f` hdvcidtcbh `h lcih` abjj` ld rãsultdht` f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` pbt`htc`ll` (lcã`

dux abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l), f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` p`réu` (adr

tbut`s l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s h` r`htr`ht pds `h kù f` ld jëj` edébh pbur tbus l`s

chfcvcfus), f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` vãau` dssbacã` ï fcv`rs rãdatcbhs abihctcv`s, s`hsbrc`ll`s,

ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t sbacdl`s (l` aőur f` l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`) `t f` abjpbrt`j`hts eutursdssbacãs abhsãautcv`j`ht ï l–cjj`rscbh.



10>

CC. L`s dppbrts jdhdiãrcdux f` ld ràm`ram`

L`s `htr`prcs`s am`ram`ht f` plus `h plus ï abha`vbcr f`s sct`s Y`n quc bht pbur

bnkàtce f–dttcr`r `t f` ecfãlcs`r l`s cht`rhdut`s. Hbtr` ãtuf` prbpbs` f`s kustcecadtcbhs

`jpcrcqu`s f`s èe`ts f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sur l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih`.

Dchsc, pluscùrs cjplcadtcbhs jdhdiãrcdl`s pùv`ht ëtr` dvdhaã`s pbur djãlcbr`r l–`xpãrc`ha`

`h lcih` alc`ht.

L`s i`stcbhhdcr`s f` jdrqu` sbht abha`rhãs pdr ld hbtcbh f'cjj`rscbh `h lcih`, adrlùr röl` abhscst` f` plus `h plus ï rãuhcr l`s abhfctcbhs hãa`ssdcr s̀ pbur qu` l`s alc`hts vcv`ht

uh` `xpãrc`ha` pldcsdht` schbh chbunlcdnl`, ï tbus l`s pbchts f` r`habhtr`, f` edébh ï jbf`l`r

lùrs abjpbrt`j`hts (Adró `t Abvd, >??5 7 Qamjctt `t ^bi`rs, >??=). Fdhs l` abht`xt` fu


cht`rhdut`s. L'usdi` f`s tàmhblbic`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sur Cht`rh`t p`rj`tt`ht fãkï ‑ `t

p`rj`ttrbht plus `habr` ‑ f` iãhãr`r `t f` jdhdi`r f`s abht`xt`s `xpãrc`htc`ls fdhs

l`squ`ls l`s abhsbjjdtùrs pburrbht s'cjj`ri`r `t daaãf`r pl`ch`j`ht ï l–`xpãrc`ha`. F–dutr` pdrt, sc l–dvíh`j`ht f`s sct`s jdramdhfs sur Cht`rh`t d rdfcadl`j`ht jbfcecã

l`s rãdatcbhs `t l`s abjpbrt`j`hts f`s abhsbjjdtùrs. Hbtr` ràm`ram` jbhtr` qu` l`s sct`s

jdramdhfs p`rj`tt`ht fãsbrjdcs f` edcr` vcvr` dux abhsbjjdtùrs f`s `xpãrc`ha`s

f–cjj`rscbh brcichdl`s, chbunlcdnl`s `t fceeãr`hacã`s, fbht l`s abhsãqu`ha`s sur l`s

rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s sbht rã`ll`j`ht abhscfãrdnl`s.

Ld ràm`ram` p`rj`t f–cf`htcec`r l`s ãlãj`hts quc abhabur`ht l` plus ï l–ãv`htudlctã

f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`, hbtdjj`ht l` fãabr `h 1F, ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `t l–di`ht

vcrtu`l. F`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s sur l`squ`ll`s cl `st cjpbrtdht f–chv`stcr,

pucsqu–`ll`s abhtrcnu`ht ï l–`hrcamcss`j`ht f` ld vcsct`, pdr uh` jcs` `h vdlùr f`s prbfucts /

s`rvca`s fu sct` jdramdhf. @h èe`t, l–cjpdat f`s ãlãj`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls f`s sct`s w`n

jbnclcsdht f`s fcspbsctces f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `st nc`h rã`l. A` abhstdt `st cjpbrtdht fdhs

ld j`sur` bó l–utclcsdtcbh `t ld erãqu`htdtcbh f`s sct`s w`n abjj`racdux s–cht`hscec`, f`v`hdht

uh` prãbaaupdtcbh strdtãicqu` pbur f` hbjnrùx i`stcbhhdcr`s f` jdrqu`s. A`tt`

prãbaaupdtcbh pùt `hi`hfr`r f`s amdhi`j`hts s` rdppbrtdht du amceer` f–deedcr`s f`s

`htr`prcs`s plãncsactdht l` adhdl Cht`rh`t. L`s dhhbhaùrs h` pùv`ht plus `hvcsdi`r l` abht`hu



101

f` lùrs sct`s f` ld jëj` jdhcír`, ãtdht fbhhã ld edébh fbht l`s abhsbjjdtùrs p`rébcv`ht

l`s ãlãj`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls `t cht`rdicss`ht dvà l`s abjpbsdht`s fu sct`. Aàc s`jnl` f–dutdht

plus cjpbrtdht qu` l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls, ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `t l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h 1F

chelu`ha`ht ldri`j`ht l` prba`ssus f–cjj`rscbh f`s abhsbjjdtùrs `t sbh chacf`ha` pbsctcv`

`hv`rs l` sct`, l` prbfuct / s`rvca` `t ld jdrqu`.

Nc`h qu` l` jbfíl` Y`n sbct datu`ll`j`ht lcjctã `h t`rj`s f–cht`rdatcvctã `t f`

vcvdactã, l`s tàmhblbic`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` djãlcbr`ht f` jdhcír` scihcecadtcv` s`s

dptctuf`s. @h èe`t, l–dfbptcbh f` a`s fcspbsctces rãfuct l` fãecact fu jbfíl` aldsscqu` fu

Y`n, `h t`rj`s s`hsdtcbhs r`ss`htc`s, uh` fcj`hscbh dns`ht` f`s prãaãf`ht`s ãtuf`s pbrtdht

sur ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `h jdtcír` f` abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu`. L`s fcspbsctces f` ld rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` bht uh` ebhatcbh ebhfdj`htdl` du hcv`du f`s cht`reda`s jdramdhf`s. F` t`ll`s

abjpbsdht`s `hi`hfr`ht f`s rãdatcbhs prbpr`s ï amdqu` abhsbjjdtùr, hbtdjj`ht l`

fãal`ham`j`ht f` rãdatcbhs abihctcv`s, s`hsbrc`ll`s, deeàtcv`s `t sbacdl`s. Hbus pdrlbhs dlbrs

f–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. Qc ld jdkbrctã f`s sct`s f` `-abjj`ra` `st pduvr` `h

stcjulc s`hsbrc`ls, hbtr` ãtuf` abhecrj` l–cjpbrtdha` f`s di`hts vcrtu`ls, abhecrj` ld

hãa`ssctã f` ld p`ra`ptcbh f` abhtröl` am`z l` abhsbjjdtùr, `t j`t l–daa`ht sur l` fãabr

`h trbcs fcj`hscbhs `t sbh rãdlcsj`. A`s fcspbsctces pùv`ht djãlcbr`r l'èecadactã `t ld

p`rebrjdha` f'uh` `htr`prcs` ndsã` sur l` Y`n. Cls prãs`ht`ht f`s pbsscnclctãs chechc`s pbur l`s

jdrg`tùrs, fbht l–dvdhtdi` `st f` arã`r uh` `xpãrc`ha` cht`rdatcv`, cjj`rscv` `t brcichdl`

pbur l`s abhsbjjdtùrs sur Cht`rh t̀.

Vbutèbcs, l`s rãsultdts f` hbtr` ãtuf` hbus chact`ht ï p`hs`r qu` l`s dttrcnuts

`xpãrc`htc`ls fu sct` pburrdc`ht survdlbrcs`r l` spàtdal` du fãtrcj`ht f`s dtt`ht`s

trdhsdatcbhh`ll`s f` ld jdrqu`. Cl s`rdct hãa`ssdcr` f` jcùx spãacec`r l`s abhfctcbhs fdhs

l`squ`ll`s l`s sct`s jdramdhfs pùv`ht (bu fbcv`ht) ràburcr vdldnl`j`ht ï ld rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll`, l`s rãdatcbhs f`s cht`rhdut`s h–ãtdht pds tbut`s s`jnldnl`s, hc jëj` pbsctcv`s. Ph

sct` nc`h abhéu dttcr` l`s abhsbjjdtùrs `t l`s `haburdi` ï cht`rdicr dvà l` pr`stdtdcr` f`s`rvca` (Jdtmwcag `t dl., >?4? 7 _uaach`llc `t dl., >??3 ). Cl s`jnl` cjpbrtdht f–ãfuqu`r l`s

abhsbjjdtùrs qudht ï ld jdhcpuldtcbh f` a`s fcspbsctces. @h èe`t, l–dppr`htcssdi` `st

cjpbrtdht fdhs ld j`sur` bó, cl daa`htu` l–mdnclctã f` l–cht`rhdut` `t l` amdll`hi` quc stcjul`

s`s abjpãt`ha`s p`rsbhh`ll`s.

_dr dcllùrs, uh di`ht vcrtu`l pùt ëtr` plus p`rsudsce lbrsqu` l–cht`rhdut` `st edjclc`r ï

a`t butcl (Mblzwdrtm `t dl., >??5 7 Kch, >??3). L`s `hs`cih`s pùv`ht dlbrs p`rsbhhdlcs`r lùrs

dvdtdrs s`lbh ld prãeãr`ha` f`s alc`hts, `t prbpbs`r f`s jbf`s f` prãs`htdtcbh f`sprbfucts `t f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts abjj`racdux, f` jdhcír` ï `h jdxcjcs`r l'cjpdat. L`s



106

i`stcbhhdcr`s pùv`ht tcr`r uh dvdhtdi` strdtãicqu` f`s pbsscnclctãs jultcpl`s f`s tàmhcqu`s

f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, adr l`s fcspbsctces pùv`ht ëtr` jdhcpulã`s ï vblbhtã `t beer`ht f`s

sblutcbhs chhbvdht`s pbur l`s jdidschs vcrtu`ls.

Ld ràm`ram` jbhtr` qu` ld tàmhblbic` h–`st pds uh` ech `h sbc (`.i., Nurg`, >??> 7

Nrcfi`s `t Elbrsm`cj, >??=), jëj` sc `ll` `st edacl` f–usdi` `t pldcsdht`. Ld qu`stcbh f`

l–chtãrët rã`l f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `t f` s`s abhsãqu`ha`s pbsscnl`s sur l`s abjpbrt`j`hts h`

fbct pds ëtr` baaultã`.

F–uh dutr` abtã, l`s hbtcbhs f'cjj`rscbh `t f` vdlùr p`réu` sbht cjpbrtdht`s pbur l`s

r`spbhsdnl`s f` sct`s w`n, adr edcr` pdrtcacp`r l` alc`ht fdhs uh` ab-arãdtcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s

dirãdnl`s `t abhvdchadht`s (Ndibzzc `t Fmbldgcd, >??5), quc deeàt` pbsctcv`j`ht ld

p`rebrjdha` fu sct` ; l` nbuam` ï br`cll`, l–cht`htcbh f` abhtdat`r ld jdrqu`, l–cht`htcbh f`

r`vcsct`r l` sct` `t l–cht`htcbh f–damdt. L`s ebhf`j`hts fu jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l, suiiír`ht

qu` l` abhsbjjdtùr sbct ï ld ebcs datùr `t spàtdtùr. Cl f`vc`ht uh ab-arãdtùr f`

l'`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtùr `t pdr abhsãqu`ht f` ld vdlùr cssu` f` a`ll`-ac. A–`st uh ëtr`

datce quc h` am`ram` pds uhcqu`j`ht ï pdrtcacp`r ï f`s `xpãrc`ha`s spàtdauldcr`s, jdcs ï

s'chsarcr` fdhs uh prba`ssus f` ab-arãdtcbh. Ld pdrtcacpdtcbh datcv` fu abhsbjjdtùr `st

hãa`ssdcr` ï sbh dpprbprcdtcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh `h lcih`. Cl s–dict dlbrs

f–uh fbunl` ãamdhi`, pucsqu` l` sct` jdramdhf fbct edcr` plbhi`r l` abhsbjjdtùr fdhs sbh

prba`ssus f` arãdtcbh `t luc fbhh`r `hvc` f` s–y chv`stcr ãjbtcbhh`ll`j`ht, deeàtcv`j`ht `t

plus ilbndl`j`ht psyamblbicqu`j`ht. Ld jdrqu` `t l` abhsbjjdtùr sbht `h cht`rdatcbh

abhtchu` `t ld ab-arãdtcbh f` vdlùr pùt ëtr` abhscfãrã` abjj` uh hbuv`l butcl f` i`stcbh f`

ld r`ldtcbh alc`ht (M`tz`l, >??>). Ph` r`ldtcbh cht`hs` dvà l` prbfuct quc abhfuct ï uh

l'`hidi`j`ht furdnl`.

_dr dcllùrs, fdhs l` abht`xt` f–`hs`cih`s quc utclcs`ht l`s tàmhcqu`s f` tmãjdtcsdtcbh

`t f` tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh fdhs lùrs pbchts f` v`ht` pmyscqu`s, l`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`

pburrdc`ht p`rj`ttr` du abhsbjjdtùr f` abhtchu`r l–`xpãrc`ha`, sur sbh brfchdtùr,irîa` ï l–utclcsdtcbh f`s jëj`s stcjulc `xpãrc`htc`ls sur l` sct` jdramdhf (v`hfùrs,

fcspbsctcbh f`s bnk`ts, abulùrs, f`scih…). Ph` strdtãic` èecada` sc ld jdrqu` sbumdct`

tbuam`r l` abhsbjjdtùr sur pluscùrs adhdux.

Hbs rãsultdts jbhtr`ht ãidl`j`ht qu` l`s fcj`hscbhs mãfbhcqu`s `t utclctdcr`s f` ld

vdlùr p`réu` abhstctu`ht uh l`vc`r cjpbrtdht pbur l`s jdrqu`s sur Cht`rh`t. @h èe`t, l`s

abhsbjjdtùrs `xprcj`ht f`s cht`htcbhs abjpbrt`j`htdl`s edvbrdnl`s, `h s` ndsdht sur ld

p`ra`ptcbh f`s dttrcnuts fcstrdydhts `t pldcsdhts su sct`. Jdlirã l` nut utclctdcr` f` ld vcsct`,l–cht`rhdut` `st fdvdhtdi` dttcrã pdr f`s stcjuldtcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t deeàtcv`s plus ebrt`s.



100

L`s i`stcbhhdcr`s f`s cht`reda`s jdramdhf`s fbcv`ht fbhh`r plus f–cjpbrtdha` ï ld

arãdtcbh f–`xpãrc`ha`s f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`, adr du jbj`ht bó ld abhaurr`ha` sur Cht`rh`t

`st ï sbh sbjj`t, ld ebhatcbh utclctdcr` h–`st plus a`ll` quc fceeãr`hac` l` plus l`s sct`s l`s

uhs f`s dutr`s, jdcs a–`st l` adrdatír` fcv`rtcssdht, quc abhstctu` uh edatùr f`

fceeãr`hacdtcbh f` tdcll`. Ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` d uh` ebrt` chelu`ha`

sur l`s abjpbrt`j`hts euturs f`s cht`rhdut`s, `t pdr abhsãqu`ht sur ld p`rebrjdha` fu sct`

w`n jdramdhf. Ld fcj`hscbh cjj`rscv` fu sct` pùt ëtr` `xplbctã` abjj` uh edatùr f`

fceeãr`hacdtcbh. L`s sct`s abjj`racdux cjj`rsces `hrcamcrbht lùr vdlùr prchacpdl`j`ht

utclctdrcst` pdr uh` vdlùr mãfbhcqu` (Icljbr` `t _ch`, >??9).

L`s ãtuf`s dhtãrcùr`s dpprãm`hf`ht sbuv`ht l`s dtt`ht`s f`s usdi`rs f–Cht`rh`t s`lbh

lùr hcv`du f` jdètrcs` f`s butcls fu Y`n, l`s pmãhbjíh`s ãtufcãs sbht dlbrs `xplcquãs `h

rãeãr`ha` ï uh hcv`du f–`xp`rtcs` bu f` edcnl` jdètrcs` f`s butcls. Br, l`s rãsultdts f` hbtr`

ãtuf` jbhtr`ht qu` l` stdtut f–`xp`rt bu f` hbvca` h–dppdrdèt pds abjj` uh edatùr

fcsarcjchdht (l–mypbtmís` s`lbh ldqu`ll` l–`xp`rtcs` f–Cht`rh`t kbu` l` röl` f` jbfãrdtùr fu

lc`h cjj`rscbh ‑ vdlùr p`réu`, h–ãtdht pds vdlcfã`). Ph` sìj`htdtcbh s`lbh l` hcv`du

f–cjplcadtcbh s`rdct trís p`rtch`ht`.

A`tt` ãtuf` vcs` ï `xplbr`r, ï trdv`rs uh` dpprbam` cht`rfcsacplchdcr`, l`s jãadhcsj`s

f` fãplbc`j`ht f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` fdhs l` abht`xt` fu abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu` `t lùrs

cjpdats sur l`s rãdatcbhs `t l`s abjpbrt`j`hts f`s cht`rhdut`s. L`s tàmhcqu`s f` ld rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` s`jnl`ht, beercr du hcv`du f` l–dtjbspmír` f` v`ht`, uh ebrt pbt`htc`l f`

fceeãr`hacdtcbh `htr` l`s sct`s f` `-abjj`ra` quc sbht `h hbjnr` abhstdjj`ht arbcssdht.

L`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s `h lcih` s` sbht dvãrã`s ëtr` uh jby`h èecada` fdhs ld

abhstruatcbh f–uh dvdhtdi` abhaurr`htc`l pbur l`s `htr`prcs`s `h t`rj`s f` nbuam` ï

br`cll`, f–cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`, f–chsarcptcbh `h lcih`, f–cht`htcbh f` jdcht`hcr l` abhtdat `t

f'cht`htcbh f'damdt.



105

CCC. L`s dppbrts jãtmbfblbicqu`s

Ld abhfuct` f–uh` ràm`ram` du f`scih jcxt` `t l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh `h lcih`, abhstctu`ht

l`s dppbrts jãtmbfblbicqu`s f` a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl.

4. L` f`scih jcxt` f` ld ràm`ram`

L` pr`jc`r dppbrt jãtmbfblbicqu` f` a` trdvdcl f` ràm`ram`, `st l` ràburs ï uh`

jãtmbfblbic` quc abjnch` l–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv` `t l–dhdlys` qudhtctdtcv`, dpp`lã`

jãtmbfblbic` jcxt` f` ràm`ram` ( Jcx`f-J`tmbfs ^`s`dram). Qc l`s ecfíl`s f` l–dpprbam`

qudhtctdtcv` prãt`hf`ht qu` ld ràm`ram` `h sac`ha`s f` i`stcbh fbct ëtr` bnkàtcv`, `x`jpt`

f` ncdcs `t iãhãrdlcsdnl` fdhs tbut abht`xt`. L`s df`pt`s f` l–dpprbam` qudlctdtcv` `xplcqu`ht

qu` l–bnkàtcvdtcbh `t ld iãhãrdlcsdtcbh fdhs l`s sac`ha`s sbacdl`s sbht ï ld ebcs cjpbsscnl`s `t

hbh sbumdctdnl`s (F`hzch `t Lchablh, >??0). L–uh` `t l–dutr`, dppdrtc`hh`ht ï f`s aburdhts

ãpcstãjblbicqu`s fceeãr`hts. Cl s–dict f` ld fãfuatcbh pbur l–dhdlys` qudhtctdtcv` `t f`

l–chfuatcbh pbur l–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv`. D pr`jcír` vu`, a`s fùx jãtmbf`s h` s`jnl`ht pds

pbuvbcr ëtr` dssbacã`s. @t ambcscr `htr` ld jãtmbf` qudhtctdtcv` `t ld jãtmbf` qudlctdtcv` d ãtã,

p`hfdht f`s fãa`hhc`s, l` sbrt f`s am r̀amùrs `h sac`ha`s f` i`stcbh.

Hbtr` ràm`ram`, jbhtr` qu–cl `st `hvcsdi`dnl` f` abjnch`r l`s fùx typ`s f–dhdlys`.

Ld jãtmbfblbic` jcxt` f` ràm`ram` p`rj`t f` ràu`cllcr ï ld ebcs, f`s fbhhã`s qudlctdtcv`s `t

qudhtctdtcv`s f` edébh abmãr`ht` `t mdrjbhcùs`, dech f–`hrcamcr l`s rãsultdts f` hbtr`

ràm`ram`. L–dpprbam` jcxt` hbus d p`rjcs tbut du lbhi f` ld ràm`ram` f–dfdpt`r f`s

tàmhcqu`s qudlctdtcv`s `t qudhtctdtcv`s, `h ebhatcbh f` hbs bnkàtces f` ràm`ram` f` jdhcír`

hdtur`ll` `t prdijdtcqu`.L` amdjp f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` `st ãj`ri`dht `t `habr` pù `xplbrã.

L–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv` f` hdtur` `xplbrdtbcr`, hbus d fbhhã ld pbsscnclctã f–cf`htcec`r l`s

abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s f`s sct`s jdramdhfs quc utclcs`ht f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` `t j`ttr` `h ãvcf`ha` l–cjpdat f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh sur l–ãvdludtcbh f` ld

vcsct` `t sur l`s rãpbhs`s f` l–cht`rhdut` `hv`rs l` sct`, ld jdrqu` `t l` prbfuct. Ï trdv`rs 4=

`htr`tc`hs s`jc fcràtces, a`tt` ãtuf` d rãpbhfu ï hbs qu`stcbhs f` ràm`ram`, `h fbhhdht l`s

irdhf`s pcst`s f–`xplbrdtcbh. @h ld abherbhtdht ï ld lcttãrdtur`, `ll` hbus d p`rjcs f–deech`rhbtr` jbfíl` abha`ptu`l.



109

L–ãtuf` qudhtctdtcv`, `ll` d p`rjcs f` vdlcf`r fu abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt`

f–Cht`rh`t, irîa` ï uh qu`stcbhhdcr` dfjchcstrã `h lcih` duprís f` 5>= cht`rhdut`s (16? pbur l`

prã-t`st `t >== pbur l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh). @ll` vc`ht abhecrj`r l`s rãpbhs`s f` l–ãtuf`

`xplbrdtbcr` sur uh irdhf ãamdhtcllbh f` p`rsbhh`s. Qdamdht qu–duauh` jãtmbf` h` abhstctu`

uh` prbj`ss` uhcv`rs`ll`, l`s edcnl`ss`s f` l–uh` sbht abjp`hsã`s pdr l–utclcsdtcbh f` l–dutr`

(Vcssc`r-F`snbrf s̀, 433=).

L–dpprbam` jcxt` p`rj`t f–`jpruht`r ï fcv`rs`s jãtmbfblbic`s, qudlctdtcv`s bu

qudhtctdtcv`s, `h ebhatcbh f`s bnkàtces f` ràm`ram`. Cl s–dict f–uh plurdlcsj`

jãtmbfblbicqu`, quc edaclct` ld trcdhiuldtcbh f`s rãsultdts f` ràm`ram`, a–`st-ï-fcr` pdr

l–utclcsdtcbh f` jãtmbf`s fceeãr`ht`s pbur ãtufc`r ld jëj` fcj`hscbh f–uh prbnlíj` f`

ràm`ram` (Dllcx- F`sedutdux 433=). L`s jãtmbf`s jcxt`s `hi`hfr`ht sbuv`ht f`s rãsultdts

f` ràm`ram` supãrcùrs dux jãtmbf`s uhcqu`s (Kbmhsbh ̀ t Amrcst`hs`h, >??1).

>. L–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh `h lcih`

L` sàbhf chtãrët jãtmbfblbicqu` f` hbtr` ràm`ram` rãscf` fdhs ld abhfuct` f–uh`

`xpãrcj`htdtcbh `h sctudtcbh hdtur`ll`, pdr ld jdhcpuldtcbh f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu

sct` jdramdhf. L–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh s–`st prãs`htã` abjj` uh` jãtmbfblbic` p`rtch`ht` pbur

l–cf`htcecadtcbh f` l–èe`t fu abhtröl` f`s ãlãj`hts fu sct`, pucsqu– l̀l` s–`st dvãrã` uh`

jãtmbf` trís ecdnl` `t f–uh` irdhf` vdlcfctã jãtmbfblbicqu .̀

L'uh` f`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s chtãr`ssdht`s f` l'`xpãrcj`htdtcbh `h lcih`, jcs` `h

ãvcf`ha` `st ld rdpcfctã dvà ldqu`ll` l`s fbhhã`s sbht abllàtã`s, jdcs ãidl`j`ht fdhs l`

trdct`j`ht f` a`s fbhhã`s. _bur l`s n`sbchs f` ld ràm`ram`, hbus dvbhs dchsc jbfcecã uh

vãrctdnl` sct` w`n abjj`racdl. L` f`scih fu sct` w`n d ãtã jdhcpulã fdhs l` nut f–uh`

vãrctdnl` vblbhtã f` edvbrcs`r ld vdlcfctã `xt`rh` f`s rãsultdts.

L` pldh f–`xpãrc`ha` ãldnbrã hbus d p`rjcs uh` rãpdrtctcbh f`s pldhs edatbrc`ls f`jdhcír` mbjbiíh` `htr` l`s fceeãr`hts sbus ãamdhtcllbhs, a` quc hbus dutbrcsdct l` abhtröl` f`s

èe`ts f`s vdrcdnl`s qu` hbus jdhcpulcbhs. A`tt` jãtmbf` d r`hfu l–daaís du qu`stcbhhdcr` trís

scjpl` pbur l`s cht`rrbiãs jdcs ãidl`j`ht, ï y rãpbhfr` rdpcf`j`ht.

L` ràburs dux `xpãrcj`htdtcbhs lbrs fu t`st f` hbs mypbtmís`s abhstctu` uh`

jãtmbfblbic` abjplãj`htdcr` ï l–dhdlys` f` abht`hu fdhs l`s trdvdux sur l`s ãlãj`hts

f–`xãautcbh (Vdylbr, >??0). Ph` dtt`htcbh pdrtcaulcír` d ãtã pbrtã` dux sbura`s `xbiíh`s f`

vdrcdha`. Dchsc, f` hbjnrùx edatùrs lcãs dux stcjulc `xtãrcùrs bht ãtã abhtrölãs, ï sdvbcr l`



10=

styl` f` l–di`ht vcrtu`l, ld lbhiuùr f`s sãqu`ha`s, l` abht`hu fu j`ssdi` dufctce, l` t`xt`

chtrbfuatce f` l–`-jdcl fu qu`stcbhhdcr`.

Qc uh` irdhf` jdkbrctã f`s ràm`ram`s `h jdrg`tchi bht ù pbur jãtmbfblbic`

l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh `h ldnbrdtbcr`, hbtr` ãtuf` s` fcstchiu` pdr sd vdlcfctã `xt`rh`. @h èe`t,

hbtr` ràm`ram` d am`ramã ï ãtufc`r hbs cht`rrbidtcbhs fdhs uh abht`xt` rã`l. Ld ablldnbrdtcbh

dvà Hbadabj `t Abi`fcj, hbus d p`rjcs f` j`ttr` `h plda` uh prbtbabl` `xpãrcj`htdl

p`rtch`ht, quc jdhcpul` l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`, d dech f` pbuvbcr csbl`r

l–chelu`ha` f` a`s vdrcdnl`s sur l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh.



103

A. L`s lcjct`s `t l`s vbc`s eutur`s f` ld ràm`ram`

A`tt` sàtcbh s` prbpbs` f` prãs`ht`r l`s lcjct`s `t l`s vbc`s eutur`s f` hbtr` trdvdcl

fbatbrdl.

C. L`s lcjct`s f` ld ràm`ram`

Qc a` trdvdcl f` ràm`ram` d p`rjcs f–cf`htcec`r pluscùrs dppbrts tmãbrcqu`s,

jdhdiãrcdux `t jãtmbfblbicqu s̀, cl h'`st pds `x`jpt f` lcjct`s.

4. L` pãrcjítr` f` l–ãtuf`

Vbut f–dnbrf, l`s sct`s sãlàtcbhhãs pbur l–ãtuf` prbpbs`ht uh` beer` f` echdha`j`ht

dutbjbncl` `t cjjbnclc`r, f`s s`rvca`s pbur l`qu`l l` prba`ssus f` fãacscbh `st r`ldtcv`j`ht

lbhi `t bó ld pmds` f` ràm`ram` `st `xtrëj`j`ht cjpbrtdht`. Aàc lcjct` ld pbrtã` f` hbs

abhaluscbhs. F` plus, hbtr` ãtuf` s` lcjct` ï uh` sùl` pbpuldtcbh, a`ll` f`s cht`rhdut`s. A`

quc pbs` prbnlíj` s`lbh a`rtdchs dutùrs. @hech, l–`hs`jnl` f`s dpprbam`s `jpcrcqu`s r`pbs`

sur l–`xdj`h f–uh sct` jdramdhf quc jbnclcs` f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, a` quc pbs` ldqu`stcbh f` ld iãhãrdlcsdtcbh f`s rãsultdts ï f–dutr`s typ`s f` sct`s f` `-abjj`ra`.

F–uh pbcht f` vu` tàmhcqu`, l` edct qu` l` sct` baaup` `htcír`j`ht l–ãardh, h` p`rj`t

pds f–ãtufc`r l–èe`t abhaurr`ht bu abjplãj`htdcr` f`s chebrjdtcbhs stdtcqu`s (t`xt`s bu

cjdi`s) `h cht`rdatcbh dvà l`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. @tufc`r l` röl` kbuã pdr a`s

ãlãj`hts `t abjpdr`r lùrs èe`ts sur l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh abhstctu` uh` vbc` f`

ràm`ram` brcichdl`.

>. L`s abha`pts jbnclcsãs

Ld typblbic` f` Ndg`r (43=5 7 4336) ï ld qu`ll` hbus dvbhs ràburus p`hfdht l–dhdlys`

qudlctdtcv` lcjct` l–cf`htcecadtcbh f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s ï trbcs edatùrs (f` f`scih,

sbacdux `t f–djncdha`), abhstctu` uh` lcjct` fdhs ld j`sur` bó l`s edatùrs `xt`rh`s du sct` h`

sbht pds prcs `h abhscfãrdtcbh. L`s typblbic`s f` N`rjdh `t @vdhs (4330) bu f` Jgmchchc

(>??>) durdc`ht pu ëtr` dussc p`rtch`ht`s.



15?

@hsuct`, l`s rãsultdts f` ld ràm`ram` sbht lcjctãs pdr ld vblbhtã f` sãpdr`r l` prba`ssus

f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, a'`st-ï-fcr` l`s bpãrdtcbhs f–dpprbprcdtcbh

(hcfcecadtcbh, `xplbrdtcbh `t jdrqudi`) fu rãsultdt f` a` prba`ssus ; l–ãtdt f–cjj`rscbh. @h

èe`t, ld ràm`ram` h` hbus d pds p`rjcs f–cf`htcec`r l`s datcbhs f` fãabuv`rt` `t

f–chv`stcidtcbh prbir`sscv` f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf `h lcih`. _dr dcllùrs, l–`xpãrc`ha`

s` jdhce`st` pdr f`s rãdatcbhs abihctcv`s `t abjpbrt`j`htdl`s, chfcvcfu`ll`s bu abllàtcv`s

(N`hdv`ht `t @vrdrf, >??>). Ld qu`stcbh f` ld hdtur` `t f` ld p`ra`ptcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha` vãau`

fdhs sd ilbndlctã (`.i., ^bf`r`r, >??=), h–d pds ãtã `xdjchã`.

F–uh pbcht f` vu` chstruj`htdl, l–ãam`ll` f` l–cjj`rscbh qu` hbus dvbhs utclcsã`, d ãtã

dfdptã` ï a`ll` fãv`lbppã` pdr Ebrh`rchb `t dl. (>??=). A`tt` ãam`ll` d ãtã abhstruct` fdhs l`

abht`xt` rã`l f–`xpãrc`ha`s aultur`ll`s (achãjd, juscqu`, spàtdal`), uh t`rrdch fceeãr`ht f`

a`luc qu` hbus dvbhs `xplbrã tbut du lbhi f` hbtr` ràm`ram`. L` ambcx f` a`tt` ãam`ll` rãscf`

fdhs l` edct qu` pù f` ràm`ram`s, schbh duauh` h–d trdctã l` abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh t`l qu`

hbus l–dvbhs fãechct ï pdrtcr f` ld lcttãrdtur`.

F–dutr` pdrt, l–dpprbam` ncfcj`hscbhh`ll` f` ld vdlùr p`réu` f` Ndnch `t dl. (4336)

abhfuct ï rãfucr` l`s nãhãeca`s f` ld vcsct` ï ld vdlùr utclctdcr` `t ld vdlùr mãfbhcqu`. Dlbrs

qu` a`ll`s prbpbsã`s pdr f–dutr`s dutùrs beer`ht uh` j`cllùr` cf`htcecadtcbh f`s abjpbsdht`s

f` ld vdlùr p`réu` `t jcùx abhscfãr`r l–`hs`j nl` f`s fcj`hscbhs p`réu`s (deeàtcv`s,

abihctcv`s, ebhatcbhh`ll`s, sbacdl`s) (`.i., Mblnrbbg, 4333) bu l`s fcj`hscbhs ; chtrchsíqu`

(l–bnk`t `st sbura` f` irdtcecadtcbh) vs. `xtrchsíqu` f` ld vdlùr (ld abhsbjjdtcbh f` l–bnk`t

p`rj`t f–dtt`chfr` bu f` s` rdpprbam`r f–dutr`s bnkàtces), datcv` (jdhcpuldtcbh datcv` f`

l–bnk`t) vs. rãdatcv` (rãa`ptcbh pdsscv` f` l–bnk`t), `t brc`htã` v`rs sbc (l–bnk`t `st sbura` f`

irdtcecadtcbh chfãp`hfdjj`ht fu abht`xt` sbacdl) vs. brc`htã` v`rs l`s dutr`s (l–bnk`t `st utclcsã

abjj` suppbrt f` ld r`ldtcbh sbacdl`) (J`hadr`llc, >??= 7 Durc`r, @vrdrf `t H–Ibdld, >??6).

L`s vdrcdnl`s chfcvcfu`ll`s bht ãtã sãlàtcbhhã`s `h rdcsbh f` lùr p`rtch`ha` pdr

rdppbrt ï hbtr` bnk`t f` ràm`ram` (l–cjplcadtcbh `hv`rs ld adtãibrc` f` prbfuct `t l–`xp`rtcs`f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t) `t f` ld abhecrjdtcbh f` lùr chelu`ha` lbrs f` l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` j`hã`

dvà l`s abhsbjjdtùrs. A`rtdch`s vdrcdnl`s abjj` ld jbtcvdtcbh pbur l` smbppchi `h lcih`,

l` n`sbch f` stcjuldtcbh bu ld p`ra`ptcbh f` ld abjpl`xctã f` ld tîam` ‑ f`s dat`s fcstchats quc

fbcv`ht ëtr` daabjplcs pdr uh chfcvcfu lbrs f` l'`xãautcbh f'uh` tîam` sur Cht`rh`t (Kcdhi `t

N`hndsdt, >??9) ‑ bht ãtã ãadrtã`s f` hbtr` adfr` abha`ptu`l pdr sbuacs f` pdracjbhc`. @h

èe`t, hbus dvbhs edct l` ambcx f–ãvct`r f–ãtufc`r uh irdhf hbjnr` f` vdrcdnl`s chfcvcfu`ll`s ï

trdv`rs l` jëj` qu`stcbhhdcr`, du rcsqu` f` prbvbqu`r ld ldssctuf` f`s rãpbhfdhts `t f` ncdcs`rlùrs rãpbhs`s. Vbutèbcs, jdlirã hbtr` èebrt f–ãvct`r l–`hhuc `t ld rãtca`ha` f`s cht`rr biãs,



154

a`rtdchs f–`htr` ùx bht jdhce`stã lùr chsdtcsedatcbh dprís dvbcr rãpbhfu (bu pds) du

qu`stcbhhdcr` ;

« Ld vcsct` fu sct` `t l` qu`stcbhhdcr` ãtdc`ht vrdcj`ht trbp lbhis. Qc vbtr`

qu`stcbhhdcr` h–`htrdct pds fdhs l` adfr` f` ld ràm`ram`, k` h–du r dcs kdjdcs rãpbhfu ï vbs

qu`stcbhs… K'`spír` du jbchs qu` Abi`fcj `t Hbvdabj pdy`ht nc`h ! · ‑ IQ.

Vbukburs abha`rhdht l`s vdrcdnl`s chfcvcfu`ll`s, l–cjplcadtcbh furdnl` `t l–`xp`rtcs` f`

`h jdtcír` f–Cht`rh`t pburrdc`ht kbu`r uh röl` abhkbcht. Qc l–cjplcadtcbh `st uh` vdrcdnl`

aldsscqu` fdhs ld lcttãrdtur` sur l–`xpãrc`ha` `h lcih` (`.i., ^camdrf, >??0), l–èe`t fcràt bu

l–èe`t f–cht`rdatcbh dvà l–`xp`rtcs` h–d pds ãtã ãtufcã`.

1. Ld jãtmbfblbic`

L`s lcjct`s jãtmbfblbicqu`s f` a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl sbht fu`s prchacpdl`j`ht ï

l–ãamdhtcllbh `t ï ld jcs` `h őuvr` f` l–ãtuf`.

d. L–ãamdhtcllbh

Ph` dutr` lcjct` f` ld ràm`ram` r`vc`ht ï ld tdcll` f` l–ãamdhtcllbh. @h èe`t,

abjpdrdtcv`j`ht ï f–dutr`s ràm`ram`s, hbtr` ãamdhtcllbh prãs`ht` uh hbjnr` r`ldtcv`j`ht

nds f` rãpbhfdhts. L` jbf` f–dfjchcstrdtcbh fu qu`stcbhhdcr` h–`st pds jcs `h adus`, cl s–dict

plutöt f` ld pãrcbf` p`hfdht ld qu`ll` hbus dvbhs sbllcactã l`s rãpbhfdhts. Cl s–dicssdct f`

l–cht`rvdll` `htr` l` >6 hbv`jnr` `t l` >= fãa`jnr` >?44. Ph` pãrcbf` f` eët`s, p`hfdht

ldqu`ll` l`s p`rsbhh`s sbllcactã`s ãtdc`ht ebadlcsã`s sur l`s damdts f` Hb`l bu tbut scjpl`j`ht

`h vdadha`. Hbtr` `hquët` s`jnl` dvbcr crrctã a`rtdchs chfcvcfus, quc l–bht edct sdvbcr

fcràt`j`ht pdr `-jdcl ;

« J`rac f` j` fãschsarcr` f` vbs lcst`s… sc cls dvdc`ht ãtã prbe`sscbhh`ls, durdct f÷ prãvbcr

uh lc`h f` fãsdnbhh`j`ht. Jdcs `hech, bh h` pùt pds f`jdhf`r ï uh îh` f` f`v`hcr uh

am`vdl f` aburs` · ‑ LJ.

A`rtdchs ãtdc`ht abjplít`j`ht mbstcl`s du t`xt` f` prãs`htdtcbh. Cls h–bht pds prcs ld

p`ch` f` vcsct`r l` sct` pbur l`s n s̀bchs f` l–`hquët`.



15>

« K` h` suppbrt` pds l` ---UCBL--- fu t`rj` vcrtu`l f`pucs l`s jcfch`tt`s, abjj` sc l`

tãlãirdpm` bu ãamdhi`s ãpcstbldcr`s fdtdc`ht f'mc`r !!...Ndhf` f` p`tcts sdlbpcdufs ...

@jplby`r a` t`rj` `h rdppbrt ï Cht`rh`t hujãrcqu` `ta, vbus trdhsebrj` `h rchidrfs

amdrldtdh`squ`s, ldcss`z fbha tbjn`r … · ‑ SV.

n. Ld jcs` `h őuvr`

L–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv` h–d pds am`ramã ï adlaul`r l` abèecac`ht λdppd (Abm`h, 435?). Cl

s–dict f–uh abèecac`ht f`stchã ï j`sur`r l–daabrf `htr` fùx vdrcdnl`s qudlctdtcv`s dydht l`s

jëj`s jbfdlctãs. L–chfca` f` vdlcfctã λdppd j`sur` ld abhabrfdha` `htr` l` t`st utclcsã `t ld

j`sur` rã`ll` ãtdnlc` pdr l` t`st ãtdlbh. Cl dppbrt` uh` jbfcecadtcbh ï l'chfca` f` vdlcfctã `h

abjpdrdht l'daabrf bns`rvã ï l'daabrf duqu`l bh s'dtt`hfrdct. Dchsc fùx bns`rvdtùrs

rãpdrtcss`ht h uhctãs stdtcstcqu`s `h p adtãibrc`s l` abrpus. Λdppd p`rj`ttrdct f–`xprcj`r ld

fceeãr`ha` r`ldtcv` `htr` ld prbpbrtcbh f'daabrf bns`rvã` `t ld prbpbrtcbh f'daabrf `spãrã`.

L–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv` j`t `h p`rspàtcv` f`s rãsultdts p`rtch`hts, a`p`hfdht pbur

l–dhdlys` fu jbfíl` struatur`l, a`rtdch dutùrs prãabhcs`ht l` lbicac`l Qjdrt _LQ, adr

abhtrdcr`j`ht du lbicac`l DJBQ, quc `xci` f`s ãamdhtcllbhs f` tdcll` jby`hh` (>??

bns`rvdtcbhs du jchcjuj), `t f`s jbfíl`s jbfãrãj`ht abjpl`x`s. Qjdrt _LQ `st abjpdtcnl`

dvà f` p`tcts ãamdhtcllbhs `t dvà f`s jbfíl`s r`ldtcbhh`ls abjpl`x`s (kusqu–ï pluscùrs

a`htdch`s f` vdrcdnl`s). Ld jãtmbf` _LQ s` rãvíl` fbha nc`h dfdptã` ï f`s dhdlys`s f` typ`

`xplbrdtbcr`, fdhs l`squ`ll`s l` am`ramùr h` nãhãecac` pds tbukburs f–uh ãamdhtcllbh

cjpbrtdht, hc f–ãam`ll`s f` j`sur` ldri`j`ht ãprbuvã s̀ (Qbscg `t dl., >??3).



151

CC. L`s vbc`s eutur`s f` ld ràm`ram`

L`s lcjct`s f` ld ràm`ram` qu` hbus v`hbhs f` prãs`ht`r buvr`ht f` jultcpl`s

pbsscnclctãs pbur f`s ràm`ram`s fdhs l–dv`hcr. F–dutr`s vbc`s f` ràm`ram` sbht `hvcsdi`dnl s̀

dech f` pbursucvr` `t f–`hrcamcr a` trdvdcl. Hbus dllbhs hbus dttdrf`r sur qu`lqu`s uh` f–`htr`

`ll`s.

F–dnbrf, cl s`jnl` tmãbrcqu`j`ht chtãr`ssdht f–dpprbebhfcr l`s hbtcbhs f–`xpãrc`ha`

f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` `h ebhatcbh fu typ` f–ãjbtcbh r`ss`htc. Hbtr` ràm`ram` `xplcqu` qu`,

abhtrdcr`j`ht ï l–ãtdt f` elbw, l–cjj`rscbh h–`st pds uhcqu`j`ht dssbacã` ï f`s ãtdts deeàtces

`t ãjbtcbhh`ls pbsctces. Cl s–dict dlbrs f–ãtufc`r ld hdtur` f`s rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh`ll`s

r`ss`htc`s p`hfdht ld vcsct`. _dr hdtur`, hbus pdrlbhs ï ld ebcs f–cht`hsctã `t f` scih` (pbsctcv`s

bu hãidtcv`s).

A`tt` ãtuf` buvr` f` hbjnrùs`s pcst`s f` ràm`ram`, fdhs l` prblbhi`j`ht f`s

trdvdux datu`ls sur l` jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l `h lcih`. _luscùrs qu`stcbhs s` pbs`ht sur ld

hdtur` jëj` f` l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` lbrs f–ãpcsbf`s f` hdvcidtcbh sur f`s sct`s

jdramdhfs, `t sur s`s abhsãqu`ha`s, hbtdjj`ht sur l` pldh abha`ptu`l `t sur l` pldh

`jpcrcqu`, sdhs tbutèbcs pdrl`r f–chfuatcbh ãjbtcbhh`ll`, qu`ls sbht l`s ãtdts deeàtces

dttdamãs ï l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` sur uh sct` jdramdhf (`.i., @rbilu `t dl., >??4), pbur uh

pdrdllíl` dvà l` pdrdfcij` Q-B-^) 2 Fdhs l` adfr` f` a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl, hbus dvbhs jcs `h

dvdht l` röl` f` trbcs abjpbsdht`s fu sct` (l` fãabr `h 1F, ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `t l–di`ht

vcrtu`l), f`s vdrcdnl`s quc r`st`ht trís cjpbrtdht`s. Cl s`rdct fceecacl` f–cihbr`r l`s

adrdatãrcstcqu`s fu sct`, hbtdjj`ht ld abulùr, l–`ribhbjc`, ld vct`ss` f` tãlãamdri`j`ht, quc

sbht susa`ptcnl`s f–chelu`ha`r l`s rãdatcbhs f`s cht`rhdut`s.

F` plus, l–chtãrët vcs-ï-vcs fu sct` h–`st pùt-ëtr` pds strcat`j`ht cf`htcqu` s`lbh l`

typ` f` prbfuct / s`rvca` prbpbsã, cl edufrdct dfdpt`r l` sct` w`n jdramdhf `t a`rtdch`s

tàmhcqu`s f` tmãîtrdlcsdtcbh `t f` jcs` `h saíh`, `h ebhatcbh fu nc`h bee`rt. L–èe`t f`l–dtt`htcbh `hv`rs l` sct` `st ãidl`j`ht uh` vbc` f` ràm`ram` pbt`htc`ll`, fdhs ld j`sur` bó

l–dttrdatcvctã f–uh sct` jdramdhf h` fãp`hf pds uhcqu`j`ht f` ld jdhcír` fbht cl `st abhéu,

jdcs ãidl`j`ht f` l–beer` qu–cl prbpbs`. F`s ràm`ram`s eutur`s pburrdc`ht `xplbr`r a`tt` pcst`

f` ràm`ram`, quc trdfucrdc`ht l`s edatùrs r`ldtces ï l–dttrdatcvctã fu sct` `t quc pburrdc`ht dvbcr

f`s èe`ts pbsctces sur l–dtt`htcbh `t l–cjj`rscbh. _lus pdrtcaulcír`j`ht, fdhs l` prblbhi`j`ht

f`s trdvdux f` Qum `t L`` (>??0), qu`ls sbht l`s èe`ts f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sur ld

jãjbrcsdtcbh f`s chebrjdtcbhs `t sur l–dppr`htcssdi`, ld trdhsjcsscbh f` abhhdcssdha`s ãtdhtsbuv`ht l–uh f`s bnkàtces f` a`s fcspbsctces fdhs l` fbjdch` fu abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu` 2



156

_dr dcllùrs, l`s tàmhblbic`s f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` h` sbht pds `habr` tbtdl`j`ht dfbptã`s

pdr l`s sct`s jdramdhfs, prbndnl`j`ht `h rdcsbh f` hbjnrùs`s abhtrdcht`s tàmhblbicqu`s `t

echdhacír`s. _dr dcllùrs, l`s ebhatcbhs cht`rdatcv`s s`jnl`ht f` plus `h plus sbpmcstcquã`s. Cl

s`rdct dlbrs p`rtch`ht f–cf`htcec`r l`s abhfctcbhs fdhs l`squ`ll`s f` t`ls fcspbsctces s`rdc`ht l`s

plus p`rebrjdhts, hbtdjj`ht `h t`rj`s f–dttrdatcvctã f` l–di`ht vcrtu`l (Mblzwdrtm `t dl.,

>??5), bó cl s`jnl` qu–`h plus f` s`s abjpãt`ha`s tàmhcqu`s `t abjj`racdl`s, l–dvdtdr `st

plus èecada` lbrsqu–cl `st dttcrdht.

@hsuct`, l–ãamdhi` cht`rp`rsbhh`l bns`rvã lbrs f` l–cht`rdatcbh dvà l–di`ht vcrtu`l

fbhh` lcù ï uh` rã`ll` cht`rdatcbh. A`p`hfdht, a`rtdch sct`s f` `-abjj`ra` h` sbht pds

fcspbsãs ï daau`cllcr f`s di`hts vcrtu`ls. Cl s`jnl` p`rtch`ht f–cf`htcec`r l`s fceeãr`ht`s e brj`s

f` prãs`ha` sbacdl` sur l` Y`n hbtdjj`ht, l` abht`hu iãhãrã pdr uh cht`rhdut` bu pdr l`

kburhdlcst` f–uh nlbi spãacdlcsã (abht`hu chstctutcbhh`l), a'`st-ï-fcr` l–chadrhdtcbh fu

abjj`htdcr` pdr uh` p`rsbhh` mujdch` ï trdv`rs uh` pmbtb, uh hbj `t uh ldhidi` pdrlã

(Iè`h `t Qtrdun, >??1 7 Gujdr `t N`hndsdt, >??> 7 Drf`l`t `t Nrcdl, >?44). Ld prãs`ha`

sbacdl` `st fãechc` pdr ld adpdactã sunkàtcv` f–uh jãfcd, ï r`hfr` sdclldht l–cht`rlbautùr lbrs

f–uh` fcsausscbh jãfcdtcsã` pdr uh ãardh (Qmbrt, Ycllcdjs `t Amrcstc`, 4395). @ll` r`hvbc` ï ld

adpdactã fu jãfcd ï r`stctu`r, l`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s f–uh` abjjuhcadtcbh cht`rp`rsbhh`ll` `h

eda` ï eda` (Lbjndrf `t Fcttbh, 4339). Cl s–dict f` ld t`hfdha` ï r`ss`htcr f` ld prãs`ha` fdhs

uh dvcs f–cht`rhdut`, quc vdrc` s`lbh l`s chfcvcfus (Drf`l`t `t Nrcdl, >?44). @tufc`r ld vdrcdnl`

prãs`ha` sbacdl` sur l`s sct`s jdramdhfs pburrdct r`prãs`ht`r uh` vbc` f` ràm`ram`

chtãr`ssdht`.

L`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` h–bnt`hdht pds tbukburs uh rãsultdt mbjbiíh` hc

jëj` pbsctce, cl s`rdct tbut ï edct p`rtch`ht f–ãtufc`r l`s abhfctcbhs fdhs l`squ`ll`s a`s

fcspbsctces pùv`ht s` rãvãl`r p`rtch`hts, uh` pcst` f` ràm`ram` pr`hfrdct `h abjpt` l` fìrã

f` abhtröl` bptcjdl ï beercr ï l–cht`rhdut` fdhs l` fcspbsctce f` rãdlctã v crtu`ll` dech f` h` pds

iãhãr`r f–crrctdtcbh (pbur l`s plus `xp`rts) jdcs, du abhtrdcr`, uh` `xpãrc`ha`cjj`rscv` èecada`, hbtdjj`ht `h t`rj`s f` p`rebrjdha` `h lcih`.

D uh jbj`ht bó f` hbjnrùx s`rvca`s `h lcih` fãaldr`ht buv`rt`j`ht vbulbcr

edvbrcs`r l–cjj`rscbh fu abhsbjjdtùr, l`s sct`s jdramdhfs utclcsdht f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` pùv`ht rãpbhfr` dux dtt`ht`s f`s cht`rhdut`s. A`p`hfdht, ï l–ír` fu jdrg`tchi

pdrtcacpdtce, cl s`jnl` cjpbrtdht f` ldcss`r ï l–cht`rhdut` ld lcn`rtã f` ambcscr l`s fcspbsctces

qu–cl sbumdct` jdhcpul`r, hbtdjj`ht p`rsbhhdlcs`r l–di`ht dvà l`qu`l cl cht`rdict, amdhi`r

l–dppdr`ha` f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l. A`s ebhatcbhs bht l` pbt`htc`l f–`hrcamcr ld vcsct` `t p`rj`tt`ht f` arã`r f` ld vdlùr pbur l` vcsctùr, jdcs dussc f–chelu`ha`r s`s abjpbrt`j`hts



150

f–damdt. Ãtufc`r l–èe`t fu abhtröl` fu l–cht`rhdut` sur l` ambcx fu abht`hu fu sct`, dech f–`h

cf`htcec`r l`s abhsãqu`ha`s sur l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh abhstctu` uh` p`rspàtcv` f`

ràm`ram` eutur`.

Fdhs l` abht`xt` f` ld tãlãpmbhc` jbncl`, bó l`s sjdrt pmbh`s sbht `h fãv`lbpp`j`ht

abhtchu, daau`cll`ht f`s dpplcadtcbhs f` plus `h plus rãdlcst`s `t abjpl`x`s. L` j-abjj`ra`

f`vc`ht chabhtburhdnl` `t pburrdct r`prãs`ht`r uh` dlt`rhdtcv` ï l–`-abjj`ra`. Cl s`jnl` dlbrs

p`rtch`ht f–ãtufc`r l–èe`t f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sur l`s rãdatcbhs `t l`s

abjpbrt`j`hts f`s usdi`rs. _dr dcllùrs sc l` abjj`ra` vcd l`s jbncl`s r`st` r`ldtcv`j`ht

kùh`, cl s`jnl` r`habhtr`r f`s fceecaultãs qudht ï sbh dfbptcbh systãjdtcqu` pdr l`s

utclcsdtùrs. L`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts `h 1F `t l`s dvdtdrs pburrdc`ht ëtr` ld sblutcbh ï a` prbnlíj`.

F–uh pbcht f` vu` plus ilbndl, ãtdht fbhhã ld hdtur` `xplbrdtbcr` f` hbtr` ràm`ram`,

hbus dvbhs dfbptã uh` fãjdram` dhdlytcqu` dh jdhcpuldht l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu

sct`. A`p`hfdht, uh` vcscbh mblcstcqu` abhfucrdct ï dpprbebhfcr ld abjprãm`hscbh fu

pmãhbjíh` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. L`s ràm`ram`s eutur`s f`vrdc`ht chtãir`r f`s vdrcdnl`s

f–ãvdludtcbh fu sct` w`n, abjj` sbh dttrdatcvctã, sd typcadlctã pdr rdppbrt dux dutr`s sct`s

fdhs ld jëj` adtãibrc` f` prbfuct bu `habr` sbh brcichdlctã.



155

ABHALPQCBH FP AMD_CV^@ UCC

A` s`ptcíj` `t f`rhc`r amdpctr` hbus d p`rjcs f–cht`rprãt`r l`s rãsultdts bnt`hus lbrs f`

ld pmds` f` ràm`ram` qudhtctdtcv`, f` l`s fcsaut`r `t f` prãs`ht`r lùrs dppbrts tmãbrcqu`s,

jdhdiãrcdux ̀ t jãtmbfblbicqu s̀.

L`s rãsultdts hbus abhfucs`ht ï ld abhaluscbh s`lbh ldqu`ll` l`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct` w`n jdramdhf sbht fãt`rjchdhts f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`.

Cls bht f`s èe`ts pbsctces sur l`s ãtdts ãjbtcbhh`ls, deeàtces `t abihctces fu abhsbjjdtùr. F`s

ãlãj`hts prãpbhfãrdhts pbur prbvbqu`r l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt` vcrtu`l arãã pdr ld

jdrqu`. A`s edatùrs sbht ; l` fãabr `h 1F, ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `t l–di`ht vcrtu`l, quc

`htrdch`ht l–cjj`rscbh quc ï sbh tbur chelu`ha` ld vdlùr p`réu` (mãfbhcqu` `t utclctdcr`) `t l`s

cht`htcbhs abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`s cht`rhdut`s.

Hbus dvbhs pdr dcllùrs fcsautã hbs rãsultdts, dvdht f` l`s abherbht`r ï f–dutr`s trdvdux

f` ràm`ram` ãtufcdht l` abhsbjjdtùr `h sctudtcbh f` abhsbjjdtcbh pdr Cht`rh`t. D a` kbur,

ld rdr`tã f`s trdvdux trdctdht fu lc`h `htr` l`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht jdramdhf (l`

fãabr `h 1F, ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `t l–di`ht vcrtu`l) `t l–cjj`rscbh fdhs l` abht`xt`

f–Cht`rh`t, r`hf`ht hbs abhaluscbhs pdrtcaulcír`j`ht cjpbrtdht`s fdhs ld abjprãm`hscbh f` a`

pmãhbjíh .̀

@hech, a`tt` ràm`ram` r`prãs`ht` f–uh` pdrt, uh dppbrt tmãbrcqu` ï l–dtt`htcbh f`s

am`ramùrs, pdr ld vdlcfdtcbh fu abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` fdhs l` abht`xt` f`s sct`s

jdramdhfs, s`s fãt`rjchdhts `t s`s abhsãqu`ha`s. Jdcs f–dutr` pdrt, uh dppbrt jdhdiãrcdl ï

l–dtt`htcbh f`s w`nf`scih`rs `t f`s r`spbhsdnl`s f` sct`s w`n jdramdhfs, pucsqu` ld ràm`ram`

j`t `h ãvcf`ha` l`s butcls hãa`ssdcr`s ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh, l–cjpbrtdha` f` l–dspàt

mãfbhcqu` f` ld vcsct`, s`s cjpdats sur ld p`rebrjdha` fu sct` `t l` prbecl f`s cht`rhdut`s ï

acnl`r. _ucs uh dppbrt jãtmbfblbicqu`, r`ldtce du f`scih jcxt` f` ld ràm`ram` `t ï

l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh ̀ h lcih`.

A`p`hfdht, hbus dvbhs jcs `h dvdht uh a`rtdch hbjnr` f` lcjct`s ï hbtr` trdvdcl

fbatbrdl. Amdauh` f` a`s lcjct`s r`prãs`ht` uh` vbc` f` ràm`ram` eutur`.



159

ABHALPQCBH F@ LD F@P]C@J@ _D^VC@

Ld sàbhf` pdrtc` f` a` trdvdcl f` ràm`ram` hbus d p`rjcs f` sdvbcr fdhs qu`ll`

j`sur` l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll` `h lcih` pbuvdc`ht chelu`ha`r l` fãrbul`j`ht f–uh`

`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh sur uh sct` w`n jdramdhf.

@ll` s–`st p`hamã` sur ld jcs` `h őuvr` f`s vdrcdnl`s f` hbtr` jbfíl` s truatur`l,

pucsqu` qu–`ll` s–`st abhsdarã` fdhs uh pr`jc`r t`jps, ï ld prãs`htdtcbh f` ld jãtmbfblbic`

dfbptã`, pucs du prã-t`st f`s ãam`ll`s f` j`sur`, `hsuct` du t`st f`s mypbtmís`s `t dux rãsultdts

f` ld ràm`ram`. @hech, a`tt` pdrtc` d prãs`htã l`s dppbrts tmãbrcqu`s, jdhdiãrcdux `t

jãtmbfblbicqu s̀ f` l–ãtuf`, pbur echcr sur l`s lcjct`s `t l`s vbc`s eutur`s f` ld ràm`ram`.



15=

ABHALPQCBH I@H@^DL@

L`s abha`ptùrs `t r`spbhsdnl`s f` sct`s jdramdhfs am`ram`ht f` plus `h plus ï

edvbrcs`r l–cjj`rscbh f`s cht`rhdut`s, lbrs f` lùrs `xpãrc`ha`s `h lcih`. L–bnkàtce f` a`tt`

ràm`ram` `st f–ãtufc`r l`s èe`ts f`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l, jbnclcsã`s

pdr l`s sct`s jdramdhfs abjj` vdrcdnl`s dtjbspmãrcqu s̀, sur l–`xpãrc`ha ̀ cjj`rscv` `h

lcih`, ld vdlùr p`réu` f` ld vcsct` (mãfbhcqu` `t utclctdcr`) `t sur ld p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi `h

lcih` (l`s rãpbhs`s f`s cht`rhdut`s `hv r̀s l` sct`, ld jdrqu` `t l` prbfuct).

@h s–dppuydht sur uh` r`vu` f` lcttãrdtur` dchsc qu` sur f`s chv`stcidtcbhs cssu`s f–uh`dhdlys` qudlctdtcv` `xplbrdtbcr`, dydht pbur t`rrdch l` sct` ^`hdult H`w F`dl, hbus dvbhs

chtrbfuct l`s nds`s tmãbrcqu`s `t jãtmbfblbicqu`s rãpbhfdht ï a`tt` prbnlãjdtcqu`. Ph jbfíl`

abha`ptu`l `st dlbrs fãv`lbppã. Cl j`t `h ãvcf`ha` l–èe`t f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu

sct` jdramdhf, t`ll`s qu`ll`s sbht p`réu`s pdr l`s cht`rhdut`s, hbtdjj`ht l` fãabr `h 1

fcj`hscbhs, l`s dvdtdrs `t l`s abjjdhf`s f` abhtröl` sur l`s rãdatcbhs deeàtcv`s,

ãjbtcbhh`ll`s, abihctcv`s `t s`hsbrc`ll`s `t sur l`s rãpbhs`s abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f` l–cht`rhdut`

(Nbuam` ï br`cll`, cht`htcbh f–damdt, cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct`, cht`htcbh f` pr`hfr` abhtdatdvà ld jdrqu`). L`s r`ldtcbhs fu jbfíl` sbht jbfãrã`s pdr a`rtdch`s vdrcdnl`s (`xp`rtcs`

f–Cht`rh`t, cjplcadtcbh).

Ph` pr`jcír` abllàt` f` fbhhã`s d rdss`jnlã 16? qu`stcbhhdcr`s (l` sct` f` l–ãtuf` `st

^`hdult H`w F`dl) hbus d p`rjcs f` prã-t`st`r hbs butcls f` j`sur`. L–`hs`jnl` f`s

fcj`hscbhs f` l–ãtuf` bht ãtã j`surã`s sur uh` ãam`ll` f` Lcg`rt f–daabrf ï s`pt pbchts.

Amdqu` j`sur` d ãtã sbujcs` dux t`sts f` ecdnclctã `t f` vdlcfctã. L`s rãsultdts f` a`tt`

pr`jcír` ãtuf` bht jcs `h ãvcf`ha` uh` vdlcfctã jãtmbfblbicqu` `t f`s qudlctãs

psyambjãtrcqu s̀ sdtcsedcsdht`s.

Dprís ld vdlcfdtcbh f`s ãam`ll`s f` j`sur`, uh` sàbhf` abllàt` f`s fbhhã`s d ãtã

èeàtuã` dprís ld jcs` `h plda` fu pldh f` l–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh. Muct fãalchdcsbhs f–uh jëj`

sct` bht ãtã abhéu`s (l` sct` f` l–ãtuf` Abi`fcj Cjjbnclc`r), dech f–ãtufc`r l–èe`t f` amdqu`

abjpbsdht` `xpãrc`htc`ll` fu sct` sur l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` `t vdlcf`r bu r`k`t`r l`s

mypbtmís`s ãjcs`s. L`s dhdlys`s f`s fbhhã`s (dhdlys`s f` vdrcdha`s) `xprcj`ht uh èe`t

pbsctce `t scihcecadtce f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h 1F, f` ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` sur l–cjj`rscbh

`h lcih`. Tudht ï l–dhdlys` pdr l`s jbfíl`s f–ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s, `ll` chfcqu` uh èe`t



153

scihcecadtce f` l–cjj`rscbh sur ld vdlùr p`réu`. L–ãtuf` rãvíl` pdr dcllùrs, l` röl` jãfcdtùr

kbuã pdr ld vdlùr p`réu` (mãfbhcqu` `t utclctdcr`) fdhs ld r`ldtcbh `htr` cjj`rscbh `t l`s

fãt`rjchdhts f` ld p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi `h lcih` (l`s cht`htcbhs abjpbrt`j`htdl`s f`s

cht`rhdut`s `hv`rs l` sct`, ld jdrqu` `t l` prbfuct). Ld ràm`ram` rãvíl` ãidl`j`ht l` röl`

jbfãrdtùr f` l–`xp`rtcs` f` l–butcl Cht`rh`t sur ld r`ldtcbh `htr` l`s abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll` fu sct` `t l–cjj`rscbh. L–`xp`rtcs` jbfír` hãidtcv`j`ht l–èe`t f`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h 1F `t f` l–di`ht vcrtu`l sur l–cjj`rscbh, abhecrjdht pdr ld jëj` baadscbh

hbs abhaluscbhs f` l–ãtuf` qudlctdtcv`. Tudht ï l–cjplcadtcbh, `ll` jbfír` pbsctcv`j`ht a`

lc`h, dchsc qu` ld r`ldtcbh cjj`rscbh ‑ vdlùr p`réu`.

@hech, f`s cjplcadtcbhs tmãbrcqu`s, jdhdiãrcdl`s `t jãtmbfblbicqu`s, dchsc qu` f`s

vbc`s eutur`s f` ràm`ram`s bht ãtã jcs`s `h p`rspàtcv`.

L`s abhtrcnutcbhs f` ld ràm`ram`

Du t`rj` f` a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl, hbus dvbhs sbumdctã dppbrt`r f`s abhtrcnutcbhs

scihcecadtcv`s ï ld abhhdcssdha` fdhs l` amdjp f`s `xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh `h lcih`, `t

plus pdrtcaulcír`j`ht a l̀uc fu abha`pt f–cjj`rscbh. Ac-f`ssbus hbus r`pr`hbhs l`s prchacpdux

dppbrts f` hbtr` ràm`ram`.

.

L`s abhtrcnutcbhs tmãbrcqu`s f` ld ràm`ram`

L`s trdvdux abha`rhdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh ãtdht `habr` hdcssdhts, l`s dppbrts

tmãbrcqu`s f` hbtr` ràm`ram` fbatbrdl` r`pbs`ht sur ld abjprãm`hscbh f`s èe`ts f`

l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l fu sct`, f` l–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` `t f`s abhsãqu`ha`s quc `h rãsult`ht.

F–dnbrf, ld r`vu` f` ld lcttãrdtur` s–`st abhsdarã` f–uh abtã, ï l–`xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtcbh `h iãhãrdl `t ï l–cjj`rscbh `h lcih` `h pdrtcaulc`r. A`ld abhstctu` l` pr`jc`rdppbrt tmãbrcqu` f` a`tt` tmís`. Hbus dvbhs `t chv`stciuã, dhdlysã `t syhtmãtcsã, l–`hs`jnl`

f`s trdvdux fdhs a` fbjdch` f` ràm`ram`. F–uh dutr` abtã, hbus dvbhs chtãirã l` abha`pt f`

rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` fdhs l` abht`xt` fu jdrg`tchi `t plus prãacsãj`ht l`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã

vcrtu`ll` abjj` ãlãj`hts f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `xpãrc`htc`l fu sct` w`n.

@hsuct`, l–uh f`s dppbrts f` a`tt` ràm`ram` `st f` abhecrj`r ld vdlcfctã `xt`rh` fu

pmãhbjíh` f–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` fdhs l` abht`xt` fu abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu`. L`s rãsultdts

f` a`tt` ràm`ram` jbhtr`ht qu–ï l–chstdr f`s pbchts f` v`ht`s pmyscqu`s, l`s sct`s jdramdhfs prbvbqu`ht am`z l`s cht`rhdut`s f`s rãdatcbhs ãjbtcbhh l̀l`s `t deeàtcv`s kusqu–ï l–cjj`rscbh.



19?

_dr dcllùrs, ld ràm`ram` p`rj`t f` pr`hfr` uh` pbsctcbh aldcr` qudht ï abheuscbh quc ríih`

fdhs a` amdjp. @ll` j`t `h ãvcf`ha` ld fceeãr`ha` `htr` l–ãtdt f` elbw `t l–cjj`rscbh. Fùx

abha`pts prbam`s jdcs fcstchats. Cl `st a`p`hfdht cjpbrtdht f` sbulcih`r qu` l–cjj`rscbh `st

abhfctcbhhã` pdr l`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`.

A`tt` ãtuf` rãvíl` qu` l'ãt`hfu` `t ld vdrcãtã f` l'cht`rdatcvctã fdhs l`s jbhf`s vcrtu`ls

`st nc`h du-f`lï f` l'cht`rdatcbh f`s abhsbjjdtùrs dvà f`s sct`s Y`n jdramdhfs. Butr`

l'cht`rdatcbh dvà l`s prbfucts prãs`htãs, uh` hbuv`ll` ebrj` f–cht`rdatcbh `st arãã`,

hbtdjj`ht dvà l–di`ht vcrtu`l cht`llci`ht, ld abjjdhf` f` abhtröl` `t l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht `h

1F, fãal`hamdht f`s rãdatcbhs sunkàtcv`s, ãjbtcbhh`ll`s `t deeàtcv`s p`hfdht l–ãpcsbf` f`

hdvcidtcbh. A`tt` ebr j` f–ãamdhi` s–èeàtu` f` jdhcír` scjultdhã` `t ld prãs`ha` f` a`s

butcls, d uh` chacf`ha` pbsctcv` sur l–`xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv` `h lcih`.

F` jëj`, sc l`s ràm`ram`s dhtãaãf`ht`s h–dvdha`ht pds f` kustcecadtcbhs `jpcrcqu`s

sur ld prbpbsctcbh qu` l`s ãlãj`hts f` f`scih, f–djncdha` `t sbacdux sbht sbura` f–cjj`rscbh,

hbtr` ràm`ram` `h fbhh` ld prùv`.

Abha`rhdht l`s chacf`ha`s f` l–cjj`rscbh sur l`s abjpbrt`j`hts, l`s rãsultdts f` ld

ràm`ram` j`tt`ht `h ãvcf`ha` l` röl` f` jãfcdtùr kbuã pdr ld vdlùr p`réu`. L–`xpãrc`ha`

cjj`rscv` h` s` lcjct` pds dux abhsãqu`ha`s abihctcv`s bu trdhsdatcbhh`ll`s, jdcs `hilbn`

ãidl`j`ht l`s pãrcbf`s pbst-damdt, hbtdjj`ht l` nbuam` ï br`cll`.

@hech, sc uh` irdhf` jdkbrctã f`s trdvdux `h jdrg`tchi s–`st chtãr`ssã` ï l–chelu`ha` f`

ld vdlùr p`réu` sur ld sdtcsedatcbh, hbtr` ràm`ram` d ãtufcã sbh cjpdat sur l`s prbndnl`s

abjpbrt`j`hts trdhsdatcbhh`ls `t r`ldtcbhh`ls f`s cht`rhdut`s. L`s rãsultdts bht rãvãlã uh

cjpdat scihcecadtce f` ld vdlùr p`réu`, fdhs s`s fùx eda`tt`s (mãfbhcqu` `t utclctdcr`), sur l`s

fãt`rjchdhts f` ld p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi `h lcih`. Ld vdlùr p`réu` kbu` fbha uh röl`

jãfcdtùr `htr` l–cjj`rscbh `t l`s abjpbrt`j`hts f`s cht`rhdut`s.

L`s abhtrcnutcbhs jdhdiãrcdl`s f` ld ràm`ram`

L`s `htr`prcs`s am`ram`ht f` plus `h plus ï abha`vbcr f`s sct`s Y`n quc bht pbur

bnkàtce f–dttcr`r `t f` ecfãlcs`r l`s cht`rhdut`s. Hbtr` ãtuf` prbpbs` f`s kustcecadtcbhs

`jpcrcqu`s f`s èe`ts f`s fcspbsctces f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` sur l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct` `h lcih`.

Dchsc, pluscùrs cjplcadtcbhs jdhdiãrcdl`s pùv`ht ëtr` dvdhaã`s pbur djãlcbr`r l–`xpãrc`ha`

`h lcih` alc`ht.



194

Ld ràm`ram` p`rj`t f–cf`htcec`r l`s ãlãj`hts quc abhabur`ht l` plus ï l–ãv`htudlctã

f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` cjj`rscv`, hbtdjj`ht l`s di`hts vcrtu`ls `t l` fãabr `h 1F, abjpbsdht`s

`xpãrc`htc`ll`s sur l`squ`ll`s cl `st cjpbrtdht f–chv`stcr, pucsqu–`ll`s abhtrcnu`ht ï

l–`hrcamcss`j`ht f` ld vcsct`, pdr uh` jcs` `h vdlùr f`s prbfucts / s`rvca`s fu sct` jdramdhf.

F` t`ll`s abjpbsdht`s `hi`hfr`ht f`s rãdatcbhs prbpr`s ï amdqu` abhsbjjdtùr, hbtdjj`ht

l` fãal`ham`j`ht f` rãdatcbhs abihctcv`s, s`hsbrc`ll`s, deeàtcv`s `t sbacdl`s. Hbus pdrlbhs

dlbrs f–`xpãrc`ha` f–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. Qc ld jdkbrctã f`s sct`s f` `-abjj`ra` `st pduvr` `h

stcjulc s`hsbrc`ls, hbtr` ãtuf` abhecrj` l–cjpbrtdha` f`s di`hts vcrtu`ls `t j`t l–daa`ht sur l`

fãabr `h trbcs fcj`hscbhs `t sbh rãdlcsj` `t j`t `h lujcír` ld hãa`ssctã f` p`ra`vbcr l`

abhtröl` p`hfdht ld vcsct` ï trdv`rs l`s abjjdhf`s f` abhtröl`. A`s fcspbsctces pùv`ht

djãlcbr`r l'èecadactã `t ld p`rebrjdha` f'uh` `htr`prcs` ndsã` sur l` Y`n. Cls prãs`ht`ht f`s

pbsscnclctãs chechc`s pbur l`s jdrg`tùrs, fbht l–dvdhtdi` `st f` arã`r uh` `xpãrc`ha`

cjj`rscv` pbur l`s abhsbjjdtùrs. Nc`h qu` l` jbfíl` Y`n sbct datu`ll`j`ht lcjctã `h

t`rj`s f–cht`rdatcvctã `t f` vcvdactã, l`s tàmhblbic`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` djãlcbr`ht f`

jdhcír` scihcecadtcv` s`s dptctuf`s.

F–dutr` pdrt, a` trdvdcl fbatbrdl p`rj`t f` rãuhcr l`s abhfctcbhs hãa`ssdcr`s pbur qu`

l`s alc`hts vcv`ht uh` `xpãrc`ha` pldcsdht` `t uhcqu`, f` edébhh`r l`s rãdatcbhs f`s cht`rhdut`s.

Hbs rãsultdts jbhtr`ht qu` l`s fcj`hscbhs mãfbhcqu`s `t utclctdcr`s f` ld vdlùr p`réu`

abhstctu`ht uh l`vc`r cjpbrtdht pbur l`s jdrqu`s sur Cht`rh`t. @ll`s chelu`ha`ht ebrt`j`ht l`s

ld p`rebrjdha` jdrg`tchi fu sct`.

L`s abhtrcnutcbhs jãtmbfblbicqu s̀

L` pr`jc`r dppbrt jãtmbfblbicqu` f` a` trdvdcl `st ld abjnchdcsbh f` l–dhdlys`

qudlctdtcv` `t l–dhdlys` qudhtctdtcv` ; jãtmbfblbic` jcxt` f` ràm`ram`. Ãpcstãjblbicqu`j`ht,cl s–dict f` l–chfuatcbh pbur l–dhdlys` qudhtctdtcv` `t f` ld fãfuatcbh pbur l–dhdlys` qudlctdtcv`.

Hbtr` ràm`ram`, jbhtr` qu` a`tt` dpprbam` p`rj`t f–dfdpt`r f`s tàmhcqu`s qudlctdtcv`s `t

qudhtctdtcv`s, `h ebhatcbh f` hbs bnkàtces f` ràm`ram` f` jdhcír` hdtur`ll` jdcs

prdijdtcqu`.

Ld fùxcíj` abhtrcnutcbh jãtmbfblbicqu` `st r`ldtcv` ï ld abhfuct` f–uh`

`xpãrcj`htdtcbh `h lcih`, pdr ld jdhcpuldtcbh f`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`

jdramdhf. A`tt` jãtmbfblbic` s–`st dvãrã` p`rtch`ht` pbur l–cf`htcecadtcbh f` l–èe`t f`s



19>

ãlãj`hts jdhcpulãs fu sct`. _bur l`s n`sbchs f` l–ãtuf`, hbus dvbhs dchsc jbfcecã uh vãrctdnl`

sct` w`n abjj`racdl `h arãdht = fãalchdcsbhs fcstchat`s.

Ld ablldnbrdtcbh dvà Hbadabj Irbup` `t Abi`fcj, hbus d p`rjcs f` j`ttr` `h plda`

a` prbtbabl` `xpãrcj`htdl `t `h fãfucr` l`s abhaluscbhs.

@h abhaluscbh, a`tt` ràm`ram` j`t `h lujcír` ld hãa`ssctã f` r`fãechcr ld abha`ptcbh

f`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs ï trdv`rs l`s hbuv`dux n`sbchs f`s abhsbjjdtùrs sur Cht`rh`t.

A`tt` ràm`ram` durd fbha t`htã f–cf`htcec`r l`s ãlãj`hts `xpãrc`htc`ls f–uh sct` jdramdhf quc

abhabur`ht l` plus ï l–cjj`rscbh `h lcih`. @h s` ndsdht sur l`s trdvdux j`hãs pdr l`s

spãacdlcst`s f`s systíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh `t fu jdrg`tchi.



191

NCNLCBI^D_MC@

Dfdjb-Uclldhc H. `t Yrcimt G. (>??9), Qjcl`; dh cjj`rscv` l`drhchi idj` ebr f`de dhfm`drchi amclfr`h, DAJ QCII^D_M `fuadtbrs prbirdj. H`w Sbrg, HS, PQD.

Dffcs J. `t Qdld I. (>??9), Nuychi d nbbg ds d Amrcstjds icet; Vwb rbut`s tb austbj`rcjj`rscbh, Vm` Q`rvca` Chfustrc`s Kburhdl , >9, =7 Fà`jn`r, pp. 334 ‑ 4??5.

Didrwdl ^. `t Gdrdmdhhd @. (>???), Vcj` elc`s wm`h ybu'r` mdvchi euh; abihctcv` dnsbrptcbhdhf n`lcès dnbut chebrjdtcbh, JCQ Tudrt`rly, >6, 6, pp. 550-536.

Dlnd K.Y. `t Mutamchsbh K.Y. (43=9), Fcj`hscbhs be Abhsuj`r @xp`rtcs`, Kburhdl beAbhsuj`r ^`s`dram, 41, 6, pp. 644-606.

Dlnd K.Y., Lyham K., Y`ctz N., Kdhcsz`wsgc A., Lutz ^., Qdwy`r D. `t Ybbf Q. (4339),Cht`rdatcv` mbj` smbppchi; Abhsuj`r, r`tdcl`r, dhf jdhuedatur`r cha`htcv`s tb pdrtcacpdt` ch`làtrbhca jdrg`tplda`s. Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi, 54 , 1, pp. 1=-01.

Dlimdrdnd ^. `t F`hhcs A. (>?4?), Pschi dutm`htca 1F prbfuat vcsudlczdtcbh ebr dh `làtrcadlbhlch` r`tdcl`r. Kburhdl be Austbj`r N`mdvcbur , 3(>); pp. 39-440.

Dlldiuc D.`t J–sddf N. (>??5), Adrdatãrcstcqu`s f`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs, ãtdts ãjbtcbhh`ls `tabjpbrt`j`hts f`s dam`tùrs sur Cht`rh`t ; rãsultdts f–uh` ãtuf` `xplbrdtbcr`, 63`j` Abhirísf` l–DQDA , Ndhee, Dln`rtd. Adhdfd.

Dllcx-F`sedutdux A. (433=), Vrcdhiuldtcbh ; v`rs uh fãpdss`j`ht f` l–bppbsctcbhqudlctdtce/qudhtctdtce, Ãabhbjc`s `t Qbacãtãs, Qac`ha`s f` I`stcbh, h¿ >6, eãvrc`r, pp. >?3->>5.

Djdjc J. `t ^bw` E. (>???), L`s bppbrtuhctãs f` ràm`ram` `h abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu` surCht`rh`t, 0íj` abllbqu` f` l–DCJ , =-4? hbv Jbhtp`llc`r CD@ Phcv`rsctã f` Jbhtp`llc`r >.

Dhfrãdhc K.A. `t Abhambh E. (>??1), L`s jãtmbf`s f–ãvdludtcbh f` ld vdlcfctã f`s `hquët`squdlctdtcv`s ̀ h jdrg`tchi, Abhir`ssb Cht`rhdzcbhdl` ; L` t`hf`hz` f`l jdrg`tchi , U`h`zcd,>=->3 hbv`jnr`.

Dhfrcù E., Ndfbt B. `t Jdaã Q. (>??6), L` Y`st @fjbhtbh Jdll ; uh ãamdedufdi` s`hsbrc`ldu s`rvca` f–uh` absjbibhc` pbpuldcr` 2, ^`vu` Erdhédcs` fu Jdrg`tchi , H¿435, pp. 01-55.

Dhcj`sm D., _chsbhh`dult D., Sdhi Q.N. `t Bm Y. (>?44), Dh Bfyss`y chtb Ucrtudl Ybrlfs;@xplbrchi tm` Cjpdats be Vàmhblbicadl dhf Qpdtcdl @hvcrbhj`hts bh Cht`htcbh tb _uramdsÙcrtudl _rbfuats, JCQ Tudrt`rly, Ubl. 10 Hb. 1, pp. 9=3-=4?.

Dht`nlcdh N., Irdcllbt L. `t J`hadr`llc ^. (>?4?), Abjj`ht iãr`r f`s `xpãrc`ha`s`xtrdbrfchdcr`s 2 Dhdlys` `t ràbjjdhfdtcbhs ï pdrtcr f–uh` cjj`rscbh fdhs l`s pdras f`lbcscrs, 40 `j`s Kburhã`s f` ^àm`ram` `h Jdrg`tchi f` Nburibih`, 4=-43 hbv`jnr`.

Dppcdm B. (>??5), ^cam j`fcd, pbbr j`fcd; tm` cjpdat be dufcb / vcf`b vs. t`xt / pcatur`t`stcjbhcdls dfs bh nrbws`rs' `vdludtcbhs be abjj`racdl w`n sct`s dhf bhlch` prbfuats,

Kburhdl Aurr`ht Cssu`s dhf ^`s`dram ch Dfv`rtcschi , >3, 4, Qprchi, pp. 91-=5.

Drnuagl` K.L. (>??5), Djbs 9.? Ps`r's Iucf`, _D; Djbs F`v`lbpj`ht Abrpbrdtcbh, QprchiMbus`.

Drf`l`t A. `t Nrcdl N. (>?44), Chelu`ha` f`s ràbjjdhfdtcbhs f–cht`rhdut`s ; l` r öl` f` ld

prãs`ha` sbacdl` `t f` l–`xp`rtcs ,̀ ^àm`ram` `t dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , >5, 1, pp. 60-9?



196

Drc`ly F. (>???), Abhtrbllchi tm` chebrjdtcbh elbw; @eeàts bh abhsuj`rs– fàcscbh jdgchidhf prè`r`ha`s, Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, >9, >, pp. >11->6=.

Drhbulf @. `t _rca` L. (4331), ^cv`r Jdica; `xtrdbrfchdry `xp`rc`ha` dhf tm` `xt`hf`fs`rvca` `habuht`r, Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, Ubl. >?, H¿ 4, pp. >6-60.

Drhbulf @. K., _rca` L. `t [chgmdh I. (>??>), Abhsuj`rs, JaIrdw-Mcll, H`w Sbrg.Dun`rt-Idj`t U. (4335), L` f`scih f–`hvcrbhh`j`ht abjj`racdl fdhs l`s s`rvca`s ;

dpprbprcdtcbh `t fãtburh`j`ht pdr l` alc`ht , Vmís` f` fbatbrdt `h sac`ha`s f` i`stcbh, Dcx-Jdrs`cll` CCC.

Dun`rt-Idj`t U. (4339), Vwcstchi s`rvca`sadp`s; fcv`rscbh be tm` pmyscadl `hvcrbhj`ht ch dr`-dpprbprcdtcbh prba`ss, Cht`rhdtcbhdl Kburhdl be Q`rvca` Chfustry Jdhdi`j`ht , =, 4, pp.>5 ‑ 64.

Dugstdgdlhcs Q. `t Nldth`r F. (433>), Qclcabh Jcrdi`; Vm` Drt dhf Qac`ha` be Ucrtudl ^`dlcty._dàmpct _r`ss.

Durc`r _. `t _dss`nbcs K. (>??>), Abjpr`hfr` l`s ̀ xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh pbur jcùxiãr`r ld r`ldtcbh alc`ht, Fãacscbhs Jdrg`tchi, >=, (Batbnr` - Fãa`jnr`), pp.61-0>.

Durc`r _., N`hdv`ht A. `t H'Ibdld I. (>??4), Udlcfctã fcsarcjchdht` `t prãfcatcv` f`sabjpbsdht`s f` ld r`ldtcbh d ld jdrqu`, Dat`s fu 49ãj` Abhirís cht`rhdtcbhdl f`l–Dssbacdtcbh Erdhédcs` f` Jdrg`tchi , F`duvcll`, Phcv`rsctã f` Ad`h, 405-403.

Durc`r _., @vrdrf S. `t H–Ibdld I. (>??6), Abjpr`hfr` `t j`sur`r ld vdlùr fu pbcht f` vu`fu abhsbjjdtùr, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , 43, 1, pp. 4->?.

Dv`rcl K.^. (4391), _`rsbhdl abhtrbl bv`r dv`rscv` stcjulc dhf cts r`ldtcbhsmcp tb str`ss, _syamblbicadl Null`tch, vbl. =?, H¿ 6, 4391, pp. >=5-1?1.

Ndnch N. K., Fdrf`h Y.^. `t Irceech J. (4336), Ybrg dhf/br euh; j`dsurchi m`fbhca dhfutclctdrcdh smbppchi vdlu`, Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, >?, 6, 566-505.

Ndfbt B. `t Abvd N. (>??1) , Hãb-jdrg`tchi, 4? dhs dprís ; pbur uh` tmãbrc` arctcqu` f` ldabhsbjjdtcbh `t fu jdrg`tchi rã`hamdhtãs, ^`vu` Erdhédcs` fu Jdrg`tchi, 430 , pp. 93-36.

Ndfbt B., F` Ndumdch-^bux F., L`jbch` K-E., Adrrc`r A., Irdcllbt L., Abrrcbh H., Lbmr S.,Mdz`nrbuaq K-J. `t ^dui`l C., (>??9), F` l–`xpãrc`ha` `h « myp`rrãdlctã · ï l–`xpãrc`ha` `h«myp`rjbhf`· ; ãluaunrdtcbhs suct` ï uh` Bfyssã` `tmhbjdrg`tchi `t chtrbspàtcv` ï LdsUìds. Dat`s f`s 4>íj`s Kburhã` f` ^àm`ram` `h Jdrg`tchi f` Nburibih`, Fckbh.

Ndg`r K. (43=5), Vm` rbl` be tm` `hvcrbhj`ht ch jdrg`tchi s`rvca`s; tm` abhsuj`r p`rspàtcv`,Vm` s`rvca`s amdll`hi`; chtìrdtchi ebr abjp`tctcv` dfvdhtdi`, ãfs. K.D. Az`pc`l, A.D.

Abhirdj ̀ t K. Qmdhdmdh, Dj`rcadh Jdrg`tchi Dssbacdtcbh, Amcidab, pp.93-=6.Ndg`r K., Ir`wdl F. `t _drdsurdjdh D. (4336), Vm` chelu`ha` be tm` stbr` `hvcrbhj`ht bhqudlcty che`r`ha`s dhf stbr` cjdi`, Kburhdl be tm` Dadf`jy be Jdrg`tchi Qac`ha ,̀ >>, 6, 1>=-113.

Ndg`r K., _drdsurdjdh D. Ir`wdl F. `t Ubss I.N. (>??>), Vm` chelu`ha` be jultcpl` stbr``hvcrbhj`ht au`s bh p`ra`cv`f j`ramdhfcs` vdlu` dhf pdtrbhdi` cht`htcbhs, Kburhdl be

Jdrg`tchi , 45, >, pp. 4>?-46>.

Ndrfch L. (>??1), L–dhdl ys` f` abht`hu, _r`ss`s Phcv`rsctdcr`s f` Erdha`.

Ndrbh ^. J. `t G`hhy F.D. (43=5), Vm` jbf`rdtbr-j`fcdtbr vdrcdnl` fcstchatcbh ch sbacdl

psyamblbicadl r`s`dram; Abha`ptudl, strdtìca, dhf stdtcstcadl abhscf r̀dtcbhs, Kburhdl be _`rsbhdlcty dhf Qbacdl _syamblbiy, 04, pp. 4491-44=>



190

Ndtrd ^. `t Dmtbld B.V. (4334), J`dsurchi tm` m`fbhca dhf utclctdrcdh sbura`s be abhsuj`rdttctuf`s, Jdrg`tchi L`tt`rs, >, >, pp. 403-49?.

Ndufrclldrf K. (439?), Ld sbacãtã f` abhsbjjdtcbh, F`hbçl, _drcs.

Ndy`t-^bn`rt, _.`t Icrdrf, U. (>??3), Ph` dpprbam` `xpãrc`htc`ll` f` ld abhsbjjdtcbh

dpplcquã` ï ld r`stdurdtcbh idstrbhbjcqu`, 46íj`s

Kburhã`s f` ^àm`ram` `h Jdrg`tchi f` Nburibih ,̀ 4> `t 41 hbv`jnr`, Fckbh.

Nàmùr D `t Ibll`ty J. (>??5), Udlcfdtcbh f'uh` ãam`ll` f` j`sur` fu l`df us`r, ^`vu` Erdhédcs` fu Jdrg`tchi , >?5, pp. 4-0.

N`ldçh E. (>??0), Ld jusãbirdpmc` f–cjj`rscbh fdhs l`s jusã`s f`s sac`ha`s ; chstruj`ht f`jãfcdtcbh bu hbuv`l butcl jdrg`tchi 2, Aultur` & Jusã`s, Fu jusã` du pdra f–dttrdatcbh, 0,

pp. 34-44?.

N`lduf L. (>??3), ^ã-`hamdht`j`ht fdhs l` `-jbhf`, rãvblutcbh bu ãvblutcbh f'uh jbf` fàbhsbjjdtcbh2, L'cht`htcbh du s`rvca` f` l'cjdichdtcbh, Nr`st, Erdha`.

N`llczzc K. D. `t Mct` ^. @. (433>), @hvcrbhj`htdl ablbr, abhsuj`r e``lchis, dhf puramds`lcg`lcmbbf, _syamblbiy & Jdrg`tchi , 3, Q`pt`jn`r/Batbn`r, pp. 169 ‑ 56.

N`h [buncr C. (>??=) , L–Deecamdi` dufcbvcsu`l fyhdjcqu` ; Adrdatãrcstcqu`s, ebhatcbhh`j`ht`t abhfctcbhs f–èecadactã f–uh hbuv`du jãfcd du pbcht f` v`ht ̀, Vmís` f` Fbatbrdt `hQac`ha`s f` I`stcbh, CD@ f'Dcx (A@^BI).

N`hdv`ht, A. `t @vrdrf, S. (>??>), @xt`hscbh fu fbjdch` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, Fãacscbhs Jdrg`tchi , >=, pp.9-44.

N`htl`r _. J. (433?). Abjpdrdtcv` ect chf`x`s ch struaturdl jbf`ls. _syamblbicadl Null`tch,4?9, pp. >1= ‑ >65.

N`htl`r _. J. `t Nbh`tt F. I. (43=?), Qcihcecadha` t`sts dhf ibbfh`ss be ect ch tm` dhdlyscs beabvdrcdha` struatur`s. _syamblbicadl Null`tch, ==, pp. 0== ‑ 5?5.

N`ridfïd J. (>??5), Ph` strdtãic` f` ràm`ram` abhstruatcvcst` dpplcquã` dux s`rvca`saultur`ls ; l–`x`jpl` fu Jusã` Blyjpcqu`, f` sbh abha`pt `t f` s`s prbecls f` vcsctùrs,

^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , Ubl.>4, H¿1, pp.34-446.

N`ri`rbh K. (>??4), L`s edatùrs quc chelu`ha`ht ld ecfãlctã f`s alc`hts quc damít`ht surCht`rh`t, ^àm`ram`s `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , 45, 1, pp. 13-01.

N`rjdh N. `t @vdhs K. (4330), ^`tdcl jdhdi`j`ht; D strdtìca Dpprbdam, 5íj` ãfctcbh,_r`htca` Mdll.

Nmdthdidr. D.7 Jcsrd. Q. `t ûh, M.^. (>???) Bh rcsg, abhv`hc`ha ,̀ dhf Cht`rh`t smbppchi n`mdvcbr, Abjjuhc`dtcbhs be cm` DAJ. 61, 44. pp 3=-4?0.

Ncagchi A.D. (435>), Ld vdlcfctã f`s pldhs f–`xpãrc`ha`, ^`vu` f` Qtdtcstcqu` Dpplcquã`, 4?,1, pp. 90-=1.

Ncbaad E. `t F`ldh`y N. (4330) , Cjj`rscv` vcrtudl r`dlcty tàmhblbiy. Ch ErdhgNcbaad `t Jdrg^.L`vy , (@fs.), Abjjuhcadtcbh ch tm` di` be vcrtudl r`dlcty (pp. 09 ‑ 4>6 ). Mcllsfdl` , HK ;

Ldwr`ha` @rlnduj Dssbacdt`s.

Ncth`r J.K. (433>), Q`rvca`sadp`s; Vm` Cjpdat be _myscadl Qurrbuhfchis bh Austbj`rs dhf@jplby``s, Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi , 05, Dprcl, pp. 09-94.

Nbhhch I. (>??>), Jdidsch `t `xpãrc`ha` f` jdidschdi` ; l` röl` f` l–dpprbprcdtcbh, Fãacscbhs Jdrg`tchi , >=, batbnr`-fãa`jnr`, pp. 50-90



195

Nbrimchc Q., Fcdjbhf H., Gbzch`ts ^.U., JaIrdtm J.D., Juhcz D.J. `t Qm`rry K.E. (>??3),Ymy dr` tm`j`f nrdhfstbr`s sb pbw`reul2 r`tdcl nrdhf cf`blbiy dt Dj`rcadh icrl plda`,

Kburhdl be ^`tdclchi , =0, 1, pp. 151-190.

Nbuam`t _. (>??6), L–`xpãrc`ha` du aőur f` l–dhdlys` f`s r`ldtcbhs jdidsch-jdidschùr, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , 43, >, pp. 01-9>.

Nbuam`t _. `t @l Dbuhc M. (>??1), Ph` vcscbh jultc-àm`ll`s, plurcfcsacplchdcr` `tcht`rdatcbhcst` fdhs l–dhdlys` f` ld r`ldtcbh fu jdidschùr du pbcht f` v`ht ̀, >íj`s Kburhã`s

Hbrjdhf`s f` ^àm`ram`s sur ld Abhsbjjdtcbh Vmíj` ; Qbacãtãs `t Abhsbjjdtcbh, 14 jdrs ‑ 4`r dvrcl.

Nbulfchi Y., Gdlrd D., Qtd`lch ^. `t [`ctmdjl U. (4331). D fyhdjca prba`ss jbf`l be s`rvca`qudlcty; Erbj `xpàtdtcbhs tb n`mdvcbrdl cht`htcbhs, Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi ^`s`dram, 1?, 4,E`nrudry, pp. 9->9.

Nburi`bh F. (>??=), Jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l `t myp`r rãdlctã fdhs l` fbjdch` f` ld aultur`, 9tm Cht`rhdtcbhdl Jdrg`tchi Vr`hfs Abhir`ss, U`hca`, Kdhudry 49-43, AF-^BJ.

Nburi`bh F. `t Ecls`r J. (4330), L`s dppbrts fu jbfíl` f` ràm`ram` f–`xpãrc`ha`s ïl–dhdlys` fu abjpbrt`j`ht fdhs l` fbjdch` aultur`l ‑ uh` `xplbrdtcbh abha`ptu`ll` `tjãtmbfblbicqu`, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , 4?, 6, pp. 0->5.

Nburi`bh-^`hdult F. `t _. Nbuam`t (>??9), Jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l `t dhdlys` f`s lbicqu`s fàbhsbjjdtcbh fu spàtdal` spbrtce, ^`vu` Erdhédcs` fu Jdrg`tchi , >4>, >/0, dvrcl, pp. =9-4??.

Nrdgus K.K., Qamjctt N.M. `t [drdhtbh`llb L. (>??3), Nrdhf `xp`rc`ha ;̀ wmdt cs ct2 mbw cs ctj`dsur`f2 fb`s ct deeàt lbydlty2, Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi , 91, 1, pp. 0>-5=.

Nrcfi`s @. `t Elbrsm`cj ^. (>??=), M`fbhca dhf utclctdrcdh smbppchi ibdls; tm` bhlch`

`xp`rc`ha`, Kburhdl be Nusch`ss ^`s`dram, 54, pp. 1?3-146.Nrbwh @. `t Adcrhs _. (>??6), D irbuhf`f chv`stcidtcbh be idj` cjj`rscbh - AMC >??6, DAJ

_r`ss, pp. 4>93-41??.

Nrbwh Q. (4336), Jdrg`tchi ds jultcpl`x; sar``hchi pbstjbf r̀hcsj, @urbp`dh Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi , >=, =/3, pp. >9-04.

Nrbwh`, J. Y., dhf ^. Aufàg. (43=3), Qchil` sdjpl` arbss-vdlcfdtcbh chfca`s ebr abvdrcdha`struatur`s. Jultcvdrcdt` N`mdvcbrdl ^`s`dram, >6, p. 660 ‑ 600.

Nruh`l B., Idll`h I. `t ^bux F. (>??3), L` röl` f` l–dpprbprcdtcbh fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` fàbhsbjjdtcbh dlcj`htdcr`, uh` dhdlys` f` nlbis, >6íj` Abhirís Cht`rhdtcbhdl f`

l–Dssbacdtcbh Erdhédcs` fu Jdrg`tchi , Lbhfr`s, 46-40 jdc.Nurf`d I. `t Abcee`t _. (4331), Ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, _drcs, M`rjís.

Nyrh` N.J. (>??4), Qtruaturdl @qudtcbh Jbf`lchi wctm Djbs, Jdmwdm, H`w K`rs`y,Ldwr`ha` @rlnduj Dssbacdt`s.

Adfbz A. (433>), L`s rãdlctãs vcrtu`ll`s, Abllàtcbh FBJCHBQ, Eldjjdrcbh, _drcs.

Adlacu J. (>??1) @xpãrcj`htdtcbh `t dcf` ï ld fãacscbh `h jdrg`tchi sur Cht`rh`t. Dat`s fu43íj` Abhi rís f` l–Dssbacdtcbh Erdhédcs` fu Jdrg`tchi , Vuhcs.

Adró D. `t Abvd N. (>??1), Dpprbam` `jpcrcqu` f` l'cjj`rscbh fdhs l'`xpãrc`ha` fàbhsbjjdtcbh ; l`s bpãrdtcbhs f'dpprbprcdtcbh, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi, 4=,

>, 69-50.



199

Adró D. `t Abvd N. (>??5d), @xpãrc`ha`s f` jdrqu` ; abjj`ht edvbrcs`r l–cjj`rscbh fuabhsbjjdtùr 2, Fãacscbhs Jdrg`tchi , 64, pp.61-0>.

Adró D. `t Abvd N. (>??5n), @xpãrc`ha`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh `t jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l, ^`vu` Erdhédcs` f` I`stcbh, 1>, 45>, pp. 33-446.

Adró D. `t Abvd N. (>??9), Abhsujchi `xp`rc`ha`, Bxbh, ̂ butl`fi`.Adró D. `t Abvd N. (>??=), L` abhsbjjdtùr cht`rpdssce ; hbuv`l dvdtdr pbstjbf`rh` 2, 9 íj` Abhirís f`s V`hfdha`s fu Jdrg`tchi, U`hcs`, Kdhvc`r.

Adró D. `t Abvd N. `t _da` Q. (>??9), _l`dsur` dhf `hkbyj`ht ch tm` abhsujptcbh `xp`rc`ha`;Vm` ads` be CAV-Nds`f Q`rvca`s, _rba``fchis be tm` @DA^ Abhe`r`ha ,̀ Jcldh, Kuly.

Adró D. `t Abvd, N. (>??>), ^`tbur sur l` abha`pt f–`xpãrc`ha` ; pbur uh` vu` plus jbf`st` `t plus abjplít` fu abha`pt, Dat`s f`s 9 íj`s Kburhã`s f` ^àm`ram` `h Jdrg`tchi f` Nburibih`,Fckbh, pp. 406-49>.

Adró D., Abvd N. `t F`ru`ll` U. (>??5), L–daaís du pldcscr/kbucssdha` fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` f`

abhsbjjdtcbh; uh` chv`stcidtcbh fu ads spãacecqu` f`s ̀ xpãrc`ha`s vcrtu`ll`s, 44ãj`s

Kburhã`sf` ^àm`ram` `h Jdrg`tchi f` Nburibih`, Fckbh.

Adss`ll K., Ncagjbr` V., Adjpn`ll L., Uclmkdljssbh M. `t Sdh M. (>???), Mujdh abhv`rsdtcbhds d syst`j erdj`wbrg; f`scihchi ̀ jnbfc`f abhv`rsdtcbhdl di`hts, ch @jnbfc`fabhv`rsdtcbhdl di`hts, K. Adss`ll, K. Qullcvdh, Q. _r`vbst `t @. Amuramcll `fs., Nbstbh, JCV_r`ss, pp. >3-51.

Amdh`y F. (>??9), L` abha`pt f–dpprbprcdtcbh ; uh` dpplcadtcbh du fbjdch` f` ld juscqu``hrìcstrã`, 5 íj`s Kburhã`s Hbrjdhf`s f` ^àm`ram` sur ld Abhsbjjdtcbh, ^bu`h.

Amdhi K.@., Qcjpsbh V.Y., ^dhidswdjy D. `t V`gamdfdh`y K.^. (>??>), D ibbf w`nsct` adhabhv`y tm` wrbhi nrdhf cjdi` ! d pr`lcjchdry r`pbrt. Ybrgchi _dp`r, @-Nusch`ss ^`s`dram

A`ht`r (@NÂ), Phcv`rscty be _`hhsylvdhcd.Amclf`rs V.L., Adrr A.L., _àg K. `t Adrsbh Q. (>??4), M`fbhca dhf utclctdrcdh jbtcvdtcbhs ebrbhlch` r`tdcl smbppchi n`mdvcbr, Kburhdl be ^`tdclchi, vbl. 44 , pp. 044-010.

Ambc F., Gcj M-K. `t Gcj Q.M. (>??9), @^_ Vrdchchi Yctm d Y`n-Nds`f @làtrbhca L`drhchiQyst`j; Vm` Elbw Vm`bry _`rspàtcv`, Cht`rhdtcbhdl Kburhdl be Mujdh-Abjput`r Qtufc`s,50, pp. >>1 ‑ 61.

Ambug C. `t _`rrc`h K. (>??6), L`s edatùrs `xplcqudht ld abhecdha` fu abhsbjjdtùr lbrs f–uhdamdt sur uh sct` jdramdhf ; uh` ãtuf` `xplbrdtbcr` ·. Fãacscbhs Jdrg`tchi , 10, pp. 90-=5.

Amujpctdz Ada`r`s ^. `t Udhmdjj` K. (>??1), L`s prba`ssus jbfãrdtùrs `t jãfcdtùrs ;

fcstchatcbh abha`ptu`ll`, dspàts dhdlytcqu`s ̀ t cllustrdtcbhs, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , 4=, 1, pp. 59-4??.

Amuhi F. (>??0), Qbj`tmchi ebr hbtmchi; Phf`rstdhfchi puramdschi n`mdvcbrs ch sbacdlvcrtudl ̀ hvcrbhj`ht. Ayn`rpsyamblbiy & N`mdvcbr , =, 5, pp. 01=-006.

Acssã-F`pdrfbh G. `t H–Ibdld I. (>??3), L`s èe`ts f` ld sdtcsedatcbh, f` ld abhecdha` `t f`l–`hidi`j`ht vcs-ï-vcs f–uh` jdrqu` sur ld pdrtcacpdtcbh f`s abhsbjjdtùrs ï uh nbyabtt,

^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , >6, 4, pp. 61-59.

Al`jbhs @.G. (>??3), Nusch`ss jbf`ls ebr jbh`tczchi Cht`rh`t dpplcadtcbhs dhf Y`n sct`s;@xp`rc`ha`, tm`bry, dhf pr`fcatcbhs, Kburhdl be Jdhdi`j`ht Chebrjdtcbh Qyst`js, Edll, >5, >,

pp. 40 ‑ 64.



19=

Abdt`s I. (433>), _rbirdj erbj Chvcscnl` Qct`; d vcrtudl smbw , d jultcj`fcd p`rebrjdha`wbrg pr`s`ht`f ny I`bri` Abdt`s _`rebrjdha` Ybrgs, Qdh Erdhacsab, AD, Jdram.

Abamby E. (>??6), Cs tm` jbf`rh abhsuj`r d Nurcfdh–s fbhg`y2 _rbfuat pdagdichi dhfabhsuj`r ambca`, ch G. @gstrõj dhf M. Nr`jnàg (`fs.), @luscv` Abhsujptcbh, Bxebrf dhf

H`w Sbrg, N`ri _udnlcsm`r, pp. >?0->>9.

Abm`h K. (435?). D abèecac`ht be dir``j`ht ebr hbjchdl sadl`s. @fuadtcbhdl dhf _syamblbicadl J`dsur`j`ht , >?, pp. 19-65.

Abllch-Ldamduf C. `t K-S Fuyag (>??4), Jdrg`tchi r`ldtcbhh`l `t e`stcvdl ; l` ads f`sErdhabeblc`s, I`stcbh >???, 5, hbv`jnr`-fãa`jnr`, pp. 63-54.

Abup`r J., Vrduibtt J. `t Ldjcds J. (>??4), Y`n Qurv`y F`scih dhf Dfjchcstrdtcbh , _unlcaBpchcbh Tudrt`ly, 50, >, pp. >1?->01

Aburvbcsc`r E-M. `t Kdqu`t D. (>?4?), L–cht`rdatcvctã `t l–cjj`rscbh f`s vcsctùrs ; Hbuv`lchstruj`ht f` jdrg`tchi aultur`l, Fãacscbhs Jdrg`tchi , H¿5?, Batbnr`-Fãa`jnr` ‑ pp. 59-94.

Abvd N. (>??=), Abhsuj`r jdf` ‑ Tudhf l` abhsbjjdtùr f`vc`ht prbfuatùr, Fãacscbhs Jdrg`tchi , 0?, pp.43->9

Abvd N. `t Abvd U. (>??6), L–`xpãrc`ha` f` Abhsbjjdtcbh ; f` ld Jdhcpuldtcbh ï ldAbjprbjcsscbh 2, 1íj`s Kburhã`s Hbrjdhf`s f` ld Abhsbjjdtcbh, Abllbqu` « Qbacãtã `tAbhsbjjdtcbh ·, 44-4> jdrs,

Abvd N. `t Abvd U. (>??3), L`s eciur`s fu hbuv`du abhsbjjdtùr ; uh` i`hís` f` ldibuv`rh`j`htdlctã fu abhsbjjdtùr, ^àm`ram` Dpplcadtcbh `h Jdrg`tchi , >6, 1, pp.=4-4??.

Abvd N. `t F`ru`ll` U. (>?4?), D ld ràm`ram` fu pldcscr fdhs l`s ãtuf`s abhsbjjdtùrs ; làds f`s Brdhi` Ldns, ^`vu` Jdhdi`j`ht `t Dv`hcr , 14, Jdy 4.

Abvd U. `t Abvd N. (>??4), Dlt`rhdtcv`s jdrg`tchi , _drcs, Fuhbf.

Arbhndam L.K. (4304), Abèecac`ht dlpmd dhf tm` cht`rhdl struatur` be t`sts, _syambj`trcgd,Q`pt`jn`r, 45, pp. >39-15?.

Arujp Y. K. `t _ec`l V. ( 4330), D t`l`j`fcach` prcj`r; Dh chtrbfuatcbh tb tm` tàmhblbiy dhfdh bv`rvc`w be tm` lct`rdtur`. Dramcv`s be Edjcly J`fcach`, 6 , 3 , pp. 935-=?1.

Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc J. (439=), Dtt`htcbh dhf tm` wmblcstca dpprbdam tb n`mdvcbur, ch Vm`Qtr`dj be Abhsacbush`ss, _bp`, G.Q. dhf Qchi`r, K.L. (`fs), _l`huj, H`w Sbrg, PQD,

pp.110-10=.

Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc J. (43=0), @j`ri`ht jbtcvdtcbh dhf tm` `vblutcbh be s`le, ch Jbtcvdtcbh ch Dfultmbbf , Gl`cn`r, F. `t Jd`mr, J.M. (`fs), KDC _r`ss, Ir``hwcam, AV, PQD, pp. 31- 441,act`f ch Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc, 43==, bp act.

Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc J. (43==), Vm` elbw `xp`rc`ha` dhf mujdh psyamblbiy, J.Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc & C. Q. Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc (@fs.), Bptcjdl @xp`rc`ha`. Adjnrcfi`, PG;Adjnrcfi` Phcv`rscty _r`ss.

Ascgsz`htjcmdlyc J. (>???), Vm` absts dhf n`hècts be abhsujchi, Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, >9, >, pp. >59->9>.

Aurndtbv B, (>??0), L` « Qtufcb f`s Erdirdha`s · d-t- cl nãhãecacã l–dppbrt fu « Ghbwl`fi`Jdrg`tchi · 2, 6íj` Abhirís _drcs-U`hcs` f`s V`hfdha`s Jdrg`tchi ‑ >4->>, Kdhvc`r.



193

Ayr F., M`df J., Ldrcbs M. `t Nchi _. (>??3), @xplbrchi mujdh cjdi`s ch w`nsct` f`scih; Djultc-j`tmbf dpprbdam, JCQ Tudrt`rly, 11, 1, pp. 013-055.

F–Dstbus D. (>???), Crrdtchi dspàts be tm` smbppchi `hvcrbhj`ht, Kburhdl be Nusch`ss ^`s`dram, 63, pp. 463-405.

Fdcl`y L. (4333), F`scihchi tm` wbrlf w` sure ch; d abha`ptudl jbf`l be w`n dtjbspm`rcas.Ch; Nrbwh Q, Qufmdrsmdh F, `fctbrs. DJD `fuadtbr–s prba``fchis. Amcadib (CL); DJD.

Fdcl`y L. (>??6), Hdvcidtcbhdl w`n dtjbspm`rcas `xpldchchi tm` chelu`ha` be r`strcatcv`hdvcidtcbh au`s, Kburhdl be Nusch`ss ^`s`dram, 09, 9, pp. 930-=?1.

Fdjpãrdt J., Frdib _m. `t Ldrcv`t Q. (>??>), U`hfr` l–`xpãrc`ha` f–uh dutr` jbc, Fãacscbhs Jdrg`tchi , >=, pp. >1-1>.

Fdhfbudu K-A (>??4), ^àm`ram` f–chebrjdtcbh sur Cht`rh`t `t `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsultdtcbh, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi, 45, 1, pp. 3->6.

Fdhb E., Mdjbh U. `t Llbsd Q., (>??6), Ld qudlctã f`s ãtuf`s qudlctdtcv`s ; prchacp`s `t

prdtcqu`s, Fãacscbhs Jdrg`tchi , 15, Batbnr`-Fãa`jnr`, pp. 44->0.Fduaã N. `t Q. ^cùhc`r (>??>), L` jdrg`tchi s`hsbrc`l fu pbcht f` v`ht`, ^àm`ram` `t

Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , 49, 6, pp. 65-50.

Fduim`rty V., Lc M. `t Ncbaad E. (>??=), Abhsuj`r L`drhchi dhf tm` @eeàts be Ucrtudl@xp`rc`ha` ^`ldtcv` tb Chfcràt dhf Fcràt _rbfuat @xp`rc`ha`. _syamblbiy & Jdrg`tchi , >0,9, pp. 05= ‑ 0=5.

Fdvcf D, Mdtamu`l D. `t Ldue`r ^. (>??=), L`s hbuv`ll`s ebhfdtcbhs f`s sac`ha`s f` i`stcbh,Uucn`rt/EH@I@, sàbhf` ãfctcbh.

Fdvcs D., Jurpmy K., Bw`hs F., Gmdzdhamc F. `t [ciurs C. (>??3). Dvdtdrs, p`bpl`, dhf

vcrtudl wbrlfs; Ebuhfdtcbhs ebr r`s`dram ch j`tdv`rs`s, Kburhdl be tm` Dssbacdtcbh ebr Chebrjdtcbh Qyst`js, 4?, >, pp. 4->3.

Fdvcs E.F. (43=3), _`ra`cv`f usèulh`ss, p`ra`cv`f `ds` be us`, dhf us` daa`ptdha` bechebrjdtcbh tàmhblbiy, JCQ Tudrt`rly, 41, 1, pp. 143-16?.

Fdvcs L.J., Ydhi Q. `t Lchfrcfi` D. (>??=), Aultur` chelu`ha`s bh `jbtcbhdl r`spbhs`s tbbh-lch` stbr` dtjbspm`rca au`s, Kburhdl be Nusch`ss ^`s`dram, 54, =, pp. =?5-=4>.

F`nndnc Q., Fddssc J. `t Ndcl` Q. (>?4?), @eeàt be Bhlch` 1F Dfv`rtcschi bh Abhsuj`r^`spbhs`s ; Vm` J`fcdtchi ^bl` be V`l`pr`s`ha`, Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi Jdhdi`j`ht , >5, 3-4?, pp. 359-33>.

Fì`rdtu D.J., ^dhidswdjy D. `t Yu K. (>???), Abhsuj`r ambca` n`mdvcbur ch bhlch` dhftrdfctcbhdl sup`rjdrg`ts. Vm` èeàts be nrdhf hdj`, prca` dhf btm`r s`dram dttrcnut`s, Cht`rhdtcbhdl Kburhdl be ^`s`dram ch Jdrg`tchi , 49, 4, pp. 00-9=.

F`cimtbh K. `t Irdysbh G. (4330), Jdrg`tchi dhf s`fuatcbh; Nuclfchi `xamdhi` r`ldtcbhsmcp ny jdhdichi sbacdl abhs`hsus, Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, >4, 6, pp. 55?-595.

F`hzch H. G. `t Lchablh S.Q. (>??0), Tudlctdtcv` r`s`dram, Qdi`, 1cíj` ãfctcbh.

F`rndcx J., L`mùt @., F`rndcx A. `t Qt`hjdhs I. (>?4?), Irdtuctã, vdlùr p`réu` `tabhs`ht`j`ht ï pdy`r ; uh` dpplcadtcbh dux jdtams f` l–ãqucp` hdtcbhdl` n`li` f` ndsg`t-ndll,

Fãacscbhs Jdrg`tchi, 03, pp.49->=.



1=?

Fc`sndam N._. `t K`dhfrdch D.-A. (>??0), Mbw tb i`h`rdt` deeàtcv` r`datcbhs tmrbuim sbacdldhf spdtcdl cjj`rscbh bh d j`ramdht w`nsct`; _rbpbsdl be dh chtìrdtcv` jbf`l, Dscd _daceca

Dfvdha`s ch Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, 5, pp. >66->04

Fc`sndam _.N., Amdhfbh K.L. `t Idldh K._. (>??9), @ee`ts f` ld prãs`ha` `t f` ld abhiru`ha`f–uh di`ht vcrtu`l sur l` pbuvbcr f` rãt`htcbh fu sct` Cht`rh`t, Dat`s fu >1íj` Abhirís

Cht`rhdtcbhdl f` l'Dssbacdtcbh Erdhédcs` fu Jdrg`tchi, Dcx-l`s-Ndchs.

Fcbh-L` J`` F. (433=), L` abjpbrt`j`ht fu abhsbjjdtùr fdhs ld ebul`, Dat`s f` ld 1íj` Kburhã` f` ^àm`ram` `h Jdrg`tchi f` Nburibih`, Fckbh, pp.06-91.

Fbhbvdh ^.K. `t ^bssct`r K.^. (43=>), Qtbr` dtjbspm`r`; Dh `hvcrbhj`htdl psyamblbiydpprbdam, Kburhdl be ^`tdclchi, 0=, (4), pp. 16 ‑ 09.

Fbhbvdh ^K., ^bssct`r K.^., Jdrabblyh I. `t H`sfdc` D. (4336), Qtbr` dtjbspm`r` dhf puramdschi n`mdvcbr, Kburhdl be ^`tdclchi, 9?(1), pp. >=1->36.

Frbul`rs B. `t ^bull`t N. (>??6), Dpprbam`s `xpãrcj`htdl`s `h jdrg`tchi, ch _mclcpp` ^bn`rt-F`jbhtrbhf (@f.), L`s jãtmbf`s f–bns`rvdtcbh `t f–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh, _drcs, @fctcbh Dpbiã`,

>??6. pp >49->6=.

Fun`t (4336), Qbacblbic` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, _drcs, ãfctcbhs f` sùcl.

@drhsmdw ^.D., Icidht` J. dhf Kbh`s M. (`fs.) (4331), Ucrtudl ^`dlcty Qyst`js, Dadf`jca_r`ss CQNH; ?-4>->>996=-4, pp. 1>9

@ab P. (4333), Gdht `t l–brhctmbryhqu`, _drcs, Irdss`t, L` Lcvr` f` _bam` h¿ 40?>5.

@cimj`y K. (4339), _rbeclchi us`r r`spbhs`s tb abjj`racdl w`nsct`s, Kburhdl be Dfv`rtcschi ^`s`dram, 19, 1, pp.03 ‑ 55.

@hi`l K.E., Nldagw`ll^.F. `t Jchcdrf _.Y. (4330), Abhsuj`r N`mdvcbr , Fryf`h _r`ss @f,

Brldhfb, El, PQD, =

íj`

`f.@rbilu Q. D., Jdaml`ct G. D. `t Fdvcs, L. J. (>??1), @jpcrcadl t`stchi be d jbf`l be bhlch`stbr` dtjbspm`rcas dhf smbpp`r r`spbhs`s, _syamblbiy & Jdrg`tchi, >?, >, pp. 413-40?.

@rbilu Q.D., Jdaml`ct G.D. `t Fdvcs L.J. (>??4), Dtjbspm`rca qudlctc`s be bhlch` r`tdclchi; dabha`ptudl jbf`l dhf cjplcadtcbhs, Kburhdl be Nusch`ss ^`s`dram, 06, >, pp. 499-4=6.

@ttcs Q. (>??>), Ph f`scih f`s dhtãaãf`hts `t f`s abhsãqu`ha`s f` l–`xpãrc`ha` bptcjdl` fèlbt lbrs f'uh jdidschdi` pdr Cht`rh`t, 9 íj` abllbqu` f` l'DCJ, 1? jdc - 4`r kuch >??>,Mdjjdj`t, Vuhcsc`, mttp;//www.dcj>??>.uhcv-jbhtp>.er (AF ^BJ).

@ttcs Q. (>??0), L–dtjbspmír` f`s sct`s w`n jdramdhf ; cjpdat f` ld abulùr, f`s dhcjdtcbhs

`t f` ld juscqu` sur l`s rãpbhs`s fu abhsbjjdtùr, Phcv`rsctã f` Hdht`s, ldnbrdtbcrÀÎHD. mttp;//www.cd`-tbulbus`.er/ecl`s/[email protected]

@ttcs, Q. (>??=). L'dtjbspmír` f`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs `t l`s rãdatcbhs f`s abhsbjjdtùrs `hlcih`; cjpdat f` ld abulùr fbjchdht`, f` ld juscqu` f'djncdha` `t f`s dhcjdtcbhs. Admc`r f`

^àm`ram` f` l–Phcv`rsctã f` Hdht`s.

@vdrcstb K. ^. `t Gdrdmdhhd @. (433=), Vm` cjpdat be j`htdl wbrglbdf bh tm` `vdludtcbh bechebrjdtcbh tàmhblbiy chhbvdtcbhs, Chebrjdtcbh Qyst`js dhf Vàmhblbiy Chhbvdtcbh dhf

Fceeuscbh. V. K. Ldrs`h dhf I JaIucr` (`fs). Cf`d Irbup _unlcsmchi, Mdrrcsnuri, _D, 433=, pp. 6=- 9?.

@vrdrf S. `t N`hdv`ht A. (>??>), @xt`hscbh fu fbjdch` f` l–`xpãrc`ha`, Fãacscbhs

Jdrg`tchi , >=, Bat-Fãa, pp. 9-4>.

http://www.iae-toulouse.fr/files/tutoratMkt05_Ettis.pdf






1=4

@vrdrf S., _rds N. `t ^bux @. (>??3), Jdrg`t ‑ @tuf`s `t ràm`ram`s `h jdrg`tchi ,6cíj` ãfctcbh, Fuhbf, _drcs.

Edhi Y. `t Nmdthdidr H. (>?4?), Cs s`le-amdrdat`r scjcldrcty dlwdys n`hècacdl2 Vm`jbf`rdtchi rbl` be cjj`rscbh ch prbfuat, plda`j`ht èeàts, Dj`rcadh Dadf`jy be

Dfv`rtcschi , Jchh`dpblcs, Jchh`sbtd Jdram, pp. 4= ‑ >4.

E`mrc N`ldcf F. `t V`j`ss`g N`mc D. (>??5), Ph` abjpdrdcsbh f` trbcs ãam`ll`s f` j`sur` f`ld ecfãlctã du s`rvca` ; ãadrts bpãrdtcbhh`ls `t stdnclctã trdhsaultur`ll`, Cht`rhdtcbhdl Abhir`ss

Jdrg`tchi Vr`hfs, U`hca`, >?tm->4st Kdhudry.

Ecls`r J. (4335), U`rs uh` abhsbjjdtcbh plus deeàtcv` 2, ^`vu` Erdhédcs` f` I`stcbh, 44?, pp. 3?-33.

Ecls`r J. (>??>), L` jdrg`tchi f` ld prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha` ; stdtut tmãbrcqu` `t cjplcadtcbhsjdhdiãrcdl`s, Fãacscbhs Jdrg`tchi , >=, s`pt`jnr`-fãa`jnr`, pp. 41->>.

Ecls`r J. (>??1), L` jdrg`tchi s`hsbrc`l ; ld quët` f` l'chtãirdtcbh tmãbrcqu` `t jdhdiãrcdl`, ^`vu` Erdhédcs` fu Jdrg`tchi , 436, 6/0, Q`pt`jnr`, pp. 0-44.

Ecls`r J. (>??=), Fãacscbh, `xpãrc`ha` `t vdlùr f` abhsbjjdtcbh ; `squcss` f'uh hbuv`duadfr` tmãbrcqu` pbur l'dhdlys` fu abjpbrt`j`ht fu abhsbjjdtùr, ^`vu` Qac`ha`s fÌ`stcbh, 56, pp. >9-64.

Ecls`r J. `t _lcambh U. (>??6), Ld vdlùr fu abjpbrt`j`ht f` jdidschdi`. Qtdtut tmãbrcqu` `tdppbrts du pbsctcbhh`j`ht f` l'`hs`cih`, ^`vu` Erdhédcs` f` I`stcbh, 46=, Kdhvc`r, pp.>3-66.

Echh`rdh A.J. `t [mdhi _. (>??1), D _`rsbh ‑ Drtèdat-Vdsg (_DV) Jbf`l be ElbwDhtà`f`hts ch Abjput`r-J`fcdt`f @hvcrbhj`hts, Cht`rhdtcbhdl Kburhdl be Mujdh-Abjput`r Qtufc`s, 03, 690 ‑ 35.

Ecbr` D.J., Kch M-K. `t Gcj K. (>??0), Ebr euh dhf prbect; M`fbhca vdlu` erbj Cjdi`

cht`rdatcvcty dhf r`spbhs`s tbwdrf dh bhlch` stbr`. _syamblbiy & Jdrg`tchi, >>, =, pp. 553-536.

Ecrdt D. `t Fmbldgcd H. (433=), Abhsujchi p`bpl`; erbj pblctcadl àbhbjy tb tm`dt`rs beabhsujptcbh, Lbhfr`s, ̂ butl`fi`.

Ecrdt D. E. `t U`hgdt`sm D. (4330), Lcn`rdtbry pbstjbf`rhcty dhf tm` r``hamdhtj`ht beabhsujptcbh, Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, >>, Fà`jn`r, pp. >13->59.

Ecrdt D.E. (>??4), Vm` j`dhchis dhf j`ssdi`s be Lds Uìds; tm` pr`s`ht be bur eutur`, JOhOi`j`ht, 6, 1, pp. 4?4-4>?.

Ecrdt D.E. `t Qmultz A.K. (4339), Erbj sìj`htdtcbh tb erdij`htdtcbh; jdrg`ts dhf jdrg`tchi

strdtìy ch d pbstjbf`rh `rd, @urbp`dh Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi , 14, 1-6, pp. 4=9->?9.Ecrdt D.E. `t U`hgdt`sm D. (4330), Lcn`rdtbry pbstjbf`rhcsj dhf tm` r``hamdhtj`ht beabhsujptcbh, Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, >>, 1, pp. >13->59.

Ecrdt D.E., Fmbldgcd H. `t U`hgdt`sm D. (4330), Jdrg`tchi ch d pbstjbf`rh wbrlf, @urbp`dh Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi , vbl. >3, h¿ 4, pp. 6?-05.

Ecsam`r I.H. (43=1), L` trdvdcl `t sbh `spda` ; f` l–dpprbprcdtcbh ï l–djãhdi`j`ht , _drcs,Fuhbf.

Ecsam`r I.H. (433>), _syamblbic` sbacdl` f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht , Vbulbus`, _rcvdt.

Eldam, K. dhf Mblf`h, I. (433=). Vm` r`dlcty be `xp`rc`ha`; Icnsbh–s wdy. _r`s`ha` ;V`l`bp`rdtbrs dhf Ucrtudl @hvcrbhj`hts, 9, pp. 3? ‑ 30.



1=>

Elbrís L., Jüll`r N., Dir`nc J. `t Amdhfbh K-L. (>??=), Cjpdat f`s sct`s f` jdrqu`; èe`ts f`ld vcsct` `t dppbrts f`s butcls r`ldtcbhh`ls. ^`vu` Erdhédcs` fu Jdrg`tchi , >49, >, pp. >9-61.

Ebrh`rchb J, D M`lj`-Iuczbh `t A f` Iduf`jdrcs (>??0), L–cjj`rscbh fdhs uh` `xpãrc`ha`f` abhsbjjdtcbh ; v`rs uh` ãam`ll` f` j`sur`, Dat`s f`s 4?íj`s Kburhã`s f` ^àm`ram` `h

Jdrg`tchi f` Nburibih ,̀ Fckbh, Hbv.

Ebrh`rchb J., M`lj`-Iuczbh D. `t Ibtt`ldhf F. (>??5) - J`sur` f` l'cjj`rscbh fdhs uh``xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh ; pr`jc`rs fãv`lbpp`j`hts, Dat`s fu >>íj` Abllbqu`cht`rhdtcbhdl f` l'Dssbacdtcbh Erdhédcs` fu Jdrg`tchi . Hdht`s, 44 `t 4> Jdc.

Ebrh`rchb J., M`lj`-Iuczbh D. `t Ibtt`ldhf F. (>??=), @xpãrc`ha`s achãjdtbirdpmcqu s̀ ̀ hãtdt f'cjj`rscbh ; èe`ts sur ld sdtcsedatcbh, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi, >1, 1, pp.31-444.

Erbst K.M., Amdha` [., Hbrtbh J.C. `t Drc`ly F, (>??=), _`bpl` dr` `xp`rc`ha` ibbfs;Cjprbvchi bhlch` fdtchi wctm vcrtudl fdt`s. Kburhdl be Cht`rdatcv` Jdrg`tchi, >>, 4, pp. 04 ‑ 54.

Euams _, Jbr`du I. `t _dpch K-_. (>??4), L` trdctã f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`. _r`ss` f` l'@abl`

f`s Jch`s - _drcs.

Euams _., Drhdlfc N. `t Vcss`du K. (>??1), Ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` `t s`s dpplcadtcbhs, L`s _r`ss`sf` l–@abl` f`s Jch`s f` _drcs.

Euams _., Jbr`du I. `t 96 dutùrs (>??5), L` Vrdctã f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, trbcscíj` ãfctcbh, 6vbluj`s ; « L–Mbjj` `t l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l ·, « Cht`redédi`, cjj`rscbh `t cht`rdatcbh `h`hvcrbhh`j`ht vcrtu`l ·, « L`s butcls `t l`s jbfíl`s chebrjdtcqu`s f`s `hvcrbhh`j`hts vcrtu`ls · `t « L`s dpplcadtcbhs f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` ·, L`s _r`ss`s f` l–@abl` f`s Jch`s f` _drcs, 1>6

pdi`s.

Euams, _. (4335), L`s cht`reda`s f` ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, L`s pr`ss`s f` l–ãabl` f`s Jch`s f`

_drcs.Idldh K.-_m `t U`rh`tt` @. (>???), U`rs uh` qudtrcíj` iãhãrdtcbh ; l`s ãtuf`s f` jdramã "bh-lch`", Fãacscbh Jdrg`tchi , h¿ 43, Kdhvc`r ‑ Dvrcl >???, pp.13-0>.

Idll`h A. `t Nbuf`r-_dcll`r F. (>?4?), Abjpr`hfr` l`s er`chs ï ld abhsbjjdtcbh f` spàtdal`svcvdhts ï trdv`rs ld abha`ptcbh chfcvcfu`ll` f` l'drt, Fãacscbhs Jdrg`tchi , 0=, pp. 19- 69.

Idhdssdlc Q. `t Jbsadrbld K. (>??6), _rbtbabl`s f–`hquët` `t èecadactã f`s sbhfdi`s pdrCht`rh`t, Fãacscbhs Jdrg`tchi , 11, pp. 51-90.

Idrhc`r J. `t _bhach C. (>?4?), L–`xpãrc`ha` sur uh sct` f` v`ht` 1F. L` vrdc, l` edux `t l`vcrtu`l ; ï ld arbcsã` f`s am`jchs, Jdhdi`j`ht `t Dv`hcr , >, 1>, pp. 491-434

Idvdrf-_`rr`t J.L., Ibtt`ldhf F., Mdbh A. `t Kblcn`rt (>??=), Jãtmbfblbic` f` ld ràm`ram`,_`drsbh @fuadtcbh.

Iè`h F. `t Qtrdun F.Y. (>??1), Vrust dhf VDJ ch bhlch` smbppchi; dh chtìrdt`f jbf`l, JCQ Tudrt`rly, >9, 4, pp. 04-3?.

Imdhc, K.D. `t F`smpdhf` Q._., (4336), Vdsg amdrdat`rcstcas dhf tm` `xp`rc`ha` be bptcjdlelbw ch mujdh-abjput`r cht`rdatcbh, Vm` Kburhdl be _syamblbiy, 4>=, 6, pp. 1=4-134.

Imdrnc K-@, @ttcs Q `t N`h Jcjbuh J.Q (>??>), Cjpdat f` l–dtjbspmír` p`réu` f`s sct`sabjj`racdux sur lùrs p`rebrjdha`s, Dat`s f` ld 4ír` kburhã` Hdhtdcs` f` ^àm`ram` sur l` `-jdrg`tchi . Hdht`s.

Icljbr` K.M. `t _ch` K.N. (>??9), Ymdt abhsuj`rs r`dlly wdht; dutm`htcacty, Mdrvdrf, MNQ_r`ss.



1=1

Ildss`r N. `t Qtrduss D. (4359), Vm` fcsabv`ry be irbuhf`f tm`bry, Amcadib, Df`lch`.

Ibhzdl`z A., Gbramcd J., J`hu`t L. `t Prndch A. (>??3), Abjj`ht l`s abhsbjjdtùrssbacdl`j`ht r`spbhsdnl`s s` r`prãs`ht`ht cls ld abhsbjjdtcbh 2 Ph` dpprbam` pdr l`sdssbacdtcbhs lcnr`s, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi, >6, 1, pp. >0- 64

Ibulfchi A., Qmdhgdr D. `t @llcbtt ^. (>??>), Ybrgchi w``gs, rdv` w``g`hfs; cf`htctyerdij`htdtcbh dhf tm` `j`ri`ha` be h`w abjjuhctc`s, Abhsujptcbh, Jdrg`ts dhf Aultur`, 0,6, pp. >54->=6.

Irdcllbt L. (>??6), Ph` dpprbam` fu pmãhbjíh` f'myp`r-rãdlctã ï pdrtcr f'ãtuf`s f`s pdrasFcsh`y, Fãacscbhs Jdrg`tchi , 16, pp. 64-0>.

Irdcllbt L. (>??0), ^ãdlctãs (bu dppdr`ha`s 2) f` l–myp`r -rãdlctã ; uh` dpplcadtcbh du ads futburcsj` f` lbcscrs, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , >?, 4, pp. 61-51.

Ir``h, J.A. `t Nrbag V.A. (>???), Vm` ^bl` be Vrdhspbrtdtcbh ch tm` _`rsudscv`h`ss be _unlca Hdrrdtcv`s, Kburhdl be _`rsbhdlcty dhf Qbacdl _syamblbiy, 93, 0, pp. 9?4-9>4.

Ir`wdl F., Jbhrb` G.N. `t Grcsmhdh ^. (433=), Vm` èeàts be prca`-abjpdrcsbh dfv`rtcschibh nuy`r–s p`ra`ptcbhs be daqucsctcbh vdlu`, trdhsdatcbh vdlu` dhf n`mdvcbrdl cht`htcbhs, Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi , 5>, >, pp. 65-03.

Irceectm F.D. `t Am`h T. (>??6). Vm` Chelu`ha` be Ucrtudl Fcràt @xp`rc`ha` (UF@) bh Bhlch`Df J`ssdi` @eeàtcv`h`ss, Kburhdl be Dfv`rtcschi , 11, 4, pp. 00-5=.

Iuìu`h I. `t Sdjc Q. (>??6), U`rs uh` utclcsdtcbh fyhdjcqu` f` l'Cht`rh`t fdhs l` ràu`clf`s fbhhã`s, Abllbqu` Cht`rhdtcbhdl sur l`s Jãtmbfblbic`s f` ^àm`ram`, Lybh, Jdrs ,Dadf`jy be Jdhdi`j`ht / CQ@B^.

Iuìu`h I. `t Sdjc Q. (>??9), Cht`rh`t fdhs l` prba`ssus f` ràu`cl `t f` fceeuscbh f`sfbhhã`s, Mujdhctãs Hujãrcqu`s, vbl.>, Qbacb-chebrjdtcqu` `t fãjbardtc` abihctcv`, A.

Nrbssduf `t N. ^`n`r (abbrf.), M`rjís Qac`ha`, pp. 451-49=.Iuìu`h H. `t Kdabn A. (>??6), L–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh bh-lch` ·, ch _mclcpp` ^bn`rt-F`jbhtrbhf(@f.) L`s jãtmbf`s f–bns`rvdtcbh `t f–`xpãrcj`htdtcbh, _drcs, @fctcbh Dpbiã`, >??6. pp. 439->45.

Iucllbux U., Iduz`ht` A. `t Gdlcgd J. (>???), Irdhfùrs `t lcjct`s f` ld abjjuhcadtcbhãlàtrbhcqu` ; dhdlys` f'uh ads f` prbk`t f` ràm`ram` jdrg`tchi, Abllbqu` f` l–Dssbacdtcbh

Erdhédcs` fu Jdrg`tchi , M@A Jbhtrãdl.

Iuptd Q. `t Udkca J. (>???), Vm` abht`xtudl dhf fcdlàtcadl hdtur` be `xp`rc`ha`, H`w s`rvca`f`v`lbpj`ht, ar`dtchi j`jbrdnl` `xp`rc`ha`s, `fs. K.D. Ectzscjjbhs `t J.K. Ectzscjjbhs,

Vmbusdhf Bdgs. Qdi`.Iurvc`z _., `t Gbramcd J. (>??>), _rbpbsctcbh f'uh` ãam`ll` f` j`sur` jultcfcj`hscbhh`ll`f` ld abhecdha` fdhs ld jdrqu`, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi, 49, 1, pp. 64-54.

Md Q. `t Qtb`l L. (>??3), Abhsuj`r ̀ -smbppchi daa`ptdha`; Dhtà`f`hts ch d tàmhblbiydaa`ptdha` jbf`l, Kburhdl be Nusch`ss ^`s`dram7 Jdy, 5>, 0, pp. 050-094.

Md`hl`ch J. `t Gdpldh D.J. (>??3d), ^dpprbam`j`ht `htr` l` jdrg`tchi `t l'dfjchcstrdtcbh punlcqu`; U`rs uh` abjprãm`hscbh ilbndl` fu pbt`htc`l fu jdrg`tchi punlca, ^`vu` Erdhédcs`fu Jdrg`tchi , >>6, 6/0, pp. 53 ‑ =4.

Md`hl`ch J. `t Gdpldh D.J. (>??3n), L`s jdidschs f` jdrqu`s pmdr`s fdhs l`s jbhf`s

vcrtu`ls ; L'cjpdat f` l'`xpbsctcbh du jdidsch vcrtu`l sur l'dttctuf` `hv`rs ld jdrqu` `tl'cht`htcbh f'damdt fdhs ld vc` rã`ll`, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , >6, 1, pp. 09-93.



1=6

Mdcr, K., Nldag, Y., Ndnch, N., Dhf`rsbh, ^., `t Vdtmdj, ^. (>??5). Jultcvdrcdt` fdtd dhdlyscs,5tm `f. _`drsbh _r`htca` Mdll, Ppp`r Qdffl` ^cv`r, H`w K`rs`y.

Mdjjbhf G., Ja Ycllcdj I. `t Fcdz D. (433=), Euh dhf wbrg bh tm` w`n; Fcee`r`ha`s chdttctuf`s n`tw``h hbvca`s dhf ̀ xp`rc`ha`f us`rs, Dfvdha`s ch Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, >0, pp.19>-19=.

Mdusjdh D.U. `t Qc`gp` K.Q. (>??3), Vm` èeàt be w`n cht`reda` e`dtur`s bh abhsuj`r bhlch` puramds` cht`htcbhs, Kburhdl be Nusch`ss ^`s`dram, 5>,4, pp. 0-41.

M``t`r A. (433>), N`chi Vm`r`; Vm` sunkàtcv` ̀ xp`rc`ha` be pr`s`ha`. _r`s`ha`, 4, >, pp.>5> ‑ >94.

M`lj`-Iuczbh D. (>??4), L` abjpbrt`j`ht fu abhsbjjdtùr sur uh sct` jdramdhf `st-clebhfdj`htdl`j`ht fceeãr`ht f` sbh abjpbrt`j`ht `h jdidsch 2 _rbpbsctcbh f'uh adfr` f'ãtuf`f` s`s spãacecactãs, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , 45, 1, hujãrb spãacdl sur l` `-abjj`ra`, pp. >0-1=.

M`tz`l _. (4335), L`s `htr`prcs`s eda` dux hbuv`ll`s ebrj`s f` abhsbjjdtcbh, ^`vu`

Erdhédcs` f` I`stcbh, pp.9?-=>.

M`tz`l _. (>??>d), _ldhít` abhsb ; jdrg`tchi `xpãrc`htc`l `t hbuv`dux uhcv`rs fàbhsbjjdtcbh, _drcs, @fctcbhs f–Bridhcsdtcbh.

M`tz`l _. (>??>n), Ld jcs` `h saíh` f` l–cf`htctã f–uh` jdrqu` f` lux` sur sbh lcù f` v`ht` ;l–dpprbam` ̀ xpãrc`htc`ll` f`s jdidschs ̂ dlpm Ldur`h, ^`vu` Erdhédcs` f` Jdrg`tchi, 4=9,

pp. 54 ‑ 9>.

M`tz`l _. `t Ubll` _. (>??1), L–`xpãrc`htc`l ; f` ld tmãbrc` ï l–datcbh, Fãacscbhs Jdrg`tchi , >=,bat.-fãa., p. 0.

Mcrsamjdh @.A., (43=3), Abhsuj`r n`mdvcbr tm`brc`s ds m`rbca qu`st, Dfvdha`s ch Abhsuj`r

^`s`dram, 45 , pp. 513-565.Mbeejdh F.L, Hbvdg V._. `t Suhi S. (>???), J`dsurchi tm` austbj`r `xp`rc`ha` ch bhlch``hvcrbhj`hts; d struaturdl jbf`lchi dpprbdam, Jdrg`tchi Qac`ha`, 43, 4, pp. >>-6>.

Mbeejdh F.L. `t Hbvdg V._. (4335), Jdrg`tchi ch myp`rj`fcd abjput`r-j`fcdt`f`hvcrbhj`hts; abha`ptudl ebuhfdtcbhs, Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi , 5?, 1, pp. 0?-5=.

Mbeejdh F.L. `t Hbvdg V._. (>??3), Elbw bhlch`; l`ssbhs l`drh`f dhf eutur` prbspàts, Kburhdl be Cht`rdatcv` Jdrg`tchi , >1, 4, pp. >1-16.

Mblnrbbg J.N. (4336), Vm` hdtur` be austbj`r vdlu`; dh dxcblbiy be s`rvca`s ch tmàbhsujptcbh `xp`rc`ha`, ch ^.V ûst `t ^.L. Blcv`r (abbrf.), Q`rvca` qudlcty7 h`w fcràtcbhs

ch tm`bry dhf prdatca`, Vmbusdhf Bdgs, AD, Qdi` _unlcadtcbhs Cha., pp. 4-9.Mblnrbbg J.N. (4335), Austbj`r vdlu`; D erdj`wbrg ebr dhdlyscs dhf r`s`dram, Dfvdha`s chAbhsuj`r ^`s`dram, >1, @f. Abrejdh G. _., Lyham K.I., pp. 41=-46=.

Mblnrbbg J.N. (4333), Chtrbfuatcbh tb abhsuj`r vdlu`, ch Mblnrbbg, J. N. (`f), Abhsuj`rvdlu`; D erdj`wbrg ebr dhdlyscs dhf r`s`dram, ^butl`fi`, Lbhfbh, pp. 4->=.

Mblnrbbg J.N. `t Mcrsamjdh @.A. (43=>), Vm` `xp`rc`htcdl dspàts be abhsujptcbh; abhsuj`redhtdsc`s, e``lchis dhf euh, Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, 3, Q`pt`jn`r, pp. 41>-46?.

Mblzwdrtm J., Kdhcsz`wsgc A. `t Hùjdhh J.J. (>??5), Vm` chelu`ha` be dvdtdrs bh bhlchàbhsuj`r smbppchi n`mdvcbr, Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi , 9?, 6, pp. 43-15.



1=0

Mbjnuri A. `t Ic`rchi D. (>??4), _`rsbhdl amdrdat`rcstcas ds jbf`rdtbrs be tm` r`ldtcbhsmcp n`tw``h austbj`r sdtcsedatcbh dhf lbydlty ‑ Dh `jpcrcadl dhdlyscs, _syamblbiy dhf Jdrg`tchi , 4=, 4.pp. 61-55.

Mbbhdgg`r _. `t Adrdybh _. (>??3), Tu`stcbhhdcr` surv`y hbhr`spbhs`; D abjpdrcsbh be pbstdl jdcl dhf Cht`rh`t surv`ys, Cht`rhdtcbhdl Kburhdl be Mujdh Abjput`r Cht`rdatcbh.>??3, pp. 16=-191.

Mudhi J-M. (>??1), F`scihchi w`nsct` dttrcnut`s tb chfua` `xp`rc`htcdl `habuht`rs,abjput`rs ch mujdh n`mdvcbr , 43, pp. 6>0 ‑ 66>.

Mudhi J-M. (>??5), Elbw, `hfurchi dhf sctudtcbhdl chvblv`j`ht ch tm` w`n `hvcrbhj`ht; dtrcpdrtct` sàbhf-brf`r ̀ xdjchdtcbh, _syamblbiy dhf Jdrg`tchi , >1 (Jdy), pp. 1=1 ‑ 644.

Mudhi _., Lurc` H.M. `t Jctrd Q. (>??3), Q`dramchi ebr `xp`rc`ha` bh tm` Y`n; dh `jpcrcadl`xdjchdtcbh be abhsuj`r n`mdvcbr ebr s`dram dhf ̀ xp`rc`ha` ibbfs, Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi ,91, >, pp. 00-53.

Muc J.G. `t Ndt`sbh K. @. (4334), _`ra`cv`f abhtrbl dhf tm` èeàts be arbwfchi dhf abhsuj`r

ambca` bh tm` s`rvca` ̀ xp`rc`ha`, Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, 4=, >, Q`pt`jn`r, pp. 496-4=6.

Mutamchs @.L., Mblldh K.F. `t Hbrjdh F.D (43=5). Fcràt jdhcpuldtcbh cht`reda`. Ch F,D. Hbhccdh dhf Q, Frdp`r (`fs.). Ps`r A`ht`cvK F`scih; H`w _`rspàtcv`s bh Mujdh-Abjput`r Cht`rdatcbh. McPsfdl`, HK; Ldwr`ha`. pp. =9-4>6.

Csdda M. `t Ubll` _. (>?44), Abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu`, _`drsbh.

Kdg`jdh K. ^., Jdard` ^. `t @stbh, ^ (>??3), D schil` 4?-jch nbut be ablf-wdt`r cjj`rscbhtm`rdpy det`r str`hubus plybj`trca `x`racs` mds hb n`hècacdl èeàt bh ràbv`ry erbj tm`syjptbjs be `x`racs`-chfua`f jusal` fdjdi`. @ribhbjcas, 0> 6, pp.605-65?.

K`hhy K. (4339), Jãtmbf`s `t prdtcqu`s ebrjdlcsã`s f'dhdlys` f` abht`hu `t f` fcsaburs fdhs ldràm`ram` sbacblbicqu` erdhédcs` abht`jpbrdch`. @tdt f`s lcùx `t ̀ ssdc f` aldsscecadtcbh,

Null`tch f` Jãtmbfblbic` Qbacblbicqu`, 06, pp. 56- 44>.

Kcdhi [. `t N`hndsdt C. (>??0), Ucrtudl prbfuat `xp`rc`ha`; èeàts be vcsudl dhf euhatcbhdlabhtrbl be prbfuats bh p`ra`cv`f fcdihbstcacty dhf elbw ch `làtrbhca smbppchi, Kburhdl be

Jdhdi`j`ht Chebrjdtcbh Qyst`js, >4, 1, pp. 444 ‑ 69.

Kcdhi [. `t N`hndsdt C. (>??9), Vm` èeàts be pr`s`htdtcbh ebrjdts dhf tdsg abjpl`xcty bhbhlch` abhsuj`rs– prbfuat uhf`rstdhfchi, JCQ Tudrt`rly, 14, 1, pp. 690-0??.

Kch Q.D.D. (>??3) Dvdtdrs jcrrbrchi tm` datudl s`le v`rsus prbkàtchi tm` cf`dl s`le; tm` èeàts

be s`le-prcjchi bh cht`rdatcvcty dhf cjj`rscbh ch dh `x`ridj`, Ycc Ect, Ayn`rpsyamblbiy & N`mdvcbr , 4>, 5. pp. 954-950.

Kch, Qùhi-D D. (>??3), Vm` rbl`s be jbfdlcty rcamh`ss dhf chvblv`j`ht ch smbppchi n`mdvcbrch 1f vcrtudl stbr`s, Kburhdl be Cht`rdatcv` Jdrg`tchi , >1, 1.

Kbmh M. `t Gyff A.V. (>??=), Erbj tm` irbuhf up; L`drhchi tmrbuim cjj`rscbh ch nusch`ss, Fàcscbh Qac`ha`s Kburhdl be Chhbvdtcv` @fuadtcbh, Jdr, 5, 4, pp. 459-49>.

Kbmhsbh I.J. `t Gulpd D. (>??9), Fcj`hscbhs be bhlch` n`mdvcbr; Vbwdrf d us`r typblbiy,Ayn`r_syamblbiy & N`mdvcbr , 4?, 5, pp. 991-9=?.

Kbmhsbh ^. N. `t Amrcst`hs`h L. N. (>??6). @fuadtcbhdl r`s`dram; Tudhtctdtcv`, qudlctdtcv`,

dhf jcx`f dpprbdam`s. Nbstbh, JD; Dllyh dhf Ndabh.



1=5

Kbr`sgbi G. (4394), Qtdtcstcadl dhdlyscs be s`ts be abhi`h`rca t`sts, _syambj`trcgd, 15, >, pp.4?3-411.

Kõr`sgbi G. I. (4353), D i`h`rdl dpprbdam tb abhecrjdtbry jdxcjuj lcg`lcmbbf edatbrdhdlyscs. _syambj`trcgd, 16, pp. 4=1 ‑ >?>.

Kõr`sgbi, G.I. `t Qõrnbj, F. (>??5). LCQ^@L =.=? ebr Ychfbws WAbjput`r Qbetwdr`Z.Lchablhwbbf, CL; Qac`htceca Qbetwdr` Cht`rhdtcbhdl, Cha.

Kbudh _. (>??1), Cjj`rscbh be hbhlch`dr syst`js chtb lch`dr jbfulb butput chkàtcbh, Kburhdlbh Abhtrbl & Bptcjczdtcbh, Ubl. 64, Cssu` 5, pp. 49=3.

Kby D. `t Qm`rry K.E. (>??1), Qp`dgchi be Drt ds `jnbfc`f cjdichdtcbh; d jultcs`hsbrydpprbdam tb uhf`rstdhfchi d`stm`tca `xp`rc`ha`, Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, 1?, pp. >03->=>.

Kuhi F., Kb Q. `t Jyuhi ^. (>??=), D stufy be r`ldtcbhsmcps n`tw``h sctudtcbh dwdr`h`ss dhf pr`s`ha` tmdt deeàt p`rebrjdha` bh d mdhfm l̀f idj` abhsbl .̀ _rba``fchis be tm` >??=, Cht`rhdtcbhdl Abhe`r`ha` bh Dfvdha`s ch Abjput`r @ht`rtdchj`ht Vàmhblbiy, pp. >6?->61,

H`w Sbrg, HS, PQD, DAJ.

Gdldwsgy, ^.Q., (4331), G`yhbt`; D ^`s`dram di`hfd ebr vcrtudl `hvcrbhj`hts, _rba``fchisbe Didrf Abhe`r`ha` Ucrtudl Cht`reda`s ebr D`rbspda` Dpplcadtcbhs, Lcsnbh.

Gdrds`g ^.D `t Vm`br`ll V. (433?), M`dltmy Ybrg; Qtr`ss, _rbfuatcvcty, dhf tm` ^àbhstruatcbh be Ybrgchi Lce`,

Gdy`, N. G., `t Kbmhsbh V. K. (4333). ^`s`dram j`tmbfblbiy; Vdjchi tm` ayn`r erbhtc`r;Vàmhcqu`s ebr cjprbvchi bhlch` surv`ys. Qbacdl Qac`ha` Abjput`r ^`vc`w, 49, 1, pp. 1>1 ‑ 1>9.

G`m M.V `t _dhi K. (>?4?), Austbj`r r`datcbhs tb s`rvca` s`pdrdtcbh, Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi ,

96 (Jdram), 00-9?.G`gèe J. `t Y`nst`r A.J. (>??5), _`ra`cv`f rcsg dhf dttctuf`s tbwdrfs puramdschi juscabhlch`. Dustrdlcdh dhf H`w [`dldhf Jdrg`tchi Dadf`jy Abhe`r`ha`, Nrcsndh`, Dustrdlcd

G`jpe F.Q. `t Qjctm ^.@ (433=), Abhsuj`r prba`sschi be prbfuat trcdl dhf tm` chelu`ha` be prcbr dfv`rtcschi; D struaturdl jbf`lchi dpprbdam. Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi ^`s`dram, 10, 1,Duiust, pp. 1>0-119.

Gcj K. `t Ebrsytm` Q. (>??=), Dfbptcbh be vcrtudl try-bh tàmhblbiy ebr bhlch` dppdr`lsmbppchi, Kburhdl be Cht`rdatcv` Jdrg`tchi , >>, Qprchi, pp. 60-03.

Gcj. K.`t Sbb, N. (>???), Vbwdrf tm` bptcjdl lchg struatur` be tm` ayn`r smbppchi jdll.

Cht`rhdtcbhdl Kburhdl be Mujdh Abjput`r Qtufc`s, 0>. 1, 014-004Gl`ch L.^. (>??1), Ar`dtchi Ucrtudl @xp`rc`ha`s; tm` ^bl` be V`l`pr`s`ha`, Kburhdl be

Cht`rdatcv` Jdrg`tchi , 49, 4, pp. 64-00.

Gbl`ha A., (>??=), Dpprbprcdtcbh f` l–`spda` `t `xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh ; l` ads f`srdss`jnl`j`hts f` kbuùrs ̀ h rãs`du, 41 ãj`s Kburhã`s f` ^àm`ram` `h Jdrg`tchi f`

Nburibih ,̀ Fckbh, 41-46 Hbv.

Gblsgc, A. (>??4), @hvcrbhh`j`hts ãvbluãs `t ãvdludtcbh f` l'CMJ ; cht`rdatcbh mbjj`-jdamch` pbur l`s QC >, _drcs; M`rjís Qac`ha` _unlcsm`r (Ldvbcsc`r).

Gbb F-J., Ku Q-M., L`` J-M. `t L`` K-M. (>??3), Vm` Jbf`rdtchi Cjpdat be Dtjbspm`rcas

dhf _`ra`ptudl Aurcbscty bh @jbtcbhs dhf Bhlch` Qmbppchi Cht`htcbh, Qbac`ty ebr Jdrg`tchi Dfvdha`s _rba``fchis, pp. 19?-194.



1==

L`jbch` K-E. (>??=), Dtjbspmír` f`s sct`s w`n jdramdhfs `t rãdatcbhs f`s cht`rhdut`s, ^`vu` Erdhédcs` fu Jdrg`tchi , >49, >/0, pp. 60-54.

L`jbch` K-E. `t Hbt`nd r̀t K-E. (>?44), Di`ht vcrtu`l `t abhecdha` f`s cht`rhdut`s vcs-ï-vcsf–uh sct` w`n, Fãacscbhs Jdrg`tchi, Kdhvc`r, 54, pp. 69-01.

L`pp`r, J.^. `t Jdlbh` V.Y. (43=9), chtrchsca jbtcvdtcbh dhf chstruatcbhdl èeàtcv`h`ss chabjput`r-nds`f ̀ fuadtcbh, ch Dptctuf`, L`drhchi dhf Chstruatcbh, `f. ^. @. Qhbw dhf J. K.@drr, Mcllsfdl`. HK7 Ldwr`ha` @rlnduj. pp. >00-=5.

L`ssct`r K., Er``jdh K., G`bim @., `t Fdvcfbee K. (>??4), D arbss-j`fcd pr`s`ha`qu`stcbhhdcr`; tm` cta-s`hs` be pr`s`ha` chv`htbry, _r`s`ha`; V`lbp`rdtbrs & Ucrtudl

@hvcrbhj`hts, 4?, pp. >=>->3=.

L`wcsbh _.J. (4336), ^`tdclchi, 0tm `fctcbh. H`w Sbrg; Jdajclldh Abllì` _unlcsmchiAbjpdhy.

Lc M., Fduim`rty V. `t Ncbaad E. (>??>), Cjpdat be 1-F dfv`rtcschi bh prbfuat ghbwl`fi`, nrdhf dttctuf` dhf puramds` cht`htcbh; tm` j`fcdtchi rbl` be pr`s`ha`, Kburhdl be Dfv`rtcschi ,

14, 1, Edll, pp. 61-09.

Lc M., Fduim`rty V., `t Ncbaad E. (>??4). Amdrdat`rcstcas be Ucrtudl @xp`rc`ha` ch @làtrbhcaAbjj`ra`; D _rbtbabl Dhdlyscs, Kburhdl be Cht`rdatcv` Jdrg`tchi , 40, 1, 41-1?.

Lcdhi, V. dhf Ldc, M. (>??>), @eeàt be stbr` f`scih bh abhsuj`r puramds`; dh `jpcrcadl stufybe bh-lch` nbbgstbr`s, Chebrjdtcbhdl & Jdhdi`j`ht , 13, pp. 614-666

Lcj. Q.(>??>), Vm` s`le-abherbhtdtcbh cht`rvc`w; Vbwdrfs dh ̀ hmdha`f uhf`rstdhfchi bemujdh edatbrs ch Y`n-nds`f cht`rdatcbh ebr cjprbv`f Y`nsct` usdnclcty. Kburhdl be @làtrbhcaAbjj`ra` ^`s`dram, 1, 1, pp. 45>-491.

Lch D., Irìbr Q. `t @wchi J. (>??=), F`v`lbpchi d sadl` tb j`dsur` tm` `hkbyj`ht be Y`n

`xp`rc`ha`s, Kburhdl be Cht`rdatcv` Jdrg`tchi , >>, 6, pp. 6?-09.Lcpbv`tsgy I. (>??5), L` nbhmùr pdrdfbxdl, @ssdc sur ld sbacãtã f–myp`rabhsbjjdtcbh, ãfsIdllcjdrf. _drcs

Lbjndrf A. (>??4), Erãqu`htdtcbh f`s jdidschs `t hbh damdt ; uh` ãtuf` `xplbrdtbcr` fuabha`pt f` nutchdi`, Dat`s f`s Kburhã`s f` ràm`ram` `h jdrg`tchi f` Nburibih ,̀ CD@ f`Fckbh, dat`s ãlàtrbhcqu`s.

Lbjndrf J. `t Fcttbh V. (4339), Dt tm` m`drt be ct dll; tm` abha`pt be pr`s`ha`, Kburhdl beAbjput`r-J`fcdt`f Abjjuhcadtcbh, 1, >.

Lbbs _. (>??1), “Dvdtdr,‚ ch L`xcgbh @làtrbhca Nusch`ss, Vmbjds Qamclfmdu`r, `f. Juhcam;

Blf`hnburi, pp. 45 ‑ 43.Lbussdcè L. (>??9), L–utclcsdtcbh f`s jbfíl`s f` adusdlctã fdhs ld ràm`ram` `h jdrg`tchi,Admc`r f` ld ^àm`ram` f` l–CQA _drcs, A^CQA H¿4=.

Luhd F., _`rdaamcb L.D `t f` Kudh J.F. (>??>), Arbss-aulturdl dhf abihctcv` dspàts be w`nsct` hdvcidtcbh, Kburhdl be tm` Dadf`jy be Jdrg`tchi Qac`ha`s, 1?, 6, pp. 139 ‑ 64?.

Luhdrfb ^. (>??0), Ld p`ra`ptcbh f` abhtröl` fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` f` jdidschdi` d-t-`ll` uhcjpdat sur ld r`ldtcbh abhsbjjdtùr-pbcht f` v`ht` 2, Dat`s f`s 4ír`s Kburhã`s f` ^àm`ram`

C^CQ, Kburhã` tmãjdtcqu` DEJ , Phcv`rsctã k`dh Jbulch Lybh 1, pp. 91-=0.

Luhdrfb ^. (>?44), @hvcrbhh`j`ht fu pbcht f` v`ht` `t abjpbrt`j`ht fu abhsbjjdtùr ;

uh` dpprbam` ebhfã` sur ld fydf` jbtcvdtcbh / abhtröl`, ^`vu` Qac`ha`s f` I`stcbh, 99, pp. 19 ‑ 0=.



1=3

Luhdrfb ̂ ., (>??9), L` abhtröl` p`réu fu abhsbjjdtùr fdhs l–`xpãrc`ha` f` jdidschdi` ; prbpbsctcbh f–uh adfr` abha`ptu`l `t f–uh` j`sur` f` sbh chelu`ha` sur l` abjpbrt`j`ht ,Vmís` f` Fbatbrdt ̀ h Qac`ha`s f` I`stcbh, Phcv`rsctã f` Amdjpdih`-Drf`hh`, Edaultã f`sac`ha`s ãabhbjcqu s̀, sbacdl`s ̀ t f` i`stcbh.

Jdlbh` V.Y. `t L`pp`r J.^., (43=9), Jdgchi l`drhchi euh; D tdxbhbjy be chtrchscajbtcvdtcbhs ebr l`drhchi, Ch ^.@. Qw &J.K. Edrr @fs, Dptctuf`, l`drhchi dhf chstruatcbh,

pp.>>1->01. Mcllsfdl`, HK; @rnduj.

Jdhzb L.A. (>??0), Ebr n`tt`r br wbrs`; `xplbrchi jultcpl` fcj`hscbhs be plda` j`dhchi, Kburhdl be @hvcrbhj`htdl _syamblbiy, >0, pp. 59 ‑ =5.

Jdrcbh I., (>??1), Dppdr`ha` `t cf`htctã; uh` dpprbam` sãjcbtcqu` fu fcsaburs f`sdfbl`sa`ht`s ï prbpbs f` lùr `xpãrc`ha` f` ld jbf`, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi ,4=, >, pp. 4->3

Jdrtch`t D.A. (433?), @pcstãjblbic`s `t sac`ha`s f` i`stcbh, @abhbjcad, _drcs.

Jdtmwcag A. `t ^cifbh @. (>??6), _ldy, elbw, dhf tm` bhlch` s`dram `xp`rc`ha ̀, Kburhdl be

Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, 14 (Q`pt`jn`r), pp. 1>6 ‑ 1>.

Jdtmwcag A., Jdlmbtrd H. `t ^cifbh @. (>??4), @xp`rc`htcdl vdlu`; abha`ptudlczdtcbh,j`dsur`j`ht dhf dpplcadtcbh ch tm` adtdlbi dhf Cht`rh`t smbppchi `hvcrbhj`ht, Kburhdl be

^`tdclchi , vbl. 99, h¿ 4, pp. 13-05.

Jdtmwcag A., Ydih`r K. `t Phhc ^. (>?4?), Abjput`r-j`fcdt`f austbjczdtcbh t`hf`hay(AJAV) dhf tm` dfdptcv` ̀ -Q`rvca` ̀ xp`rc`ha`, Kburhdl be ^`tdclchi , =5, 4, Jdram, pp. 44->4.

Jdtmwcag, A `t ^cifbh, @. (>??6). Elbw, pldy dhf tm` bh-lch` s`dram `xp`rc`ha`, Kburhdl beAbhsuj`r ^`s`dram, 14, >, pp. 1>6-11>.

Jn`hiu` D., Udhfdhi`bh-F r̀uj`zc C. (>??1), Dhdlys` adusdl` `t jbfãlcsdtcbh, ch Jãtmbf`s

f` ràm`ram` `h jdhdi`j`ht , fcr. _dr Vmcãtdrt ^.-D., _drcs, Fuhbf, 010 p. JaGchh`y L.H. (>??6), Ar`dtchi d sdtcseychi Cht`rh`t smbppchi `xp`rc`ha` vcd dtjbspm`rcavdrcdnl`s, Cht`rhdtcbhdl Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r Qtufc`s, >=, 1, pp. >5=->=1.

J`mrdncdh D. `t ûss`ll K.D., (4396), Dh dpprbdam tb `hvcrbhj`htdl psyamblbiy. Adjnrcfi`,Jdss; JCV _r`ss.

J`hadr`llc ^. (>??=), L–cht`rdatcbh lcù-bnk`t abjj` abha`ptudlcsdtcbh f` l–`xpãrc`ha` vãau`; t`st f–uh jbfíl` chtãirdtùr, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , >1, 1, pp. 04-59.

J`rl` D., Amdhfbh K.-L. `t ^bux @. (>??=), Abjpr`hfr` ld vdlùr p`réu` f` ld austbjcsdtcbhf` jdss`. Ph jbfíl` fcssbacdht ld vdlùr fu prbfuct austbjcsã `t f` l–`xpãrc`ha` f` ab-

f`scih. ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , >1, 1, pp. >9-0?.J`y`r A. ̀ t Qamwdi`r D. (>??9), Phf`rstdhfchi austbj`r `xp`rc`ha ,̀ Mdrvdrf Nusch`ss

^`vc`w, =0, pp. 449 ‑ 4>5, E`nrudry.

J`y`rs-L`vy K. `t [mu ^. (>??9), Vm` chelu`ha` be a`clchi m`cimt; tm` èeàt be prcjchi bh tm`typ` be prba`sschi tmdt p`bpl` us`, Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, 16 (Duiust), pp. 496 ‑ =5.

J`y`rs-L`vy, Kbdh dhf ûc (Kulc`t) [mu (>??9), Vm` chelu`ha` be a`clchi m`cimt; tm` èeàt be prcjchi bh tm` typ` be prba`sschi tmdt p`bpl` us`, Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, 16(Duiust), 496 ‑ =5.

Jcl`s J.N. `t Mun`rjdh D.J. (>??1), Dhdlys` f`s fbhhã`s qudlctdtcv`s, F` Nbàg

Phcv`rsctã, Nrux`ll`s.



13?

Jcllcjdh ^. `t Euidt` F., (4331) Dtjbspm`rcas ds dh `j`richi chelu`ha` ch tm` f`scih be`xamdhi` ̀ hvcrbhj`hts, Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi Jdhdi`j`ht , 1, pp. 55-96.

Jchvc`ll` H. `t Jdrs J-A. (>?4?), L'chelu`ha` f` ld juscqu` f'djncdha` `h `hvcrbhh`j`htf` s`rvca`s ; uh` ãtuf` `xplbrdtbcr` `h abht`xt` möt`lc`r, 3tm Cht`rhdtcbhdl Abhir`ss Jdrg`tchiVr`hfs; U`hca`, Ctdly.

Jgmchchc M. (>??>), Ld abhtrcnutcbh f` l–`hvcrbhh`j`ht pmyscqu` ï ld fceeãr`hacdtcbh f`s`htr`prcs`s f` s`rvca`, ^`vu` Erdhédcs` fu Jdrg`tchi , 4==, 1, pp. 61 ‑ 03.

Jbll`h D. `t Yclsbh M. (>??3), @hidi`j`ht, t`l`pr`s`ha` dhf cht`rdatcvcty ch bhlchàbhsuj`r ̀ xp`rc`ha`; ràbhaclchi sambldstca dhf jdhdi`rcdl _`rspàtcv`s, Kburhdl be Nusch`ss

^`s`dram, 51(3-4?), pp. 343-3>0.

Jbhdmdh V., JaDrfl` I. `t N`rtblbttb J. (>??=), Ucrtudl r`dlcty ebr ablldnbrdtcv` `-l`drhchi.Abjput. @fuadtcbh, 0?, 6, pp. 4113 ‑ 4101.

Jbrch`du V. (>???), Abht`xt èeàt bh prbnl`j sblvchi furchi d ecrst cjj`rscbh ch d Ucrtudl@hvcrbhj`ht, Admc`rs f` psyamblbic` abihctcv`, 43 (0), pp. 011-000.

Jbrrcsbh, J. (>??>), L–chelu`ha` f` ld juscqu` `t sbh cjpdat sur ld i`stcbh f`s jdrqu`s `tfu pbcht f` v`ht` ; uh` dpprbam` dhilb-sdxbhh .̀ ^`vu` Erdhédcs` fu Jdrg`tchi , 4==, pp. 53-93.

Juaamc`llc D. (4334), L`s jãtmbf`s qudlctdtcv`s, Tu` sdcs-k` 2, _drcs, _r`ss`s Phcv`rsctdcr`sf` Erdha`.

Jumlndam L. , Nbag`r J. `t _russbi D. ( 4330 ),V`l`pr`s`ha` ch vcf`b abjjuhcadtcbhs; Dstufy bh st`r`bsabpy dhf chfcvcfudl `y` abhtdat. Mujdh Edatbrs, 19 , > , pp. >3? ‑ 1?0.

Jugdjur`rd K., Ldaburs` E. `t Abuturc`r S. (>??5), F`s dvdhaã`s `h dhdlys` qudlctdtcv` ; pbur uh` trdhspdr`ha` `t uh` systãjdtcsdtcbh f s̀ prdtcqu`s, ^àm`ram`s Tudlctdtcv`s, >5, 4,

pp.44?-41=.Jüll`r N. (>??6), L–èe`t f` ld vcsct` f–uh sct` Cht`rh`t sur l–cjdi` f` jdrqu`, tmís` f`fbatbrdt `h sac`ha`s f` i`stcbh, Phcv`rsctã f` frbct, f–ãabhbjc` `t f`s sac`ha`s f–Dcx-Jdrs`cll`.

Jujjdldh`hc U. (>??0), Dh `jpcrcadl chv`stcidtcbh be w`n sct` amdrdat`rcstcas, abhsuj`r`jbtcbhdl stdt`s dhf bh-lch` smbppchi n`mdvcbrs. Kburhdl be Nusch`ss ^`s`dram, 0=(6), pp.0>5-01>.

Hdss A. , ^``v`s N. `t L`smh`r I. (4335). Vàmhblbiy dhf rbl`s; D tdl` be twb VUs. Kburhdl beAbjjuhcadtcbh, 65(> ), pp.4>4 ‑ 4>=.

Hbt`nd`rt K.E. (>??0), L–cht`reda` mbjj`-jdamch` `h abjj`ra` ãlàtrbhcqu` ; v`rs uhàrãdtcbh f` lc`h sbacdl abjj` butcl f` pbsctcbhh`j`ht strdtãicqu`, ^`vu` Erdhédcs` fu

Jdrg`tchi , >?0, 0, pp. 94- 3?.

B–G`è` F. K. (>??1), J`ssdi` prbp`rtc`s, j`fcdtchi stdt`s, dhf jdhcpuldtcbh amàgs; Aldcjs,`vcf`ha`, dhf fdtd dhdlyscs ch `xp`rcj`htdl p`rsudscv` j`ssdi` ̀ eeàts r`s`dram.Abjjuhcadtcbh Vm`bry, 41, pp. >04->96.

Bdg`s Q. `t Hbrtm D.A. (>??=) ^`vc`wchi abhiructy èeàts ch tm` s`rvca` `hvcrbhj`htjuscasadp`, Cht`rhdtcbhdl Kburhdl be Q`rvca` Chfustry Jdhdi`j`ht , 43 (4), pp. 51-=>.

Bpp`hm`cj`r F.J., J`yvcs V. `t Fdvcf`hgb H. (>??3), Chstruatcbhdl jdhcpuldtcbh amàgs;

F`tàtchi sdtcsecachi tb char`ds` stdtcstcadl pbw`r, Kburhdl be @xp`rcj`htdl Qbacdl _syamblbiy,60, 6, pp. =59 ‑ 9>.



134

Buvry J. `t Ldfw`ch ^. (>??5), @htr` ràm`ram` `t prbfuatcbh f–`xpãrc`ha` fdhs l`s`hvcrbhh`j`hts abjj`rédhts ; l–`xpãrc`ha` vãau`, Dat`s fu 3íj` Abllbqu` @tc`hh` Vmcl ,Chstctut f` I`stcbh, Phcv`rsctã f` ld ^bam`ll`.

Bzadildr-Vbulbus` H. `t Abvd N. (>?4?), Ph` mcstbcr` f` ld AAV erdhédcs` ; pdraburs `tabha`pts alãs, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi, >0, >, pp. 53 ‑ =3.

_da` Q. (>??6), D Irbuhf`f Vm`bry be tm` Elbw @xp`rc`ha`s be Y`n Ps`rs, Cht`rhdtcbhdl Kburhdl be Mujdh-Abjput`r Qtufc`s, 5?, pp. 1>9 ‑ 51.

_dlj`r. K.Y, (>??>), Y`n sct` usdnclcty, f`scih, dhf p`rebrjdha` j`trcas. Chebrjdtcbh Qyst`j ^`s`dram. 41, >, pp. 404-459.

_`l`t K.-Ã. (>??=), @ee`ts f` ld abulùr f`s sct`s jdramdhfs sur ld jãjbrcsdtcbh `t surl–cht`htcbh f–damdt f` l–cht`rhdut`, Vmís` f` fbatbrdt `h Qac`ha`s f` I`stcbh, Phcv`rsctã f`

Hdht`s.

_`htchd C. `t Vdylbr F.I. (>?4?), @xplbrchi sbura` èeàts ebr bhlch` sdl`s butabj`s; tm` rbl`be dvdtdr-nuy`r scjcldrcty, Kburhdl be Austbj`r N`mdvcbr , 3, >, Qujj`r, pp. 410-40?.

_`t`rsbh ^.D., Ndldsunrdjdhcdh Q. `t Nrbhh`hn`ri N.K. (4339), @xplbrchi tm` cjplcadtcbhs betm` Cht`rh`t ebr abhsuj`r jdrg`tchi. Kburhdl be tm` Dadf`jy be Jdrg`tchi Qac`ha, >0, 6, pp.1>3-165.

_cj`ht`l G. `t V`cx`crd G. (4336), Ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`… f` l–dutr` aötã fu jcrbcr, _drcs,Dffcsbh-Y`sl`y Erdha`.

_ch` CC N.K. `t Icljbr` K.M. (433=), Y`labj` tb tm` `xp`rc`ha` àbhbjy, Mdrvdrf Nusch`ss ^`vc`w, 95, 6, pp. 39- 4?0.

_ctt L.E., ^camdrf V.Y., N`rtmbh _., Fbhdlf Y. `t [chgmdh I. (>??5), Vm` _`hiuch–s wchfbw;abrpbrdt` nrdhfs ebrj bp`h-sbura` p`rspàtcv`, Kburhdl be tm` Dadf`jy be Jdrg`tchi

Qac`ha`, 16, >, pp. 440-4>=._bp` G.Q. `t Qchi`r K.L. (43==), _l`huj, H`w Sbrg, PQD, pp.110-10=.

_rbmdhsgy M.J., Ctt`lsbh Y.M. `t ^cvlch L.I. (439?), @hvcrbhj`htdl psyamblbiy ‑ jdh dhfmcs pmyscadl s`ttchi , H`w Sbrg, Mblt, ^ch`mdrt dhf Ychstbh.

_uaach`llc H.J., Ibbfst`ch ^.A., Ir`wdl F., _rca` ^., ^dimuncr _. `t Qt`wdrt F. (>??3),Austbj`r ̀ xp`rc`ha` jdhdi`j`ht ch r`tdclchi; uhf`rstdhfchi tm` nuychi prba`ss, Kburhdl be

^`tdclchi , =0, 4, pp. 40‟1?.

_utr`vu, Qdhkdy dhf G`hh`tm ̂ . Lbrf (4336), Abjpdrdtcv` dhf Hbhabjpdrdtcv` Dfv`rtcschi;Dttctufchdl @eeàts uhf`r Abihctcv` dhf Deeàtcv` Chvblv`j`ht Abhfctcbhs, Kburhdl be

Dfv`rtcschi, >1, Kuh`, pp. 99-3?.

Tuãdu, _. (4331), L` vcrtu`l. U`rtus `t v`rtci`s, Q`yss`l, @fctcbhs Amdjp Udllbh, Chstctut Hdtcbhdl f` l'Dufcbvcsu`l.

^dtamebrf N. (>??3), Bhlch` _rcachi; ^`vc`w dhf Fcràtcbhs ebr ^`s`dram, Kburhdl be Cht`rdatcv` Jdrg`tchi , >1, 4, pp. =>-3?.

^`cx ^. (>??1), @vdludtcbh f`s sct`s Y`n ; hbuv`ll`s prdtcqu`s, dhac`hh`s tmãbrc`s, Dat`s fu=íj` abllbqu` f` l–DCJ Ir`hbnl`, >1 `t >6 jdc.

^`cx ^. (>??0), Qystíj`s f–chebrjdtcbh `t jdhdi`j`ht f`s bridhcsdtcbhs, 0íj` ãfctcbh,Uucn`rt, _drcs.

^m`chiblf M. (4331), Ld rãdlctã vcrtu`ll`, Fuhbf.



13>

^camdrf J.B. (>??0), Jbf`lchi tm` cjpdat be Cht`rh`t dtjbspm`rcas bh sure`r n`mdvcbr, Kburhdl be Nusch`ss ^`s`dram, 0=, 4>, pp. 451>-456>.

^cùhc`r Q `t Fduaã N. (>??>), L` jdrg`tchi s`hsbrc`l fu pbcht f` v`ht`, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h. Jdrg`tchi, 49, pp. 60-50.

^cùhc`r Q. (433=), L'chelu`ha` f` ld juscqu` f'djncdha` sur l` abjpbrt`j`ht fu alc`ht ;r`vu` f` lcttãrdtur`, fãecs jãtmbfblbicqu`s `t vbc`s f` ràm`ram`s, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs`h Jdrg`tchi , 41, 1, pp. 09-99.

^ctz`r I. (4333), @hamdhtchi d fcs`hamdht`f wbrlf; r`vblutcbhczchi tm` j`dhs beabhsujptcbh, Vmbusdhf Bdgs, AD, _ch` Ebri` _r`ss, >9> p.

^ctz`r I. (>??0), ^`vblutcbhczchi tm` j`dhs be abhsujptcbh; `hamdhtchi d fcs`hamdhtchiwbrlf . Lbhfbh; _ch` Ebri` _r`ss.

^cvdl S. (>??=), Ph` `xplbrdtcbh f`s jãadhcsj`s ebrjdtùrs f` ld p`rebrjdha` f`l–`htr`prcs` lcã` ï Cht`rh`t, Abjjuhcadtcbh ï ld 49 íj` abheãr`ha` f` l–DCJQ , Hca`.

^bn`rtsbh I., Adrf Q. `t Jdagchldy K. (4331), Hbhcjj`rscv` vcrtudl r`dlcty, ch ^bhdls, Y.(`f.) C@@@ Abjput`r, >, 31, pp. 93-=1.

^bnch E. (>???), Abhstruatcbh `t `xplbrdtcbh f` abheciurdtcbhs spdtcdl`s ; Abjpdrdcsbh`xp`rts ̀ t hbvca`s, Qystíj`s f–Chebrjdtcbh `t Jdhdi`j`ht , 6, 0, pp. 91-3?.

^b`f`r`r A. (>??=), L–`xpãrc`ha` f` abhsbjjdtcbh ; `xplbrdtcbh abha`ptu`ll`,

jãtmbfblbicqu` `t strdtãicqu`, Vmís` f` fbatbrdt `h sac`ha`s f` I`stcbh, Phcv`rsctã f`Nburibih`, Fckbh.

^blldhf Q. (>??1), L–cjpdat f` l–utclcsdtcbh f–Cht`rh`t sur ld qudlctã p`réu` `t ld sdtcsedatcbh

fu abhsbjjdtùr, Vmís` f` Fbatbrdt `h Qac`ha`s f` I`stcbh f` l'Phcv`rsctã _drcs-Fdupmch``t fu prbirdjj` fbatbrdl @QQ@A.

^bj`ld`r _. (>??0), L–`htr`tc`h f` ràm`ram`, Jdhdi`j`ht f`s r`ssbura`s mujdch`s ;jãtmbf`s f` ràm`ram` `h sac`ha`s mujdch`s `t sbacdl`s , F` Nbàg, pp. 4?4-419.

^bs` ^.L. `t Ybbf Q.L. (>??0), _drdfbx dhf tm` abhsujptcbh be dutm`htcacty tmrbuim r`dlctyt`l`vcscbh, Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, 1>, >, pp. >=6->35.

^bs`h F.@., `t _urchtbh @. (>??6), Y`nsct` f`scih ; vc`wchi tm` w`n ds d abihctcv` ldhfsadp`, Kburhdl be Nusch`ss ^`s`dram, 09, pp.9=9-936.

^bs`hnlbj D. (>??1), D idj` `xp`rc`ha` ch `v`ry dpplcadtcbh, Abjjuhcadtcbhs be tm` DAJ ,65, 9, pp. >=-14.

^bssct`r, K. ^. (>??>), Vm` A-BD^-Q@ prba`fur` ebr sadl` f`v`lbpj`ht ch jdrg`tchi. Cht`rhdtcbhdl Kburhdl be ^`s`dram ch Jdrg`tchi , 43; 1?0.

^btt`r K N. (4355), I`h`rdlcz`f `xpàtdhac`s ebr cht`rhdl v`rsus `xt`rhdl abhtrbl ber`chebra`j`ht, _syamblbicadl Jbhbirdpms; I`h`rdl dhf Dpplc`f , =?, 4, 5?3, pp. 4->=.

^buss`l _., Furrcù E., Adjpby @. `t @l Dgr`jc D. (>??>), Jãtmbf`s f'ãqudtcbhs struatur`ll`s ; ràm`ram` `t dpplcadtcbhs `h i`stcbh, _drcs, @abhbjcad.

ûhFdhi S., ]cuJch E., FcdhLcdhi Y. `t KudhTc S. (>??9), D vcrtudl r`dlcty-nds`f`xp`rcj`ht ̀ hvcrbhj`ht ebr ̀ hich` dss`jnly lch` wbrgplda` pldhhchi dhf ̀ ribhbjcas`vdludtcbh. ̂ dhfdll Qmujdg`r, CAU^ >??9 - Ucrtudl ^`dlcty - Qàbhf Cht`rhdtcbhdlAbhe`r`ha` - _drt 4, pp. 036 ‑ 5?1.



131

^ydh, J-L. (4336). Cjj`rscbh vs. cht`rdatcvcty; Ucrtudl r`dlcty dhf lct`rdry tm`bry. _bstjbf`rh Aultur`, 0 (4).

Qdu`r, _.L. `t Fcag, D. (4331), Pschi jbf`rdtbr vdrcdnl`s ch struaturdl `qudtcbh jbf`ls, Dfvdha`s ch Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, >?, pp. 515-56?.

Qdutt`r _., Myjdh J. ^. `t Lugbscus U. (>??6), @-Vdcl dtjbspm`rcas ; d arctcqu` be tm`lct`rdtur` dhf jbf`l `xt`hscbh, Kburhdl be @làtrbhca Abjj`ra` ^`s`dram, 0, 4, pp. 46->6.

Qduvã Q. (>??0), _rba`ssus f` vdlcfdtcbh f–uh qu`stcbhhdcr` ; l` ads f` l–Butcl quãnãabcs f`j`sur`, Abllbqu` erdhabpmbh` sur l`s sbhfdi`s.

Qamlb`rn F.Y. (4330), D qudhtctdtcv` j`dsur` be t`l`pr`s`ha`, _r`s`ha`, 6, 4, pp. 56-=?.

Qamjcft Y. A. (4339) Ybrlf-Ycf` Y`n Qurv`y r`s`dram; n`hècts, pbt`htcdl prbnl`js dhfsblutcbhs. N`mdvcbr ^`s`dram J`tmbfs, Chstruj`hts dhf Abjput`rs, >3, pp. >96->93.

Qamjctt N.M. (4333), @xp`rc`htcdl jdrg`tchi; Mbw tb i`t abhsuj`rs tb s`hs`, e``l, tmchg, dat,r`ldt` tb ybur abjpdhy dhf nrdhfs, Vm` Er`` _r`ss, H`w Sbrg.

Qamjctt N.M. `t ^bi`rs F.L. (>??=), Mdhfnbbg be Nrdhf dhf @xp`rc`ha` Jdhdi`j`ht ,@fwdrf @lidr, Am`lt`hmdj, Phct`f Gchifbj.

Q`redty-Idrzbh _. (>??1), Am`z sbc, l`s t`rrctbcr`s f` l–chtcjctã, _drcs, Drjdhf Ablch. (>??1)

Qm`rcfdh V.N. (433>), Juschis bh V`l`pr`s`ha` dhf Ucrtudl _r`s`ha`, _r`s`ha`;V`l`bp`rdtbrs dhf Ucrtudl @hvcrbhj`hts, (4). pp. 4>?->5.

Qm`rjdh Y.^., `t Ardci D. N. (>??1), Phf`rstdhfchi vcrtudl r`dlcty; cht`reda`, dpplcadtcbh,dhf f`scih, Jbridh Gduejdhh _unlcsm`rs, Qdh Erdhacsab, AD.

Qm`rry K-E. (>???), _lda`, Vàmhblbiy dhf ̂ `pr`s`htdtcbh, Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, >9(Q`pt`jn`r), pp. >91 ‑ =.

Qmcm A.E. (433=), Abha`ptudlczchi abhsuj`r ̀ xp`rc`ha s̀ ch ayn`rspda`, @urbp`dh Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi , 1>, 9/=, pp. 500-551.

Qmbrt K., Ycllcdjs @. `t Amrcstc` N. (4395), Vm` sbacdl psyamblbiy be t`làbjjuhcadtcbhs,Lbhfr`s, Kbmh Ycl`y dhf Qbhs.

Qmrbut _. @. `t Nbli`r H. (>??>), J`fcdtcbh ch `xp`rcj`htdl dhf hbh`xp`rcj`htdl stufc`s; H`w prba`fur`s dhf ràbjj`hfdtcbhs. _syamblbicadl J`tmbfs, 9, pp. 6>> ‑ 660.

Qcnãrcl _. (4336), L'chelu`ha` f` ld juscqu` sur l`s abjpbrt`j`hts f`s dam`tùrs `h irdhf` sureda`, Vmís` f` fbatbrdt `h sac`ha`s f` i`stcbh , Phcv`rsctã f` ^`hh`s C, ^`hh`s.

Qcjbh E. (>??9), L`s abjpbsdht`s f` l–`xpãrc`ha` vcrtu`ll` f` ràm`ram` f–chebrjdtcbh ;cjdichdtcbh, pldcscr `t cjj`rscbh, Dat`s f`s 4> ãj`s Kburhã`s f` ràm`ram` `h jdrg`tchi,Phcv`rsctã f` Nburibih`, =/3 hbv`jnr`.

Qcvdrdjdgrcsmhdh Q., Ydh E. `t Vdhi [. (>??9), Icvchi dh mujdh tbuam tb `-tdclchi; tm`jbf`rdtchi rbl`s be stdtca chebrjdtcbh qudhtcty dhf abhsujptcbh jbtcv` ch tm` èeàtcv`h`ssbe dh dhtmrbpbjbrpmca chebrjdtcbh di`ht, Kburhdl be Cht`rdatcv` Jdrg`tchi , >4, 4, pp. 5?-90.

Qgdfn`ri, S. ] `t Gcjj`l K.^. (>??6), Ucsctbrs' Elbw @xp`rc`ha` Ymcl` Nrbwschi d Y`nQct`; Cts J`dsur`j`ht, Abhtrcnutchi Edatbrs dhf Abhs`qu`ha`s, Abjput`rs ch Mujdh

N`mdvcbr , >?, pp. 6?1 ‑ >>.

Qgchh`r Q.K. `t Iucltchdh K._. (43=0), _`ra`ptcbhs be amdhh`l abhtrbl, Kburhdl be ^`tdclchi , 54,

6, pp.50-==.



136

Qldt`r J. `t Psbm J. (4336), ^`pr`s`htdtcbhs syst`js, p`ra`ptudl pbsctcbh, dhf pr`s`ha` chcjj`rscv` vcrtudl ̀ hvcrbhj`hts, _r`s`ha`; V`l`bp`rdtbrs dhf Ucrtudl @hvcrbhj`hts, >, pp.>>4->11.

Qldt`r J. Psbm J., `t Qt``f D. (4336), F`ptm be pr`s`ha` ch vcrtudl `hvcrbhj`hts. _r`s`ha`;V`l`bp`rdtbrs dhf Ucrtudl @hvcrbhj`hts, 1, pp. 41?-466.

Qbhi K. `t [dm`fc E. (>??0), D tm`br`tcadl dpprbdam tb w`n f`scih ch `-abjj`ra`; D n`lcèr`chebra`j`ht jbf`l, Jdhdi`j`ht Qac`ha ,̀ 04(=), pp.4>43-4>10.

Qbscg K., Gdmdc Q. `t _cbvbsb J. (>??3), Qclv`r null`t br vbbfbb stdtcstcas2 d prcj`r ebr uschitm` pdrtcdl l`dst squdr`s fdtd dhdlytca tàmhcqu` ch irbup dhf bridhczdtcbh r`s`dram. Irbup&Bridhczdtcbh Jdhdi`j`ht , 16(4), pp. 0-15.

Qtù`r K. (433>), Fèchchi vcrtudl r`dlcty; fcj`hscbhs f`t`rjchchi t`l`pr`s`ha`, Kburhdl beAbjjuhcadtcbh, vbl. 6>, Dutujh, pp. 91-31.

Qtrdzzc`rc, D., (4336), J`sur`r l'cjplcadtcbh furdnl` vcs ï vcs f'uh prbfuct chfãp`hfdjj`ht furcsqu` p`réu, ^àm`ram`s `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , 3, 4, pp. 91-34.

Qum G. `t Amdhi Q. (>??5), Ps`r cht`reda`s dhf abhsuj`r p`ra`ptcbhs be bhlch` stbr`s; tm` rbl`be t`l`pr`s`ha ,̀ N`mdvcbur & Chebrjdtcbh Vàmhblbiy, >0, >, pp. 33-441.

Qum G. `t L`` S.@. (>??0), Vm` èeàts be vcrtudl r`dlcty bh abhsuj`r l`drhchi; dh `jpcrcadlchv`stcidtcbh, JCQ Tudrt`rly, >3, 6, pp. 591-539.

Quppm`ll`h J. `t Hysv``h M, (>??4), Frcv`rs be cht`htcbh tb r`vcsct tm` w`nsct`s be w`ll-ghbwh abjpdhc`s, Cht`jdtcbhdl Kburhdl be Jdrg`t ^`s`dram, 61 (1). pp. 164-10>.

Vdgdtdlb K, Hyjdh I. `t Lddgsbh`h L. (>??=), Abjpbh`hts be mujdh `xp`rc`ha` ch vcrtudl`hvcrbhj`hts, Abjput`rs ch Mujdh N`mdvcbr , >6 (Kdhudry), pp.4 ‑ 40.

Vdylbr A. ^. (>??0), Jbvchi cht`rhdtcbhdl dfv`rtcschi r`s`dram ebrwdrf; D h`w r`s`dramdi`hfd. Kburhdl be Dfv`rtcschi , 16(4), pp. 9-45.

Vmc`tdrt ^.D. (>??9), Jãtmbf`s f` ràm`ram` `h jdhdi`j`ht , Fuhbf, Nbrfds, _drcs.

Vcss`du K. (>??4), ^ãdlctã vcrtu`ll` ‑ dutbhbjc` ch vcrt ub, Mdnclctdtcbh ï Fcrci`r f`s^àm`ram`s, Chebrjdtcqu`, Phcv`rsctã f` ̂ `hh`s 4.

Vcssc`r-F`snbrf s̀ @. (433=), L`s ãtuf`s qudlctdtcv`s fdhs uh jbhf` pbst jbf`rh`, ^`vu` Erdhédcs` fu Jdrg`tchi , 1-6, 45=/453, 13-63.

Vbuedcly @. `t _`rrc`h K. (>??5), L`s adrdatãrcstcqu`s r`ldtcbhh`ll`s f–uh sct` jdramdhf fdhs làbht`xt` f` ecfãlcsdtcbh f` ld alc`htíl`. Dssbacdtcbh f`s Qac`ha`s Dfjchcstrdtcv`s fu Adhdfd,

Ndhee, Dln`rtd, kuch.Vbuzdhc J., Gm`frc J. `t N`h Fdmjdh` Jbu`lmc H. (>??9), Ph` dpprbam` `xplbrdtbcr` f`ssbura`s f–crrctdtcbh r`ss`htc`s lbrs f–uh` datcvctã f` smbppchi; ads f`s irdhf`s sureda`s ïfbjchdht` dlcj`htdcr`, 5 `j` Abhir`s Cht`rhdtcbhdl Jdrg`tchi Vr`hfs, _drcs, Kdhudry >5->9.

Vuag`r L. ^. `t L`wcs A. (4391), Vm` r`lcdnclcty abèecac`ht ebr jdxcjuj lcg`lcmbbf edatbrdhdlyscs. _syambj`trcgd, 1=, pp. 4-4?.

Vurc`y L.Y. `t Jcllcjdh ^.@. (>???), Dtjbspm`rcas èeàts bh smbppchi n`mdvcbr; d r`vc`w betm` ̀ xp`rcj`htdl `vcf`ha`. Kburhdl be Nusch`ss ^`s`dram, 63, pp. 431->44.

Vurgl` Q. (43=6), Vm` Qàbhf Q`le; Abjput`rs dhf tm` Mujdh Qpcrct. H`w Sbrg; Qcjbh dhf

Qamust`r, D e`jchcst aldssca bh chfcvcfudls' r`datcbhs tb abjput`rs.



130

Uddst @. (>??1), ^àm`ram` `h i`stcbh dvà VCA `t ràm`ram` sur ld i`stcbh dvà VCA, ^`vu` Erdhédcs` f` I`stcbh, >3/465, pp. 61-0=.

Udaadrb U. L., Sua`t`p` U., Vbrr`s-Ndujidrt`h I., `t L`` J. (>??3), Vm` cjpdat bedtjbspm`rca sa`ht dhf jusca-r`tdcl abhscst`hay bh abhsuj`rs ch d r`tdcl br s`rvca``hvcrbhj`ht, Kburhdl be Cht`rhdtcbhdl Nusch`ss dhf @abhbjcas, 3, 6, pp. 4=0-435.

Udl`tt`-Elbr`ha` _. (43=3), Abha`ptudlcsdtcbh `t j`sur` f` l–cjplcadtcbh, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , 6, 4, pp. 09-9=.

Udll`rdhf ^.K. (43=3), U`rs uh` jãtmbfblbic` f` vdlcfdtcbh trdhsaultur`ll` f` qu`stcbhhdcr` psyamblbicqu` ; Cjplcadtcbhs pbur ld ràm`ram` `h ldhiu` erdhédcs`, Adhfcdh _syamblbiy,41?, 6, pp.55>-5=?.

Udh ^bjpdy V.K.L., F` Urc`s _.Y. `t Udh U`hrbbck ].I. (>?4?), Jbr` tmdh wbrfs; Bh tm`cjpbrtdha` be pcatur`-t`xt abhiru`ha` ch tm` bhlch` `hvcrbhj`ht, Kburhdl be Cht`rdatcv`

Jdrg`tchi , >6, 4, pp. >>-1?.

Udhmdjj`, K. (>??=), Ld r`ldtcbh surprcs`-rdvcss`j`ht r`vcsctã` ï l–duh` fu jdrg`tchi

`xpãrc`htc`l, ^àm`ram` `t Dpplcadtcbhs `h Jdrg`tchi , >1(1), pp. 440-464.

U`hgdt`sm D., Qm`rry K.E. `t Ecrdt D.E. (4331), _bstjbf`rh dhf tm` jdrg`tchi cjdichdry, Cht`rhdtcbhdl Kburhdl be ^`s`dram ch Jdrg`tchi, 4?(1), pp. >40->>1.

U`rh`tt` @. (>??9), Ph` hbuv`ll` jãtmbf` pbur cht`rprãt`r l` s`hs f–uh` `xpãrc`ha` fàbhsbjjdtcbh ; l–Dlnuj Bh Lch` (DBL), Dat`s f` ld 4>íj` Kburhã` f` ^àm`ram` `h

Jdrg`tchi f` Nburibih ,̀ pp. 19-00.

Uãzchd ^. (4333), _bur abjpr`hfr` `t dhdlys`r l–`xpãrc`ha` fu abhsbjjdtùr, I`stcbh, >6,>, pp. 03-50.

Ubll` _. (4335), Cjpdat fu jdrg`tchi prbjbtcbhh`l f`s fcstrcnutùrs sur l` ambcx fu pbcht f`

v`ht` `t röl` jbfãrdtùr f` vdrcdnl`s chfcvcfu`ll`s. Vmís` f` fbatbrdt, Phcv`rsctã _drcs C] ‑ Fdupmch`.

Ubll` _. (>???), Fu jdrg`tchi f`s pbchts f` v`ht` ï a`luc f`s sct`s jdramdhfs ; spãacecactãs,bppbrtuhctãs ̀ t qu`stcbhs f` ràm`ram`, ^`vu` Erdhédcs` f` Jdrg`tchi , 499-49=, pp.=1-4?4.

Ubh Qamw`n`r L. `t Ubh Qamw`n`r @. (4330), Ucrtudlly M`r`. _A Jdidzch`, Jdram 46, pp.45=-43=.

Uràmbpbulbs D., Dpbstblbu G. `t Gbutscburcs G. (>??3), Ucrtudl r`dlcty r`tdclchi bh tm` w`n;@j`richi abhsuj`r n`mdvcburdl pdtt`rhs, Cht`rhdtcbhdl ^`vc`w be ^`tdcl, Fcstrcnutcbh dhfAbhsuj`r ^`s`dram, 43, 0, Fà`jn`r, pp. 653 ‑ 6=>.

Ydlsm Q.H. (>?4?), Jdst`rs be myp`rr`dlcty; chkustca` ch tm` fcsaburs` be fàbhstruatcbh, Vm` Kburhdl be _mclbsbpmy, Qac`ha` & Ldw, Ubl 4?, Kuh`, 46.

Ydhi L.A., Ndg`r K., Ydih`r K.D. `t Ydgèc`lf G. (>??9), Adh d r`tdcl w`n sct` n` sbacdl 2, Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi , 94, 1, pp. 461-409.

Ydhh K. `t Jbh-Ycllcdjs J. (4335), Ymdt fb`s vcrtudl r`dlcty h``f2 Mujdh edatbrs cssu`s chtm` f`scih be tmr``-fcj`hscbhdl abjput`r ̀ hvcrbhj`hts, Cht`jdtcbhdl Kburhdl be Mujdh-Abjput`r Qtufc`s. 66, 5, =>3-=69.

Ydrf. K.A. `t Ndrh`s K.Y. (>??4), Abhtrbl dhf deeàt7 tm` chelu`ha` be ```lchi ch abhtrbl be tm`r`tdcl `hvcrbhj`ht bh deeàt, chvblv`j`ht, dttctuf`, dhf n`mdvcbr, Kburhdl be Nusch`ss

^`s`dram, 06 (>), pp. 413-66.



135

Y`n`r K. (>??3), @htr` cfãdl `t `xpãrc`ha` vãau` ; fu abha`pt f` vdlùr f` lc`h ï sbh`xpr`sscbh du s`ch f`s `htr`prcs`s f–dssurdha` jutudlcst`s. L` ads fu irbup` Jdace . Vmís` f`fbatbrdt `h sac`ha`s f` i`stcbh, @abl` A`htrdl` _drcs.

Y`nst`r K. `t Mb M. (4339) Dufc`ha` `hidi`j`ht ch jultcj`fcd pr`s`htdtcbhs. Fdtd Nds`, DTudrt`rly _unlcadtcbh be DAJ QCIJCQ, >=, > , pp. 51-99.

Y`nst`r K., Vr`vchb L.G. `t ^ydh L. (4331), Vm` fcj`hscbhdlcty dhf abrr`ldt`s be elbw chmujdh abjput`r cht`rdatcbhs, Abjput`rs ch Mujdh N`mdvcbr , 3, 6, pp. 644 ‑ >5.

Y`st _., Mun`r K. `t Qdj Jch G. (>??6), Dlt`rchi `xp`rc`ha`f utclcty; tm` cjpdat be wrctchidhf s`le-rè`r`hachi bh prè`r`ha`s, Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, 14, 1, pp. 5>1-514.

Ymct`r Y., (4303), Jbtcvdtcbh ràbhscf`r`f; tm` abha`pt be abjp`t`ha ,̀ _syamblbicadl ^`vc`w, 55 (0), pp >39- 111.

Ymcttbh J.A. (>??1), Jdgchi vcrtudl `hvcrbhj`hts abjp`llchi. Abjjuhcadtcbhs be tm` DAJ , 65(9), pp. 6? ‑ 69.

Yctj`r N.I. `t Qchi`r J.K. (433=), J`dsurchi pr`s`ha` ch vcrtudl `hvcrbhj`hts; d pr`s`ha`qu`stcbhhdcr`, _r`s`ha`, V`l`bp`rdtbrs dhf Ucrtudl @hvcrbhj`hts, 9(1), pp. >>0->6?.

Yble J. K. (4333), @ht`rtdchj`ht àbhbjy; mbw jìd-j`fcd ebra`s dr` trdhsebrjchi burlcv`s, Vcj`s Nbbgs.

S``, H. (>??9), Jbtcvdtcbhs be pldy ch bhlch` idj`s, Kburhdl be Ayn`r _syamblbiy dhf N`mdvcbr , 3, pp. 99> ‑ 990.

[dmbrcg _. `t K`hcsbh ^.L. (433=) _r`s`ha` ds n`chi-ch-tm`-wbrlf, _r`s`ha`, 9(4), pp. 9=-=3.

[dcamgbwsgy K. L. (43=0), J`dsurchi tm` chvblv`j`ht abhstruat. Kburhdl be Abhsuj`r ^`s`dram, 4> (1), pp. 164-10>.

[dcamgbwsgy K. L. (4336), Vm` p`rsbhdl chvblv`j`ht chv`htbry; r`fuatcbh, r`vcscbh, dhfdpplcadtcbh tb dfv`rtcschi. Kburhdl be Dfv`rtcschi , >1 (6), (Fà`jn`r), pp. 03-9?.

[dcamgbwsgy K.L. (43=5), Abha`ptudlczchi chvblv`j`ht, Kburhdl be Dfv`rtcschi , 40, >, pp. 6-44.

[drrbug [. (>??=), Chkustca`, Abjp`hsdtcbh `t Tudlctã f` ld r`ldtcbh. L` ads f–uh`

fãedclldha` vblbhtdcr` ; l` surnbbgchi . Vmís` f` fbatbrdt, Phcv`rsctã f` _du `t f`s pdys f`l–Dfbur.

[`ctmdjl U.D., N`rry L.L. `t _drdsurdjdh D. (4335), Vm` n`mdvcbrdl abhs`qu`ha s̀ be s`rvca`qudlcty, Kburhdl be Jdrg`tchi , Ubl. 5?, pp. 14-65.



139

DHH@]@Q



13=

DHH@]@ ‑ 4 ; L` sct` ^`hdult H`w F`dl(mttp;//hvaf`v.h`tvcf`babj.h`t/h`wf`dl/)



133



6??

DHH@]@ ‑ > ; L` iucf` f–`htr`tc`h

«K` vbus r`j`rac` f` j` abhsdar`r fu t`jps pbur pdrtcacp`r ï a`tt` ãtuf`. @h qu`lqu`s jbts,

l–`htr`tc`h f–dukburf–muc edct pdrtc` f–uh` ãtuf` `h jdrg`tchi quc pbrt` sur ld vcsct` f`s sct`sw`n sur Cht`rh`t ·

K` tc`hs ï vbus prãacs`r qu` hbus sbumdctbhs ràu`cllcr l` jdxcjuj f–cfã`s, f–dvcs `t qu–cl

h–`xcst` pds f` nbhh` bu f` jduvdcs` rãpbhs`. Nc`h `ht`hfu, tbut a` quc s`rd fct du aburs f`

a`t `htr`tc`h r`st`rd abhecf`htc`l. Dv`z-vbus f`s qu`stcbhs du prãdldnl`2

4) _drl`z-jbc fu f`rhc`r sct` qu` vbus dv`z vcsctã sur cht`rh`t …

Jdcht`hdht k` vdcs vbus ldcss`r vcsct`r a` sct`, sdhs vbus pbs`r f` qu`stcbhs vbus pbuv`z pr`hfr` dutdht f` t`jps qu` vbus sbumdct`z, j`tt`z vbus ï l–dcs`…a–`st pdrtc ! ·

Jdcht`hdht hbus dllbhs pdrl`r fu sct` …

>) Tu` p`hs`z-vbus f` a` sct` 2 ^`ldha` ;

- Tu`ls sbht l`s qudlctãs f` a` sct` 2 Tu`ls sbht s`s fãeduts2- Abjj`ht dv`z-vbus trbuvã a`tt` vcsct`2...jdcs `habr`…

1) _drl`z jbc fu abht`hu fu sct` w`n qu` vbus v`h`z f` vcsct`r 2

^`ldha` ;- qu–`st a` qu` vbus dv`z vu 2- _drl`z-jbc f`s ambs`s quc bht r`t`hu vbtr` dtt`htcbh 2- _burqubc 2

6) Dv`z-vbus vcsctã f`s sct`s f` a` i`hr` dupdrdvdht 2^`ldha` ;

- Tu–`st a` quc vbus d jdrquã 2

0) _drl`z-jbc f` a` qu` vbus dv`z r`ss`htc `h vcsctdht l` sct` 2^`ldha`

- Ãtc`z-vbus nc`h abha`htrã 2- Dvc`z-vbus l–cjpr`sscbh qu` ld p`rsbhh` vbus pdrldct vrdcj`ht 2- Dvc`z-vbus l–cjpr`sscbh f–ëtr` `h eda` f` luc 2- Dvc`z-vbus l–cjpr`sscbh f–ëtr` fdhs l` jdidsch (lcù f` v`ht`) 2- D qubc p`hsc`z-vbus du jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` 2

5) Tu`ls sbht l`s prbfucts bu s`rvca`s qu` vbus pburrc`z bu pds dam`t`r sur a`s sct`s 2

9) _bur a` i`hr` f` prbfuct T5 `st a` qu` a` i`hr` f` sct`s pburrdct vbus dcf`r ï pr`hfrùh` fãacscbh 2

=) _`hs`z vbus qu` a` sct` pùt vbus dcf`r ï dam`t`r uh prbfuct bu s`rvca` 2^`ldha`

Ucsct` fu sct`



6?4

- fdhs qu`l s`hs pùt-cl vbus dcf`r ï ; pr`hfr` abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu` 2 ^FU 2 pbursucvr` ld r`ldtcbh dvà ld jdrqu` 2 abjjdhf`r l` prbfuct 2 vbus chsarcr` du ebrjuldcr` 2

3) _`hs`z-vbus qu` ld vcsct` fu sct` f` T4 ãtdct plus dirãdnl` bu jbchs dirãdnl` quà`ll`-ac2 ^`ldha`

- @h qubc a` sct` `st fceeãr`ht f`s dutr`s sct`s qu` vbus vcsct`z f–mdnctuf` 2 - ^`vc`hfr`z-vbus sur a` sct` bu f`s sct`s f` jëj` typ` 2 - @h pdrl`r`z-vbus ï vbtr` `htburdi` 2

_burqubc 2

Jdcht`hdht, k–dcj`rdcs vbus abhhdètr` uh pù jcùx… Di`Q`x`

_rbe`sscbh^`v`hus ;

@htr` ; ?-4??? 4???->??? >???-1??? 1??? `t +

- Ubus dv`z èeàtuã du jbchs uh damdt (dvà pdc`j`ht `h lcih`) fdhs l`s 4> f`rhc`rsjbcs ; buc hbh

- Abjnc`h f` t`jps pdss`z-vbus sur Cht`rh t̀ pdr kbur 2- K–dcj`rdc abhhdctr` vbs mdnctuf`s sur cht`rh`t ; qu`l i`hr` f` sct`s abhsult`z-vbus sur

Cht`rh`t 2

« Hbus sbjj`s pdrv`hus ï ld ech f` hbtr` `htr`tc`h. K` vbus r`j`rac` f` vbtr` pdrtcacpdtcbh,vbus hbus dv`z ãtã f–uh` irdhf` dcf` ·



6?>

DHH@]@ ‑ 1 ; Ld r`trdhsarcptcbh f`s `htr`tc`hs (`x`jpl`)

Chfcvcfu H¿4

«K` vbus r`j`rac` f` j` abhsdar`r fu t`jps pbur pdrtcacp`r ï a`tt` ãtuf`. @h qu`lqu`s jbts,l–`htr`tc`h f–dukburf–muc edct pdrtc` f–uh` ãtuf` `h jdrg`tchi quc pbrt` sur ld vcsct` f`s sct`sw`n sur Cht`rh`t ·

K` tc`hs ï vbus prãacs`r qu` hbus sbumdctbhs ràu`cllcr l` jdxcjuj f–cfã`s, f–dvcs `t qu–cl

h–`xcst` pds f` nbhh` bu f` jduvdcs` rãpbhs`. Nc`h `ht`hfu, tbut a` quc s`rd fct du aburs f`

a`t `htr`tc`h r`st`rd abhecf`htc`l. Dv`z-vbus f`s qu`stcbhs du prãdldnl`2

4?) _drl`z-jbc fu f`rhc`r sct` qu` vbus dv`z vcsctã sur cht`rh`t …

K@P]-I^DVPCVQ.abj

Jdcht`hdht k` vdcs vbus ldcss`r vcsct`r a` sct`, sdhs vbus pbs`r f` qu`stcbhs vbus pbuv`z pr`hfr` dutdht f` t`jps qu` vbus sbumdct`z, j`tt`z vbus ï l–dcs`…a–`st pdrtc ! ·

Jdcht`hdht hbus dllbhs pdrl`r fu sct` …

44) Tu` p`hs`z-vbus f` a` sct` 2Edacl` ï jdhcpul`r, f` nbhh` qudlctã

^`ldha` ;- Tu`ls sbht l`s qudlctãs f` a` sct` 2 Tu`ls sbht s`s fãeduts2

- Edacl` ï jdhcpul`r, f` nbhh` qudlctã f` rãdlcsdtcbh- Edacl` ï abjpr`hfr`- L–beer` `st dss`z chtãr`ssdht` pbur qu`lqu–uh quc am`ram` ï echdha`r uh` hbuv`ll`

vbctur` bu f–baadscbh- L` j`ssdi` `st nc`h `xplcquã pdr l`s cht`rv`hdhts f` ld vcfãb- L`s abulùrs fu fãabr sbht trís adptcvdht`s, l` rbui` d dttcrã jbh dtt`htcbh

- Fãeduts ; Abjj` fãeduts k–dc trbuvã qu` l`s `xplcadtcbhs ãtdc`ht `xdiãrã`s, l`sv`hfùrs s` sbht rãpãtãs pluscùrs ebcs `t fdhs l` ebrjuldcr` ï ld ech k` f`vdcs j`ttr`

f`s fbhhã`s p`rsbhh`ll`s `t k` h–dcj` pds l` edcr` pbur h` pds ëtr` sunj`riã f`h`wsl`tt`rs

- Abjj`ht dv`z-vbus trbuvã a`tt` vcsct`2...jdcs `habr`… @h rãsujã, ld vcsct` ãtdct dss`z dirãdnl`, l`s chebrjdtcbhs ãtdc`ht aldcr`s `t dttrdatcv`sjdcs l` sct` r`st` jby`hh`j`ht cht`rdatce

4>) _drl`z jbc fu abht`hu fu sct` w`n qu` vbus v`h`z f` vcsct`r 2Ph` beer` f` echdha`j`ht prãs`htã pdr fùx v`hfùrs

^`ldha` ;

Ucsct` fu sct`



6?1

- qu–`st a` qu` vbus dv`z vu 2L`s > v`hfùrs, l–mbjj` `t ld e`jj` quc prãs`ht`ht l–beer` f` echdha`j`ht,L`s abulùrs fu fãabr, l` rbui`, l` nlù, l` kduh` quc rdpp`ll` l` styl` f`s abha`sscbhs ^`hdultL` qu`stcbhhdcr` ï ld ech duqu`l k` h–dc pds rãpbhfu

- _drl`z-jbc f`s ambs`s quc bht r`t`hu vbtr` dtt`htcbh 2Qurtbut l`s abulùrs k` fcrdcs `t l` jbhscùr quc j–d pdrlã p`hfdht qu` k–ãtdcs lï. Cl ãtdct

syjpd.- _burqubc 2

_dra` qu` k–dcj` l` rbui` `t l` kduh` `t l` jbhscùr pdrldct f–uh` a`rtdch` jdhcír` quc d dttcrãjbh dtt`htcbh… Dvà s`s i`st`s `t sbh `htmbuscdsj`

- Tu`ls ãlãj`hts durdc`ht pu r`hfr` vbtr` vcsct` plus dirãdnl` 2Fbhh`r ld prbpbsctcbh amceerã` sdhs ëtr` bnlciã f` r`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr` `t pbuvbcr dvdha`r ldvcfãb pbur h` pds ãabut`r f`s `xplcadtcbhs quc h` s`rv`ht ï rc`h, durdct ãtã plus syjpd.

Dv`z-vbus vcsctã f`s sct`s f` a` i`hr` dupdrdvdht 2

Hbh kdjdcs.^`ldha` ;

- Tu–`st a` quc vbus d jdrquã 2L`s i`hs quc rdabht`ht l–mcstbcr` `h eda`…

41) _drl`z-jbc f` a` qu` vbus dv`z r`ss`htc `h vcsctdht l` sct` 2K–ãtdcs nc`h ï l–dcs`, k–dc trbuvã ld vcsct` dirãdnl` sdhs trbp j–`hhuy`r. Jdcs k` h` sdcs pdssc k` vdcs dll`r am`z ^`hdult, `hech, k` h` arbcs pds…k` h` vùx pds j` s`htcr bnlciã f`r`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr` pdra` qu` k` fbcs rãelãamcr lbhit`jps dvdht f` pr`hfr` uh` fãacscbh

pdr`cll`. _ùt ëtr` qu` jd abpch` pùt ëtr` abhvdchau` f` ad, jds jbc pds trbp.^`ldha`

Ãtc`z-vbus nc`h abha`htrã 2 Buc pr`squ` tbut l` t`jpsDvc`z-vbus l–cjpr`sscbh qu` ld p`rsbhh` vbus pdrldct vrdcj`ht 2 Buc surtbut l` jbhscùrDvc`z-vbus l–cjpr`sscbh f–ëtr` `h eda` f` luc 2 BucDvc`z-vbus l–cjpr`sscbh f–ëtr` fdhs l` jdidsch (lcù f` v`ht`) 2 BucD qubc p`hsc`z-vbus du jbj`ht f` ld vcsct` 2 K–ãtdcs abha`htrã sur l–beer` k` h` p`hsdcs ï rc`h,

k–ãtdcs abjj` uh pù fãabhhàtã fu r`st`. K–cjdichdcs jd abpch` quc rìdrf`r l` sct` abjj`jbc, k` vdcs luc f`jdhf`r f` vcsct`r l` sct`. A–`st ^`hdult H`w f`dl a–`st éd 2 Buc k` luc fcrdc.

46) Tu`ls sbht l`s prbfucts bu s`rvca`s qu` vbus pburrc`z bu pds dam`t`r sur a`s sct`s 2K` h` sdcs pds, butclldi` bu jdtãrcdux pbur nîtcj`ht pùt ëtr`. Erdham`j`ht k` h` sdcs pds fu

tbut, pùt ëtr` f`s vdadha`s, fu sbl`cl… 40) _bur a` i`hr` f` prbfuct T5 `st a` qu` a` i`hr` f` sct`s pburrdct vbus dcf`r ï pr`hfr`

uh` fãacscbh 2Buc pùt ëtr`, pdra` qu` l` v`hfùr `st trís abhvdchadht `t a–`st trís euturcst` abjj` sct`.Jdcs abjj` k` l–dc fcs, cl j` edut n`duabup f` t`jps pbur pr`hfr` uh` fãacscbh

45) _`hs`z vbus qu` a` sct` pùt vbus dcf`r ï dam`t`r uh prbfuct bu s`rvca` 2 buc^`ldha` ; fdhs qu`l s`hs pùt-cl vbus dcf`r ï ;

_r`hfr` abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu` 2 ^FU 2 Buc_bursucvr` ld r`ldtcbh dvà ld jdrqu` 2 Buc

Abjjdhf`r l` prbfuct 2 BucUbus chsarcr` du ebrjuldcr` 2 Hbh



6?6

49) _`hs`z-vbus qu` ld vcsct` fu sct` f` T4 ãtdct plus dirãdnl` bu jbchs dirãdnl` qu` a`llàc2

Hbh, L` sct` qu` k` vcsct` f–mdnctuf`, a`luc f`s kùx `st plus dirãdnl`. @h plus k` sucs `htrdchf` ndttr` jbh ràbrf f` ld f`rhcír` ebcs fbha a–`st plus `hidi`dht.

^`ldha`- @h qubc a` sct` `st fceeãr`ht f`s dutr`s sct`s qu` vbus vcsct`z f–mdnctuf` 2 l`s v`hfùrs,

l`s abulùrs, l` fãabr - ^`vc`hfr`z-vbus sur a` sct` bu f`s sct`s f` jëj` typ` 2 buc- @h pdrl`r`z-vbus ï vbtr` `htburdi` 2 buc ï jd abpch`

Jdcht`hdht, k–dcj`rdcs vbus abhhdètr` uh pù jcùx… Di` 11Q`x` J_rbe`sscbh ; p`chtr` nîtcj`ht^`v`hus ;

@htr` ; ?-4??? 4???->??? >???-1??? 1??? `t +

- Ubus dv`z èeàtuã du jbchs uh damdt (dvà pdc`j`ht `h lcih`) fdhs l`s 4> f`rhc`rsjbcs ; buc hbh

- Abjnc`h f` t`jps pdss`z-vbus sur Cht`rh t̀ pdr kbur 2 >m- K–dcj`rdc abhhdctr` vbs mdnctuf`s sur cht`rh`t ; qu`l i`hr` f` sct`s abhsult`z-vbus sur

Cht`rh`t 2Kùx `h lcih`, amdt, ecljs. Hbus sbjj`s pdrv`hus ï ld ech f` hbtr` `htr`tc`h. K` vbus r`j`rac` f` vbtr` pdrtcacpdtcbh,vbus hbus dv`z ãtã f–uh` irdhf` dcf` ·



6?0

DHH@]@ ‑ 6 ; L`s tdnl`dux f–dhdlys`

Vmíj` 4 ; L`s abjpbsdht`s `xpãrc`htc`ll`s fu sct`

Abjpbsdht` Hbjnr` fàctdtcbhs

U`rndtcj

L`sp`rsbhhdi`s

19L` jbhscùr...dvà s`s i`st`s `t sbh `htmbuscdsj` 7 Phabjj`racdl, Hcablds `t uh` fdj` Csdn`ll` 7 Fùx vcùx dss`z

ndvdrfs 7 Ph jby`h pbur edcr` fcspdrdctr` l`s prãs`htdtùrs 7_lus f` hdtur`l f`s prãs`htdtùrs plus fãabhtrdatãs

L` fãabr `h1F 15

Ph fãabr plus chhbvdht 7 Ph fãabr plus fyhdjcqu` 7 Cl y d dusscl` edct qu` ld sdll` sbct vcf` 7 Q` prbj`h`r fdhs l–`spdaàbha`sscbh 7 Edcr` uh tbur `h 1F 7 L`s cabh`s f`s vbctur`s sbht`h jbuv`j`ht lbrsqu` ld sburcs `st du-f`ssus f` l–caöh`

L`sabjjdhf`sf` abhtröl` 1?

F`s abjjdhf`s pbur drrët`r, dvdha`r, r`jnbnch`r ld vcfãb 7K–dvdcs l–cjpr`sscbh qu` k` h` abhtröldcs pds a` qu` k` vbydcs,éd j–d edct s`htcr qu` k–ãtdcs p`rfu … 7 Jdcs ad j` rdpp`ll` l`sfvf, a`luc f` fbrd l–`xplbrdtrca` f` j`s h`vùx 7 sdue qu` pburl`s FUF bh pùt dvdha`r, stbpp`r, abup`r l`s sbhs 7 _drebcs k`h–drrcv` pds ï sucvr`

L`spdhh`dux 49

L`s tdnl`dux f`s qu`stcbhs 7 L`s pdi`s f` qu`stcbhs 7 L`s« slcf`s · quc nbui`dc`ht 7 F`s qu`stcbhs sbht pbsã`s ïl–cht`rhdut` 7 F`s tdnl`dux f` qu`stcbh/rãpbhs` 7 L`s pdhh`duxf` rãpbhs`s `t l`s caöh`s f`s vbctur`s

L–beer`

4?Ph` beer` f` echdha`j`ht f` ^`hdult, uh` `xplcadtcbh aldcr` fu

nufi`t dutbjbncl` 7 L–beer` ^HF ambcsc` 7 Ph` beer` fèchdha`j`ht dutb 7 L–beer` ^`hdult H`w F`dl 7 L–beer` fèchdha`j`ht ̂ HF

L`s sbhs 4? Ph` juscqu` fbua` f` ebhf 7 Ph` p`tct` juscqu` f` ebhf

L`s abulùrs 3 F`s abulùrs f` ebhf 7 L`s abulùrs fu sct` ; nlù, rbui`, kduh`,`ta 7 l` rbui` éd j–d dttcrã

Lèbrjuldcr`

3L` ebrjuldcr` f–chsarcptcbh 7 ^`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr` 7 Fbhh`r ld

prbpbsctcbh amceerã` sdhs ëtr` bnlciã f` r`jplcr l` ebrjuldcr` 7Qdhs ëtr` bnlciã f` r`jplcr uh ebrjuldcr` pbur dvbcr ld

prbpbsctcbh amceerã` bu y dll`r sur plda .̀L`s jbfíl`sf` vbctur` 5

K–dc vu dussc l`s vbctur`s 7 Ld Ldiuhd 7 L`s jbfíl`s f` vbctur`sh` sbht pds datudlcsãs 7 l`s jbfíl`s datu`ls 7 ld hbuv`ll`Jãidh`

L` t`xt` 0 _lus f` t`xt` dvà l`s pdrbl`s 7 Ph p`tct rãadpctuldtce ï ld ech

Ld vcfãb 1 Ld fãjbhstrdtcbh vcfãb

L` lbib 4 L` lbib surtbut

L` hbj fusct`

4 L` hbj f` ^`hdult h`w f`dl



6?5

Vmíj` > ; L` r`ss`htc p`hfdht l–`xpãrc`ha` f` vcsct`

Vmíj`Hbjnr` f`

actdtcbhsU`rndtcj

@hidi`j`ht 49

K` h–dc pds vu l` t`jps pdss`r 7 k` h` p`hsdcs ï rc`h abjj`

fãabhhàtã 7 D qudhf éd vd echcr `t am`ram`r ï e`rj`r ld

pdi` 7 K–cjdichdcs qu` sc k` vbuldcs j–dam`t`r uh` Alcb

Abha`htrdtcbh 45K–ãtdcs abha`htrã 7 K–ãtdcs abha`htrã sur l–chtãrët f` l–beer` 7

K–ãabutdcs nc`h a` qu–bh j` fcsdct

Cjplcadtcbh 5Cjplcquã 7 k–ãtdcs `htrdchã pdr l`s v`hfùrs 7 k–ãtdcs chtcjcfã

pdr l` jbhscùr 7 Abha`rhã

@hhuc 6K` j` sucs `hhuyã 7 Ldssã 7 Du abstdrf f` n`hbct, pds d

irdhf-ambs ,̀ k` j` sucs `hhuyã d ld ech

D l–dcs` 1 K–ãtdcs nc`h ï l–dcs` 7 Vrdhqucll` am`z ^`hdult

Erustrdtcbh > Erustrã k` h` pbuvdcs pds zdpp`r l` typ`

Crrctdtcbh > Didaã 7 A` sct` h–`st pds dirãdnl` 7 @h`rvã`

Dssurdha` > ^dssurã

^c`h > ^c`h f` pdrtcaulc`r 7 ^c`h f` spãacdl

Mdraíl`j`ht 4 K` j` sucs s`htc mdra`lã

Fãa`ptcbh 4 Du echdl fãéu

Aurcbsctã 4 K–ãtdcs aurcùs`, k–dtt`hfdcs f–ãabut`r l`s prãs`htdtùrs



6?9

Vmíj` 1 ; ld vdlùr p`réu`

Vmíj` U`rndtcj

Udlùr mãfbhcqu`

« K–dc trbuvã ld vcsct` dirãdnl` sdhs trbp j–`hhuy`r · ‑ 4« L` abha`pt f` a` sct` `st trís nc`h `t qu` a–ãtdct plus syjpd f–ãabut`r

uh v`hfùr pdrl`r qu` f` lcr` l`s chebrjdtcbhs ‑ >

K–dcj` nc`h « l`s cjdi`s quc nbui`ht · éd rãsuj` l`s pbchts

cjpbrtdhts · ‑ 6

« Lùr fcsaburs fãp`hf f` hbs rãpbhs`s `t s–dfdpt` ï hbtr` pbcht f`

vu` fdvdhtdi` qu–ï hbs n`sbchs, l–dvcs `st fu abup trbp sunkàtce sur uh

suk`t rdtcbhh`l · ‑ 0

Udlùr utclctdcr`

« Bh d tbut`s l`s chebs hãa`ssdcr`s ï hbtr` abjprãm`hscbh

sc k` vbuldcs j–dam`t`r uh` Alcb a`ld pburrdct ëtr` chtãr`ssdht f–dfbpt`r

uh` sblutcbh f` arãfct ^`hdult H`w f`dl · ‑ >

« éd s`rdct iãhcdl f–dvbcr uh typ` quc j` fbhh`rdct l`s nbhs pldhs · ‑ >

« Tu`lqu`s jbts vdl`ht jcùx qu–uh` lbhiu` mcstbcr`… · ‑ 0

« L` suk`t fu echdha`j`ht f–uh` dutbjbncl` j` abha`rh`… a`tt`

sblutcbh pburrdct ëtr` dfãqudt` · ‑ >

Vdnl`du =? ; L–drtcauldtcbh vdlùr utclctdcr` / vdlùr mãfbhcqu` fdhs l`s v`rndtcj



6?=

Vmíj` 6 ; Ld p`rebrjdha` jdrg t̀chi `h lcih`

Vmíj`Hbjnr` f`

actdtcbhsU`rndtcj

^`vcsct`r l` sct` 40 K` r`vc`hfrdc su a` sct` plus tdrf

_r`hfr` abhtdat

dvà ld jdrqu`46

K` _burrdcs abhtdat`r ^`hdult bu l`s dpp`l`r du

tãlãpmbh` 7 l`s abhtdat`r plus tdrf

Nbuam` ï br`cll`46

@h pdrl`r ï jbh `htburdi` 7 k` vdcs f`jdhf`r ï jd

abpch` f` vcsct`r a` sct`

Cht`htcbh f–damdt 44

K–dcj`rdcs dam`t`r uh` Alcb 7 A` sct` pùt j–dcf`r ï

dam`t`r

Q–chsarcr` du

ebrjuldcr`44

K` h` vùx pds j–chsarcr` du ebrjuldcr` pbur h` pds

rà`vbcr f`s fczdch`s f–`-jdcls.

_bura`htdi`s f` actdtcbh f`s abjpbrt`j`hts euturs f`s cht`rhdut`s



6?3

DHH@]@ ‑ 0 ; L` j`ssdi` chtrbfuatce fu qu`stcbhhdcr` (prã-t`st)

UBV^@ DUCQ HBPQ CHV@^@QQ@ !

NBHKBP^ ! A` qu`stcbhhdcr` `st rãdlcsã fdhs l` adfr` f–uh` tmís` f` fbatbrdt ï l–Phcv`rsctã

_drcs-Fdupmch`. Ubtr` ablldnbrdtcbh `st `ss`htc`ll` pbur ld rãdlcsdtcbh `t ld pbursuct` f` a`tt`

ràm`ram`, k` vbus r`j`rac` fbha pdr dvdha` f–y abhsdar`r uh pù f` t`jps.

ABJJ@HV ^@J_LC^ A@ TP@QVCBHHDC^@ 2

_`hs`z du sct` Y`n sur l`qu`l vbus ãtc`z cl y d qu`lqu`s chstdhts. _bur r`jplcr a`

qu`stcbhhdcr`, cl vbus sueect f` abam`r ld ads` abrr`spbhfdht ï ld rãpbhs` ld plus prbam` f`

vbtr` bpchcbh. ^ã pbhf`z l` plus spbhtdhãj`ht pbsscnl .̀ Cl h–y d pds f` nbhh` bu f` jduvdcs`

rãpbhs`, sùl vbtr` dvcs abjpt`. A`rtdch`s qu`stcbhs pùv`ht vbus pdrdètr` pdrebcs uh pù

dnstrdct`s bu rãpãtctcv`s. @eebra`z-vbus f–y rãpbhfr` qudhf jëj`.



64?

DHH@]@ ‑ 5 ; L` qu`stcbhhdcr` f` prã-t`st

Jdhcpuldtcbh amàg4

_ds fu tbutf–daabrf

> 1 6 0 5

9

Vbut ï edctf–daabrf

JA4 - Qur l` sct` qu` k–dc vcsctã, k–dc trbuvã uh prãs`htdtùrJA> - Qur l` sct` qu` k–dc vcsctã, k–dc trbuvã uhfãabr `h 1FJA1 - Qur l` sct` qu` k–dc vcsctã, k–dc trbuvãabjj`ht dvdha`r, ràul`r ld vcfãb, l–drrët`r,abup`r l` sbh

Cjj`rscbh4


> 1 6 0 5

9


CJJ4 - L` sct` d arãã uh jbhf` hbuv`du quc d nrutdl`j`ht fcspdru ï ld ech f` ld vcsct`CJJ> - _dr jbj`hts, k–dc p`rfu abhsac`ha` fà` quc j–`htburdct CJJ1 - _`hfdht ld vcsct`, jbh abrps ãtdctf`vdht l–ãardh jdcs jbh `sprct ãtdct fdhs l`jbhf` arãã pdr l` sct`

CJJ6 - L` sct` j–d edct bunlc`r l`s rãdlctãs fujbhf` ̀ xtãrcùrCJJ0 - _`hfdht ld abhsultdtcbh fu sct`, a` qucs–ãtdct pdssã dvdht ld vcsct` bu a` quc s` pdss`rdctdprís h` abjptdct plusCJJ5 - Ld vcsct` fu sct` j–d edct bunlc`r jbh`hvcrbhh`j`ht cjjãfcdt

Udlùr p`réu`4


> 1 6 0 5

9


UP4 - K'dc trbuvã `xdat`j`ht l`s prbfucts bu l`schebrjdtcbhs fbht k'dvdcs n`sbchUP> - K'dc edct `xdat`j`ht a` qu` k'dvdcs prãvuf` edcrÙM4 - K'dc r`ss`htc l` pldcscr f` ld fãabuv`rt`

UM> - @h f`mbrs f`s chebrjdtcbhs bu f`s prbfucts qu` k'dc trbuvãs, vcsct`r a` sct` w`n d ãtãuh pldcscrUM1 - Ad j'd p`rjcs f` j` amdhi`r l`s cfã`s



644

Cht`htcbh f–damdt 4


> 1 6 0 5

9


CD4 - K–damít`rdc a` prbfuct

CD> - K–damít`rdc f`s prbfucts sur a` sct` Y`n

Nbuam` ï br`cll`4


> 1 6 0 5

9


NDB4 - K` pdrl`rdc `h nc`h f` a` sct` ï jbh`htburdi`NDB> - K` ràbjjdhf`rdc a` sct` ï aùx quc j`f`jdhf`rbht abhs`clNDB1 - K–`haburdi`rdc j`s prbam`s `t djcs ïvcsct`r a` sct`

_r`hfr` abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu`4

_ds fu tbutf–daabrf > 1 6 0 5

9


_AJ4 - K` abhtdat`rdc a`tt` jdrqu` pbur dvbcr plus f–chebrjdtcbhs sur l` prbfuct _AJ> - K–crdc ï l–di`ha` pbur dvbcr plusf–chebrjdtcbhs sur l` prbfuct

Cjplcadtcbh4


> 1 6 0 5

9


CJ_4 - L` prbfuct prãs`htã `st uh prbfuct

duqu`l k–daabrf` n`duabup f–cjpbrtdha` CJ_> - Bh pùt fcr` qu` l` prbfuct prãs`htã `stuh prbfuct quc j–chtãr`ss`

CJ_1 - K` j` s`hs pdrtcaulcír`j`ht dttcrã pdr l` prbfuct prãs`htã

Cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct`4


> 1 6 0 5

9


C^ - K` vcsct`rdc a` sct` Y`n ï hbuv`du



64>

@xp`rtcs`4


> 1 6 0 5

9


@]_4 - K` abhhdcs l`s f`rhcír`s chhbvdtcbhs sur

Cht`rh`t@]_> - K–`h sdcs plus qu` ld jby`hh` f`s i`hssur Cht`rh`t@]_1 - K–dc uh` irdhf` prdtcqu` sur Cht`rh`t

@]_6 - K–`xpãrcj`ht` f`s sctudtcbhs trísfcv`rs`s `h jdtcír` f–utclcsdtcbh f–Cht`rh`t@]_0 - K–dc f`s abjpãt`ha`s trís vdrcã`s surl–utclcsdtcbh f–Cht`rh`t

Bó ãtc`z-vbus p`hfdht ld vcsct` … 2

Nur`du

Fbjcacl`Ncnlcbtmíqu`@xtãrcùr^`stdurdht, AdeãDutr`

K` sucs 2Ph mbjj`Ph` e`jj`

Jbh îi` 2

40->?>4-1?

14-6?64-0?04-5?54 `t plus

Jbh hcv`du f–ãtuf`

Nda bu -Lca`ha`Jdst`rJdst`r bu +

Jd prbe`sscbh

DircaultùrDrtcsdh, abjj`rédht bu amèf–`htr`prcs` Adfr` `t prbe. cht`llàtu`ll`ssupãrcùr`s_rbe`sscbh cht`rjãfcdcr`@jplbyãBuvrc`r@tufcdht^`trdctã

F`jdhfùr f–`jplbc



641

DHH@]@ ‑ 9 ; L` qu`stcbhhdcr` echdl

Jdhcpuldtcbh amàg

4


9


JA4 - Qur l` sct` qu` k–dc vcsctã, k–dc trbuvã uh prãs`htdtùrJA> - Qur l` sct` qu` k–dc vcsctã, k–dc trbuvã uhfãabr `h 1FJA1 - Qur l` sct` qu` k–dc vcsctã, k–dc trbuvãabjj`ht dvdha`r, ràul`r ld vcfãb, l–drrët`r,

abup`r l` sbh

Cjj`rscbh

4


9


CJJ4 - L` sct` d arãã uh jbhf` hbuv`du quc d nrutdl`j`ht fcspdru ï ld ech f` ld vcsct`CJJ> - _dr jbj`hts, k–dc p`rfu abhsac`ha` fà` quc j–`htburdct CJJ1 - _`hfdht ld vcsct`, jbh abrps ãtdctf`vdht l–ãardh jdcs jbh `sprct ãtdct fdhs l`jbhf` arãã pdr l` sct`CJJ6 - L` sct` j–d edct bunlc`r l`s rãdlctãs fujbhf` ̀ xtãrcùrCJJ0 - _`hfdht ld abhsultdtcbh fu sct`, a` qucs–ãtdct pdssã dvdht ld vcsct` bu a` quc s` pdss`rdct

dprís h` abjptdct plusCJJ5 - Ld vcsct` fu sct` j–d edct bunlc`r jbh`hvcrbhh`j`ht cjjãfcdt



646

Udlùr p`réu`

4


9


UP4 - K'dc trbuvã `xdat`j`ht l`s prbfucts bu l`schebrjdtcbhs fbht k'dvdcs n`sbchUP> - K'dc edct `xdat`j`ht a` qu` k'dvdcs prãvuf` edcr` UM4 - K'dc r`ss`htc l` pldcscr f` ld fãabuv`rt`

UM> - @h f`mbrs f`s chebrjdtcbhs bu f`s prbfucts qu` k'dc trbuvãs, vcsct`r a` sct` w`n d ãtãuh pldcscrUM1 - Ad j'd p`rjcs f` j` amdhi`r l`s cfã`s

Arãfcnclctã fu j`ssdi`

4


9


AJ4 - A` qu` fct l` sct` `st fcih` f` abhecdha`

AJ> - A` qu` fct l` sct` `st ecdnl`

AJ1 - A` qu` fct l` sct` `st `xdat

Ld abhecdha` ï l–ãidrf fu sct`

4


9


AQ4 - K–dc abhecdha` fdhs ld qudlctã fu sct`

AQ> - L`s prbfucts bu s`rvca`s fu sct` sbht s÷rs

AQ1 - K` h` aburs duauh rcsqu` `h dam`tdht f`s

prbfucts f` a` sct`NQ4 - A` sct` edct dtt`htcbh ï a` quc j` abhvc`htl` jcùxNQ> - A` sct` tc`ht abjpt` f` j`s chtãrëts

NQ1 - A` sct` j` prbpbs` a` quc abrr`spbhf l`jcùx ï j`s dtt`ht`sCQ4 - K` arbcs `h ld schaãrctã f` a` sct`

CQ> - A` sct` `st mbhhët` dvà jbc



640

Cht`htcbh f–damdt

4


9


CD4 - K–damít`rdc a` prbfuct

CD> - K–damít`rdc f`s prbfucts sur a` sct` Y`n

Cht`htcbh f` r`vcsct`r l` sct`

4


9


C^ - K` vcsct`rdc a` sct` Y`n ï hbuv`du

Nbuam` ï br`cll`

4


9


NDB4 - K` pdrl`rdc `h nc`h f` a` sct` ï jbh`htburdi`

NDB> - K` ràbjjdhf`rdc a` sct` ï aùx quc j`f`jdhf`rbht abhs`clNDB1 - K–`haburdi`rdc j`s prbam`s `t djcs ïvcsct`r a` sct`

_r`hfr` abhtdat dvà ld jdrqu`

4

_ds fu tbut

f–daabrf

9

Vbut ï edct

f–daabrf _AJ4 - K` abhtdat`rdc a`tt` jdrqu` pbur dvbcr plus f–chebrjdtcbhs sur l` prbfuct _AJ> - K–crdc ï l–di`ha` pbur dvbcr plusf–chebrjdtcbhs sur l` prbfuct



645

Cjplcadtcbh

4


9


CJ_4 - L` prbfuct prãs`htã `st uh prbfuctduqu`l k–daabrf` n`duabup f–cjpbrtdha` CJ_> - Bh p`ut fcr` qu` l` prbfuct prãs`htã `stuh prbfuct quc j–chtãr`ss`

CJ_1 - K` j` s`hs pdrtcaulcír`j`ht dttcrã pdr l` prbfuct prãs`htã

@xp`rtcs`

4


9


@]_4 - K` abhhdcs l`s f`rhcír`s chhbvdtcbhs surCht`rh`t@]_> - K–`h sdcs plus qu` ld jby`hh` f`s i`hssur Cht`rh`t@]_1 - K–dc uh` irdhf` prdtcqu` sur Cht`rh`t

@]_6 - K–`xpãrcj`ht` f`s sctudtcbhs trísfcv`rs`s `h jdtcír` f–utclcsdtcbh f–Cht`rh`t

@]_0 - K–dc f`s abjpãt`ha`s trís vdrcã`s surl–utclcsdtcbh f–Cht`rh`t

Bó ãtc`z-vbus p`hfdht ld vcsct` … 2

Nur`duFbjcacl`Ncnlcbtmíqu`@xtãrc`ur^`stdurdht, AdeãDutr`

K` sucs 2 Ph mbjj`Ph` e`jj`

Jbh îi` 2

40->?>4-1?14-6?64-0?04-5?54 `t plus

Nda `t -Nda +1 bu -



649

Jbh hcv`du f–ãtuf` Nda +6Nda +0 `t +

Jd prbe`sscbh

DircaultùrDrtcsdh, abjj`rédht bu amè f–`htr`prcs` Adfr` `t prbe. cht`llàtu`ll`s supãrcùr`s_rbe`sscbh cht`rjãfcdcr`@jplbyãBuvrc`r@tufcdht^`trdctãF`jdhfùr f–`jplbc



643

1

6

0



6>?

5

9

=



6>4

DHH@]@ ‑ 3 ; L` t`xt` f` l–`-jdcl fu qu`stcbhhdcr` echdl (v`rscbh 4)

L–uhcv`rsctã _drcs-Fdupmch` rãdlcs` uh` ãtuf`, `h pdrt`hdrcdt dvà Hbvdabj `t Abi`fcj, fdhsl` adfr` f` trdvdux f` ràm`ram` f–uh` tmís` fbatbrdl`._bur echdlcs`r hbtr` ràm`ram`, hbus sbllcactbhs vbtr` dcf` pbur rãpbhfr` ï uh qu`stcbhhdcr`dprís dvbcr abhsultã uh sct` Cht`rh`t.

Ubus hbus eburhcr`z dchsc f` prãacùs`s chebrjdtcbhs abha`rhdht vbs r`ss`htcs `t vbs p`ra`ptcbhs dprís ld vcsct` f–uh sct` w`n ï vbadtcbh abjj`racdl`. Ubs rãpbhs`s abhstctu`ht làőur f` hbtr` ràm`ram`. Cl h'y d pds f` nbhh`s bu f` jduvdcs`s rãpbhs`s, sùl`s vbscjpr`sscbhs sur l` fcspbsctce (sct` Cht`rh`t vcfãb) abjpt`ht qu` vbus sby`z `h deechctã bu hbhdvà l–beer` prãs`htã`.

Aàc h'`st hc uh j`ssdi` abjj`racdl, hc uh` `hquët` f` sdtcsedatcbh. @h rãpbhfdht ï hbtr`qu`stcbhhdcr`, vbus hbus p`rj`tt`z f–dhdlys`r pbur l`s djãlcbr`r l`s abht`hus f`s sct`sCht`rh`t.

Ld ràm`ram` `h Qac`ha`s f` I`stcbh h'`st pds uh prba`ssus scjpl` `t abllàt`r f` t`ll`sfbhhã`s l'`st `habr` jbchs. L`s sbacãtãs Hbvdabj `t Abi`fcj hbus bht irdacùs`j`ht p`rjcsf–utclcs`r a` sct` Cht`rh`t pbur hbus dcf`r ï echdlcs`r hbtr` ràm`ram`. Dchsc, irîa` ï vbtr`

pdrtcacpdtcbh, hbus fcspbs`rbhs f` fbhhã`s rã`ll`s sur ld hdvcidtcbh sur Cht`rh`t. L`schebrjdtcbhs ràu`cllc`s r s̀t`rbht dhbhyj`s `t `ll`s h` s`rvcrbht duauh`j`ht ï f`s echsabjj`racdl`s. Ubtr` ablldnbrdtcbh `st `ss`htc`ll` pbur ld rãdlcsdtcbh `t ld pbursuct` f` hbsràm`ram`s.

Abjj`ht edcr` 2 Alcqu`z-cac `t vcsct`z ld vcfãb ! D ld ech f` ld vcsct` fu sct`, sur ld f`rhcír` sãqu`ha`, alcqu`z sur l` nbutbh ^àm`ram`Phcv`rsctdcr` ; vbs rãpbhs`s hbus chtãr`ss`ht quc alcihbt`rd `h nds f` pdi`, pbur

rãpbhfr` ï hbtr` qu`stcbhhdcr`. A`ld h` vbus pr`hfrd qu` 5 ï = jchut`s. Ubtr` dcf` hbus `st trís prãacùs`, f–dvdha` j`rac f`hbus abhsdar`r uh pù f` vbtr` t`jps.

Abrfcdl`j`ht,Dhcs AmdrecF^J, Fdupmch` ^àm`ram` `h Jdhdi`j`htPhcv`rsctã _drcs-FdupmchÀH^Q, PJ^ 9?==, E-90?45 _drcs, Erdha`.mttp;//www.lchg`fch.abj/pun/dhcs-amdrec/>6/449/54=

http://tre.emv3.com/HS?a=ENX7ClsA3vFt8SA9MOBvmA7nGHxKQ8__7vcStGb5lw8W0bBhOG5mpqVsje_Hhe-wnlNB





DHH@]@ ‑ 4? ; L` t`xt` f` l–`-jdcl fu qu`stcbhhdcr` echdl (v`rscbh >)

L'Phcv`rsctã _drcs-Fdupmch` rãdlcs` uh` ãtuf` fdhs l` adfr` f` trdvdux f`ràm`ram` fbatbrdl` chtctulã` « L'`xpãrc`ha` f'cjj`rscbh `h lcih` fdhs l`s `hvcrbhh`j`htsjdramdhfs f` rãdlctã vcrtu`ll` ·, quc d pbur bnkàtce f'djãlcbr`r l`s abht`hus f`s sct`s

Cht`rh`t.

Fdhs a`tt` bptcqu`, l`s sbacãtãs Hbvdabj `t Abi`fcj hbus bht irdacùs`j`ht p`rjcsf'utclcs`r uh sct` Cht`rh`t qu` hbus vbus r`j`racbhs f` abhsult`r.

Hbus sbllcactbhs vbtr` dcf` pbur rãpbhfr` `hsuct` ï uh qu`stcbhhdcr` abha`rhdht vbs r`ss`htcs`t vbtr` p`ra`ptcbh f` a` sct` w`n ï vbadtcbh abjj`racdl .̀ Cl h y d pds f` nbhh`s bu f`jduvdcs`s rãpbhs`s, sùl`s vbs cjpr`sscbhs sur l` fcspbsctce (sct` Cht`rh`t vcfãb) abjpt`ht.

L`s chebrjdtcbhs ràu`cllc`s r`st`rbht dhbhyj`s ̀ t `ll`s h` s`rvcrbht duauh`j`ht ï f`s echsabjj`racdl`s.

Tu` f`v`z-vbus edcr` 2 * Alcqu`z-cac `t rìdrf`z ld vcfãb !

Qur l` sct` vcfãb qu` vbus dll`z abhsult`r, du jclcù f` amdauh` f`s sãqu`ha s̀, uh nbutbh" Abhsultdtcbh t`rjchã̀ 2 ^ãpbhf`z ïhbtr ` qu`stc bhhdcr`, j`rac " alcihbt`rd `h ndsf` pdi ,̀ dech f'daaãf`r du qu`stcbhhdcr` qu` hbus vbus f`jdhfbhs f` r`jplcr pbur dlcj`ht`rhbs trdvdux f` ràm`ram`.

A`ld h` vbus pr`hfrd pds plus f` 5 ï = jchut`s.

http://tre.emv3.com/HS?a=ENX7CkUb2Jn88SA9MOBqFXbnGHxKQyeVzfcStGb5lw8W0bBhOG5mpqVsje_Hhe-wnlye




Immersion en Ligne

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