ime Line of Key istorical Events - Home - Springer978-0-230-60336-3/1.pdf · Time Line of Key...

T ime L ine of Key

H istorical Events*

January 1986 The National Resistance Army rebel group overrunsKampala after a heavy battle with government troops. TitoOkello’s government falls.Yoweri Museveni is sworn in as president of the Republic ofUganda for a four-year interim term.

March 1986 Party activities are suspended in Uganda; but UgandaPeople’s Democratic Movement (UPDM) is formed tochallenge Museveni’s leadership. Other rebel groups, theHoly Spirit Movement of Alice Lakwena and Lord’sResistance Army of Joseph Kony, are also formed.

May 1986 A bill to create the Uganda Human Rights Commission isproposed to investigate human rights abuses since 1962when Uganda got independence.

August 1986 Prince Mutebi arrives in Uganda from Kenya via Busia onhis first visit to a liberated Uganda.Former soldiers regrouped under the Uganda People’sDemocratic Army (UPDA) launch an attack on NRA.NRA Battalion No. 58 at Bibia repulses the attack. YoweriMuseveni denounces Sudan for assisting 3,000 army rebelsto attack Uganda. Budget day, the exchange rate is set atUg. shs. 1,400 per U.S. dollar.

October 1986 Three ministers, Dr. Andrew Kayiira, Dr. David Lwanga,and Mr. Evaristo Nyanzi, and former vice president, PauloMuwanga, are arrested on treason charges.

November 1986 Uganda National Rescue Front (UNRF) hands over its flagto the NRM at Karila Airstrip in Arua. Brig. Moses Aliannounces the absorption of 2,000 UNRF soldiers in theNRA. Alice Lakwena’s Holy Spirit Movement and Peter

* The following were used as sources for part of this timeline: Mugaju (1999), Kaiser andOkumu (2004), and www.IRINnews.org (2006).

Otai’s Uganda People’s Army (UPA) terrorize people innorth and northeastern Uganda.

December 1986 The Human Rights Commission is set up under LegalNotice No. 5 of 1986 to investigate human rights abusesfrom 1962 to January 25, 1986.

January 1987 The remains of former President Yusuf Lule arrive inUganda from London for reburial.

May 1987 A new currency, with a 30 percent tax charge is introducedinto circulation.IMF shock treatment applied to Ugandan economy asEconomic Recovery Program (ERP) begins.

August 1987 Two hundred rebels of Alice Lakwena’s Holy Spirit mobileforce killed by NRA in a battle at Soroti Flying School.Four hundred Holy Spirit forces killed by NRA at AloetRailway Station in Soroti District.

October 1987 Alice Lakwena’s mobile force is repulsed when attemptingto overrun Magamaga barracks.

March 1988 The National Resistance Army and the rebel Uganda People’sDemocratic Army begin cease-fire discussions in Gulu.The NRM government and a leading rebel group since1986, the Uganda People’s Democratic Army, agree to acease-fire and sign a formal peace agreement. The humanrights group Amnesty International criticizes the army’sconduct in its counterinsurgency operations in northernand northeastern Uganda.Amnesty International criticizes the Uganda governmentover NRA’s tactics in fighting rebels in the north andnortheast of the country.The NRA and UPDA reach an agreement and announce acease-fire.

May 1988 NRC passes legislation that prohibits the practice and pro-motion of sectarianism and introduces press censorship.

September 1988 IMF, World Bank, and Western donors make an EnhancedStructural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) available to Uganda.

October 1988 A Uganda Airlines Boeing 707 jetliner crashes on the run-way as it lands at Rome Airport in Italy. Thirty people onboard die in the accident.A bill establishing a constitutional commission is passed bythe country’s parliament, The National Resistance Council.

February 1989 Elections to expand the National Resistance Council are held.

Regime Hegemony in Museveni ’s Uganda202

October 1989 The National Resistance Council votes to extend theinterim rule of the National Resistance MovementGovernment for five more years until 1994.

December 1989 An attack is launched from Sudan by ex–Uganda soldiersassisted by Sudanese troops.

February 1990 The Spanish Government announces a US$40 million loanto Uganda for the rehabilitation of Entebbe Airport, thedevelopment of central storage, construction of cold stores,and for rolling stock to the Uganda Railways Corporation.NRA in collaboration with civilians starts an offensiveagainst UPA of Otai.

April 1990 Brig. Moses Ali, minister of youth, culture, and sports, isarrested and charged with plotting a coup.

July 1990 Otema Allimadi, leader of UPDM, signs a peace accordwith government.

January 1991 President Museveni announces a cabinet reshuffle. GeorgeCosmas Adyebo becomes prime minister while Dr. SamsonKisekka is elevated to vice president.

February 1991 Uganda hosts the joint ACP/EEC Assembly in Kampala.The World Bank approves a US$40 million loan for thereconstruction of northern and northeastern Uganda.

April 1991 The army begins a major four-month operation, com-manded by Minister of state for Defence Maj. Gen. DavidTinyefuza against rebels in Northern Uganda.

May 1991 Museveni formally invites all émigré Ugandan Asians, whohad been expelled by Amin, to return.

June 1991 A major conference is organized by the ConstitutionalCommission for leaders of political parties to discuss consti-tutional proposals to be included in the draft constitution.

July 1991 Another cabinet reshuffle takes place cutting the cabinet byabout 50 percent. The total number of ministers dropsfrom 72 to 42.

December 1991 Government announces its intention to liberalize the cottonindustry thus ending the Lint Marketing Board monopoly.The National Resistance Council passes the LeadershipCode Bill.

February 1992 Nationwide elections for officials at the lower local to dis-trict level councils are held.Countrywide RC 1-5 elections begin.

T ime L ine of Key H istorical Events 203

April 1992 The Army Council announces negotiations over the returnof confiscated traditional cultural sites to the kingdoms ofAnkole, Buganda, Bunyoro, Busoga, and Tooro.Uganda and China sign an agreement on the constructionof a new Chinese-funded national stadium at Nambooleoutside Kampala.

May 1992 Paris Club Consultative Group meeting of donors commitsUS$800 million to Uganda.

June 1992 The Uganda High Court acquits Moses Ali of treasoncharges.

July 1992 The government launches a US$93.6 million reconstruc-tion program for northern Uganda, sponsored by theWorld Bank, donor countries, and aid agencies aimedmainly at the repair of roads and extension of electricity.

August 1992 Political party activities are formally suspended by theNRC. The suspension follows a three-day closed session.

October 1992 The army bows to pressure from international donors andbegins a demobilization of up to 40,000 soldiers.Uganda launches a far-reaching political decentralizationprogram whose objective is to increase citizen participationand political empowerment.

November 1992 Formal negotiations between the National Resistance Army(NRA) and Buganda, about the return of cultural sites occu-pied by the army, are inaugurated by President Museveni.

December 1992 Constitutional Commission presents draft constitution togovernment.Negotiations between government and Sabataka ofBuganda on the return of traditional sites taken over bygovernment in 1967 open.The demobilization exercise of the NRA begins at FirstDivision Headquarters, Lubiri barracks.

February 1993 Pope John Paul II arrives in Uganda on a five-day visit.

March 1993 A draft constitution prescribing party political activities forseven years is published.The NRC orders immediate suspension of negotiations onsales of public enterprises by the Public Enterprises Reformand Divestiture until relevant law is enacted.

April 1993 The Constitution Assembly Bill is passed.The NRC agrees, in principle, to return cultural sitesknown as ebyaffe to the Baganda.


July 1993 Ronald Muwenda Mutebi II is enthroned as the thirty-sixth king of Buganda Kingdom.NRC passes legislation approving restoration of traditionalmonarchies, which are given cultural but not political powers.The NRC passes the Constitution Amendment Bill, 1993(Ebyaffe Bill) to restore the traditional rulers who wereabolished under the 1967 Constitution.

August 1993 The AIDS Control Programme announces that one out ofevery eight Ugandans is infected with HIV virus thatcauses AIDS. The government requests foreign donors forUS$550 million to fund a five-year plan to slow the spreadof the epidemic.President Museveni opens the Buganda Lukiiko(Parliament) at Bulange, Mengo.The commissioner for the Constituent Assembly announcesthe demarcation of the country into 214 electoral districts.

November 1993 Prince John Patrick Barigye is enthroned as thirty-thirdKing of Ankole Kingdom. The government, however,refuses to recognize his coronation.Former head of state, General Tito Okello, returns toUganda after nearly eight years in exile.

January 1994 Uganda Democratic Alliance (UDA) and Uganda FederalArmy (UFA) suspend guerilla activities.NRA soldiers head for Liberia on a peace keeping mission.The nomination of candidates for the ConstituentAssembly takes place.

March 1994 Nationwide elections are held to select delegates to theConstituent Assembly (CA), which will debate Uganda’snew Constitution.

May 1994 Members of the Constituent Assembly (CA) are sworn in.CA begins debate on draft Constitution.

June 1994 Solomon Gafabusa Iguru I is enthroned as the twenty-seventh king of Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom.

November 1994 President Yoweri Museveni reshuffles the cabinet namingDr. Specioza Kazibwe as Uganda’s first ever woman vicepresident.

December 1994 The NRM interim period extended until after the generalelections to be held under the new Constitution.

February 1995 IMF and World Bank establish the Ugandan MultilateralDebt Fund (UMDF).


A group of about 30 people attack Buwambo police post inMpigi district. The group claims to be fighting for federalism.Cabinet extends the term of office for the incumbent resist-ance council committees until after the new constitution isin force.The NRA attacks rebels based in Buseruka, Hoima, andkills sixty-three.

March 1995 After a crucial and much publicized debate, the CA dele-gates vote to reject a proposed amendment to Article 201of the draft constitution that would create a Federal systemof government based on regions.A group, led by Maj. Robert Itongwa, an NRA deserter,claiming to be a Federo Army fighting the NRM govern-ment, kidnaps the Minister of Health Dr. James Makumbi.

April 1995 Kony’s Lord’s Resistance (LRA) massacre at least 150 peo-ple at Atiak in Gulu district.Uganda severs diplomatic relations with Sudan.

June 1995 The CA rejects a motion for a return to multiparty politicalsystem. Multiparty advocates walk out of CA.Dr. Paul Kawanga Semogerere resigns from the NRMgovernment.

September 1995 The CA enacts the new constitution.

October 1995 The CA promulgates the new constitution of Uganda.

December 1995 The presidential and parliamentary elections (interim pro-visions) bill (1995) is tabled before NRC.

January 1996 The interim Electoral Commission, under the chairman-ship of Stephen Akabway, the former commissioner for theCA, is sworn in.

February 1996 Henry Waako Muloki is enthroned as king (Kyabazinga) ofBusoga Kingdom.

May 1996 The incumbent president, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, winsUganda’s first ever direct presidential elections, defeatingchallenger Paul Kawanga Ssemogerere and MohammedKibirige Mayanja.Yoweri Museveni sworn in as the country’s first directlyelected president.

June 1996 Local and national legislative “no-party” elections are held.Local councils replace Resistance Committees, and a276-member Parliament replaces the NRC.


October 1996 Traders and other businessmen in Kampala begin six-dayclosedown strike in protest over the introduction of a newtax, the Value Added Tax. It is the most widespread strikeof its kind in Uganda since independence, reaching mostother towns in the country.

IMF and World Bank launch the Highly Indebted PoorCountries (HIPC) program.

January 1997 Universal Primary Education (UPE) was launched.Enrollment shoots up from 2.5 million to 5.6 millionchildren.

The Leadership Code meant to curb corruption and abuseof office among political and public figures takes effect.

March 1997 Local Governments Act is established to guide “LocalCouncils.” The council system encourages extensive civil-ian participation in the areas of local government. TheResistance Council (RC) system ends.

April 1997 World Bank designates Uganda as the first country toreceive HIPC debt relief.

May 1997 Government bans examination fees in Primary 1 through 6under the Universal Primary Education.

July 1997 Movement Bill is passed by Parliament. The Movement Actrequires all Ugandan adults to become members of theMovement system.

September 1997 Ministry of Planning and Economic Development sets theimplementation of the Poverty Eradication Action Plan(PEAP), a twenty-year development framework to reducepoverty to 10 percent by 2017.

November 1997 Nationwide local elections are held.

December 1997 Parliament finally passes amendment licencing a SecondNational Operator (SNO) before the UgandaTelecommunications Limited, a new company to be cre-ated from the Uganda Posts and TelecommunicationsCorporation (UP&TC).

January 1998 Government awards South African telecommunicationsgiant, Mobile Telephone Networks (MTN), the tenderto establish another telecommunication network inUganda, breaking the monopoly enjoyed by theUP&TC.


March 1998 Uganda becomes the first country to benefit from anew World Bank grant-credit initiative by receivingUS$185 million to improve education.

President Bill Clinton visits Uganda.

April 1998 IMF certifies Uganda’s HIPC qualification.

June 1998 Ministry of Internal Affairs purchases Kireka barracks.

August 1998 President Museveni orders the Ugandan army to intervenein the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) to combatrebel insurgencies. The army occupies the northwest DRCfor the next three years.

November 1998 The Ministry of Works announces the completion of reha-bilitation work on 60 percent of the total trunk road net-work in Uganda.

January 1999 President Yoweri Museveni begins a 200km walk to traceNRA guerilla bases in Luweero triangle and find ways toimprove household incomes.The 40,202-seat Mandela National Stadium is opened at acolorful ceremony witnessed by thousands of Ugandansand foreign guests.

February 1999 Winnie Byanyima, Mbarara Municipality MP, sacked as theMovement secretariat director of information.

March 1999 Renegade Rwanda Army militia (Interahamwe) attacksBwindi Impenetrable National Park in Western Uganda,killing the warden for Community Conservation, JohnRoss Wagaba, and abducting 32 tourists. Seventeentourists later escaped.Government starts peace talks with Uganda NationalRescue Front II rebels.

April 1999 President Museveni calls for a major constitutional review.Investments in Uganda reach US$1.43 billion mark.Government lifts the nationwide ban on the sale of fish.

May 1999 Museveni offers Kony a carrot, appointment to the cabinet,if he is democratically elected.IMF suspends US$18 million loan to protest Uganda’smilitary involvement in the DRC.

June 1999 DRC president, Laurent Kabila, brings charges at theInternational Criminal Court of Justice (ICJ) againstUganda for territorial aggression.


July 1999 Parliament passes the Referendum and Other ProvisionsAct #2.

September 1999 President Museveni confirms Uganda’s withdrawal fromthe DRC.

December 1999 Parliament passes bill granting general amnesty to allrebels.

January 2000 Ugandan government presents a Poverty Reduction StrategyPaper in qualifying for the Enhanced HIPC initiative.

February 2000 IMF and IDA agree to increase Uganda’s HIPC relief;bringing the total to US$2 billion.

March 2000 Uganda’s economic reform progresses and reaches thecompletion point of the “enhanced HIPC framework.”

June 2000 Five UPDF battalions pull out of the DRC, in addition tothe two that withdrew in April.A referendum is held to decide the future of Uganda’spolitical system. The movement system receives 4,322,901(90.7%) votes, while the multiparty side gains 442,823(9.7%), 51.1% of registered voters cast their votes in a pollboycotted by mainstream political parties. The movementsystem is extended for another five years.

July 2000 Parliament passes the Political Parties and Organizations(PPOA) Bill into law.

August 2000 The Constitutional Court declares the Referendum Act of1999 null and void. The court cites violations of parlia-mentary procedure and lack of quorum (articles 88 and 89)for its ruling.Parliament passes (in one day) the Constitution(Amendment) Act 13, which amended the process (proce-dures) by which a bill could become law. This was to over-come the objections of the Constitutional Court in itsruling against the 1999 Referendum Act. The amendmentgave retrospective effect to the 2000 Referendum Act andthus enabled the June referendum.President Bill Clinton visits Uganda.

September 2000 “Paris Club” cancels US$145 million of Uganda’s debtunder the HIPC initiative.President Museveni carries out a minor cabinet reshufflewith the most important change being that of Moses Aliwho was relieved of the Trade, Tourism and Industry port-folio and appointed minister of internal affairs. Edward


Rugumayo was moved from the Ministry of Internal Affairsto Ali’s former ministry.Parliament turns down President Museveni’s request torevisit the National Security Council (NSC) Bill that hadalready become law. The president wanted the punishmentfor an NSC member who released information withoutauthorization to be changed from a 14-year jail sentence todeath penalty or imprisonment for life.

October 2000 Kizza Besigye announces his plans to enter the 2001presidential race as a Movement candidate.

December 2000 Vice President Dr. Specioza Kazibwe launches the Plan forModernisation of Agriculture (PMA) with a call on localleaders to embrace it “for maximum achievement inagriculture in the country.”

January 2001 President Museveni launches his reelection campaign witha promise of free secondary education.Uganda Telecom Limited launches its mobile phonefacility in Kampala.

February 2001 The government abolishes cost sharing in all its healthcenters.

March 2001 Ugandans vote in the second presidential elections sincethe enactment of the 1995 constitution. The contestantsincluded the incumbent Yoweri Museveni, Kizza Besigye,Aggrey Awori, Francis Bwengye, Chappa Karuhanga, andKibirige Mayanja.Yoweri Kaguta Museveni is declared winner of the 2001general elections. He is to serve another five-year term.Besigye files a petition with the Uganda Supreme Courtasking it to overturn the 2001 presidential election results,alleging widespread fraud, violence, and intimidation.

May 2001 Yoweri Kaguta Museveni swears in as president of theRepublic of Uganda.

June 2001 Ugandans vote in a legislative election to fill all 282 seats inParliament.The Julia Sebutinde Commission submits its report con-cerning the scandal over the purchase of obsolete helicop-ters from Belarus. The report recommends prosecutionof Museveni’s brother Salim Saleh for accepting aUS$ 800,000 bribe. The report also implicates PresidentMuseveni as the authorizing government official.


July 2001 President Museveni sets up a judicial commission of inquiryunder British judge David Porter to probe allegations by theUN that the UPDF and the presidents close family memberswere involved in looting natural resources from the DRC.

August 2001 Kiiza Besigye, Museveni’s main presidential challenger,flees to the United States on account of claims about gov-ernment harassment.

September 2001 President Yoweri Museveni receives an award for his exem-plary leadership in the fight against HIV/AIDS.Government avails drug for the Prevention of Mother-to-Child HIV transmission (PMCTC) free of charge to allpregnant women who test HIV positive.

Uganda reopens embassy in Khartoum as part of the peaceovertures to restore diplomatic relations broken in 1995.Heritage Oil and Gas deposit a cash bond of Ug. shs. 875million with government as a guarantee that they will drilloil near Lake Albert.

October 2001 World Bank hails Uganda Investment Authority (UIA) asone of the best promotion agencies in Africa.

November 2001 Deputy Chief Justice Laetitia Kikonyogo launches theNational Community Service program in Mukono district,with three petty offenders sentenced to 100 hours ofcommunity work.East African Legislative Assembly and Court of Justice areinaugurated at Sheikh Amri Abeid stadium, Arusha, inTanzania.

December 2001 The Uganda Road Safety Initiative is launched at theSheraton Hotel following the death of four sports journal-ists in August 2001.

January 2002 Ugandans go to the polls to elect the chairpersons andcouncilors for the subcounties, town councils, and munici-pal divisions.The second volume of the Primary school curriculum islaunched. Agriculture, Religious Education, PerformingArts, and Physical Education (PAPE) to be taught andexamined as separate subjects.Construction of the 250MW US$550 millionHydroelectric power plant at Bujagali on the River Nile islaunched.A US$23 million (Ug. shs. 34.5 billion) water project tobenefit 163,000 people in four Central Uganda districts is


commissioned. The project is a joint partnerhip betweenUganda and Japan through the Japan InternationalCooperation Agency (JICA).

February 2002 The UPDF launches a new project to construct low-costhouses for needy people of Luweero triangle who con-tributed to the NRA liberation struggle twenty-one yearsago.Ugandans go to the polls for the LC5 chairpersons.Uganda announces the first ever export agreement ofinstant coffee to China and the United States under theAfrica Growth and Opportunities Act (AGOA).

March 2002 Government launches a twenty-five-year strategy worthUS$108 million to improve agricultural extension servicesin the country.Government wins a crucial parliamentary vote allowing itto lease more than 1,000 hectares of Butamira forestreserve to the Madhvani group of companies.Two UPDF soldiers are executed by a firing squad afterbeing found guilty of killing an Irish priest and two officeworkers on the Kotido—Moroto road.

April 2002 The Privatisation Unit (PU) completes the sale of 108 pub-lic enterprises (PEs) with only thirty-eight remaining forsale.Rebel leader, Maj. Gen. Ali Bamuze of the UgandaNational Rescue Front II, renounces rebellion and returnshome with 1,350 fighters.

May 2002 The UPDF armored battalion launches an operation inKotido district to recover illegal guns from the Jie warriorswho have been raiding cattle from their neighbors. (TheU.S. government extends a US$290 million aid packagetoward poverty eradication in Uganda.)Parliament passes the Political Organisations Act (POA)2002 amid acrimony and a walkout by multipartyists andmoderate movementists. The movement voted by 148against one to restrict activities of political parties andorganizations at the national level. Sixty MPs mainlymultipartyists, reformists, and moderate movementistswalked out.The Sudan government extends up to June the period forUPDF’s operation “Iron Fist” against Kony rebels in theSudan.


Uganda’s antiterrorism law take effect. Museveni’s oppo-nents say the law will be used to curb domestic politicalreforms and constrain legitimate political opposition.

June 2002 Malaria campaign is launched. The World Bank board ofexecutive directors approves the Inspection Panels reporton Bujagali and other power projects in Uganda.

July 2002 The European Union gives a grant of 4.5 million euros(Ug. shs. 8 billion) to support Uganda’s program for tradeopportunities and policy (UPTOP).Government secures US$375 million (Ug. shs. 676 billion)for rural electrification.

August 2002 Government names team for peace talks with JosephKony’s LRA rebels.

September 2002 Ugandans stay at home to be counted in the ninth censussince the first one in 1911.The Danish Government boosts Uganda’s prevention ofmother-to-child transmission of HIV/AIDS program(PMTCT) with a US$400,000 (over Ug. shs. 645 million)grant.

October 2002 Preliminary results of the 2002 National Population andHousing Census reveal that Uganda has a population of24.6 million people.Drilling of oil in Uganda’s western rift valley starts.Police raid the offices of the Kampala daily The Monitor andclose it down for a week. Two editors and one reporter arearrested and charged for endangering national security bypublishing a story claiming that a UPDF helicopter hadcrashed while engaging the LRA.

November 2002 The Porter Commission presents its final report regardingUN allegations that the UPDF had looted natural resourcesfrom the DRC. The report singled out Salim Saleh and hiswife, and Maj. Gen. James Kazini as key actors.

December 2002 President Yoweri Museveni flags off 164,000 pairs of men’sshorts to America, the first textile export under the AGOAinitiative.

January 2003 The multimillion state-of-the-art Apparels Tri-Star Ugandalimited plant at Bugolobi is launched.Baganda present their documented views, proposals, andaspirations to the Constitutional Review Commission(CRC).


February 2003 Church of Uganda House project for the construction of asixteen-story complex on plot 34, Kampala Road, iscommissioned.

March 2003 Uganda was leading its two neighbors, Kenya and Tanzania,in attracting foreign direct investment inflows (FDI).President Yoweri Museveni asks the National ExecutiveCommittee (NEC), the Movement’s highest decision-making organ, to free political parties. However, the returnto multipartyism would be subjected to a referendum. Healso recommends a review of the presidential two-termlimit, Art. 105(2) of the 1995 Constitution.Constitutional Court rules that the Movement was a polit-ical organization.The return to a multiparty system of government isendorsed by the Ugandan people in a referendum. Thisends the Movement political system.The Uganda Constitutional Court strikes down articles 18and 19 of the Political Parties and Organizations Act(PPOA) that aimed t suppressing the activities of oppositionpolitical parties. The Court also rules that the Movementwas not a political “system” but a political organization.

April 2003 Batch of 1,500 UPDF soldiers leave Bunia, Congo, des-tined for Uganda.

May 2003 Donors hail Uganda’s economic performance as exemplaryand announce that they would ensure that their marketsremain open to Ugandan exports.Withdrawal of UPDF troops from the DRC is completed.

President Museveni reshuffles his cabinet and drops long-time NRM backers, Eriya Kategaya, Jaberi Bidandi Ssali,and Miria Matembe. Vice President Specioza Kazibweresigns and is replaced by Gilbert Bukenya. The cabinet isexpanded from 41 to 67 ministers.

June 2003 GDP grows by 4.9 percent, the lowest rate in sixteen years.

July 2003 President George W. Bush visits Uganda.

July 2003 Radio Veritas Kyoga is closed down by the government forpurportedly broadcasting information helpful to rebels.

August 2003 Former military dictator and President of UgandaIdi Amin dies.

September 2003 Movement (Amendment) Bill is passed into law to preparethe way for a change in political systems.


Museveni’s brother Salim Saleh resigns his seat inParliament which he held as one of the army’s nominations.

October 2003 The Uganda Investment Authority (UIA) licenses 49 projectsworth US$178,646,826.Launch of measles immunization campaign.Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD)summit opens in Kampala. Uganda takes the chair.National Political Commissar Crispus Kiyonga is appointedto head talks with the opposition regarding the transitionto a multiparty system.

November 2003 Assets and liabilities, declared to the Inspector General ofGovernment (IGG) by the forty-four ministers of state, arepublished for public scrutiny.Multipartyists announce they are ready for talks with theMovement leadership on the country’s transition to plural-ism, ahead of the 2006 general elections.Currency note of Ug. shs. 50,000 denomination goes intocirculation.

December 2003 The CRC hands over its report to the minister of justiceand constitutional affairs. The report findings are madepublic in March recommending a national referendum todecide the “third term” issue.Five Uganda members of Parliament (MPs) are elected tothe African Union Parliament.President Museveni carries out a major purge of the armyleadership. A total of 60 officers are sent on forced leavepending investigations and possible court martials. High-ranking officers forced out include, Brig. Nakibus Lakara,Col. Fred Tolit, Maj Gen. James Kazini, Brig. HenryTumukunde, and Brig. Stephen Kashaka.President Museveni writes to the Army Promotions andCommissions Board asking for permission to retirefrom the UPDF. He declares his intention to devote hisefforts to developing the NRM-O upon retirement fromthe UPDF.The UPDF High Command allows Lt. Gen. YoweriMuseveni to retire from the armed forces.Vice President Gilbert Bukenya and Prime MinisterNsibambi submit proposals to the Constitutional ReviewCommission, seeking amendments to 88 articles of the1995 constitution. Among them was the repeal of article105(2) so as to remove presidential term limits. Also


included in the proposals are amendments to articles 69,70, 71, and 72 so as to allow multiparty politics and theintroduction of a federal element into the political struc-ture of Uganda.

January 2004 A group of MPs launch a campaign against the two-termpresidential limit at a funds-drive in Rushenyi archdeaconryin Ntungamo.The first face-to-face meeting between the multipartyand the Movement leaders kicks off.The supreme court rules that the Constitutional(Amendment) Act 13 of 2000 was null and void becausethe procedure for amending the constitution had not beenfollowed.

February 2004 The Uganda Supreme Court rules in the case of Obbo andAnother versus Attorney General that the offence under sec-tion 50 of the penal code was too vague and conjectural toprovide the necessary certainty required to impose anacceptable limitation on freedom of expression.

March 2004 The presidents of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania sign a pro-tocol to set up a Customs Union at a stadium in the north-ern town of Arusha.

April 2004 Renegade UPDF officer, Maj. Herbert Itongwa, is chargedwith war crimes in Denmark.Former Speaker of Parliament and NRM PoliticalCommisar James Wapakhabulo dies.President Yoweri Museveni is promoted to the rank of gen-eral and retired from the army. But, he says as Commanderin Chief he will continue fighting terrorists such as JosephKony.

May 2004 Government sells Uganda Electricity DistributionCompany Limited (UEDCL) to a UK-South Africangroup in a deal that promises at least US$65 million (Ug.shs. 125 billion) invested over the next five years.Government pledges to increase electricity access in ruralareas from just 1 percent in 2003 to up to 10 percent by2012.

June 2004 Uganda hosts the ninth Common Market for East andSouthern Africa (COMESA) business summit in Kampalaat the International Conference Centre. PresidentMuseveni takes the chair from Omar el Bashir of Sudan.


The Constitutional Court declares the Referendum Act 2000unconstitutional. The court rules that it was not passed inconformity with the procedures set out by the constitutionand therefore that the 2000 referendum was null and void.The NRM government appeals this decision to the supremecourt. The latter upheld the ruling of the ConstitutionalCourt but ruled the results of the Referendum valid.

July 2004 Uganda’s political roadmap to 2006 is released.Presidential and parliamentary elections to be held betweenFebruary and March, 2006.Brigadier Kenneth Banya, a Kony planner is captured bythe UPDF at Atiak 60km north of Gulu town.A US$150 million BIDCO oil palm project is commis-sioned at Bwendero on Kalangala Island.Government secures US$164 million credit from theWorld Bank to finance the ten-year Rural ElectrificationProgramme.

August 2004 National HIV/AIDS sero prevalence survey launched.President Yoweri Museveni is elected chair of the interimexecutive council of the National Resistance Movement(NRM).

Launch of the construction of the 21 km-long Ug. shs.105 billion Kampala Northern Bypass.Three opposition groups—Refrom Agenda (RA), TheParliamentary Advocacy Reform (Pafo) and the NationalDemocratic Forum (NDF) merge and form a new partycalled the Forum for Democratic Change (FDC).

September 2004 The supreme court rules that the results of the 2000 refer-endum on political systems was valid although the 2000Referendum Act under which it was held was null and void.Government sets aside Ug. shs. 270 billion for entandikwa(start up) loans for low-income earners and theunemployed.Government white paper on constitutional review processis presented to Parliament.

October 2004 Interim leadership of the National Resistance MovementOrganisation (NRM-O) party is named.

November 2004 Bidandi Ssali resigns as 2nd Vice chair of the NRM-O.He cites unhappiness over the Shs 5 million given toMovement MPS for drumming up support in their con-stituencies for a third term for President Museveni.


The FDCS application for political party status isgazetted—government spokesman Nsaba Buturvo saysthat FDC’s registration would be completed by December.

December 2004 Acholi religious and civic leaders and United Nations offi-cials meet LRA rebel commanders in a bush in Kitgum.

January 2005 President Yoweri Museveni ordered the army to resumeattacks against the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) rebelsafter last minute hitches scuttled a truce agreement.Government negotiators hand over an improved version ofa proposed cease-fire agreement to the LRA leader, JosephKony. The chief mediator, Betty Bigombe, delivers thememorandum.Sudan’s first vice president, Col. Dr. John Garang, vows toflush LRA rebel leader Joseph Kony out of Southern Sudanif he does not accept negotiations to end the northern war.Museveni reshuffles his cabinet, a move observers say willstrengthen his hold on power and minimize disagreementsin government ahead of a crucial national debate over thelifting of presidential term limits.The government warns of serious food shortages in thenortheastern Karamoja region, where 70 percent of some700,000 pastoralists are estimated to be in need of food.The United Nations World Food Program announces thatit has already started feeding 60,000 children under theschool-feeding program and will feed up to 500,000people in the region by June.The Ugandan Health Ministry warns that children innorthern districts could face the risk of contracting polio,following a reported outbreak of the disease in neighboringSudan. The ministry announces a plan to conduct tworounds of supplementary polio vaccinations, targeting chil-dren up to five years, in the districts bordering Sudan.Three people are killed and 30,000 left homeless followinga wave of fires that strikes a number of camps for theInternally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in the north. Thecamps are home to more than 1.6 million people displacedby the war.

February 2005 Uganda denies allegations in a UN report that it had con-tinued to violate a UN-imposed arms embargo in easternDRC.President Yoweri Museveni offers the LRA rebels aneighteen-day truce from February 4, 2005 to pave way for


talks to end the war that has destabilized northern Ugandasince 1987.FDC party is launched in Kampala and it immediately kicksoff its election campaign with Rizza Besigye as its candidatefor president in the 2006 elections. Besigye is to beendorsed by a delegates conference in May.The Buganda Lukiiko (Parliament) endorses the federoproposals agreed between Mengo and the government.The long-awaited Omnibus Constitution (Amendment)Bill is presented to Parliament. It seeks to amend 120 arti-cles of the 1995 constitution.LRA Chief Spokesman, Brig. Sam Kolo Otto, surrenders toUPDF in Gulu.A policy paper drafted by Finance Minister Dr. EzraSuruma is published in the press (The New Vision) outlin-ing a radical shift in Uganda’s economic philosophy. Thepolicy paper proposes a move to interventionist model ofmacroeconomic management away from the neoliberal,laissez-faire approach.A revised political roadmap is released, stating that the gen-eral elections for the president, MPs, and LC5 chiefs is totake place between February 12, 2006 and March 12,2006.Prime Minister Apolo Nsibambi launches the first evernational policy to improve the lives of Internally DisplacedPersons (IDPs) at Speke Resort, Munyonyo. The forty-page document is the first of its kind in Africa.Butebo County MP, Dr. Stephen Malinga, crosses from theUPC party to the Movement at a rally addressed byPresident Museveni at Budaka subcounty headquarters.

March 2005 The NRM acquires a prime land—plot 38, HarringtonRoad—in Kampala City, where it plans to build its head-quarters.President Museveni says the political crusade that hedescribed as Ekisanja (third term) was intended to safe-guard the achievements of the Movement from opposition.Three MPs instruct their lawyers to file a case in theConstitutional Court challenging the legality ofthe Omnibus Constitutional Amendment Bill before theParliament. MPs Abdu Katuntu (Bugweri), Ben Wacha(Oyam North), and Miria Matembe (Mbarara WomenRepresentative) argue that it is unconstitutional for the


executive to bring one bill seeking to amend 120 articles ofthe 1995 Constitution.Bob Geldof, Irish rock star and developing world cam-paigner, in an impassioned speech at the launch of TonyBlair’s Commission for Africa report in London, saysPresident Yoweri Museveni should not stand for a third term.Cabinet agrees to revise the controversial OmnibusConstitutional Amendment Bill after MPs and theJudiciary questioned its legality and the way it was pre-sented. The cabinet agrees to separate the parts that hadbeen lumped together in the original bill.President Yoweri Museveni tells members of the NRM par-liamentary group that he wants to remain active in nationalpolitics even when he retires.Army Commander Lt Gen. Aronda Nyakairima halts theoperations of Access Finance Services (AFS) in Bombobarracks. The company was offering loans to soldiers at54 percent interest.The 2002 Uganda Population and Housing Census reportsthat Uganda’s population has grown to about 26.8 million.The government directs district officials to let registeredpolitical parties operate normally and warns of punitivemeasures against those who ignore the directive.Chief peace negotiator Betty Bigombe returns to the coun-try to restart efforts to broker peace for war-torn northernUganda.Leaders from the north arrive in The Hague to ask theInternational Criminal Court (ICC) to refrain from issuingarrest warrants against LRA leaders. In 2004, the ICC ini-tiated investigations into northern Uganda and thenannounced plans to issue arrest warrants for the top leader-ship of the LRA, including Kony. Local leaders fear thewarrants would jeopardize the peace process.New York–based lobby group Human Rights Watch criti-cizes Uganda’s policy shift toward “abstinence-only pro-grammes” to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS, saying itcould reverse significant gains made in the fight against thepandemic. Uganda had been widely acclaimed for its suc-cess in the fight against HIV/AIDS, managing to bringprevalence rates down from more than 20 percent in thelate 1980s to around 6 percent.Seventeen demonstrators, protesting proposals that wouldallow Museveni to seek a third tem in office, are arrested inthe capital, Kampala.


April 2005 Installation of a 50-megawatt (MW) thermal electricitygenerating plant to reduce the number of load-sheddingdays begins.Parliament rescinds its earlier rejection of a motion for aresolution to hold a referendum to change the politicalsystem, 189 voted in favor of the reversal while 24 votedagainst.The International Court of Justice (ICJ) at The Haguebegins hearing a case brought by the DRC accusingUganda of invading its territory and committing humanrights violations. The DRC is seeking “compensation fromUganda in respect of all acts of looting, destruction,removal of property.”UNHCR says some 1,118 Rwandans have crossed intosouthwestern Uganda since April 1. They are thought to befleeing arrest and prosecution by Rwanda’s traditional jus-tice tribunals, or gacaca, which were set up to try suspectsof the 1994 Rwandan genocide, in which an estimated937,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus were murdered. Over1,100 of the asylum-seekers are later denied asylum by theUganda government and advised to return home.Great Britain announces that it will withhold some 5 millionpounds (US$9.6 million) in budgetary support for theUgandan government over concerns about the pace of thecountry’s political transition. Ugandan opposition groupswelcome the move, but the government insists thetransition is being handled in a transparent manner.

May 2005 The National Resistance Movement (NRM) launches anambitious mobilization program to recruit 8,000,000 vot-ers out of the 12,000,000 eligible voters countrywideahead of 2006 elections.Ugandan parliament votes in favor of holding a referendumin July in which Ugandans would decide on whether toreturn to a multiparty system of government.The World Bank gives Uganda $4.2 million to fund a proj-ect to resettle an estimated 11,000 former rebel fighters. In2000, the Uganda government enacted an amnesty lawthat granted unconditional amnesty to any Ugandanengaged in armed rebellion who surrendered anddenounced violence.

June 2005 Industrial nations agree to immediately write offUS$40 billion of multilateral debt owed by eighteen of theworld’s poorest countries, including Uganda.


In the first round of voting Parliament shows overwhelm-ing support for Constitutional Amendment No. 3 that liftspresidential term limits: 232 MPs voted for, 50 against and1 abstention. Army representative Col. Fred Bogereabstained.President Museveni announces the abolition of graduatedtax in the state of the nation address. A new tax wouldreplace graduated tax. In the same speech Museveniannounces that government would assume the responsibil-ity of paying salaries of district chairpersons, district execu-tive members, subcounty and town council chairpersons.Museveni also announces a Constituency DevelopmentFund in which each constituency would receive Ug. shs. 10million per year to fund development projects. MPs wouldalso receive the equivalent of 6,060 dollars per year per per-son. Fundraising by MPs would be illegal followingamendment of the leadership code.Museveni pledges to forgive Kony if he surrenders to gov-ernment forces, assuring him that he will receive the sametreatment and immunity from persecution as other formerLRA commanders such as former rebel spokesman Kolo.UNHCR reports that at least 7,000 Sudanese refugeesfleeing ethnic tension and food shortages have crossed intoUganda, joining some 160,000 Sudanese refugees alreadyin the country.In Kampala, police use tear gas and water cannons to dis-perse dozens of demonstrators protesting a plan to amendthe constitution to remove presidential term limits.

July 2005 Sudan’s Vice President John Garang is killed in a helicoptercrash as he returns home to Sudan after two days of talkswith President Museveni in Uganda. Thirteen Ugandansalso killed including President Museveni’s chief pilotCol. Nyakairu.Referendum on political systems is held, 92.5 percent ofvoters favor return to multiparty system but unofficial voterturnout is listed at 30 percent with the ElectoralCommission putting it at 47 percent.Parliament approves the creation of 20 new districts, andproposals for two more are sent into committee.The Ugandan army reports that three weeks earlier it hadkilled Ali Kony, eldest son of LRA leader Joseph Kony, andrebel chief-of-staff Maj. Gen. Lakati Owor.


Uganda achieves its targets for the number of HIV-positivepeople accessing antiretroviral (ARV) therapy six monthsearlier than anticipated. It had intended to have 60,000people on the life-prolonging drugs by the end of 2005,but by July, over 65,000 were receiving the treatment.At least forty armed Uganda cattle rustlers are killed byKenyan warriors and security forces when they cross intoneighboring Kenya to raid cattle. The incident reinforcesthe need to disarm the Kenya-Uganda border communi-ties, which are notorious for cattle rustling and violence.

August 2005 K-FM radio, a subsidiary of Monitor Publications Ltd. isclosed down and talk show host Andrew Mwenda isarrested and detained on sedition charges.The health ministry reports that a rare strain of cholera bac-teria has claimed the lives of 56 people and infected 2,200others in several areas of Uganda over the past fourmonths. IDPs in the north are particularly susceptible,given that they live on less than three litres of water per day,far below the 15-litre-a-day international recommendation.First Deputy Prime Minister Lt. Gen. Moses Ali warns for-mer fighters of Uganda National Rescue Front (UNRF) IIagainst resuming armed rebellion.High court orders immediate release (on bail) of 12 treasonsuspects allegedly connected with the People RedemptionArmy (PRA) and detained for two years without trial. Theywere captured in Ituri Province of eastern DRC in 2003.Salva Kiir is sworn in as vice president of Sudan, replacingthe late Col. John Garang.A new report by the Ugandan health ministry and its part-ners finds that an estimated 1,000 people displaced by thenineteen-year war in northern Uganda die every week fromviolence or disease, notably malaria and HIV/AIDS.The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malariatemporarily suspends all of its grants to Uganda and asksthe Ministry of Finance to put in place a mechanism forensuring effective management.

September 2005 A major road linking northern Uganda and southernSudanese garrison town of Juba is reopened after almosttwo decades of disuse and insecurity. The road is expectedto improve commerce between the two countries.Hundreds of LRA soldiers—under the leadership of LRAdeputy commander-in-chief Vincent Otti—flee Sudan for


northeastern DRC. Uganda demands that the Congolesegovernment disarm and extradite the insurgents andthreatens to invade its western neighbor, should they fail todo so. Kinshasa vows to resist any invasion and later sends2,000 troops to the northeastern town of Aba to attemptto disarm the rebels.The International Monetary Fund (IMF) announces can-cellation of $3.7 billion of Uganda’s debt.The Parliamentary Committee on Legal and ParliamentaryAffairs starts holding hearings on the PoliticalOrganizations Bill 2005 that would replace the PoliticalOrganizations Act 2002 and move Uganda into a multi-party system.Lords Resistance Army (LRA) leaders relocate to theDemocratic Republic of Congo. Uganda seeks quick arrestwarrants for them.Uganda pays Cable News Network (CNN) US$1million topromote the country as a tourist destination.British MPs, 119 in all, sign and forward a petition toPrime Minister Tony Blair in London calling for free andfair elections in Uganda. The petition is in support of aletter written by Sam Akaki the external coordinator andlobbyist for the Forum for Democratic Change (FDC).

October 2005 The International Criminal Court (ICC) issues arrest war-rants for five senior LRA members, including Kony andOtti. The move is met with mixed reactions—the EUpraises the effort to end impunity, but local northern lead-ers say it is the final nail in the coffin of the fragile peaceprocess.President Museveni shuffles army and promotes Lt. Gen.Aronda Nyakairima to chief of defense forces of the UPDF.Inspector General of Police Maj. Gen. Katumba Wamala ispromoted to the post of lietenant general and named com-mander of the land forces. UPDF’s Chief PoliticalCommissar Kale Kayihura is promoted to Major Gen. andappointed Inspector General of Police.Former President Milton Obote dies in a South Africanhospital and is buried in his home town of Akokoro, Apacdistrict.Dr John Sentamu is confirmed pending enthronement asninety-seventh archbishop of York at a ceremony atSt. Mary-le-Bow, Cheapside, London.


Col Kiiza Besigye, Uganda’s opposition leader, returnshome after four years of self-imposed exile in South Africa.Besigye, who lost to Museveni in his presidential bid in2001, is chosen as the candidate for the main oppositionparty FDC.LRA rebels in the north kill two humanitarian workers.The next day, relief agencies suspend all nonessential fieldmissions as a precautionary measure until the situation isreviewed. Another aid worker is killed in early November,further threatening humanitarian activity in the north.

November 2005 The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malarialifts its suspension of grants to Uganda, citing the country’s“intensive efforts” to rectify “serious mismanagement” offunding.NRM-O National Delegates Conference ends in Kampalaafter nominating president Museveni as party chair andpresidential candidate for the 2006 general elections.Museveni threatens to suspend judges and magistrates whopass “biased” judgments over land issues.Kampala Mayor John Ssebaana Kizito is electedDemocratic Party (DP) president general by the party’sdelegates conference. Kizito is to top the DP presidentialticket.Police arrest Besigye on charges of treason and rape. He isaccused of leading an armed, DRC-based insurgency, thePeople’s Redemption Army (PRA), and is also linked to theLRA. Besigye is denied bail and is also charged by a militarycourt of terrorism and illegal possession of weapons. Hisarrest provokes violent riots across Kampala and leads tolocal and international criticism of the government’shandling of the case.Parliament votes to amend the constitution in order torepeal Art. 105(a) of the constitution and thus lift presi-dential term limits.Over 30 armed men from a new unit of the MilitaryIntelligence, also known as the Black Mamba Urban HitSquad, cordon off the premises of the high court duringthe hearing of the bail application for FDC presidentialcandidate Kizza Besigye and fourteen others accused oftreason. Judge Edmund Sempa Lugayizi withdraws fromthe treason case, citing intimidation. The Uganda LawSociety plans protest against government intimidation ofthe judiciary.


The Commonwealth selects Uganda as the venue for its2007 summit.

December 2005 Great Britain cuts another 15 million pounds(US$26.4 million) in direct assistance to Uganda due toconcerns about democracy. Similar measures had beentaken throughout the year by Ireland, the Netherlands,Norway, and Sweden, with several of them questioning thegovernment’s commitment to democratic reform.The International Court of Justice (ICJ) rules that Ugandaviolated the nonuse of force in international relations andof nonintervention when it invaded the DemocraticRepublic of Congo (DRC) in 2003. Uganda is ordered topay US$10 billion in compensation. The ICJ also foundthe DRC in violation of obligations owed to Uganda underthe Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961when its armed forces attacked the Ugandan embassy inKinshasa and maltreated Ugandan diplomats and otherindividuals on the embassy premises.

January 2006 Uganda introduces new regulations for foreign journalistsand shifts accreditation from the legally mandated MediaCouncil to the newly formed Media Center. All foreignjournalists are forced to re-register and get clearance fromthe Media Center before traveling more than 100 km out-side Kampala. Accreditation for a Canadian journalist iswithheld and that of BBC reporter Will Ross cut from oneyear to four months.President Museveni launches the NRM-O manifesto for2006 at the Kampala Sheraton Hotel.High Court Justice John Bosco Katutsi refuses to dismissthe rape case against FDC President Kizza Besigye sayingthat he has a case to answer.Opposition MPs Reagan Okumu and Michael Ocula areacquitted of murder. The two were accused of master-minding the death of Movement chairman, AlfredBongomin of Pabo subcounty, Gulu.

February 2006 First multiparty presidential and parliamentary electionsheld in Uganda in over two decades. President Museveniwins a third term with 59 percent of the vote. FDC presi-dential candidate Kizza Besigye garnered 37 percent. FirstLady Janet Museveni wins the Ruhaama parliamentary seatEuropean Union (EU) observers endorse the February 23general elections.


The Buganda parliament (Lukiiko) rejects the regional tiersystem proposed under the Constitutional Amendment Act(CAA) that was enacted in 2005. The CAA provides forregional governments headed by a directly elected chiefexecutive and calls for the Buganda Katikiro (prime minis-ter) to be directly elected.High Court Justice John Bosco Katutsi withdraws from theKizza Besigye treason case, citing health and conflict-of-interest reasons, and claims by some government officials(e.g. Gen. David Tinyefuza) that he was biased in hisrulings.President Museveni and the UPDF Army Council holdtheir last session in the life of the Movement government.

March 2006 FDC presidential candidate Kizza Besigye files petition insupreme court challenging the results of the February2006 polls and asking for a new election. Besigye accusesthe NRM of intimidation, lack of freedom and trans-parency, unfairness, and violence.Government opens account at the Bank of Uganda for thedeposit of refunds from those who misappropriated moniesfrom the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, andMalaria.Parliament passes the Labor Disputes (arbitration andsettlement) Bill 2005.It is announced that a Joint Country Coordination andMonitoring Committee (JCCMC) is to be launched for therecovery and development of northern Uganda. TheJCCMC would include government officials and represen-tatives from the United States, Norway, the UnitedKingdom, the Netherlands, Canada, South Africa, theWorld Bank, WFP, UNDP, and civil society groups such asCivil Society Organization for Peace in Northern Ugandaand the Northern NGO Forum.The Electoral Commission (EC) officially releases results of302 members of the eighth Parliament. NRM has 187members, 37 are independents, FDC has 35, UPC 13, DP9 and CP and Jeema have one each.

April 2006 Supreme Court rules 4–3 in favor of President YoweriMuseveni and the Electoral Commission in the electionpetition filed by the Forum for Democratic Change (FDC)that sought to nullify President Museveni’s victory in theFebruary 23 poll.


May 2006 Yoweri Museveni is sworn in for a third term as president atKololo Ceremonial Grounds.Edward Ssekandi and Rebecca Kadaga are elected, unop-posed, as speaker and deputy speaker respectively. Ssekandipresides over the first session of the eighth Parliament.Nasser Sebaggala is sworn in as LC5 chairman of Kampalaat KCC gardens.LRA leader Joseph Kony is reportedly given at leastUS$20,000 by the southern Sudanese government to buyfood.

June 2006 President Museveni announces his cabinet for the thirdterm. Eriya Kategaya returns to the NRM government asfirst deputy prime minister and minister of East Africanaffairs.

July 2006 President Museveni meets members of the opposition forthe first time since the February general elections.Divestiture Reform and Implementation Committeeapproves the US$ 33.5 million sale of Kinyara Sugar Worksto RAI of Kenya.Omoro County MP Jacob Oulanyah leaves UPC and joinsthe NRM-O after announcing his intention to run for aseat on the EA legislative assembly.LRA leader Joseph Kony agrees to hold pace talks with theNRM government in Juba Sudan. South Sudan govern-ment to mediate the talks.

August 2006 LRA announces withdrawal from peace talks with theKampala government, citing loss of confidence in the gov-ernment of Southern Sudan and mediator Riek Machar.LRA second in command Vincent Otti announces a unilat-eral cease fire against Uganda army.Sweden resumes aid in the form of budget support toUganda albeit at half the level originally planned for the2006 fiscal year. Budget support would amount toUS$ 4.7 million for 2006.LRA third-in-command, Maj. Gen. Raska Lukwiya, iskilled by the UPDF in Kitgum district. The internationalCriminal Court (ICC) that had indicted Lukwiyarequests the Uganda government for access to his body forconfirmation.American ambassador Steven Browning decries corruptionin Uganda and its adverse effects on democratic


institutions. He urges the judiciary to have the courage ofprotecting its independence.Government of Japan pledges US$ 3million to supportresettlement of internally displaced persons in northernUgandaJudiciary introduces a public relations office and namesNakawa High Court Circuit Judge Eriasi Kisawuzi as itspublicist.Regan Akena, former escort to LRA commander TollbertYadin Nyeko, is killed, west of Wiceri, Amum District, byUPDF forces.The Buganda government opens up parts of Bulange toinvestors.The government of Uganda signs an agreement withJoseph Kony and the LRA to cease hostilities on both sides.The agreement also calls for LRA rebels, including Konyand his three deputies, to assemble in designated areas.NRM-O candidates win a majority of elections in new dis-trict elections in the north. Cecelia Ogwal returns toParliament as Dokolo woman MP.


Notes

Chapter 1 Introduction

1. Zartman et al. (1995), Herbst (2000), Callaghy et al. (2001), Kaiser and Okumu(2004), Chabal (1999).

2. See for example, James Tindigarukayo (1990), J. J. Barya (1993), GilbertKhadiagala (1995), Arne Bigsten and Steve Kayizzi-Mugerwa (1992), Kizito(1993), Joshua Mugyenyi (1993).

3. This term is used in the context of Uganda’s cultural milieu. It refers to what inLuganda might be referred to as “emirembe gya Museveni.” Literally translatedit means the times of Museveni. I also use the term to refer to a political orderushered in and dominated by Museveni. Like other political dispensations (e.g.,Pax Americana), Pax Musevenica is not used here to mean order, stability, andpeace throughout Museveni’s time as president—the northern insurgency is aclear example of this. Nonetheless, the term denotes the last 20 years duringwhich Museveni has been the imprimatur of politics in Uganda.

4. Until 1995 Local Councils (LCs) were called Resistance Councils (RCs). Toavoid confusion they will be referred to as Local Councils in the rest of the book.

5. I credit Ron Kassimir for raising this point.6. Naomi Chazan, Robert Mortimer, John Ravenhill, and Donald Rothchild,

Politics and Society in Contemporary Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne RiennerPublishers, 1992), p. 41.

7. Otwin Marenin, “The Managerial State in Africa: A Conflict CoalitionPerspective,” in Zaki Ergas (ed.), The African State in Transition (London:McMillan, 1987); Also see Joel Migdal, Strong Societies, Weak States: State-SocietyRelations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press, 1988).

8. Max Weber, Economy and Society (New York: Bedminster Press, 1968).9. Quoted from Michael Bratton and Nicolas van de Walle, Democratic Experiments

in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 61–62.

10. See Patrick Chabal, Africa Works: Disorder as a Political Instrument(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999).

11. Ibid., p. 39.12. Bratton and van de Walle (1997), p. 61.13. Patrick Chabal, “Violence, Politics and Rationality in Contemporary Africa,”

Inaugural Lecture, Kings College, 1997.14. Ibid., p. 5.15. Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton (eds.), Governance and Politics in Africa

(Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992), pp. 12–14.

16. Goran Hyden, “Governance and the Study of Politics,” in Goran Hyden andMichael Bratton (eds.), Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder, CO: LynneRienner Publishers, 1992), p. 6.

17. Robert Fishman, “Rethinking State and Regime: Southern Europe in Transitionto Democracy,” in World Politics vol. 42, no. 3 (April 1): 428.

18. Hyden and Bratton (1992), pp. 19–20.19. Seymour Martin Lipset, “Social Conflict, Legitimacy and Democracy,” in William

Connolly (ed.), Legitimacy and the State (New York: New York University Press,1984), p. 88.

20. Foster Byarugaba, “The Undemocratic Nature of the Western Model ofDemocracy: The View of the Third Universal Theory,” paper presented at theFirst Joint Uganda-Libya Seminar on the Green Book, held at MakerereUniversity, Kampala, Uganda, March 2–4, 1990.

21. Robert Dahl’s definition, for example, includes the concept of the proceduralminimum, that is, the procedures that must prevail in order for meaningfuldemocracy to operate, and these are frequent and fair elections, the right to voteand the right to form relatively autonomous associations.

22. See Terry Lynn Karl’s “Imposing Consent? Electoralism vs. Democratization inEl Salvador,” in Paul W. Drake and Eduardo Silva (eds.), Elections andDemocratization in Latin America, 1980–85 (San Diego: Center for Iberian andLatin American Studies, UCSD, 1986).

23. Mahmood Monshipouri, Democratization, Liberalization & Human Rights inthe Third World (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995), pp. 15–16.

24. Larry Diamond, “Three Paradoxes of Democracy,” in Larry Diamond and MarcF. Plattner (eds.), The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Baltimore: JohnsHopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 111–123.

25. Diamond (1996), p. 33.26. Lipset (1984), p. 97.27. See Nelson Kasfir, The Shrinking Political Arena: Participation and Ethnicity in

African Politics with a Case Study of Uganda (Berkeley: University of CaliforniaPress, 1976).

28. E. Khiddu Makubuya. “Transition to Democracy in Uganda: Legal andOrganizational Changes in State Structure,” paper prepared under the auspicesof The Project Entitled “Managing the Transition to Democracy in Ugandaunder the National Resistance Movement,” Kampala, Uganda, August 1994.

29. Joel D. Barkan, “The Rise and Fall of a Governance Realm in Kenya,” in GoranHyden and Michael Bratton (eds.), Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder,CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992), p. 167.

30. Guy Martin, “Preface: Democratic Transition in Africa,” in Issue: A Journal ofOpinion vol. XXI, no. 1–2 (1993): 6–7, African Studies Association (ASA).

31. Chabal (1999).32. Alfred Stepan (1978), p. 53.33. Lipset (1984), p. 88.34. This claim assumes the legitimacy of the constitution itself but as shall be seen in

the chapters to come, the Ugandan people have had to wrestle with thevery notion of constitutionalism since political independence in 1962. For adetailed study of constitutionalism in Uganda since 1986 see Erica Bussey,“Constitutional Dialogue in Uganda,” in Journal of African Law vol. 49, no. 1(2005): 1–23.

35. Lipset (1984), pp. 90–91.

Notes232

36. C. Friedrich, “Legitimacy and Political Obligations,” in From Man and HisGovernment: An Empirical Theory of Politics (London: McGraw-Hill BookCompany, Inc., 1963).

37. Lipset (1984), p. 88.38. Nelson Kasfir, “ ‘Movement’ Democracy, Legitimacy and Power in Uganda,” in

Justus Mugaju and J. Oloka Onyango (eds.), No-Party Democracy in Uganda:Myths and Realities (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2000), p. 65.

39. Nelson Kasfir, “The Uganda Elections of 1989: Power, Populism andDemocratization,” in Hansen, H., and Michael Twaddle (eds.), ChangingUganda: The Dilemmas of Structural Adjustment and Revolutionary Change(London: James Currey, 1991a), pp. 149.

40. Staffan I. Lindberg, “The Democratic Qualities of Multiparty Elections:Participation, Competition and Legitimacy in Africa,” in Commonwealth &Comparative Politics vol. 42, no. 1 (March 2004): 66.

41. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) found that Uganda violated the principlesof nonuse of force in international relations and of nonintervention; that it violatedits obligations under international human rights law and international humanitar-ian law; and that it violated other obligations owed to the Democratic Republic ofthe Congo. See New Vision, www.newvision.co.ug, December 19, 2005.

42. The extent to which Uganda can be said to have overcome its ethnic, religious,and ideological differences is still questionable.

43. The only commodity that brought these different societies in commercial contactwas salt. It became the one essential need around which barter trade was built inprecolonial Uganda. See Samwiri Rubaraza Karugire, A Political History of Uganda(Nairobi: Heineman, 1980), pp. 26–29.

44. This term is borrowed from David Apter, “Democracy for Uganda: A Case forComparison,” in Daedalus vol. 124, no. 3 (Summer 1995).

45. George Padmore, Africa: Britain’s Third Empire (London: Dennis Dobson,1948), p. 113.

46. Ibid., p. 24.47. Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy

of Late Colonialism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), p. 41.48. Karugire (1980), p. 15.49. Mamdani (1996), p. 42.50. Ibid., p. 42.51. Ibid., p. 43.52. Karugire (1980), Chapter Two.53. It is not clear, however, whether this form of political organization has effectively

dissolved interethnic conflicts. Movement politics—the NRM in particular—hasnot, for instance, resolved the traditional North/South conflict that has beenexacerbated by the LRA war in the north. The predominance of ethnic western-ers in positions of political and economic power follows traditional patterns inwhich the ethnicity of the chief executive often determines the ethnic identity ofthe ruling/economic class.

54. Karugire (1980), pp. 49–97.55. See Joshua B. Rubongoya, “Ethnicity and Class in Public Policy: A Synthetic

Approach to the Study of Development in Kenya and Uganda,” UnpublishedPh.D. dissertation, University of Denver, Denver CO, 1991b, pp. 189–223.

56. See Samwiri Lwanga-Lunyiigo. “The Colonial Roots of Internal Conflict,” in KumarRupesinghe. Conflict Resolution in Uganda (London: James Currey, 1989), p. 28.

Notes 233

57. Crawford Young, The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective (NewHaven: Yale University Press, 1994).

58. Mamdani (1996), Chapter Two.59. Young (1994), p. 3.60. Khadiagala (1995), p. 66.61. Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, ed. Guenther

Roth and Claus Wittich (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), p. 215.62. Johnnie Carson (former U.S. ambassador to Uganda), “A Legacy in Danger,”

speech made at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, AfricaProgram, June 2, 2005.

63. See Stephen F. Burgesss, “Structural Adjustment and Economic Reform,” inPaul Kaiser and Wafula Okumu (eds.), Democratic Transitions in East Africa(Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2004).

64. Bratton et al. (2001) and Therkildsen (2002).

Chapter 2 Continuities in Delegitimation—Postcolonial Tyranny

and Anarchy (1962 to 1986)1. Karugire (1980), p. 190.2. Jorgensen (1981), p. 221.3. The Uganda Argus, May 21, 1962, p. 2; May 22, 1962, p. 1.4. For fear of socialist elements in the UPC, the Baganda (KY) made sure that the

independence constitution guaranteed no change in Buganda’s land tenure sys-tem. The UPC also let be the privileges of the traditional hierarchy of Buganda.These included (a) control over Buganda’s representatives in the NationalAssembly through election by the Lukiiko, (b) control over local government,(c) control over administering customary law by the Buganda courts, (d) controlover a new local constabulary and palace guard, and (e) guarantee of federalfunds for the cost of services run by the Buganda government, initially set at aminimum of Ug. shs. 1.5 million per month. All these were constitutionally pro-tected (Jorgensen 1981), pp. 217.

5. Uganda, “The Uganda (Independence) Order in Council, 1962,” section 26 (1).Quoted in Jan Jelmert Jorgensen, Uganda: A Modern History (New York:St. Martin’s Press, 1981), p. 219.

6. Gukiina (1972), Jorgensen (1981), Kabwegyere (1995), Mugaju (1999).7. Mugaju (1999), p. 19.8. This constitution is popularly known as the “pigeonhole” constitution because

Obote simply deposited it in MPs pigeon holes without any consultationwhatsoever.

9. Ibid., p. 23.10. Jorgensen (1980), p. 230.11. Khadiagala (1995), p. 36.12. The subordination of the legislature to the executive branch of government, itself

a product of the colonial state, repeats itself in all of the postcolonialgovernments in Uganda. Chapter 6 probes the same patterns under the NRMgovernment.

13. One such example involved the arrest and detention of Abu Mayanja and theeditor of Transition, Rajat Neogy, following the publishing of Mayanja’s letter

Notes234

complaining about the judiciary’s use of political ideology in deciding the out-come of cases.

14. Obbo and Another v. Attorney General: Constitutional Appeal to the SupremeCourt no. 2 of 2002.

15. One illustrative example of this was the 1964 elections for the urban authoritiesof Kampala and Jinja.

16. This policy/tactic was particularly common in Ankole where the DP was quitestrong.

17. A good example of this was the fraudulent resolution (August 1962) by theBusoga district council to contravene the Uganda-Order-in-Council regula-tions. When the Uganda High Court reversed the resolution, and thus theelections, the parliament of Uganda enacted a law that reversed the highcourt.

18. Karugire (1980), p. 191.19. This is a weakness suffered by Museveni, especially in the latter part of NRM rule.

Key allies and supporters of the NRM have been alienated and expelled orresigned from the Movement.

20. Jorgensen (1981), p. 232.21. Gukiina (1972), Mamdani (1976), Kabwegyere (1995), Jorgensen (1981),

Gershenberg (1972).22. Jorgensen (1981), p. 235.23. Kabwegyere (1995), pp. 211–217.24. Ibid., p. 215.25. Perlmutter (1981), p. 41.26. Mudoola (1988), p. 131.27. This point was made by Robin Luckham in his synthesis of the S. E. Finer and

Janowitz schools of thought, both of which explain why the military intervenesso frequently in African states. See William Tordoff, Government and Politics inAfrica (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984).

28. Jorgensen (1981), pp. 270–271.29. Khadiagala (1995), p. 37.30. Jorgensen (1981), p. 274.31. Okoth (1995), p. 183.32. Uganda, The Action Programme, 1977 to 1978 and 1979 to 1980 (Entebbe:

Ministry of Planning and Economic Development, 1977), p. 46.33. Uganda, The Action Programme, 1977 to 1978 and 1979 to 1980 (Entebbe:

Ministry of Planning and Economic Development, 1977), p. 46.34. Kasfir (1983), p. 90.35. See Jorgensen’s (1981), for a list of “High-ranking Pre-Coup Officers in Army

after the Coup” and what happened to them, p. 270.36. Ali Mazrui, Soldiers and Kinsmen: The Making of a Military Ethnocracy in

Uganda (New York: Sage Publications, 1975), p. 45.37. Khadiagala (1995), p. 35.38. Chabal and Daloz (1999), p. 106.39. Tindigarukayo (1988), Brett (1994).40. Kasfir (1983), p. 97.41. Ibid., p. 98.42. Ddungu (1994), p. 19.43. Ibid., p. 20.

Notes 235

Chapter 3 Reconstructing the State:Challenges of Legitimacy and Power

Consolidation

1. See Ali Mazrui, “The Social Origins of Ugandan Presidents: From King toPeasant Warrior,” in Canadian Journal of African Studies vol. 8, no. 1 (1974).

2. Quoted from, Ron Kassimir, “Reading Museveni: Structure, Agency andPedagogy in Ugandan Politics,” in Canadian Journal of African Studies vol. 32,no. 2/3 (1999): 649–673.

3. Yoweri Museveni, What is Africa’s Problem? (Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota Press, 2000), p. 7.

4. Museveni abhors what he calls a “barbaric practice” among his people of usingthe skin of a dead calf to coax milk out of its mother. Quoted from Kassmir 1999,p. 656.

5. Mikeal Karlstrom “The Cultural Kingdom in Uganda: Popular Royalism and theRestoration of the Buganda Kingship,” Ph.D. Disssertation, University ofChicago, 1999, p. 28.

6. Ronald Kassimir (1999), pp. 649–673.7. Oloka-Onyango (2000), John Jean Barya (2000), Jjuuko (1999).8. For details of these activities, see Ondoga ori Amaza, Museveni’s Long March

from Guerilla to Statesman (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 1998) and YoweriMuseveni, Sowing the Mustard Seed: The Struggle for Freedom and Democracy inUganda (London: Mcmillan Education Limited, 1997).

9. Karlstrom (1999), p. 28.10. Ibid., p. 440.11. Ibid., p. 447.12. Ibid., p. 447.13. Ondoga ari Amaza, Museveni’s Long March from Guerilla to Statesman (Kampala:

Fountain Publishers, 1998), p. 29.14. Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy

of Late Colonialism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).15. The exception is Mozambique, where an administrative system was put in place

during the liberation struggle against Portuguese oppression and later becameintegrated into the postcolonial state structure. In fact, Uganda’s LC system wasmodeled after Mozambique’s.

16. Yoweri Museveni, Sowing the Mustard Seed: The Struggle for Freedom andDemocracy in Uganda (London: Macmillan Education Ltd., 1997),pp. 189–190.

17. See Ondoga ori Amaza (1998); Southall (1988).18. See Goran Hyden, “Governance and the Study of Politics,” in Goran Hyden and

Michael Bratton (eds.), Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder, CO: LynneRienner Publishers, 1992), pp. 17–19.

19. Nelson Kasfir, “ ‘Movement’ Democracy, Legitimacy and Power in Uganda,” inJustus Mugaju and Oloka Onyango (eds.), No-Party Democracy in Uganda:Myths and Realities (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2000), p. 65.

20. Kasfir (2000), p. 65.21. Rosalind E. Boyd, “Empowerment of Women in Uganda: Real or Symbolic,” in

The Review of Political Economy vol. 45/46 (1988): 106–116.22. E. A. Brett, Providing for the Rural Poor: Institutional Decay and Transformation

in Uganda (Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 1993), p. 39.

Notes236

23. Ibid., p. 39.24. Apolo Nsibambi, “Resistance Councils and Committees: A Case Study from

Makerere,” in Holger Bernt Hansen and Michael Twaddle (eds.), ChangingUganda: The Dilemmas of Structural Adjustment & Revolutionary Change(Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 1991b), p. 279.

25. In 1995, the government formally dropped the term “resistance,” acknowledg-ing a return to normal conditions. Resistance Councils (RCs) thus became LocalCouncils (LCs).

26. Kasfir (2000), p. 60.27. Ibid.28. Kasfir (2000); John Jean-Barya (2000); J. Oloka Onyango (2000).29. See Nelson Kasfir, “The Uganda Election of 1989: Power, Populism and

Democratization,” in Holger Bernt Hansen and Michael Twaddle (eds.),Changing Uganda: The Dilemma of Structural Adjustment & RevolutionaryChange (Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 1991a).

30. The few restrictions included postprimary educational qualifications or posses-sion of a professional certificate; support of four members of the electoral collegeand filling out two simple forms (see Kasfir 1991a).

31. Reduced nomination requirements maximized the scope and breadth of candi-dates qualifying to run because they did not need a network or political organi-zation in order to be effective.

32. Kasfir (2000), p. 67.33. Kasfir (1991a), p. 261.34. Government control of the LC system had been legalized by LC Statute

no. 9 (1987).35. Quoted from Kasfir (1991a), p. 247.36. Benjamin J. Odoki, “The Challenge of Constitution-Making and Implementation

in Uganda,” in J. Oloka Onyango (ed.), Constitutionalism in Africa: CreatingOpportunities, Facing Challenges (Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 2001).

37. Quoted from Odoki (2001), p. 267.38. Oliver Furley, “Democratisation in Uganda,” in Commonwealth and

Comparative Politics, vol. 38, no. 3 (November 2000): 85.39. According to Oliver Furley and James Katalikawe (1997), the idea of a demo-

cratically elected Constituent Assembly debating the draft constitution was aresult of public pressure coming especially from proponents of political party pol-itics. The NRM itself was initially reluctant to endorse the idea because it pre-ferred the National Resistance Council (NRC) that was more favorable to itsinterests.

40. See Oliver Furley 1999; H. B. Hansen and M. Twaddle (eds.), 1995; SabitiMakara et al. 1996; Oliver Furley and J. Katalikawe 1999.

41. See John-Jean B. Barya, Popular Democracy and the Legitimacy of the Constitution:Some Reflections on Uganda’s Constitution-Making Process (Kampala: Center forBasic Research, 1993), p. 30.

42. See A. G. G. Gingyera Pincycwa, “Constitutionalism in Uganda: The Necessityfor Political Socialization,” paper prepared for a conference on the Dynamics ofPolitical and Administrative Change in Uganda, Makerere University, Kampala,Uganda. 1992.

43. Arthur Bainomugisha, “The Empowerment of Women,” in Justus Mugaju (ed.),Uganda’s Age of Reforms: A Critical Overview (Kampala: Fountain PublishersLtd., 1999).

Notes 237

44. Aili Mari Tripp (2000); Sylvia Tamale (1999); Rosalind Boyd (1988); AnneMarie Goetz (2002), etc.

45. Uganda now has a total of six districts and women are guaranteed a seat fromeach in the national sixty seven legislature or parliament.

46. Sylvia Tamale, “Gender and Affirmative Action in Post-1995 Uganda: A NewDispensation, or Business as Usual?” in J. Oloka-Onyango (ed.), Constitutionalismin Africa: Creating Opportunities, Facing Challenges (Kampala: FountainPublishers Ltd., 2001).

47. These are figures from the Academic Registrars office, Makerere University,Kampala, Uganda, quoted from S. Tamale (2001).

48. Lady Justice Kireju, Justice Constance Byamugisha, Justice Kikonyogo andJustice Alice Mpagi Bahigaine.

49. In 1988 alone Victoria Sekitooleko, Rhoda Kalema, Joyce Mpanga, FlorenceNkurukenda, Betty Bigombe, and Gertrude Njuba were appointed ministers.

50. Ruth Mukama, Visible at Last (ACFODE: 1995).51. Christine Obbo, “Women, Children and a ‘Living Wage,’ ” in Holger Bernt

Hansen and Michael Twaddle (eds.), Changing Uganda: The Dilemma ofStructural Adjustment and Revolutionary Change (Kampala: FountainPublishing Ltd., 1991), p. 98.

52. Mary Mugyenyi, “The Impact of Structural Adjustment Programmes onUgandan Rural Women” (mimeo), 1997.

53. Aili Mari Tripp, Women & Politics in Uganda (Madison: The University ofKampala Wisconsin Press, 2000), p. 113.

54. D. A. Low, “The Dislocated Polity,” in Holger Bernt Hansen and MichaelTwaddle (eds.), Uganda Now: Between Decay and Development (Athens, OH:Ohio University Press, 1988), pp. 36–53.

55. Sallie Simba Kayunga, “The Impact of Armed Opposition on the MovementSystem,” in Justus Mugaju and J. Oloka-Onyango (eds.), No-Party Democracy inUganda: Myths and Realities (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2000).

56. C. Asowa-Okwe, “Politics and the Crisis in the North,” paper presented at aFaculty of Law Symposium, Makerere University, Uganda, April 26, 1996.

57. Patrick Chabal and Jean-Pascal Daloz, Africa Works: Disorder as PoliticalInstrument (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), p. 76.

58. Sallie Simba Kayunga in Mugaju and Oloka-Onyango (2000), p. 114.59. The New Vision newspaper, April 16, 1992.60. Asowa-Okwe (1996), p. 22.61. See report by Richard Carver of Amnesty International entitled “Uganda’s

Human Rights Record: 1986–88” (London, October 1988).62. This admission was made in an interview between journalist Caroline Clara

Lamwaka and Maj. Gen. Salim Saleh. See Caroline Clara H. Lamwaka, “TheCivil War and Peace Process in Uganda,” unpublished MA thesis, University ofBradford, U.K., 1996.

63. The 1989 elections for Resistance Councils and National Resistance Council(NLC) were marred by insecurity stemming from rebel and civil war activity inGulu, Apac, and Kumi districts, Usuk County, and Soroti district.

64. Asowa-Okwe (1996), p. V.65. Ellen Hauser, “Ugandan Relations with Western Donors in the 1990s: What

Impact on Democratisation?” in Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 37, no. 4(1999): 621–641.

Notes238

66. Mugaju and Oloka-Onyango (2000), p. 110. Also Tedd Gurr, Minorities at Risk:A Global View of Ethnopolitical Conflicts (Washington DC: U.S. Institute ofPeace Studies, 1993).

67. OECD, Geographical Distribution of Financial Flows to Aid Recipient:Disbursements, Commitments, Country Indicators 1990–1994 (Paris: OECD,1996), quoted in Paul Kaiser and F.Wafula Okumu (eds.), DemocraticTransitions in East Africa (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2004), p. 156.

68. Joshua Mugyenyi, “IMF Conditionality and Structural Adjustment under theNational Resistance Movement,” in Hansen and Twaddle (1991), p. 74.

69. K. Sawar Lateef, “Structural Adjustment in Uganda: The Initial Experience,” inHansen and Twaddle (1991), p. 21.

70. Ibid. (1991), p. 25.71. Ibid. (1991), p. 31.72. Ibid. (1991), p. 69.73. This is a reference to the 1991 U.S. Democratic Party presidential campaign slo-

gan. Bill Clinton, then a candidate, used it to chastise his opponent (GeorgeW. Bush) and to keep the campaign focused on the economy, which was inrecession.

74. Larry Diamond, Seymour Martin Lipset, and Juan Linz (eds.), “Building andSustaining Democratic Government in Developing Countries: Some TentativeFindings,” in World Affairs vol. 150, no. 1 (Summer 1987): 5–19.

75. This is point no. 10 of the Ten Point Programme of the National ResistanceMovement. See Museveni (1997), appendix.

76. Mugyenyi in Hansen and Twaddle (1991), p. 70.77. E. O. Ochieng, “Economic Adjustment Programmes in Uganda, 1985–88,” in

Hansen and Twaddle (1991), p. 56.78. See Arne Bigsten and Steve Kayizzi-Mugerwa, “Is Uganda an Emerging

Economy?” A report for the OECD project: Emerging Africa. Research reportno. 118. Nordiska Afrikainstitutet (Uppsala 2001), pp. 21–22.

79. See the “Background to the Budget 1989–90,” Ministry of Planning andEconomic Development, Kampala, July 1989, pp. 61–64. Economist E. O. Ochieng in Hansen and Twaddle (1991, 59) warns, however, that production data(contrary to monetary statistics) and especially agriculture, are highly suspect dueto lack of census, for instance, for over twenty years.

80. See Justus Mugaju (ed.), Uganda’s Age of Reforms: A Critical Overview(Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 1999), p. 4.

81. Quoted in Pamela Mbabazi, Joshua Mugyenyi and Timothy Shaw, “UgandanElections 2001: Lessons for/from Democratic Governance,” paper presented atthe African Studies Association Annual meeting in Houston TX, November2001.

82. See Bruce Heilman and Laurean Ndumbaro, “International Context,” in PaulJ. Kaiser and F. Wafula Okumu (eds.), Democratic Transitions in East Africa(Aldershot: Publishing Ltd., 2004).

83. Mette Kjaer, “Fundamental Change or no Change? The Process ofConstitutionalizing Uganda,” in Democratization vol. 6, no. 4 (Winter 1999): 108.

84. The debate against “no-party democracy” has been sustained by scholars and politi-cians in both intellectual and popular media. These include Oloka-Onyango (2000),Mamdani (1980), Jjuuko (1999), Barya (2000), Mao (1999), Kjaer (1999).

85. The Courier (1993), no. 141, September 17–23. Quoted in Kjaer vol. 6, no. 4(1999): 93–113.

Notes 239

86. Early NRM rhetoric was chock full of references to “modernization” and “back-wardness.” Museveni’s early speeches (see Museveni 2000) explain his bush war asintended to gain state power in order to promote the former and fight the latter.

87. Kasfir (1991a), p. 266.88. Museveni (1997).89. Also see chapter 6 for the role of political discourse in legitimizing NRM rule.90. Kassimir (1999), p. 658.91. See H. Bienen and J. Herbst, “The Relationship between Political and Economic

Reform in Africa,” Comparative Politics vol. 29, no. 1(1996): 23–42.

Chapter 4 Institutional Change and Democratization

1. Khadiagala (1995), p. 35.2. The process itself started in 1988. See chapter 13.3. Furley and Katalikawe (1997); Furley (1999); Cullimore (1994); Kjaer (1994).4. Barya (1995); Gingyera-Pinycwa (1992); Kasfir (1991b); Sewanyana (1996);

Waligo (1994a); Oloka-Onyango (1996); etc.5. Furley and Katalikawe (1997), p. 256.6. Barya (1995), pp. 10–12.7. Stephen Ndegwa and Ryan E. Letourneau, “Consitutional Reform,” in Paul

Kaiser and F. Wafula Okumu (eds.), Democratic Transition in East Africa(Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2004), p. 89.

8. J. Oloka-Onyango, Governance, Democracy and Development in ContemporaryUganda (Kampala: Center for Basic Research, 1998), p. 21.

9. Article 269 limits the activities of political parties and, therefore, of politicalorganization, generally.

10. Bratton and Lambright (2001).11. There is a broad intersection between these two groups. Most federalists favor

multipartyism and decentralization.12. In 2003, the NRM relented and acceded to full recognition of party politics in

the 2006 general elections.13. This point is also strongly made by J. Oloka-Onyango (2000), p. 52.14. Stephen Ndegwa and Ryan E. Letourneau (2004).15. The Uganda Constitutional Review Commission has proposed and the NRM has

agreed to this.16. Aaron Griffiths and James Katalikawe, “The Reformulation of Ugandan

Democracy,” in Can Democracy be Designed: The Politics of Institutional Choicein Conflict-Torn Societies (London and New York: Zed Books, 2003), p. 106.

17. Afrobarometer Briefing Paper no. 1: Key Findings about Public Opinion inAfrica (April 2002), p. 2.

18. See Roger Tangri and Andrew Mwenda (2001), “Corruption and Cronyism inUganda’s Privatization in the 1990s,” in African Affairs vol. 100, no. 393: 117–133.

19. Nsibambi (1998), p. 56.20. J. Oloka-Onyango, “Uganda’s ‘Benevolent’ Dictatorship,” in Current History:

A Journal of Contemporary World Affairs vol. 96, no. 610 (May 1997). Oloka-Onyango makes the claim that the reintroduction of traditional kingships wasmerely instigated by the NRM’s need for Baganda votes in the 1996 generalelection.

Notes240

21. Holger Bernt Hansen and Michael Twaddle (eds.), Developing Uganda (Oxford:James Currey, 1998).

22. Figures quoted from Jeni Klugman et al., Conflict and Growth in Africa vol. 2,Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda (Development Centre of the Organization forEconomic Co-Operation and Development, 1999), p. 36.

23. E. A. Brett, “Rebuilding Organization Capacity in Uganda under the NRM,” inJournal of Modern African Studies vol. 32, no. 1 (1994): 67.

24. Per Tidemand, “New Local State Forms and ‘Popular Participation,’ in Buganda,Uganda,” in The New Local Level Politics in East Africa: Studies on Uganda,Tanzania and Kenya, Research Report no. 95 (Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 1994),pp. 35–37.

25. Per Tidemand (1994), pp. 37–38.26. Lynn S. Khadiagala, “The Failure of Popular Justice in Uganda: Local Councils

and Women’s Property Rights,” in Development and Change vol. 32 (2001):55–76.

27. Khadiagala (2001), p. 72.28. Per Tidemand (1994), p. 35.29. Ibid., p. 33.30. District Administrators were later renamed Resident District Commissioners

or RDCs.31. Per Tidemand (1994), p. 41.32. Giovanni Andrea Cornia (2001), p. 80.33. Per Tidemand (1994) found few instances such as the one in Mbale town where

LC5s successfully forced corrupt civil servants out of office (1994:42).34. Ibid., p. 40.35. Ibid., p. 45.36. Ibid., p. 48.37. Ibid., p. 48.38. This policy initiative followed recommendations made by the Commission of

Inquiry into the Local Government System (June 1987) set up by PresidentMuseveni shortly after taking power.

39. See Brett (1994, p. 94). The issue of decentralization was also very contentiousin the CA debates.

40. Bigsten and Kayizzi-Mugerwa (2001), p. 90. Financial decentralization was phasedin beginning with thirteen districts in financial year 1993 to 1994 and finallycovered the entire country in 1995 to 1996.

41. Bigsten and Kayizzi-Mugerwa (2001), p. 90.42. The 1997 Act replaced the 1967 Local Administrations Act and the 1964 Urban

Authorities Act both of which concentrated power in the office of the minister oflocal government.

43. In their paper presented to the annual African Studies Association (ASA) confer-ence in Houston, Texas (2001), Pamela Mbabazi et al. report an incident inKabale, where the RDC prevented a popular talk show host critical of Musevenifrom moderating Museveni’s appearance on Voice of Kigezi radio during the2001 elections. See Mbabazi et al., Ugandan Elections 2001: Lessons for/fromDemocratic Governance. Unpublished.

44. See Anne Marie Goetz (2002); she notes the creation of six new districts justbefore the 1996 presidential elections and eleven new ones in 2000 just in timefor the 2001 presidential polls.

Notes 241

45. Geoffrey Tukahebwa, “The Role of District Councils in Decentralizatition,” inApolo Nsibambi (ed.), Decentralization and Civil Society in Uganda: The Questfor Good Governance (Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 1998).

46. Ibid., p. 29.47. Cornia (2002), p. 98.48. Ole Therkildsen (2002), “Uganda’s Referendum 2000: The Silent Boycott:

A Comment,” in African Affairs vol. 101, no. 98: 101, 238.49. See Brett (1994), p. 67.50. Ibid., pp. 68–69.51. Michael Karlstrom (1999). Quoted from Ole Therkildsen (2002), p. 240.52. See Makara Sabiiti, “Political and Administrative Relations in Decentralization,”

in Apolo Nsibambi (ed.), Decentralization and Civil Society in Uganda: TheQuest for Good Governance (Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 1998).

53. Anne Metter Kjaer, “ ‘Old Brooms Can Sweep Too!’: An Overview of Rulers andPublic Sector Reforms in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya,” in The Journal ofModern African Studies vol. 42, no. 3 (2004): 398, 407.

54. For details on Uganda’s civil service reforms see Peter Langseth, “Civil Service inUganda: Objectives and Strategic Plans,” in P. Langseth, J. Katorobo, E. Brett,and J. Munene (eds.), Uganda: Landmarks in Rebuilding a Nation (Kampala:Fountain Publishers Ltd., 1995).

55. Langseth et al. (1995), p. 97.56. Arne Bigsten and Steve Kayizzi-Mugerwa, “Is Uganda an Emerging Economy?”

A Report for the OECD Project “Emerging Africa” Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.Research Report no. 118 (1991), p. 87.

57. World Bank presentation at the Donor Consultative Group Meeting in Paris,August 1994. Quoted in Langseth et al. (1995), pp. 112.

58. Bigsten and Kayizzi-Mugerwa (2001), p. 81.59. Ibid., pp. 28–29.60. The poor showing by the Democratic Party candidate Paulo Ssemwogerere was

partly due to his alliance with the UPC party that was hugely unpopular inBuganda.

61. See John Jean Barya. 1997. “Democracy and the Issue of Culture in Uganda:Reflections on the (NON)Restoration of the Ankole Monarchy,” in East AfricanJournal of Peace & Human Rights vol. 4, no. 1(1997): 556–569.

62. For a detailed account of the development and status of Buganda, seePierre Englebert, “Born-Again Buganda or the Limits of TraditionalResurgence in Africa,” in Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 40, no. 3(2002): 345–368.

63. Administrative structures include the recently reestablished traditional counties(amasaza), subcounties (gombolola), and parishes (miluka); and Kabaka-appointed chiefs at each of these levels.

64. Englebert (2002), p. 349.65. Ibid., p. 355.66. Mikael Karlstrom, “The Cultural Kingdom in Uganda: Popular Royalism and the

Restoration of the Buganda Kingship,” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Chicago,1999.

67. See J. Oloka-Onyango, “Reflections on the Process of ConstitutionalDevelopment in Uganda,” in a draft paper presented at the East African LawSociety Conference on Constitutionalism, held in Mombasa, Kenya, August 15–16,

Notes242

1996. Also see Doornbos and Mwesigye (1994), Mukyala-Makiika (1998), andJ. Oloka-Onyango (1997).

68. Karlstrom (1999), p. 27.69. Ekech (1975), quoted in Englebert (2002), p. 347.70. The Daily Monitor newspaper archives.71. Stephen F. Burgess, “Structural Adjustment and Economic Reform,” in Wafula

Okumu and Paul Kaiser (eds.), Democratic Transitions in East Africa (Aldershot:Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2004).

72. Franz Schurmann, “Africa is Saving Itself,” in Choices: The Human DevelopmentMagazine vol. 5, no. 1 (1996): 5.

73. Roy Laishley, “Uganda: Turning Growth into Prosperity,” in Africa Recoveryvol. 7, no. 2 (October 1993): 19.

74. Franz Schurmann, “Africa is Saving Itself,” p. 7.75. Burgess (2004).76. E. A. Brett (1994), Justus Mugaju (1999), Apolo Nsibambi (1998), Geoffrey

B. Tukahebwa (1998), Tangri and Mwenda (2001).77. For a thorough discussion of government corruption in Uganda’s privatization

process, see Tangri and Mwenda (2001).78. Roy Laishley, “Uganda: Turning Growth into Prosperity,” p. 19.79. Statistical Sources: Uganda (1996), Background to the Budget 1996/97; IMF:

International Financial Statistics; World Bank (1995); World Bank DevelopmentData; Statistical Abstract 1998; Bank of Uganda, Monthly Economic Reports.Quoted from Bigsten and Kayizzi-Mugerwa (2001).

80. World Bank, World Development Report (various editions); World Bank (1997);World Bank files.

81. Roy Laishley, “Uganda: Turning Growth into Prosperity,” p. 18.82. Ibid., p. 19.83. David E. Sahn, Paul A. Dorosh, and Stephen D. Younger (eds.), Structural

Adjustment Reconsidered: Economic Policy and Poverty in Africa (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 12.

84. See Oliver Furley, “Democratization in Uganda,” in Conflict Studies no. 317,Research Institute for the Study of Conflict and Terrorism, 1999.

85. Furley (1999), p. 3.86. These observations complemented the criticisms against the NRM concerning

the latter’s disproportionately longer period for campaigning compared to that ofMuseveni’s two opponents. Furthermore, Museveni used government sponsoredpolitical education classes (mchaka mchaka) to influence voters against his oppo-nents who did not have equal access to the media to balance the NRM’s negativecampaign. Finally, there were questions of incumbents misusing government carsand positions to boost their campaigns.

87. Nelson Kasfir, “ ‘No-Party Democracy’ in Uganda,” Journal of Democracy vol. 9,no. 2 (1998): 50.

88. Furley (1999), p. 6.89. Surveys showed that most voters considered the presidential election the most

important and some claimed they were simply tired of the election processitself—a sign of voter fatigue (The Monitor, June 28–29, 1996, and The NewVision, June 28, 1996).

90. The East African, August 19–25, 1996.91. Lipset (1984), p. 88.

Notes 243

Chapter 5 Political Legitimacy Threatened:The Return of Presidentialism

1. Sallie Simba Kayunga, “The Impact of Armed Opposition on the MovementSystem in Uganda,” in Justus Mugaju and J. Oloka Onyango (eds.), No-PartyDemocracy in Uganda: Myths and Realities (Kampala: Fountain Publishers,2000), p. 118.

2. See John Clark, “Explaining Ugandan Intervention in Congo: Evidence andInterpretations,” in Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 39, no. 2 (2001):261–287. Also see Prunier G. (1999), “L’Ouganda et les Guerres Congolaises,”in Politiques Africaine vol. 75 (1999): 43–59.

3. Clark (2001), p. 270.4. Withdrawal of Uganda forces was officially communicated to the president of the

UN Security Council in a letter (S/2001/461) from First Deputy PrimeMinister/Minister for Foreign Affairs Eriya Kategaya dated May 8, 2001.

5. Economic Intelligence Unit (EIU), Country Report: Uganda, 3rd Quarter 1999,London: EIU. Quoted in John Clark (2001).

6. See Oliver Furley, “Democratisation in Uganda,” in The Journal ofCommonwealth and Comparative Politics, vol. 38 no. 3 (November 2000):79–102.

7. Arne Bigsten and Steve Kayizzi-Mugerwa, “Is Uganda an Emerging Economy:A Report for the OECD Project ‘Emerging Africa.’ ” Uppsala: NordiskaAfrikainstitutet: Research Report no. 118, 2001, p. 34.

8. Bigsten and Kayizzi-Mugerwa (2001).9. See Akiiki B. Mujaju (1997), pp. 29–37.

10. Uganda’s GDP growth dropped from 8.4 percent in 1995 to 4.7 percent in1996—the first year of Uganda’s intervention. One year—1999—after the moreprotracted intervention in 1998, Uganda’s GDP growth was 5 percent downfrom 7.5 percent. Inflation in 1996 rose from 3 percent the previous year to5 percent and in 1998 it reached 10 percent up from 4 percent in 1997 (SeeBigsten and Kayizzi-Mugerwa (2001), p. 22.

11. A. G. G. Gingyera Pinycwa, “To Be or not to Be: The Precarious Status and Roleof Parliaments in the ‘Transition to Democracy,’ in East Africa,” in The UgandaJournal vol. 44 (December 1997). Also see Oliver Furley (1997).

12. Ibid., p. 40.13. Ibid., p. 41.14. For details of the alleged offenses by ministers and members of Parliament see

Oliver Furley (April 1999).15. New Vision, November 18, 1997.16. Scandal seems to have followed him into his second reappointment as the

Ministry of Health was implicated in alleged mismanagement of funds providedby The Global Fund to Fight AIDS. Fund officials suspended its grants in 2005until a better management mechanism was put in place.

17. Furley (April 1999), p. 8.18. New Vision, October 30, 1997.19. Furley (April 1999), p. 9.20. The Monitor, November 27 and December 1, 1997 quoted in Furley (1999).21. Kizza Besigye, “An Insider’s View of how NRM lost the ‘Broad-base’ ” in

Sunday Monitor, November 5, 2000.22. The Monitor, June 1, 1998.

Notes244

23. At this point the president had a 93 percent popularity rating while resident dis-trict commissioners and LC5s had 53 percent and 59 percent, respectively. In2003, satisfaction with MP performance had improved to 64 percent, but wasstill the lowest among other representatives. See Bratton et al., “Democracy andEconomy in Uganda: A Public Opinion Perspective,” in Afrobarometer WorkingPaper no. 4, 2000; and Carolyn Logan et al., “Insiders and Outsiders:Varying Perceptions of Democracy and Governance in Uganda,” AfrobarometerWorking no. 27, 2003 (www.afrobarometer.org).

24. Furley (1999), p. 10.25. Tripp (2000), p. 64.26. Ibid., p. 64.27. Anne Marie Goetz, “No Shortcuts to Power: Constraints on Women’s Political

Effectiveness in Uganda,” in Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 40, no. 4(2002): 554.

28. Goetz (2002), p. 555.29. See Njuguna Ng’ethe, Strogmen, “State Formatiom, Collapse, and Reconstruction

in Africa,” in I. William Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States: The Disintegration andRestoration of Legitimate Authority (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers,1995).

30. Sigmund Neumann (1932), quoted in Martin Seymour Lipset (1984), p. 95.31. See Michael Bratton and Gina Lambright, “Uganda’s Referendum 2000: The

Silent Boycott,” in African Affairs (2001), vol. 100, no. 380, 429–452.32. Bratton et al., “Democracy and Economy in Uganda: A Public Opinion

Perspective,” Afrobarometer Working Papers no. 4, 2000.33. Bratton and Lambright (2001), p. 450.34. Ibid., p. 451.35. Ole Therkildsen, “Uganda’s Referendum 2000: The Silent Boycott:

A Comment,” in African Affairs (2002), pp. 101, 231–241.36. According to Afrobarometer Paper no. 27, The LC system is associated with the

NRM’s policy of decentralization and devolution and to the degree that levels ofLC efficacy are so high Ugandans’ attitudes toward democracy and theMovement are likely to be positive.

37. Lipset (1984), p. 93.38. Ibid., p. 93.39. New Vision, June 28, 2001.40. When interviewed in August 2001, Professor Foster Byarugaba of Makerere

University, a member of the Constitutional Review Commission, revealed thattwo of the burning issues before the Commission were the passing of the PoliticalOrganizations Bill that would pave the way for the legalization of political partypolitics and constitutional amendments that would prevent government interfer-ence in the election process.

41. A Constitutional Review Commission completed its work in December 2003 andrecommended, among other things, that the Constitutional amendment toremove presidential term limits be put to a popular vote by referendum.

42. Kjaer Mette, “ ‘Old Brooms can Sweep Too!’ An Overview of Rulers and PublicSector Reforms in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya,” in Journal of Modern AfricanStudies vol. 42, no. 3 (September): 103.

43. Quoted from Pamela Mbabazi, Joshua Mugyenyi, and Timothy Shaw, “UgandanElections 2001: Lessons for/ from Democratic Governance,” paper presented atthe African Studies Association (ASA) annual conference, December 2001,Houston, TX, USA.

Notes 245

44. The New Vision newspaper, Monday, December 11, 2000.45. See The Monitor newspaper, Tuesday, November 21, 2000.46. A blatant example of this was the Mbarara Municipality race in which the presi-

dent officially campaigned for Ngoma Ngime and decampaigned WinnieByanyima, Besigye’s wife. The latter won, but not until she overcame a SupremeCourt challenge following the elections, from the Ngime/NRM camp.

47. A more detailed study of irregularities in the 2001 election can be found inAndrew Kibaya, “The 2001 Presidential Elections: A Step Backwards in theDemocratization Process in Uganda,” LL.B thesis, Makerere University LawSchool, Kampala, Uganda, July 2001.

48. According to The Monitor (Sunday, November 19, 2000), the then internalaffairs minister, Moses Ali, stopped aspiring candidates from campaigning and, ineffect, from visiting different parts of the country to hold what the PEA 2000called consultative sessions.

49. This technique was a throw back to the days of Obote I and the “one plus three”election proposal. Candidates running for parliamentary seats were required tostand for election in three regional constituencies other than their own. The pro-posal was ostensibly put forth to diminish subregional ethnic rivalry.

50. Pamela Mbabazi et al. (2001), p. 6.51. Pamela Mbabazi et al. (2001) assert that the other two strong pledges in

Museveni’s manifesto included building a professional army in the next five yearsand ensuring a smooth transition by putting in place a mechanism for an orderlyleadership succession, p. 9.

52. Aid as a percentage of GNP and gross domestic investment together with aid percapita have been calculated using World Bank (World Bank Development Data1998) figures for the years 1991 through 1996.

53. World Bank Group, Uganda, http://www.World Bank.org/afr/Ug2.htm,2000.

54. Quoted from Stephen F. Burgess, “Structural Adjustment and EconomicReform,” in Paul Kaiser and F. Wafula Okumu (eds.), Democratic Transitions inEast Africa (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2004), p. 126.

55. See Arne Bigsten and Steve Kayizzi-Mugerwa’s (2001) five sets of indicators foremerging African economies.

56. World Bank Group, Uganda.57. Susan Dicklitch, “Between Stability and Anarchy: The Struggle for Democracy in

Uganda,” American Political Science Association conference paper (August1999), p. 12.

58. Bigsten and Kayizzi-Mugerwa (2001), p. 29.59. The NRM, in collaboration with the World Bank has allotted US$ 75 million of

IDA funding (part of HIPC debt relief) to the Universal Primary Education plan.60. Figures are from Republic of Uganda, Ministry of Planning and Economic

Development; Background to the Budget. They are averages of fiscal years 1991to 1992 through 1997 to 1998.

61. See Roger Tangri and Andrew Mwenda, “Corruption and Cronyism in Uganda’sPrivatization in the 1990s,” in African Affairs (2000), vol. 100, no. 393,117–133. For perceptions of corruption in Uganda see Michael Bratton et al.,“Democracy, Economy and Gender in Uganda: A Report of a National SampleSurvey” (September 13, 2000). Survey was conducted by InternationalFoundation for Election Systems (mimeo).

62. Bratton et al. (2000).

Notes246

63. Carolyn Logan et al. Afrobarometer Working Paper no. 27, 2003.64. World Bank, Can Africa?, p. 76.65. Ibid., pp. 13–14.66. Carolyn Logan et al. (2003), p. 38.67. Ibid., p. 39.68. Ibid., p. 38.69. Ibid., p. 39.70. Guy Martin, “Preface: Democratic Transition in Africa,” in Issue: A Journal of

Opinion vol. xxi, no. 1–2 (1993): 6–7, African Studies Association (ASA).

Chapter 6 Convergence notFundamental Change

1. A presidency characterized by greater powers than the constitution allows.2. Earl Conteh-Morgan, “The Crisis of Legitimacy, Representation, and State hege-

mony,” in Paul Kaiser and F. Wafula Okumu (eds.), Democratic Transitions inEast Africa (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2004), p. 165.

3. Michael Bratton and Nicolas van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa:Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1997), pp. 55–66.

4. Ibid., pp. 65–66.5. Ibid. (1997), p. 63.6. See Tangri and Mwenda (2001).7. For a detailed account of the networks of businesses and other deals involving the

first family and friends see Joel D. Barkan, “An African ‘Success’ Past its Prime,”in Challenges and Change in Uganda. Presentation made at a Conference heldon June 2, 2005, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars: AfricaProgram, Washington, DC: USA.

8. Economic Intelligence Unit (EIU), Uganda: Country Report, April 2003(www.eiu.com).

9. EIU. Uganda: Country Report, January 2003, p. 15.10. The other companies included Trinity Investment, La Conmet, and Sagricof. See

EIU Country Report, June 2003, p. 15.11. See Barkan 2005.12. EIU Uganda Country Report, April 2004.13. The Observer newspaper quoted in The Daily Monitor, May 30, 2005.14. Roger Tangri and Andrew Mwenda, “Military Corruption & Ugandan Politics

Since the later 1990s,” in Review of African Political Economy vol. 30, no. 98,2003, p. 549.

15. The New Vision newspaper (Internet edition), “Police Charged Over Ghosts,”July 6, 2005.

16. According to the Switzerland-based, World Economic Forum, Uganda is theseventh most corrupt country in Africa. The French ambassador to Uganda, JeanPierre Thiant, is quoted in the October 2004 EIU Country Report(www.eiu.com) as expressing donors unhappiness about “luxurious investmentsfrom corruption-related practices sprouting up when the majority of Ugandansare poor.”

17. The highly respected IGG boss and author of this report, Jotham Tumwesigye’s,contract was not renewed—he has since been replaced. EIU, July 2005, p. 18.

Notes 247

18. In his 2005 State of the Nation address, President Museveni announced the fol-lowing new districts: Butarega, Karuhira, Kabingo, Ibanda, Koboko, Kaliro, andKabongo (see The Daily Monitor June 14, 2005, Internet edition www.monitor.co.ug).

19. See chapter 4. The legalization of traditional kingdoms (an important issue to theBaganda) preceded the elections of the Constituent Assembly (CA) that woulddebate the draft constitution. The NRM needed the Buganda vote in order towin a majority in the CA, pass a NRM-friendly constitution and later win the1996 general elections. In the run up to the 2006 elections Museveni has pro-posed the regional tier system to further the cause of Buganda’s federalist inter-ests although he argued that the proposal was for all districts wishing to establishregional government.

20. Anne Mette Kjaer, “Fundamental Change or No Change? The Process ofConstitutionalizing in Uganda,” in Democratization vol. 6, no. 4 (Winter1999): 105.

21. Michael Bratton and Nicolas van de Walle (1997), pp. 63–65.22. Ibid., p. 103.23. Bidandi Ssali later left the NRM to form a new party.24. Around this time of year Britain and Norway suspended aid worth US$9 million

and 2.4 million, respectively.25. See EIU, Uganda Country Report, April 2003.26. The New Vision, Tuesday, July 5, 2005.27. Kjaer (1999), p. 101.28. Ssemwogerere and Others v. Attorney General (Constitutional Petition no. 5 of

2003). Decided, March 21, 2003.29. The reference here is from Joel D. Barkan’s description of Moi’s governance style

in “Governance in Kenya,” in Hyden and Bratton (1992), p. 175.30. See The Monitor newspaper, “The VP Worried Under Probe,” May 26, 2005,

The Red Pepper newspaper, “M7 Blasts Bukenya,” May 27, 2005 and The NewVision newspaper, “Bukenya Denies Tongue Lashing,” June 3, 2005.

31. With exception of Kirunda Kivejinja, who holds a prominent position in theMovement Secretariat, the rest are still in the cabinet.

32. The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) Limited: Uganda Country Report,October 2001. EIU also refers to shock expressed by Amnesty International overthe tightened clampdown on the opposition and dissent generally, especiallysince the speech to the Bishops was preceded by MP Winnie Byanyima’s arrestand the harassment of her husband, Col. Kizza Besigye, who later fled Ugandainto exile.

33. Anne Mette Kjaer, “ ‘Old Brooms Can Sweep Too!’: An Overview of Rulers andPublic Sector Reforms in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya,” Journal of ModernAfrican Studies vol. 42, no. 3 (2004): 389–213.

34. The 1995 IGG report is quite critical of rampant corruption in the judiciary.35. Ssemwogerere and Others v. Attorney General (Constitutional Appeal no. 1 of

2000), and Ssemwogerere and Olum v. Attorney General (Constitutional Appealno. 3, 2000), decided June 25, 2004.

36. EIU: Uganda Country Report, October 2004. The Supreme Court upheld(September 2, 2004) the lower court’s ruling as to the unconstitutionality of theReferendum Act 2000, but declared the outcome of the 2000 Referendum, thatis, the continuation of the movement system valid.

37. The Daily Monitor newspaper, June 21, 2005.38. The New Vision newspaper, June 8, 2005 (Internet edition).

Notes248

39. In June, 2005 FDC Members of Parliament threatened to provide a list of thoseMovement MPs who received the Ug. shs. 5 million “bribe” to donor countriesand to ask the latter to impose a travel ban on these MPs as a sign of disapprovalfor corruption.

40. Porter Report (see Economist Intelligence Unit Limited, Country Report onUganda, April 2003).

41. EIU, Uganda Country Report, January 2004.42. See speech by noted political scientist Joel D. Barkan at the Woodrow Wilson

International Center for Scholars (Africa Program) (www.wwics.si.edu) inWashington, DC, June 2, 2005. Also see Voice of America news, newsVOA.comWashington, DC, June 29, 2005.

43. Joel D. Barkan at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars (AfricaProgram), June 29, 2005.

44. This claim was made by FDC leader Kizza Besigye in a letter to The DailyMonitor newspaper, July 11, 2005.

45. See Human Rights Watch, Hostile to Democracy: The Movement System andPolitical Repression in Uganda (1999) and U.S Department of State, 1999Country reports on Human Rights Practices: Uganda (2000).

46. See Amnesty International Uganda: The Full Picture—Uncovering Humanrights Violations by Government Forces in the Northern War, AI Index: AFR59/05/99, March 17, 1999.

47. Human Rights Watch Report, April 2004. http://hrw.org/reports/2004/uganda0404/3.htm and http://hrw.org/backgrounder/ africa/uganda0505/1.htm; Amnesty International Report 2004. http://www.Amnesty.org/report/2005/uga-summary-eng and http://www.Amnesty.org/report/2004/uga-summary-eng. Also see The Monitor newspaper (Internet edition), April 2, 2004.

48. Ibid.49. The New Vision newspaper (Internet edition), May 25, 2005.50. The Economist Intelligence Unit Limited: Country Report, January 2003,

p. 12. On August 11, 2005, in a speech to remember the late Sudanese vice pres-ident, John Garang, President Museveni again threatened to close down TheMonitor, Red Pepper, and other newspapers if they continued to broadcast newsstories deemed to be in “violation of national security.”

51. One day after the August 11 speech mentioned above, K-FM radio station wasclosed and talk show host Andrew Mwenda was detained and charged for havingviolated the sedition clause of the Penal Code. The violation was allegedlycommitted in a program Mwenda hosted during which he criticized Museveni’sgovernment for having indirectly caused the death of John Garang. See The NewVision newspaper (Internet edition), August 12, 2005 and The Monitor, August13, 2005.

52. Radio Veritas Kyoga was closed down in July 2003 because according to the gov-ernment it broadcast information helpful to the LRA rebels (EconomicIntelligence, October 2003).

53. In May of 2004, donors refused to approve Uganda’s budget because it con-tained a proposal for Ug. shs. 30 billion (US$15 million) as the cost of the refer-endum. See EIU Uganda Country Report, July 2004.

54. Daudi La Guma quoted in the BBC News story “Ugandans Vote in LandmarkPolls,” http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk, February 23, 2006.

55. Yellow is the NRM party color.

Notes 249

56. Orange is the FDC party color. It is used here more as a symbol of the opposi-tion, generally.

57. Since taking power in 1986 the NRM government has faced several rebel groupsthat include the following: Allied Democratic Front, Lakwena, West Nile.

58. See EIU Uganda Country Report, January 2003. The Paris-based journalists’rights group, Reporters sans Frontiers ranked Uganda 52nd out of 139 countriesin press freedom, although this was before the one-week government closure ofThe Daily Monitor newspaper in October of 2003.

59. Constitutional Petition no. 15 of 1997 was appealed to the Supreme Court inConstitutional Petition no. 2 of 2002. The Court decided the case, February 11,2004, ruling that the managing editor of The Monitor newspaper, Charles Obbo,and reporter, Frank Nyakairu, had not committed a crime under Section 50 ofthe Penal Code. The two journalists were charged and the newspaper shut downfor seven days allegedly because they printed an unfavorable story about the warin the north. The Supreme Court ruled further that the story and the govern-ment case was “too vague, wide and conjectural to provide the necessary cer-tainty required to impose an acceptable limitation on freedom of expression.” SeeErica Bussey, “Constitutional Dialogue in Uganda,” in Journal of African Lawvol. 49, no. 1(2005), 1–23.

60. This is according to an Afro-barometer survey conducted by Kampala WilskenAgencies Limited in April of 2005.

61. This survey was done by the Kenyan organization—Strategic Public relations andResearch on behalf of the American-based International Republican Institute in2003. Three thousand people (male and female) from 12 districts (rural andurban) were polled.

62. Bussey (2005), p. 1.63. The Global Fund Against AIDS was temporarily suspended in August of 2005

for financial mismanagement (seewww.theglobalfund.org/en/media_center/press/pr_050824.asp). A commission of inquiry set up by the Uganda govern-ment has exposed misallocations of monies from the fund (see “Mukula HiredPlanes for Global Fund Country Trips,” www.allafrica.com/stories, March 3,2006) recruitment of unqualified personnel due to political influence (see“Probe Grills Ministers Son,” in New Vision, March 11, 2006, www.newvision.co.ug and “IGG Probes Health Jobs,” in The Daily Monitor, October10, 2003, www.monitor.co.ug).

64. This is a practice common to all postcolonial regimes in Uganda. Idi Amin alsorelied on the Defense Council as the supreme executive organ of state.

Chapter 7 Conclusion

1. Khadiagala (1998), p. 38.2. David Easton, A Systems Analysis of Political Life (New York: John Wiley, 1965),

p. 288.3. This is J. J. Rousseau’s idea, quoted in James Miller (1994).4. Sunday Vision newspaper January 23, 2004. Since Museveni is generally more

popular in the rural areas, his job performance numbers are expected to be higherthan 65 percent.

5. See Kiiza Besigye, “An Insiders View of How NRM Lost the ‘Broad-Base,’ ” inSunday Monitor newspaper, Sunday, November 5, 2000. Besigye points out thatthe CA was negatively influenced by executive appointments including the

Notes250

appointments of Specioza Kazibwe and Kintu Musoke to the vice presidency andpremiership, respectively. This coupled with the appointment of other delegatesto ministerial positions and directorships marked the beginning of the purge ofmoderate voices in the government and by implication the end of political broad-basedness.

6. For a detailed exposition of the northern insurgency see Adam Branch, “NeitherPeace nor Justice: Political Violence and the Peasantry in Northern Uganda,1986–1998,” in the online journal African Studies Quarterly vol. 8, no. 2(Spring 2005): 1–31.

7. See Human Rights House Network, www.humanrightshouse.org/dllvis5.asp.8. Quoted from The Daily Monitor (Internet edition) June 9, 2005.9. This term is borrowed from Fareed Zakaria’s essay, “The Rise of Illiberal

Democracy,” in Foreign Affairs vol. 76, no. 6, November/December, 1999.Zakaria argues that more and more countries are adopting illiberal democracies,that is, elected and reelected regimes that sidestep liberal democracy by “rou-tinely ignoring constitutional limits on their power and depriving their citizens ofbasic rights and freedoms.”

10. Michael Bratton et al., “Democracy, Economy and Gender in Uganda: Report ofa National Survey,” survey conducted by International Foundation for ElectionSystems, September 13, 2000.

11. I. William Zartman (1995), p. 5.

Notes 251

B ibliography

Adamolekun, L. (ed.) (1999) Public Administration in Africa: Main Issues andCountry Studies. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Adams, B. N. (1981) “Uganda Before, During, and After Amin.” Rural Africanavol. 11: 15–25.

Afolayan, F. (1998) Structural Adjustment, Military Dictatorship, Civil Society andthe Struggle for Democracy in Nigeria. London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass andCompany Ltd.

Afshari, R. (1996) “An Essay on Scholarship, Human Rights, and State Legitimacy:The Case of the Islamic Republic of Iran.” Human Rights Quarterly vol. 18, no. 3:544–565.

“Against the Return of Ugandan Tyrants.” The Economist (April 4, 1998): 54–55.Amin, S. (1991) “The Democratic Question in the Third World.” Africa World

Review: Transition to Democracy vol. 5, no. 909 (April): 6–9.Amin, S., and Anyang’ Nyong’o, P. (eds.) (1987) Preface: The State and the Question

of ‘Development.’ Popular Struggles for Democracy in Africa. London: ZedBooks Ltd.

Apter, D. E. (1995) “Democracy for Uganda: A Case for Comparison. (The Questfor World Order).” Daedalus vol. 124, no. 3 (Summer): 155–191.

Arnest, W., and Expedit, D. (1991) “Electoral Mechanisms and the DemocraticProcess: A Study of 1989 RC-NRC Elections in Uganda.” Kampala, Uganda:Centre for Basic Research Publications.

Asowa-Okwe, C. (1996) “Politics and the Crisis in Northern Uganda, 1986–1996.”Unpublished paper, Faculty of Law, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.

Baingana, E. Y. (1994) “Privitisation—The Uganda Worker’s View.” Unpublishedpaper presented, Uganda Economics Association and Friedrich Ebert Foundation,Kampala, Uganda.

Bainomugisha, A. (1996) “The Empowerment of Women,” ed. J. Mugaju. Uganda’sAge of Reforms. Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd.

Bali, S. (1999) “Migration and Refugees,” ed. T. Risee, S. C. Ropp, and K. Sikkink.The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change. NewYork: Cambridge University Press.

Banugire, F. (1989) “Missing Links in the Management of the Uganda Economy—Agenda for Reforms.” Unpublished paper presented to Department ofEconomics, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.

Barkan, J. (1992) “The Rise of a Governance Realm in Kenya,” ed. G. Hyden andM. Bratton. Governance and Politics in Africa. Boulder, CO: Lynne RiennerPublishers.

Barongo, Y. R. (1990) “On the Dictatorship of the Majority: The Third UniversalTheory and the Question of Legitimate Authority.” Unpublished paper presentedat First Joint Uganda-Libya Seminar on the Green Book, Makerere University,Kampala, Uganda.

Barr, Abigail, Fafchamps, Marcel, and Owens, Trudy (2005) “The Governance ofNon-Governmental Organizations in Uganda.” World Development vol. 33, no. 4(April): 657–679.

Barya, J. (1993) Popular Democracy and the Legitimacy of the Constitution: SomeReflections on Uganda’s Constitution—Making Process. Kampala: Center for BasicResearch.

—— (1996) “Constitutional Reform in Uganda: A Focus on Human Rights,Citizenship and Land within the East African Cooperation Ideals.” Paper deliveredat the Conference of the East African Law Society, Mombasa, Kenya.

—— (1997) “Democracy and the Issue of Culture in Uganda: Reflections on the(NON)Restoration of the Ankole Monarchy.” East African Journal of Peace &Human Rights vol. 4, no. 1: 556–569.

Barya, J., and Oloka-Onyango, J. (1994) Popular Justice and Resistance CommitteeCourts in Uganda. Kampala, Uganda: Center for Basic Research Publications.

Basaliza, H. (1971) “Tooro in Transition (1890–1900).” Research essay presented tothe History Department, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda in partial fulfill-ment of the requirements for the B. A. degree.

Bastian, S., and Luckham, R. (eds.) (2003) Can Democracy Be Designed?: The Politicsof Institutional Choice in Conflict-Torn Societies. London: Zed Books Ltd.

Bayert, J. (1993) The State in Africa: The Politics of the Belly. London and New York:Longman.

Berman, B. J. (1997) “The Perils of Bula Matari: Constraint and Power in theColonial State.” Canadian Journal of African Studies vol. 31, no. 3: 556–569(review article).

—— (1998) “Ethnicity, Patronage and the African State: The Politics of UncivilNationalism.” African Affairs vol. 97, no. 388: 305–341.

Besigye, K. (2000) “An Insider’s View of How the NRM Lost the Broad-Base.”Sunday Monitor newspaper (November).

Bibangambah, J. (1989) “Managing Uganda’s Rural Economy.” Unpublished paperpresented at a conference/seminar on Management of Uganda’s Economy.

Bienen, H., and Herbst, J. (1996) “The Relationship Between Political and EconomicReform in Africa.” Comparative Politics vol. 29, no: 1 (October): 23–42.

Bigsten, A., and Kayizzi-Mugerwa, S. (2001) “Is Uganda an Emerging Economy?”A Report for the OCED Project—Emerging Africa, Nordiska Afrikainstituet,Research Report no. 118.

Black, D. (1999) “The Long and Winding Road: International Norms and DomesticPolitical Change in South Africa,” ed. T. Risee, S. C. Ropp, and K. Sikkink. ThePower of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change. New York:Cambridge University Press.

Boyd, R. E. (1988) “Empowerment of Women in Uganda: Real or Symbolic?”Review of African Political Economy vol. 16, no. 45/46: 106–117.

Branch, Adam (2005) “Neither Peace nor Justice: Political Violence and thePeasantry in Northern Uganda, 1986–1998.” African Studies Quarterly vol. 8,no. 2: 1–31.

Bratton, M. (1998) “Second Elections in Africa.” Journal of Democracy vol. 9, no. 3:51–66.

Bratton, M., Coulibaly, M., and Machado, F. (2002) “Popular Views of Legitimacy ofthe State in Mali.” Canadian Journal of Africa Studies vol. 36, no. 2: 197–238.

Bratton, M., and Lambright, G. (2001) “Uganda’s Referendum 2000: The SilentBoycott.” African Affairs vol. 100, no. 380: 429–452.

B ibliography254

Bratton, M., Lambright, G., Ludwig, K., True, J., and Sentamu, R. (2000)“Democracy, Economy, and Gender in Uganda: Report of a National SampleSurvey.” Afrobarometer Working Paper no. 4.

Bratton, M., and Van de Walle, N. (1994) “Neo-patrimonial Regimes and PoliticalTransitions in Africa.” World Politics vol. 46, no. 4: 453–489.

—— (1997) Democratic Experiments in Africa, Regime Transitions in ComparativePerspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Brett, E. A. (1992) Providing for the Rural Poor: Institutional Decay andTransformation in Uganda. Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd.

—— (1994) “Rebuilding Organization Capacity in Uganda Under the NationalResistance Movement.” The Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 32, no. 1: 53–80.

—— (1995) “Neutralizing the Use of Force in Uganda: The Role of the Military inPolitics.” The Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 33, no. 1: 129–152.

—— (1998) “Responding to Poverty in Uganda: Structures, Policies and Prospects.”Journal of International Affairs vol. 52, no. 1: 313–337.

Brittain, V. (1986) “The Liberation of Kampala.” New Left Review vol. 156(March/April): 51–61.

Brown, A. (2001) “Democratization and the Tanzanian State: EmergingOpportunities for Achieving Women’s Empowerment.” Canadian Journal ofAfrican Studies vol. 35, no. 1: 35–51.

Bunker, S. G. (1985) “Peasant Responses to a Dependent State: Uganda, 1983.”Canadian Journal of African Studies vol. 19, no. 7: 371–386.

Burgess, S. F. (2004) “Structural Adjustment and Economic Reform,” ed. P. Kaiserand F. W. Okumu. Democratic Transitions in East Africa. Aldershot: AshgatePublishing Ltd.

Bussey, Erica (2005) “Constitutional Dialogue in Uganda.” Journal of African Lawvol. 49, no. 1: 1–23.

Busuttil, J. J., Dahlberg, R. L., Oliensis, S. J., and Rosdeitcher, S. S. (1991) “Ugandaat the Crossroads—A Report on Current Human Rights Conditions.” Report ofthe Committee on International Human Rights of the Association of the Bar ofthe City of New York (July).

Bwana, C. N. (2000) “From Political Transitions to Democratic Consolidation:Uganda’s Experience Since 1986.” Paper presented at the Fourth AnnualWorkshop on Democratic Transitions in East Africa. Arusha, Tanzania.

Byarugaba, E. F. (1990) “The Undemocratic Nature of the Western Model ofDemocracy: The View of the Universal Theory.” Paper presented at the First JointUganda-Libya Seminar on the Green Book held at Makerere University, Kampala,Uganda.

—— (1994) “Managing the Transition to Democracy in Uganda Under the NationalResistance Movement: Civil Service and Parastatal Reform in Uganda.”Unpublished paper, Department of Political Science, Makerere University,Kampala, Uganda.

Callaghy, T., Kassimir, R., and Latham R. (eds.) (2001) Intervention andTransnationalism in Africa: Global-Local Networks of Power. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Carbone, Giovanni M. (2003) “Political Parties in a ‘No-Party Democracy’:Hegemony and Opposition under ‘Movement Democracy’ in Uganda.” PartyPolitics vol. 9, no. 4: 485–501.

Carothers, T. (1997) “Democracy Without Illusions.” Foreign Affairs vol. 76, no. 1(January–February): 85–100.

B ibliography 255

Chabal, P. (1992) Power in Africa: An Essay in Political Interpretation. London:MacMillan Press Ltd.

Chabal, P., and Daloz, J. (1999) Africa Works: Disorder as a Political Instrument.Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Chazan, P., Mortimer, R., Ravenhill, J., and Rothchild, D. (eds.) (1992) Politics andSociety in Contemporary Africa. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

Clark. J. F. (1997) Political Reform in Francophone Africa. Boulder, CO: WestviewPress.

—— (2001) “Explaining Ugandan Intervention in Congo: Evidence andInterpretations.” Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 39, no. 2: 261–287.

Colletta, Nat J., and Nicole Ball (1993) “War to Peace Transition in Uganda.”Finance and Development vol. 30, no. 2: 36–39.

Comaroff, J. L., and Comaroff, J. (eds.) (1999) Civil Society and the PoliticalImagination in Africa: Critical Perspectives. Chicago, IL: The University ofChicago.

Connell, D., and Smyth, F. (1998) “Africa’s New Bloc.” Foreign Affairs vol. 77,no. 2 (March–April): 80–85.

Connolly, W. (ed.) (1984) Legitimacy and the State. New York: New York UniversityPress.

Conteh-Morgan, E. (2004) “The Crisis of Legitimacy, Representation and StateHegemony,” eds. Paul Kaiser and F. Wafula Okumu. Democratic Transitions inEast Africa. Aldershot: Ashgate Publications Ltd.

Cornia, G. A., and Popov, V. (eds.) (2001) Transitions and Institutions: TheExperience of Gradual and Late Reformers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Cullimore, C. (1994) “Uganda: The Making of a Constitution.” The Journal ofModern African Studies vol. 32, no. 4: 707–711.

Dahl, R. (1971) Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition. New Haven: Yale UniversityPress.

Davis, P. J. (2000) “On the Sexuality of Town Women in Kampala.” Africa Todayvol. 47, no. 3–4 (Fall): 28–60.

Ddungu, E. (1994) Some Constitutional Dimensions of Military Politics in Uganda.Kampala: Centre for Basic Research.

Decalo, S. (1990) Coups and Army Rule in Africa: Motivations and Constraints.New Haven: Yale University Press.

—— (1992) “The Process, Prospects and Constraints of Democratization in Africa.”African Affairs vol. 91, no. 362 (January): 7–35.

Devajaran, S., Dollar, D. R., and Holmzen, T. (2001) Aid and Reform in Africa:Lessons from Ten Case Studies. Washington, DC: The World Bank.

Diamond, L. (1992) “Economic Development and Democracy Reconsidered.”American Behavioral Scientist vol. 35, no. 4/5 (March/June): 450–499.

—— (1994) “Toward Democratic Consolidation: Rethinking Civil Society.” Journalof Democracy vol. 5, no. 3 (June): 3–17.

—— (1996) “Is the Third Wave Over?” Journal of Democracy vol. 7, no. 3: 20–37.Diamond, L., Lipset, S. M., and Linz, J. (1987) “Building and Sustaining Democratic

Government in Developing Countries: Some Tentative Findings.” World Affairsvol. 150, no. 1 (Summer): 5–19.

Diamond, L., and Plattner, M. F. (eds.) (1999) Democratization in Africa.Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Dicklicht, S. (1998) The Elusive Promise of NGOs in Africa: Lessons from Uganda.New York: St. Martin’s Press.

B ibliography256

—— (2002) “A Basic Human Rights Approach to Democracy in Uganda.” Journalof Contemporary African Studies vol. 20, no. 2: 203–222.

Dicklicht, S., and Lwanga, Doreen (2003) “The Politics of Being Non-Political:Human Rights Organizations and the Creation of a Positive Human RightsCulture in Uganda.” Human Rights Quarterly vol. 25, no. 2: 482–509.

Domatomb, J. (1997) “Sub-Saharan Africa’s Democratic Quest: Perspectives,Problems and Policies.” The Western Journal of Black Studies vol. 21, no. 1: 59–76.

Doornbos, M. (1990) “The African State in Academic Debate: Retrospect andProspect.” The Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 28, no. 2: 179–198.

Doornbos, M., and Mwesigye, F. (1994) “The New Politics of Kingmaking,” ed.H. B. Hansen and M. Twaddle. From Chaos to Order: The Politics of Constitution-Making in Uganda. London: James Currey.

Drake, P. W., and Silva, E. (eds.) (1986) Elections and Democratization in LatinAmerica. 1980–1985. Center for Iberian and Latin American Studies.

Dubey, A. (1996) “Ugandan Democracy: Hopes and Fears.” Africa Quarterlyvol. 36, no. 2: 23–59.

Easton, D. (1965) A Systems Analysis of Political Life. New York: John Wiley.Ekech, P. (1975) “Colonialism and the Two Publics in Africa: A Theoretical

Statement.” Comparative Studies in Society and History vol. 17, no. 1: 91–112.Englebert, P. (2000) State Legitimacy and Development in Africa. Boulder, CO:

Lynne Rienner Publishers.—— (2002) “Born-again Buganda or the Limits of Traditional Resurgence in

Africa.” Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 40, no. 3: 345–368.Ergas, Z. (ed.) (1987) The African State in Transition. London: McMillan.Etzioni, A. (1996) The New Golden Rule: Community and Morality in a Democratic

Society. New York: Basic Books.Evans, P., Rueschemeyer, D., and Skocpol, T. (eds.) (1985) Bringing the State Back

In. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Fishman, R. (1990) “Rethinking State and Regime: Southern Europe in Transition to

Democracy.” World Politics vol. 42, no. 3 (April), pp. 422–440.Forrest, J. B. (1988) “The Quest for State ‘Hardness’ in Africa.” Comparative Politics

vol. 20, no. 4: 432–442.Fowler, A. (1993) “Non-governmental Organizations as Agents of Democratization: An

African Perspective.” Journal of International Development vol. 5, no. 3: 325–339.Freeman, M. (1994) “The Philosophical Foundations of Human Rights.” Human

Rights Quarterly vol. 16, no. 3 (August): 491–514.Friedrich, C. J. (1963) From Man and his Government: An Empirical Theory of

Politics. London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.Furley, O. (1989) “Britain from Uganda to Museveni: Blind Eye Diplomacy,” ed.

K. Rupesinghe. Conflict Resolution in Uganda. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press.—— (1999) “Democratization in Uganda.” The Journal of Commonwealth and

Comparative Politics vol. 38, no. 3: 79–102.Furley, O., and Katalikawe, J. (1997) “Constitutional Reform in Uganda: The New

Approach.” African Affairs vol. 96, no. 3: 243–260.Gershenberg, I. (1971) “Leadership and Institution Building in Uganda.” Paper pre-

sented as part of Universities Social Science Council Conference, MakerereUniversity, Kampala, Uganda.

Gertzel, C. (1971) “Leadership and Institution Building in Uganda.” Presented as apaper at the University’s Social Science Council Conference, Makerere University,Kampala, Uganda.

B ibliography 257

Ghai, Y. (1989) “Towards a Theory of African Constitutions: A Prolegomenon.”Unpublished monograph.

Girling, F. K. (1960) The Acholi of Uganda. Commonwealth Research Series.Publication Number 30. London: Her Majesty’s Stationary Office.

Goetz, A. M. (2002) “No Shortcuts to Power: Constraints on Women’s PoliticalEffectiveness in Uganda.” Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 40, no. 4:549–575.

Goulbourne, H. (1987) “The State, Development and the Need for ParticipatoryDemocracy in Africa: Popular Struggles for Democracy in Africa,” ed. P. Anyang’Nyong’o. Popular Struggles for Democracy in Africa. London: Zed Books Ltd.

Granzer, S. (1999) “Changing Discourse: Transnational Advocacy Networks inTunisia and Morocco,” ed. T. Risee, S. C. Ropp, and K. Sikkink. The Power ofHuman Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Griffiths, A., and Katalikawe, J. (2003) “The Reformulation of Ugandan Democracy,”ed. S. Bastian and R. Luckham. Can Democracy Be Designed: The Politics ofInstitutional Choice in Conflict-Torn Societies. New York: Zed Books Ltd.

Gros, J. G. (ed.) (1998) Democratization in Late Twentieth-Century Africa: Copingwith Uncertainty. Westport: Greenwood Press.

Gukiina, P. M. (1972) Uganda: A Case Study in African Political Development. NotreDame: University of Notre Dame Press.

Gunter, R., and Wittich, C. (eds.) (1978) Economy and Society vol. 1. Berkeley:University of California Press.

Gurr, T. (1993) Minorities at Risk: A Global View of Ethnopolitical Conflicts.Washington, DC: U.S. Institute of Peace Studies.

—— (1996) “The Rule of Law, Democracy and Human Rights: Whither Africa?”East African Journal of Peace & Human Rights vol. 3, no. 1: 130–139.

Hadjor, K. B. (1987) On Transforming Africa: Discourse with Africa’s Leaders.Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.

—— (1998) “Whose Human Rights?” Journal of Asian and African Studies vol. 33,no. 4: 359–368.

Hailbronner, K. (1981) “Economic Collapse and Rehabilitation in Uganda.” RuralAfricana vol. 11 (Fall) pp. 27–35.

Hansen, H. B., and Twaddle, M. (eds.) (1991) Changing Uganda: The Dilemmasof Structural Adjustment and Revolutionary Change. Kampala: FountainPublishers Ltd.

—— (1988) Uganda Now: Between Decay and Development. Kampala: FountainPublishers Ltd.

—— (1998) Developing Uganda. Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd.Hanson, H. (2000) “Shattered Foundations: Arguing with the Buganda Agreement

in the 1920s.” Paper presented at the annual African Studies AssociationConference.

Hauser, E. (1997a) “Uganda Relations with Western Donors in the 1990s: What Impacton Democratization?” Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 37, no. 4: 621–641.

—— (1997b) “Donors and Democracy in Uganda: An Analysis of the Role ofWestern Donors in Democratization Efforts in Uganda.” Ph.D. Dissertation,University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Heilman, B., and Ndumbaro, L. (2004) “International Context,” ed. P. Kaiser and F. W. Okumu. Democratic Transitions in East Africa. Aldershot: AshgatePublishing Ltd.

B ibliography258

Held, D. (ed.) (1993) Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West. Stanford:Stanford University Press.

Helleiner, G. K. “Economic Collapse and Rehabilitation in Uganda.” RuralAfricana vol. 11 (Fall 1981): 27–35.

Herbst, J. (2000) States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority andControl. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Hirschmann, A. O. (1989) Reactionary Rhetoric. Atlantic Monthly vol. 263, no. 5:21–39.

Holmgren, T. (2001) “Uganda,” ed. S. Devarajan, D. R. Dollar, and T. Holmgren.Aid and Reform in Africa: Lessons from Ten Case Studies. The International Bankfor Reconstruction and Development. Washington, DC.

Howes, M. (1997) “NGO’s and the Development of Local Institutions: A UgandaCase Study.” Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 35, no. 1: 17–35.

Huntington, S. P. (1991) “Democracy’s Third Wave.” Journal of Democracy vol. 2,no. 2 (Spring): 13–34.

Hyden, G. (1993) “The Role of the Electoral System in Combining Civic Peace withFreedom.” East African Journal of Peace and Human Rights vol. 2, no. 2: 209–217.

Hyden, G., and Bratton, M. (eds.) (1992) Governance and Politics in Africa. Boulder,CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

Ihonvbere, J. O. (1997) “Democratization in Africa.” Peace Review vol. 9, no. 3(Spring): 371–378.

Jackson, R., and Rosberg, C. (1982) Personal Rule in Black Africa: Prince, Autocrat,Prophet, Tyrant. Berkley: University of California Press.

Jamal, V. (1988) “Coping Under Crisis in Uganda.” International Labour Reviewvol. 127, no. 8: 679–700.

Jeffries, R. (1993) “The State, Structural Adjustment and Good Government inAfrica,” The Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics vol. 31, no. 1:20–35.

Jorgenson, J. J. (1981) Uganda: A Modern History. New York: St. Martin’s Press.Joseph, R. (1998) “Africa, 1990–1997: From Abertura to Closure.” Journal of

Democracy vol. 9, no. 2: 13–32.Kabwegyere, T. (1995) The Politics of State Formation and Destruction in Uganda.

Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd.Kafureka, L. (1994) “IMF Structural Adjustment Program and the Agricultural

Community in Mbarara District, Uganda.” Presented at the Joint SIAS/CBRConference on Dimensions of Economic and Political Reform in ContemporaryAfrica (mimeo).

Kaggwa, A. (1918) Ekitabo Kye Mpisa za Buganda (Customs of the Baganda).Kampala: Uganda Publishing House.

Kaiser, P. J., and Okumu, F. W. (eds.) (2004) Democratic Transitions in East Africa.Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd.

Kalema, R. (1980) “Past and Future of Uganda Women’s Participation in the Life ofthe Country.” Speech delivered at the National Conference for Women,International Conference Centre, Kampala, Uganda.

Kannyo, E. (2004) “A New Opening in Uganda?” Journal of Democracy vol. 15,no. 2: 125–139.

Kappel, Robert, Lay Jann and Steiner, Susan (2005) “Uganda: No More Pro-PoorGrowth.” Development Policy Review vol. 23, no. 1: 27–53.

Karl, T. L. (1986) “Imposing Consent? Electoralism vs. Democratization inEl Salvador,” ed. P. W. Drake and E. Silva. Elections and Democratization in Latin

B ibliography 259

America, 1980–85. San Diego: Center for Iberian and Latin American Studies,UCSD.

Karlstrom, M. (1996) “Imagining Democracy: Political Culture and Democratizationin Buganda.” Africa vol. 66, no. 4 (Fall): 485–506.

—— (1999) “The Cultural Kingdom in Uganda: Popular Royalism and theRestoration of the Buganda Kingship.” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Chicago.

Karugire, S. R. (1980) A Political History of Uganda. Nairobi: HeinemannEducational Books.

—— (1998) “The Roots of Instability in Uganda.” New Vision, Kampala, Uganda.Kasfir, N. (1976) The Shrinking Political Arena: Participation and Ethnicity in

African Politics with a Case Study of Uganda. Berkeley: University of CaliforniaPress.

—— (1983) “State, Magendo, and Class Formation in Uganda.” The Journal ofCommonwealth & Comparative Politics vol. 21, no. 3: 84–103.

—— (1991a) “The Ugandan Elections of 1989: Power, Populism andDemocratization,” ed. H. B. Hansen and M. Twaddle. Changing Uganda: TheDilemmas of Structural Adjustment and Revolutionary Change. London: JamesCurrey Ltd.

—— (1991b) “Popular Sovereignty and Popular Involvement: Three ConstitutionalApproaches.” Paper presented at the conference entitled Constitutionalism andRights: An Africa-United States Dialogue, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda(August 13–15).

—— (1998a) “No-Party Democracy in Uganda.” Journal of Democracy vol. 9, no. 2(April): 49–63.

—— (ed.) (1998b) “Civil Society, the State and Democracy in Africa.” Civil Societyand Democracy in Africa: Critical Perspectives. Chippenham, Wiltshire: AnthonyRowe Ltd.

—— (ed.) (1998c) “The Conventional Notion of Civil Society: A Critique.” CivilSociety and Democracy in Africa: Critical Perspectives. Chippenham, Wiltshire:Anthony Rowe Ltd.

—— (2000) “Movement Democracy, Legitimacy and Power in Uganda,” ed.J. Mugaju and O. Onyango. No-Party Democracy in Uganda: Myths and Realities.Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd.

Kasonde, M. (1996) “Returning to Power in Africa: Lessons from Uganda.”Response to Abiodun Onadipe’s “The Return of Africa’s Old Guard.”Contemporary Review vol. 269, no. 1570: 225–229.

Kassimir, R. (1996) “Uganda: The Catholic Church and State Reconstruction.”ed. L. A. Villalon and P. Huxtable. The African State at a Critical Juncture:Between Disintegration and Reconfiguration. Boulder, CO: Lynne RiennerPublishers.

—— (ed.) (1998) “The Social Power of Religious Organization and Civil Society:The Catholic Church in Uganda.” Civil Society and Democracy in Africa: CriticalPerspectives. London and Portland, OR; Cass and Company Ltd.

—— (1999) “Reading Museveni: Structure, Agency and Pedagogy in UgandanPolitics.” Canadian Journal of Africa Studies vol. 33, no. 2 & 3: 649–673.

Katalikawe, J. (1997) “Constitutional Reform in Uganda: The New Approach.”African Affairs vol. 96, no. 383(April): 243–261.

Kayunga, S. S. (2000) “The Impact of Armed Opposition on the Movement Systemin Uganda,” ed. J. Mugaju and J. Oloka-Onyango. No-Party Democracy inUganda: Myths and Realities. Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd.

B ibliography260

Khadiagala, G. M. (1995) “State Collapse and Reconstruction in Uganda,” ed. I. W. Zartman. Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of LegitimateAuthority. Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner Publishers.

—— (1993) “Uganda’s Domestic and Regional Security Since the 1970s.” Journalof Modern African Studies vol. 31, no. 2: 231–255.

Khadiagala, L. S. (2001) “The Failure of Popular Justice in Uganda: Local Councilsand Women’s Property Rights.” Development and Change vol. 32, no. 1: 55–76.

Khapoya, V. (1998) The African Experience: An Introduction. Upper Saddle River,NJ: Prentice Hall.

Kibaya, A. (2001) “The 2001 Presidential Elections: A Step Backwards in theDemocratization Process in Uganda.” LL.B. Thesis. Makerere University,Kampala, Uganda.

Kiggundu, S. (1989) “Foreign Exchange Management in Uganda and ExportPromotion.” Paper given at the Seminar on Uganda’s Economy, KampalaInternational Conference Center.

Kigula, J. (1993) “Land Disputes in Uganda: An Overview of the Types of LandDisputes and the Dispute Settlement Fora.” Makerere Institute of Social Research,Kampala, Uganda.

“Kill, Kill: Uganda.” The Economist (March 23, 1996): 38–40.Kiwanuka, M. S. M. (1971) A History of Buganda from the Foundation of the

Kingdom to 1900. London: Longman.Kjaer, M. A. (1999) “Fundamental Change or No Change? The Process of

Constitutionalizing Uganda.” Democratization vol. 6, no. 4: 93–113.—— (2004) “ ‘Old Brooms Can Sweep Too!’ An Overview of Rulers and Public

Sector Reforms in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya.” Journal of Modern AfricanStudies vol. 42, no. 3 (September): 389–415.

Kleinberg, R. B., and Clark, J. A. (eds.) (2000) Economic Liberalization,Democratization and Civil Society in the Developing World. New York: St. Martin’sPress.

Klugman, J., Azam, J. P., and Morrison, C. (1999) Conflict and Growth in Africa.Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.

Kokole, O. H. (1991) “Human Rights and Structural Adjustment Programmes: TheEast African Dimension.” Paper delivered at a seminar on “Democracy andHuman Rights in East Africa.” Vaxjo University, Vaxjo Sweden.

Laishley, R. (1993) “Uganda: Turning Growth into Prosperity.” Africa Recoveryvol. 7, no. 2 (October).

Lamwaka, C. C. H. (1996) “The Civil War and Peace Process in Uganda.” M.A.Thesis, University of Bradford, UK Department of Peace Studies.

Langseth, P., Katorobo, J., Brett, E., and Munene, J. (eds.) (1995) Uganda:Landmarks in Rebuilding a Nation. Kampala: Foundation Publishers Ltd.

Laski, H. (1962) Introduction to Politics. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.Lateef, S. K. (1991) “Structural Adjustment in Uganda: The Initial Experience,”

ed. H. B. Hansen and M. Twaddle. Changing Uganda: The Dilemmas ofStructural Adjustment and Revolutionary Change. London: James Currey.

Lewis, J., Owens, P., and Pirouet, L. (1995), “Human Rights and The Making ofConstitutions. Malawi, Kenya, Uganda.” Report of a Workshop Held at TrinityCollege, Cambridge. African Studies Centre: University of Cambridge.

Lewis, T. T. (2001) “The Ironic History of Substantive Due Process: ThreeConstitutional Revolutions.” International Social Science Review vol. 76, no. 1 &2: 21–35.

B ibliography 261

Lindberg, S. I (2004) “The Democratic Qualities of Multiparty Elections:Participation, Competition and Legitimacy in Africa.” Commonwealth &Comparative Politics vol. 42, no. 1: 42–104

Lindenberg, M., and Devarajan, S. (1993), “Prescribing Strong Economic Medicine:Revisiting the Myths about Structural Adjustment, Democracy and EconomicPerformance in Developing Countries.” Comparative Politics vol. 25, no. 2:169–182.

Lipset, S. M. (1984) “Social Conflict, Legitimacy and Democracy,” ed. W. Connolly.Legitimacy and the State. New York: New York University Press.

Livingstone, I., and Charlton, R. (2001) “Financing Decentralized Development in aLow-Income Country: Raising Revenue for Local Government in Uganda.”Development and Change vol. 32, no. 1: 77–100.

Lobao, L., and Wakoko, F. (1996) “Reconceptualizing Gender and ReconstructingSocial Life: Uganda Women and the Path to National Development.” AfricaToday vol. 43, no. 3 (July–September): 307–323.

Lobulu, R. N. B. (1996) “Elections: What Hope for Democracy?” Paper presented atthe Seminar on Constitutionalism, Mombasa, Kenya (mimeo).

Logan, C. J., Muwanga, N., Sentamu, R., and Bratton, M. (2003) “Insiders andOutsiders: Varying Perceptions of Democracy and Governance in Uganda.”Afrobarometer Working Paper no. 27.

Low, D. A. (1988) “The Dislocated Polity,” ed. H. B. Hansen and M. Twaddle.Uganda Now: Between Decay and Development. London: Fountain Publishers Ltd.

Luckham, R. (1971) “A Comparative Typology of Civil-Military Relations.”Government and Opposition vol. 6, no. 1: 17–31.

Lwanga-Lunyiigo, S. (1989) “The Colonial Roots of Internal Conflict,” ed.K. Rupesinghe. Conflict Resolution in Uganda. London: James Currey.

Makara, S. (1990) “Is There an Alternative to Representative Democracy? The GreenBook Revisited.” Presented at the First Joint Uganda-Libya Seminar on the GreenBook, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.

Makubuya, K. E. (1994) “Transition to Democracy in Uganda; Legal andOrganizational Changes in State Structure.” Paper presented under the auspices ofthe project entitled “Managing the Transition to Democracy in Uganda Under theNational Resistance Movement.”

Mamdani, M. (1975) “The Nationality Question in a Neo-Colony: A HistoricalPerspective.” Trenton: Africa Research & Publications Project, Inc.

—— (1988) “Uganda in Transition: Two Years of the NRA/NRM.” Third WorldQuarterly vol. 10, no. 3: 1155–1181.

—— (1993) “Pluralism and the Right of Association.” Working Paper no. 29.Kampala: Center for Basic Research Publications.

—— (1995) Indirect Rule, Civil Society and Ethnicity: The African Dilemma.Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico.

—— (1996) Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of LateColonialism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Mamdani, M., and Wamba-dia-Wamba, E. (eds.) (1995) African Studies in SocialMovements and Democracy. Senegal: CODESRIA Book Series, 1995.

Marenin, O. (1987) “The Managerial State in Africa: A Conflict CoalitionPerspective,” ed. Z. Ergas. The African State in Transition. London: McMillan.

Markovitz, I. L. (1998) “Uncivil Society, Capitalism and the State in Africa,” ed.N. Kasfir. Civil Society and Democracy in Africa: Critical Perspectives. London andPortland, OR: Frank Cass and Company Ltd.

B ibliography262

Martin, G. (1993) “Preface: Democratic Transition in Africa.” Issue: A Journal ofOpinion vol. xxi, no. 1–2: 6–7.

Mazrui, A. A. (1968) Toward a Pax Africana. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.—— (1974) “The Social Origins of Ugandan Presidents: From King to Peasant

Warrior.” Canadian Journal of African Studies vol. 8, no. 1: 3–23.—— (1975) Soldiers and Kinsmen: The Making of a Military Ethnocracy in Uganda.

New York: Sage Publications.—— (1980) “Between Development and Decay: Anarchy, Tyranny, and Progress

Under Idi Amin.” Third World Quarterly vol. 2, no. 1: 44–53.—— (1988) “Is Africa Decaying? The View From Uganda,” ed. H. B. Hansen and

M. Twaddle. Uganda Now: Between Decay and Development. London, James Currey.Mbabazi, A. (1992a) “An Appraisal of Uganda’s Economic Performance

(1986–1992).” Presented at the Commonwealth Institute, London (mimeo).—— (1992b) “The Rule of Law in Uganda Under the National Resistance

Movement: 1986–1992.” Seminar on the Political, Economic, and SecuritySituation in Uganda at the Commonwealth Institute, June 22–23.

Mbabazi, P., Mugyenyi, J., and Shaw, T. (2001) “Uganda Elections 2001: Lessonsfor/from Democratic Governance.” Paper presented at the forty fourth annualAfrican Studies Association (ASA) Conference, Houston, TX, USA.

Mbaku, J. M., and Ihonvbere, J. O. (eds.) (1998) Multi-party Democracy andPolitical Change: Constraints to Democratization in Africa. Aldershot: AshgatePublishing Ltd.

Mbaya, E. R. (1992) “Relations Between Individual and Collective Human Rights:The Problems of Rights of Peoples.” In Law and State: A Biannual Collection ofRecent German Contributions to These Fields. Tubingen: Insitut FurWissenschaftliche Zusammenarbeit vol. 46.

McGeary, J. (1997) “An African for Africa.” Time vol. 15, no. 9: 36–37.Meagher, K., “The Market in the Lived Economy: A Report of the Dynamic of

Official and Parallel Market Activities in Arua District, Uganda.” University ofSussex, Institute of Development Studies.

Migdal, J. (1988) Strong Societies, Weak States: State-Society Relations and StateCapabilities in the Third World. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Migdal, J., Kohli, A., and Shue, V. (1994) State Power and Social Forces: Dominationand Transformation in the Third World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Miller, J. (1994) Rousseau Dreamer of Democracy. New Haven and London: YaleUniversity Press.

Monshipouri, M. (1995) Democratization, Liberalization & Human Rights in theThird World. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

Mpanga, J. (2001) “The Uganda Women’s Movement: It’s Impact on the GrassrootsWomen.” Paper delivered at the eighth International Inter-Disciplinary Congresson Women, Kampala, Uganda.

Mudoola, D. (1988) “Political Transactions Since Idi Amin: A Study in PoliticalPathology,” eds. Holger Hansen and Michael Twaddle, Uganda Now: BetweenDecay and Development. London: James Currey.

Mugaju, J. (ed.) (1999) Uganda’s Age of Reforms: A Critical Overview. Kampala:Fountain Publishers Ltd.

Mugaju, J., and Oloka-Onyango, J. (eds.) (2000) No-Party Democracy in Uganda:Myths and Realities. Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd.

Mugisha, A. (2004) “Museveni’s Machinations in Uganda.” Journal of Democracyvol. 15, no. 2: 140–144.

B ibliography 263

Mugwanya, G. W. (1996) “The Limitation and Derogation of Fundamental HumanRights and Freedoms Under the Constitutions of Uganda and South Africa:A Comparative Study.” Centre for Human Rights Faculty of Law University ofPretoria (mimeo).

Mugyenyi, J. (1991) “IMF Conditionality and Structural Adjustment Under theNational Resistance Movement,” ed. H. B. Hansen and M. Twaddle. ChangingUganda: The Dilemmas of Structural Adjustment and Revolutionary Change,Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd.

Mugyenyi, M. R. (1992) “The Impact of Structural Adjustment Programmes onUgandan Rural Women. Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.” Unpublishedmonograph.

Muhumuza, R. (1996) “A Case Study of Girls Abducted by Joseph Kony’s Lord’sResistance Army (LRA) in Northern Uganda.” Kampala: World Vision.

Mujaju, A. B. (1986) Consensus and the Party System in Uganda. Kampala: OrbitasPublishers (Uganda) Ltd.

—— (1995) “The Status of the Democratic Party in the Politics of the NationalResistance Movement.” East African Journal of Peace & Human Rights vol. 2,no. 2: 236–250.

—— (1997) “Domestic Incoherence and External Intervention in Africa: The Caseof Uganda.” Makerere Political Science Review vol. 1, no. 1: 22–42.

Mukama, R. (1995) Visible at Last. Kampala: ACFODE.Mukyala-Makiika, R. (1998) “Traditional Leaders and Decentralization,”

ed. A. Nsibambi. Decentralization and Civil Society in Uganda: The Quest for GoodGovernance. Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd.

Museveni, Y. K. (1989) “Why did Africa Lag Behind?” Address to the First Session ofthe Expanded National Resistance Council, Kampala, Uganda.

—— (1990) “Challenges in Creating Institutions of Local Self Governance inUganda.” Keynote speech delivered at the opening of the Regional Conference onLocal Self Governance, People’s Participation and Development: Preconditionsfor Peace and Stability, Kampala, Uganda.

—— (1991) “Building Uganda for the Future.” An Address to Makerere UniversityStudents and Staff, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.

—— (1993) Opinion on “A Case for the Restoration of Buganda as a Single Unit.”Letter to Baganda Opinion Leaders.

—— (1997) Sowing the Mustard Seed: The Struggle for Freedom and Democracy inUganda. London: Macmillan Education Ltd.

—— (2000) What is Africa’s Problem? Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Mutesa, E. (1967) Desecration of My Kingdom. London: Constable.Mutibwa, P. M. (1990) “Overview of the History of Uganda and its Kingdoms.”

London: Constable.Mutua, M. W. (1993) “Human Rights and Politics in Africa: Democratizing the Rights

Discourse.” East African Journal of Peace & Human Rights vol. 1, no. 2: 250–255.—— (1996) “Reformulating the Discourse of the Human Rights Movement.” East

African Journal of Peace & Human Rights vol. 3, no. 2: 306–312.Nabuguzi, E. (1994) “Structural Adjustment and the Informal Economy in

Uganda.” CDR Working Paper no. 94.4, Center for Development Research,Copenhagen, Denmark (mimeo).

Ndegwa, S., and Letourneau, R. E. (2004) “Constitutional Reform,” ed. P. Kaiserand F. W. Okumu. Democratic Transitions in East Africa. Aldershot: AshgatePublishing Ltd.

B ibliography264

Neumann, S. (1932) Die Deutschen Parteien: Wesen und Wandel nach dem Kriege.Berlin: Junker und Dunnhaupt Verlag.

—— (ed.) (1956) Modern Political Parties: Approaches to Comparative Politics.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Ng’ethe, N. (1995) “Strongmen, State Formation, Collapse, and Reconstruction inAfrica,” ed. I. W. Zartman. Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration ofLegitimate Authority. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

Nolutshungu, S. (1992) “Africa in a World of Democracies: Interpretations andRetrieval.” Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics vol. 30, no. 3:316–334.

Nsibambi, A. (1991a) “Major Causes of Violations of Human Rights in Uganda.”Unpublished paper presented to a Seminar on Human Rights in East Africa inVaxjo University, Sweden, August 24–26.

—— (1991b) “Resistance Councils and Committees: A Case Study from Makerere,”ed. H. B. Hansen and M. Twaddle. Changing Uganda: The Dilemmasof Structural Adjustment and Revolutionary Change. Kampala: FountainPublishers Ltd.

—— (ed.) (1996) Discourses in Democracy: Africa in Comparative Perspective. Dar esSalaam: Dar es Salaam University Press.

—— (ed.) (1998) Decentralization and Civil Society in Uganda: The Quest for GoodGovernance. Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd.

Nyong’oro, P. A. (ed.) (1987) Popular Struggles for Democracy in Africa. London:Zed Books Ltd.

Nzombe, S. (1992) Democracy, Human Rights and Constitutionalism in Post-Colonial Africa. Seminar Paper Series 5. Harare: SAPES Books.

Nzomo, M. (1998) “Kenya: The Women’s Movement and Democratic Change.”ed. L. A. Villalon and P. A. Huxtable. The African State at a Critical Juncture:Between Disintegration and Reconfiguration. Boulder, CO: Lynne RiennerPublishers.

Nzongolo-Ntalaja, G. Lee M. C. (ed.) (1998) The State and Democracy in Africa.Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.

Obbo, C. (1991) “Women, Children, and a ‘Living Wage,’ ” ed. H. B. Hansen andM. Twaddle. Changing Uganda: The Dilemma of Structural Adjustment &Revolutionary Change. Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd.

Ocan, C. (1992) “A Seminar on the Political and Economic Situation in Uganda: ThePolitical Situation in Teso.” London: Commonwealth Institute (mimeo).

Ochieng, E. (1998) “The Political Economy of Stabilisation and AdjustmentProgrammes in Uganda.” Department of Economics, Makerere University,Kampala, Uganda (mimeo).

—— (1991) “Economic Adjustment Programs in Uganda, 1985–1988,” ed. H. B. Hansen and M. Twaddle. Changing Uganda: The Dilemmas ofStructural Adjustment and Revolutionary Change. London: James Currey.

O’Donnell, G., Schmitter, P., and Whitehead, L. (eds.) (1986) Transitions andAuthoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions About Uncertain Democracies.Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Odoki, B. J. (2001) “The Challenge of Constitution-Making and Implementation inUganda,” ed. J. Oloka Onyango. Constitutionalism in Africa: CreatingOpportunities, Facing Challenges. Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd.

Okoth, P. G. (1995) “The Military and Democracy: The Case of Uganda Since1962.” East African Journal of Peace & Human Rights vol. 2, no. 2: 175–188.

B ibliography 265

Oloka-Onyango, J. (1991a) “The Political Economy of the Human Rights Crisis inEast Africa: The Case of Uganda.” Symposium on Democracy and Human Rightsin East Africa at Vaxjo University, Vaxjo, Sweden, Aug. 24–26 (mimeo).

—— (1991b) “Armed Conflict, Political Violence and the Human RightsMonitoring of Uganda: 1971–1990.” Working Paper no. 12, Kampala: Center forBasic Research Publications.

—— (1993) “The Dynamics of Corruption Control and Human Rights Enforcementin Uganda.” East African Journal of Peace & Human Rights vol. 1, no. 1: 51–70.

—— (1996) “Thirty Years After the Buganda Crisis: Are We Heading for Another?”Annual Faculty of Law Symposium, Thirty Years After the 1996 Uganda Crisis,Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda (mimeo).

—— (1997) “Uganda’s ‘Benevolent’ Dictatorship.” Current History vol. 96,no. 610: 212–217.

—— (1998) Governance, Democracy and Development in Contemporary Uganda.Kampala: Center for Basic Research.

—— (ed.) (2001) Constitutionalism in Africa: Creating Opportunities, FacingChallenges. Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd.

Oloka-Onyango, J., and Tindifa, S. (1991) “Constitutionalism in Uganda: Report onthe Survey and Workshop of Organized Groups.” Working paper no. 10, Kampala:Center for Basic Research Publications.

Olowu, D., and Wunsch, J. S. (eds.) (2004) Local Governance in Africa: The Challengesof Democratic Decentralization. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

Olum, Y. A. A. (1990) “The Crisis of Democracy in Uganda 1962–1985. Lessons andContributions from the Third Universal Theory.” Paper presented at the FirstJoint Uganda-Libya Seminar on the Green Book held at Makerere University,Kampala, Uganda (mimeo).

Omara-O. (1992) “The Struggle for Democracy in Uganda.” The Journal of ModernAfrican Studies vol. 30, no. 3: 443–463.

Ondoga ari Amaza (1998) Museveni’s Long March: From Guerilla to Statesman.Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd.

Opolot, S. J. (1997) “Decentralization and the Politics of Educational Governance inUganda: A Historical Analysis.” M.Ed. Thesis, University of Birmingham.

Oszlak, O. (1981) “The Historical Formation of the State in Latin America: SomeTheoretical and Methodological Guidelines for Its Study.” Latin AmericanResearch Review vol. 16, no. 1: 3–31.

Ottemoeller, D. (1996) “Institutionalization and Democratization: The Case ofUgandan Resistance Councils.” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Florida.

—— (1998) “Popular Perceptions of Democracy: Elections and Attitudes inUganda.” Comparative Political Studies vol. 31, no. 1: 98–125.

Ouma, S. O. A. (1991) “Corruption in Public Policy and its Impact onDevelopment: The Case of Uganda Since 1979.” Public Administration andDevelopment: A Journal of the Royal Institute of Public Administration vol. 11,no. 47: 473–490.

—— (1993) “People, Housing and the State in Uganda: A Perspective forDecentralisation and Institutional Reform.” Paper presented at conference onInstitution Building and Institutional Reform, Makerere University, Kampala,Uganda.

Perlmutter, A. (1981) Modern Authoritarianism: A Comparative InstitutionalAnalysis. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.

Pinckney, R. (1997) Democracy and Dictatorship in Ghana and Tanzania. New York:St. Martin’s Press.

B ibliography266

Pinycwa, G. A. G. G. (1992) “Constitutionalism in Uganda: The Necessity forPolitical Socialization.” Paper prepared for a conference on the Dynamics ofPolitical and Administrative Change in Uganda, Makerere University, Kampala,Uganda.

—— (1997) “To Be or Not to Be: The Precarious Status and Role of Parliament inthe ‘Transition to Democracy’ in East Africa.” The Uganda Journal vol. 44(December): 30–45, Kampala: The Uganda Society.

Prunier, G. (1999) “L’Ouganda et les Guerres Congolaises.” Politiques Africainevol. 77: 43–49.

Przeworski, A., and Limongi, F. (1993) “Political Regimes and Economic Growth.”Journal of Economic Perspectives vol. 7, no. 3: 51–69.

Przeworski, A., Stokes, S. C., and Manin, B. (eds.) (1991) Democracy, Accountabilityand Representation. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Quarcoo, G. (1995) “Traumatized Children of War in the Gulu District of NorthernUganda: A Survey Report.” World Vision, Kampala, Uganda.

Rodney, W. (1972) How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Washington DC: HowardUniversity Press.

Roscoe, J. (1923) The Banyankole: The Second Part of the Report of the MackieEthnological Expedition to Central Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Rothchild, D. (2001) “The Two-Phase Peace Implementation Process in African andits Implementation for Democratization.” Paper presented at the forty fourthMeeting of the African Studies Association (ASA) Houston, TX, USA.

Rubongoya, J. B. (1991a) “The Baamba-Bakonjo and Uganda: Colonial and Post-Colonial Integration and Ethnocide.” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism vol. 18,no. 22 (April–June): 75–92.

—— (1991b) “Ethnicity and Class in Public Policy: A Synthetic Approach to theStudy of Development in Kenya and Uganda.” Ph.D. Dissertation, University ofDenver.

—— (2004) “Political Leadership,” ed. P. Kaiser and F. Wafula Okumu. DemocraticTransitions in East Africa. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd.

Rupesinghe, K. (ed.) (1989) “Internal Conflicts and Their Resolution: The Case ofUganda,” Conflict Resolution in Uganda. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press.

Ruzindana, A. (1993) “Democracy and Politics in Uganda.” Inaugural Seminar,Uganda Think Tank Foundation International Conference Centre, Kampala,Uganda (mimeo).

Sahle, E. N. (1998) “Women and Political Participation in Kenya: Evaluating theInterplay of Gender, Ethnicity, Class and State,” ed. J. Mukum Mbaku and J. O. Ihonvbere. Multiparty Democracy and Political Change: Constraints toDemocratization in Africa. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd.

Sahn, D. E., Dorosh, P. A., and Younger, S. D. (eds.) (1997) Structural AdjustmentReconsidered: Economic Policy and Poverty in Africa. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Samoff, J. (1982) “Class, Conflict and the State in Africa.” Political Science Quarterlyvol. 97, no. 1: 105–128.

Sandbrook, R. (1996) “Transitions Without Consolidation: Democratization in SixAfrican Cases.” Third World Quarterly vol. 17, no. 1: 69–87.

Schmitter, P., and Karl, T. L. (1991) “What Democracy is . . . and is not.” Journal ofDemocracy vol. 2, no. 3: 75–88. Washington, DC: National Endowment forDemocracy.

Schmitz, H. P. (2000) “Transnational Activism and Political Change in Kenya andUganda,” ed. T. Risee, S. C. Ropp, and K. Sikkink. The Power of Human

B ibliography 267

Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Schraeder, P. J. (1994) “Elites as Facilitators or Impediments to PoliticalDevelopment? Some Lessons from the ‘Third Wave’ of Democratization inAfrica.” The Journal of Developing Areas vol. 29 (October): 69–90.

Schurmann, F. (1996) “Africa is Saving Itself.” Choices the Human DevelopmentMagazine vol. 5, no. 1: 2–15.

Semakula-Kiwanuka (1988) “The Real Challenge of the North is a Willingness toChange.” The New Vision, May 18.

Sewanyana, L. (1996) “Constitutionalism and the Quest for Human Rights inUganda.” Conference on Constitutionalism and Democratic Accountability inUganda at Youth Sharing Centre in Nsambya, Kampala, Uganda.

—— (1997a) “The Experience of NGO’s in the Promotion and Protection ofHuman Rights, What Lessons for the Ugandan Human Rights Commission.”Paper presented to Uganda Human Rights Commission, Kampala, Uganda.

—— (1997b) “Impediments to the Full Realization of Human Rights in Africa, withSpecific Emphasis on Uganda.” Paper presented at the Institute for Human Rightsat ABO Akademi, University of Finland.

—— (1997c) “Parliament and Human Rights.” Presented to CommonwealthParliamentary Association Seminar for MPs in Kampala, Uganda.

Shelton, D. (1998) “Challenges to the Future of Civil and Political Risks.”Washington and Lee Law Review vol. 55, no. 3 (Summer): 669–686.

Shivji, I. G. (1980) “The State in the Dominated Social Formations of Africa: SomeTheoretical Issues.” International Social Science Journal vol. 32, no. 4: 730–742.

Sithole, M. (1985) “The Salience of Ethnicity in African Politics: The Case ofZimbabwe.” Journal of Asian and African Studies XX vol. 3, no. 4: 181–192.

Smith, B. C. (1985) Decentralization: The Territorial Dimension of the State. London:Allen and Unwin.

Southhall, A. (1980) “Social Disorganization in Uganda: Before, During, and AfterAmin.” The Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 18, no. 4: 627–656.

Ssekindi, N. R. (2002) “Non-Governmental Organization Legislation: A CriticalStudy of its Implications on the Performance of Voluntary Organization in Uganda(1998–2002).” LL.B. Thesis, Christian University Law School, Mukono, Uganda.

Ssemwogerere, K. (1998) “Museveni Just Being Brave on LC-V Polls.” The Monitorvol. 29 (April).

Ssenkumba, J. (1997) “The Dilemmas of Directed Democracy: NeutralizingOpposition Politics Under the National Resistance Movement (NRM).” EastAfrican Journal of Peace & Human Rights vol. 3, no. 2: 240–261.

Stammers, N. (1995) “A Critique of Social Approaches to Human Rights.” HumanRights Quarterly vol. 17, no. 3: 488–508.

Stepan, A. (1978) The State and Society: Peru in Comparative Perspective. Princeton,NJ: Princeton University Press.

Tamale, S. (1999) When Hens Begin to Crow: Gender and Parliamentary Politics inUganda, Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd.

—— (2001) “Gender and Affirmative Action in Post-1995 Uganda: A NewDispensation or Business as Usual?” ed. J. Oloka-Onyango. Constitutionalism inAfrica: Creating Opportunities, Facing Challenges. Kampala: FountainPublishers Ltd.

Tangri, R. and Mwenda, A. (2001) “Corruption and Cronyism in Uganda’sPrivatization in the 1990’s.” African Affairs vol. 100, no. 393: 117–133.

B ibliography268

—— (2003) “Military Corruption & Ugandan Politics since the Late 1990s.”Review of African Political Economy vol. 30, no. 98: 539–552.

Therkildsen, O. (2002) “Uganda’s Referendum 2000: The Silent Boycott:A Comment.” African Affairs vol. 101, no. 403: 231–241.

Tidemand, P. (1994) “New Local State Forms and ‘Popular Participation’ in Buganda,Uganda,” ed. P. Gibbon. The New Local Level Politics in East Africa: Studies onUganda, Tanzania and Kenya. Research Report no. 95. Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.

—— (1995) The Resistance Councils in Uganda: A Study of Rural Politics and PopularDemocracy in Africa. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.

—— (1998) “Uganda, 1979–85: Leadership in Transition.” The Journal of ModernAfrican Studies vol. 26, no. 4: 607–622.

Tindigarukayo, J. (1998) “Uganda, 1979–85: Leadership in Transition.” The Journalof Modern African Studies vol. 26, no. 4: 607–622.

—— (1990) “On the Way to Recovery? Museveni’s Uganda in 1988.” CanadianJournal of Development Studies vol. 11, no. 2: 347–357.

Tordoff, W. (1984) Government and Politics in Africa. Bloomington: IndianaUniversity Press.

Tripp, A. M. (1970) Changing the Rules: The Politics of Liberalization in Tanzania.Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

—— (1998) “Expanding ‘Civil Society’: Women and Political Space inContemporary Uganda,” ed. N. Kasfir. Civil Society and Democracy in Africa:Critical Perspective. London and Portland, OR; Frank Cass and Company Ltd.

—— (2000) Women and Politics in Uganda. Madison: The University of WisconsinPress.

—— (2001a) “The Politics of Autonomy and Cooptation in Africa: The Case of theUgandan Women’s Movement.” The Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 39,no. 1: 101–128.

—— (2001b) “Women’s Movements and Challenges to Neo-patrimonial Rule:Preliminary Observations from Africa.” Development Change vol. 32, no. 1: 33–54.

Tucker, A. R. (1908) “The Uganda Economy Today and Future Prospects forDevelopment.” In Eighteen Years in Uganda and East Africa vol. 1. London:Edward Arno.

Tumwine-Mukubwa, G. P. (1994) “Uganda-Recommendations for SafeguardingHuman Rights in the New Constitution.” Amnesty International. London.

—— (1997) “International Human Rights Norms in the Domestic Arena.” EastAfrican Journal of Peace & Human Rights vol. 3, no. 1: 32–50.

Van de Walle, N. (1998) “AID’s Crisis of Legitimacy: Current Proposals and FutureProspects.” African Affairs vol. 98, no. 112: 337–352.

—— (1999) African Economies and the Politics of Permanent Crisis, 1979–1999Cambridge: University of Cambridge.

—— (2001) “The Impact of Multi-Party Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Forum forDevelopment Studies vol. 28, no. 1: 5–42.

Van-Acker, F. (2004) “Uganda and the Lord’s Resistance Army: The New Order No.One Ordered.” African Affairs vol. 103, no. 412: 335–357.

Villanlon, L. A., and Huxtable, P. A. (eds.) (1998) The African State at a CriticalJuncture: Between Disintegration and Reconfiguration. Boulder, CO: LynneRienner Publishers.

Wabwire, A., and Ddungu, E. (1990) Electoral Mechanisms and the DemocraticProcess: A Study of 1989 RC-NRC Elections in Uganda. Working Paper no. 9.Centre for Basic Research, Kampala Uganda.

B ibliography 269

Wakoko, F., and Labao, L. (1996) “Re-conceptualizing Gender and ReconstructingSocial Life: Ugandan Women and the Path to National Development.” AfricaToday vol. 43, no. 3: 307–316.

Waligo, J. M. (1994a) “Constitution-Making in the Politics of Democratisation inUganda.” Paper presented as part of International Conference on “DevelopingUganda,” Lyngby Landbrugsskole, Denmark.

—— (1994b) “Safeguards for the New Constitution.” Paper presented atInternational Conference on ‘Developing Uganda’ at Lynby Landbrugsskole,Denmark.

Wani, I. J. (1993) “The Rule of Law and Economic Development in Africa.” EastAfrican Journal of Peace & Human Rights vol. 1, no. 1: 52–79.

Weber, M. (1968) Economy and Society. New York: Bedminster Press.Widner, J., and Mundt, A. (1998) “Researching Social Capital in Africa.” Africa

vol. 68, no. 1 (Winter): 1–24.Wiseman, J. A. (ed.) (1995) Democracy and Political Change in Sub-Saharan Africa.

London: Routledge.Woods, D. (1992) “Civil Society in Europe and Africa: Limiting State Power

Through a Public Sphere.” African Studies Review vol. 35, no. 2: 77–100.Young, C. (1994) The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective. New

Haven: Yale University Press.“Yoweri’s Rules: Uganda.” The Economist (April 13, 1996): 35–37.Zakaria, F. (1997) “The Rise of Illiberal Democracy.” Foreign Affairs vol. 76, no. 6

(November/December): 22–43.Zartman, W. I. (ed.) (1995) Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of

Legitimate Authority. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Zolberg, A. R. (1992) “The Specter of Anarchy in Africa: African States Verging on

Dissolution.” Dissent vol. 39: 303–311.

Newspapers and Periodicals

The New VisionSunday VisionThe Daily MonitorThe Sunday MonitorUganda ArgusTransitionThe East AfricanThe CourierEconomic Intelligence UnitThe Ten Point Programme of the National Resistance Movement

B ibliography270

Ablo, 155Abrahamsen, Rita, 89Acana II, Rwot David Ocen, 115Access Finance Services (AFS), 220Acholi, 17, 51, 55, 61, 82–3, 126, 218Adamolekun, Lupido, 104Administration and Urban Authorities

Decrees, 48Adoko, Akena, 43Adyebo, George Cosmas, 203African Caribbean Pacific/ACP, 203African Caribbean Pacific/EEC, 85, 89African Growth and Opportunity

(AGOA), 61, 212–13African Union Parliament, 215Afrobarometer, 147, 155–6, 196Agreement-1900, 117AIDS,

see HIV/AIDSsee Global Fund to Fight AIDS,

Malaria and TuberculosisAIDS Control Programme, 205Akabway, Stephen, 206Akaki, Sam, 224Akena, Regan, 229Ali, Moses, 91, 135–6, 201, 203–4,

209, 223Allied Democratic Front (ADF), 84,

132–4, 177, 190Allimadi, Otema, 203Aloet Railway Station, 82, 202American Civil War, 38, 72Amin, Idi

coup d,êtat, 45economic instrumentalism, 47economic nationalism, 49economic productivity, 47Economic War, 49–50Kabaka Mutesa, 33militarization of politics, 47

military regime, 23, 45–51, 56, 74,86

post government, 53–4Praetorian, 45, 48religion, 46, 51tyranny, 20, 45–6, 49, 91

Amnesty International (AI), 83, 173,202

anarchy, 4, 11, 49, 65, 70, 101Angola, 133, 166Ankole, 17–18, 34, 115, 204–5Anti-Terrorism law, 174Apac, 83, 224Apiliga, Moses, 86Apparels Tri-Star Uganda, 213Appointments Committee

(Parliamentary), 135Armed Forces Decree, 48Army Council (AC), 169–71, 180, 189,

204, 227Army Promotions and Commissions

Board, 215Arua, 142, 201Arusha, 211, 216Asians, 26, 49–50, 85, 88, 119, 123,

154, 184, 203Atubo, Omara, 175Auma, Alice (Lakwena), 82, 84, 201–2Austria, 193Awori, Aggrey, 150, 175, 210

Baganda, 17, 21, 37, 61, 64, 115–16,118, 167, 204, 213

Bamuze, Ali, 212Banage, William Bazeterra, 86Bank of Uganda, 87, 120, 227Banya, Kenneth, 217Banyankore, 64, 71, 115, 167Barclay’s Metals, 121Barigye, John Patrick, 115, 205

Index

Barya, John Jean, 98Bayart, Jean-Francois, 192bayaye, 52Belarus, 164, 210Besigye, Kizza, 35, 84, 92, 100, 131,

145–6, 148–51, 157, 172–3,175–6, 180, 195, 210–11, 219,225–7

Bienen, Henry, 92, 186Bigombe, Betty Acan, 84, 218, 220Bigsten, Arne, 152–3Bika, 117Binaisa, Godfrey, 37, 42, 53black mambas, 173, 195Black Mamba Urban Hit Squad, 225Blenders Uganda Limited, 119Bogere, Fred, 169, 222Bongomin, Alfred, 174, 226Boyd, Rosalind E., 67, 71Bratton, Michael, 12, 18, 141–4, 152,

155, 197Brett, E. A., 67, 71, 104British Crown, 20, 117broad-based, 15, 20, 23, 46, 48, 70–1,

110, 148, 167, 186, 188broad-basedness, 10, 12, 16, 70–2, 86,

91–2, 100, 103, 131, 135, 137,139, 146, 148, 151, 157, 192

Browning, Steven, 228Budaka, 219Budget Speech (1987), 88Buganda, 15–19, 21, 33–4, 36–41, 44,

46, 63–4, 70, 84, 105, 114–18,124, 127, 167, 170, 204–5, 219,227, 229

Buganda Civil Service Commission,39–40

Buganda Crisis, see Milton OboteBuganda Cultural and Development

Foundation (BUCADEF), 116–17

Buganda State of Emergency, 40–1Bugangaizi, 36Bugisu, 17Bugolobi, 213Buhekura, 36Bujagali, 211, 213Bukedi, 17Bukenya, Gilbert, 167, 170, 214–15Bulange, 116, 205, 229

Bunyoro, 17–18, 36, 115, 117, 170,204–5

Bureau Pour la Recherché Geologiqueet Miniere (BRGM), 121

Buruli, 36Bush, George W., 146, 214Bushenyi, 74Busoga, 18, 34, 36, 115, 117, 137,

170, 204, 206Buturo, Nsaba, 218Buwambo, 206Buyaga, 36Bwendero, 217Bwengye, Francis, 210Bwindi Impenetrable National Park,

208Byanyima, Winnie, 35, 100, 123, 131,

137–8, 146, 151, 168, 180, 208

Cable News Network (CNN), 224Catholic, 35, 41–2, 61, 170caudillos, 38Celtel, 184Central Purchasing Agency, 88Chad, 183Chazan, Naomi, 5Chief Administrative Officer (CAO), 4,

109Chieftancy of Military Intelligence

(CMI), 164, 173, 189, 195China, 72, 204, 212Church of Uganda, 171, 214civil libertarians, 10civil-military relations, 3, 24, 64, 93,

183civil service bureaucracy, 113civil service reform, 4, 61, 96, 104,

112–14Civil Service Reform Program (CSRP),

113Civil Society Organization for Peace,

227Clark, John, 132clientelism, 5, 7, 14, 16, 27, 72, 104,

131, 137, 162–3, 165, 167, 176,193, 195

clientelist, 14, 26, 123, 163, 165, 167,173, 193

Clinton, Bill, 208–9

Index272

Coffee Marketing Board (CMB), 103,119

Commission for Africa, 220Commission of Enquiry, 95, 164Commission of Human Rights, 95Common Man’s Charter, see Milton

OboteCommon Market for East and Southern

Africa (COMESA), 216Congo, see Democratic Republic of

Congoconsent/effectiveness, 10Conservative Party (CP), 168, 227Constituency Development Fund

(CDF), 172, 222Constituent Assembly (CA), 76–9, 83,

97, 99, 103, 115, 117, 125, 137,159, 193, 205–6

Constituent Assembly Delegates(CADs), 206

Constituent Assembly election, 77–8,83

Constituent Assembly Election Rules ofStatute 6/1993, 77

Constituent Assembly Statute #5 of1988, 76, 78

Constituent Assembly Statute #6 of1993, 78, 97

Constitution, 98Constitution (1962), 38, 40, 76Constitution (1966), 39–40Constitution (1967), 38, 40, 48, 76,

205Constitution (1995), 98–101, 109,

115–17, 129, 136–7, 141, 145–6,151, 174, 185, 187, 210, 214–15,219–20

article 70, 100, 148article 70a, 100article 72, 100article 74, 100article 269, 99, 100–1article 270, 100–1article 271, 100, 141article 274, 101

Constitution Amendment Bill (Ebyaffe),114, 204–5

Constitutional Commission (OdokiCommission), 76–9, 95, 97–9,109, 202–4

Constitutional Commission Report, 97Constitutional Court, 136, 141, 170–1,

209, 214, 217, 219Constitutional Review Commission

(CRC), 79, 101, 169, 187, 213,215

Consumption per capita, 122convergence, 4, 29, 161–3, 177,

179–81, 191co-opt, 13, 27–8, 37, 39, 42, 82, 104,

107–8, 115, 129, 131, 157, 159,176, 180, 184, 187, 189–92, 195

Criminal Investigation Department(CID), 164, 195

Customs House, 136Customs Union, 216

decentralization, 61, 96, 103–5,107–14, 116, 118, 127, 158, 162,168, 171, 177–8, 187–8, 204

decentralized, 6, 17, 19, 22, 65, 68,109, 158

Decentralized despotism, 22, 65Defense Council, 48democracy

guided, 13, 79, 107, 118, 126, 129,131, 157, 187–8

liberal, 20, 89, 100, 110, 197pluralist, 99, 101popular, 11, 59–60, 66–7, 74, 84,

104, 159, 183, 192representative, 11, 143

democratic elections, 75Democratic Party (DP), 34–6, 41, 54,

74, 91–2, 108, 124–5, 141, 143,168, 170, 175, 177, 192, 225, 227

Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC),16–17, 27, 84, 119, 132–4, 148,158, 164, 172, 190, 193, 208–9,211, 213–14, 218, 221, 223–6

democratization, 9, 64, 70, 75, 79, 81,105, 107, 112, 124, 139, 141–2,148–9, 152, 163, 193, 199

Denmark, 213, 216Departed Asian Custodian Board, 49Departed Asians’ Property, 88departicipation, 13Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of

Disaster Preparedness & Refugees,136

Index 273

Detention Act, 41Devarajan, Shantayanan, 153devolution, 4, 96, 104–5, 107, 109–13,

118, 127, 144, 197Diamond, Larry, 87, 152Director of Public Prosecution (DPP),

164district administrators (DA), 73, 106district chairpersons, 142, 222district councils, 41, 107, 109, 118district development committees, 106district executive committees, 109, 139district proliferation, 110District Service Commission, 109Divestiture Reform and Implementation

Committee, 228Dokolo, 229Domestic Relations Bill, 189draft constitution, 77–8, 97–9, 203–6Dumba, Kasendwa, 86

East African Legislative Assembly andCourt of Justice, 211

Ebuuru, 36Ebyaffe, 114–15, 204–5economic egalitarianism, 8Economic Recovery Program (ERP),

24, 87, 202economic reform, 25, 96, 103, 118,

120, 155, 197, 209economic war, 49–50Ekimeeza, 174Ekisanja, 12, 172, 174, 219el Bashir, Omar, 216Electoral Commission (EC), 73, 75,

126, 129, 149, 206, 222, 227Electoralism, 8elitist, 135Engola, Sam, 151Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility

(ESAF), 202entandikwa, 61, 121, 186, 217Entebbe, 86, 121, 203Entebbe Handling Services Ltd., 119Ethiopia, 166, 183ethnoregional dichotomy, 21European Economic Commission

(EEC), 88European Union (EU), 213,

224, 226

External Security Organization (ESO),189

federo, 21, 37, 117–18, 206, 219Ferrero, Giuseppe, 185Finance and Economic Planning

Parliamentary Sessional Committee,136

Finance Minister, 179, 219Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), 214Forum for Democratic Change (FDC),

168, 174–7, 191, 196, 217–19,224–6, 227

Francis, Kizza, 151Freedom House, 127fundamental change, 4, 16–17, 61, 64,

72–3, 75, 87, 90, 93, 123, 134,137, 161, 166, 180–1, 186, 191

Furley, Oliver, 99, 125

gacaca, 221Gafabusa, Solomon Iguru, 115, 205Garang, John, 218, 222–3Geldof, Bob, 220gender gap, 63General Service Unit (GSU), see Milton

OboteGermany, 193Ghana, 166, 183

National Democratic Congress(NDC), 198

ghost policemen, 165ghost soldiers, 164–5, 193ghost students, 165ghost teachers, 165ghost worker, 114Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Malaria

and Tuberculosis, 179, 223, 225, 227

governability, 11, 13, 18, 22, 69, 107,129, 140, 159, 175, 197

governance realm, 7–10Gowon, Yusuf, 86Great Lakes region, 190Gulu, 83, 140, 174, 202, 206, 217,

219, 226Gulu Delegates Conference, 35

haciendado, 38Herbst, Jeffrey, 92, 186

Index274

Heritage Oil and Gas, 211High Court, 40, 126, 195, 204, 223,

225–7, 229Highly Indebted Poor Countries

(HIPC), 119, 153, 207–9historicals, 74HIV/AIDS, 24, 86, 147, 156, 205,

211, 217, 220, 223see also Global Funds to Fight AIDS,

Malaria and TuberculosisHoly Spirit Mobile Force (HSMF), 82,

201–2horizontal accountability, 27Human Rights Watch (HRW), 173,

177, 220Hyden, Goran, 7

Ibingira, G. S. K., 34–5, 37–8Iganga, 140illiberal democracy, 29, 175, 181, 185,

199illiberal politics, 196imperial presidency, 12, 161, 172, 176,

189informal-presidentialism-personalistic,

145insider-outsider, 180Inspector General of Government

(IGG), 16, 95, 101, 128, 137, 155,164–5, 167–8, 215

Inspector of Government(Ombudsman), 98

Institutional Investor, 153interest aggregation, 55, 69interest articulation, 101, 116,

158, 162interest groups, 16, 72, 78, 126,

177–8Inter-Governmental Authority on

Development (IGAD), 215Internal Security Organization (ISO),

28, 173, 180, 189Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs),

218–19, 223International Court of Justice (ICJ),

193, 208, 221, 226International Criminal Court (ICC),

220, 224, 228International Development Agency

(IDA), 88, 209

International Financial Institutions(IFI), 24, 60, 89, 120, 185, 193,197

International Monetary Fund (IMF),24–6, 80, 87–9, 102–3, 118, 120,135, 202, 205, 207–9, 224

Inter-Party Co-operative, 124, 126Investment Code, 121Islam, see MuslimIteso, 51Itesot, 83Itongwa, Herbert, 206, 216Ituri Province, 223

Jackson, Robert, 191Japan, 212, 229Japan National Cooperation Agency

(JICA), 212Jeema, 227Joint Anti-Terrorism Task Force (JATF),

173, 180, 189, 195Joint Country Coordination and

Monitoring Committee (JCCMC),227

Jorgensen, Jan Jelmert, 36–7Juba, 223, 228

Kabaka, 18, 34, 36–8, 40, 46, 114–16,118

Kabaka Foundation, 117Kabaka Yekka (KY), 34–7Kabale, 74, 121, 150Kabamba Military Training Wing, 63Kabarole, 140Kabila, Laurent, 133, 148, 208Kabwegyere, Tarsis, 44Kadaga, Rebecca, 228Kainerugaba, Muhoozi, 172Kakonge, John, 35, 37Kakwa, 46, 49, 51–52Kalangala, 217Kamira, 105–7Kampala Northern Bypass, 217Kampala Sheraton, 119, 211, 226Kampala Stock Exchange (KSE), 121Karamoja, 17, 218Karim, Peter, 164Karlstrom, Mikeal, 116Karugire, Samwiri, 19, 40Karuhanga, Chappa, 210

Index 275

Kasese, 140Kasfir, Nelson, 54, 61, 67, 70, 90Kashaka, Stephen, 215Katalikawe, James, 99Kategaya, Eriya, 35, 100, 170, 214, 228Katikkiro, 116Katuntu, Abdu, 219Katutsi, John Bosco, 226–7Kaunda Ground, 174Kayihura, Kale, 224Kayiira, Andrew, 201Kayizzi-Mugerwa, Steve, 152–3Kayunga, Sallie Simba, 133Kazibwe, Specioza, 135–7, 170, 205,

210, 214Kazini, James, 134, 164, 172, 213, 215Kenya, 33, 51, 120–1, 125, 166, 198,

201, 214, 216, 223, 228Kenyatta, Jomo, 23, 33Khadiagala, Gilbert, 48, 53, 55, 183Khadiagala, Lynn S., 106kibanda, 54, 86, 89, 120, 184Kicwamba Teacher Training College,

133Kigezi, 150Kiir, Salva, 223Kikonyogo, Laetitia, 211Kilembe, 121Kinyara Sugar Works, 228Kirya, B. K., 34, 38kisanja, 28, 172, 176, 178, 192Kisawuzi, Eriasi, 229Kisekka, Samson, 203Kitara Kingdom, 205Kitgum, 83, 218, 228Kivejinja, Kirunda, 135–6, 171Kiwanuka, Ben, 36Kiwanuka, Joseph, 36Kiyonga, Crispus, 215Kizito, John Ssebaana, 225Kjaer, Anne Meete, 112, 168, 178kleptocracy, 45Kolo, see Sam Kolo OttoKololo Ceremonial Grounds, 228Kony, Joseph, 82, 84, 201, 206, 208,

212–13, 216–18, 220, 222, 224,228–9

Kotido district, 212Krennerich, Michael, 125kulembeka, 60

Kuteesa, Sam, 171Kuya, Masette, 86Kyabazinga, 34, 206

Labor Disputes Bill, 227Lakara, Nakibus, 215Lakwena, see Alice AumaLambright, Gina, 141–4, 152Land Bill (1998), 81, 137Langi, 43, 51, 55LC committees, 62, 79LC system, 60, 63–5, 67–9, 73, 93, 96,

100, 104–5, 107–8, 111, 158, 169,183

Leadership Code, 137, 167, 207, 222Bill, 203Committee, 98

legal bureaucratic, 14legitimacy

authority, 3, 5, 8, 15, 17, 22–4crisis, 3–4, 15, 19–20, 23, 190deficit, 14, 24, 55–6, 85, 150–1, 193,

199democratic, 5, 7–8, 12–17, 23, 26–9,

44, 52–3, 56, 62, 99, 127, 131,137, 151, 163, 173, 176,189–90, 193, 195

governance realm, 7, 12–13, 15NRM, 4, 13, 16, 23, 25–7, 68, 72–3,

78. 83–4, 90, 93, 101, 112, 116,123, 131–2, 151, 155, 165, 187,193

patrimonial, 14, 18, 24, 43, 45, 55political, 3, 5, 9, 13–14, 22–3, 36,

46–8, 51–2, 56, 71, 79, 87, 89,93, 99, 139, 144, 152, 167, 175,191, 197

regime, 14, 43, 47, 64, 70, 72, 91,93, 96, 102, 108, 110, 114–16,119, 124, 155, 157, 185

state, 10, 14, 16, 27, 73, 75, 80, 93,102–3, 144, 152, 185, 188, 193

state effectiveness, 53legitimacy project, 4, 16, 28, 84, 93,

112, 116, 118, 158, 162, 189Liberia, 205Lint Marketing Board (LMB), 119, 203Lipset, Seymour, 3, 15, 23, 151, 158,

193–4Lira, 83, 121, 151

Index276

Local Councils (LCs), 4, 19, 23, 60Local Defense Units (LDUs), 62, 84,

111, 178, 183Local Government Bill, 135, 149Local Government Commission (LGC),

109Local Government Finance Commission

(LGFC), 109Local Government Tender Boards, 110Local Governments Act (1997),

109–11, 207Local Governments (Resistance

Councils) Statute (1993), 109Logan, Carolyn, 147, 156Lords Resistance Army (LRA), 11,

81–3, 132, 151, 164, 173, 177–9,183, 187, 193, 206, 213, 218–20,222–5, 228–9

lost counties, see Milton OboteLow Income Sub-Saharan Africa

(LISSA), 86Lubiri, 38, 40, 204Luganda, 60, 89, 192Lugayizi, Edmund Sempa, 225Lukiiko, 36–8, 115, 205, 219, 227Lukwiya, Raska, 228Lukyamuzi, Ken, 151Lule, Yusuf, 53, 64, 202lumpen militariat, 52Lumu, E. B. S., 38Luwero Triangle, 56, 63–4, 84, 115,

121, 179, 208, 212Lwanga, David, 201

Machar, Riek, 228Madhvani Group, 212mafuta mingi, 50–2, 54Magamaga, 202magendo, 50–3, 86, 89, 184magendoism, 52Magezi, George, 35, 38mailo (freehold) estates, 40Makau wa Mutua, 6Makerere University, 68, 79, 150, 174Makindye, 48Makumbi, James, 206malaria, 156, 213, 223

see also Global Fund to Fight AIDS,Malaria and Tuberculosis

Malinga, Stephen, 175, 219

Mamdani, Mahmood, 18, 22, 44Martin, Guy, 13Masaka, 121, 140, 151Matembe, Miria, 35, 100, 170, 214,

219Mayanja, Muhammed, 125, 150, 206,

210Mayombo, Noble, 164Mazrui, Ali, 51Mbabazi, Pamela, 150, 152Mbarara, 74, 121, 140, 142, 174, 208,

219Mbikke, Michael, 151Media Bill, 10Media Center, 226Media Council, 226Members of Parliament (MPs), 36, 54,

74, 90, 126, 135, 137–9, 141,145, 149, 161, 169, 170–2, 174,212, 215–17, 219–20, 222, 224,226

Mengo, 38, 116, 205, 219Mexico, 72Military Intelligence, 225Military Police, (MP), 48miluka, 46Minister for Parliamentary Affairs, 171Minister of Constitutional Affairs, 99Minister of State for Education, 136Minister of Water, Lands and

Environment, 136Minister of Wildlife and Tourism, 136Minister of Works, Transport &

Communication, 135Ministries of Finance and Economic

Planning, 87Ministry of Ethics and Integrity, 95, 167Ministry of Gender and Community

Development, 79Ministry of Planning and Economic

Development, 207Ministry of Women in Development, 79Mobile Telephone Networks (MTN),

184, 207Monitor, The, 41, 174, 213Monitor Publications, 174, 223Monshipouri, Mahmood, 8Move to the Left, see Milton OboteMovement (NRM), 3

nationalist doctrine, 66

Index 277

Movement Act (MA), 11, 27, 101, 103,138–41, 146, 148, 151, 157–8,180, 188–90, 207

Movement Bill, 11, 139, 207, 214movement democracy, 60, 69–72, 74,

90–1, 93, 99–100, 146, 186, 188Movement Secretariat, 139, 208movement system, 11–12, 25, 70, 73,

75, 81, 97, 99, 103, 111, 131–2,138, 141, 143–4, 146, 148–9, 159,161, 187, 196, 207, 209

Movement’s social philosophy, 65movementists, 10, 12, 28, 90–1, 98,

136–7, 139, 148–9, 174, 191, 212Mpigi, 121, 140, 206Mubende, 140Mugabe, Robert, 198Mugaju, Justus, 41, 201Muganda, 170Muhwezi, Jim, 135–6, 171Mukama, Ruth, 80Muloki, Henry Waako, 206multiparty, 11, 78, 83, 91, 97, 99, 125,

141–4, 206, 209, 216democracy, 61, 69, 148elections, 13, 151, 159, 161, 175,

226movement, 190structure, 141political system, 206politics, 10–11, 17, 25, 28, 61, 70,

90–2, 100, 103, 125, 131, 138,161, 168–9, 172, 177–8, 194,216

system, 11, 27–8, 90, 178, 214–15,221–2, 224

multipartyism, 16, 28, 77, 118, 168–9,175, 214

multipartyists, 10, 12, 28, 90, 97–8,100–1, 103, 132, 138, 143–4, 151,157–8, 173, 177, 187–8, 191, 212,215

Muntu, Mugisha, 100, 168, 180Munyonyo, 219Musazi, I. K., 36Museveni, Janet, 226Museveni, Yoweri,

Buganda Kingdom, 115culture and ideology, 64liberal ideology, 60

mchaka mchaka, 24, 63–4, 66, 103,183, 186

Minister of Defense, 53paternalism, 64, 192peasant/warrior, 60, 192Resistance Councils, 64Revolution, 62–4Sowing the Mustard Seed, 92special elections, 72, 77

Mushega, Amanya, 168, 180Muslims, 19, 42, 46, 51, 53, 84Mutale, Kakoza, 168Mutebi, Ronald Muwenda, 114–15,

201, 205Mutesa II, Edward, 33–4, 36,

38, 46Mutumba, Sebuliba, 151muyaye, 52Mwenda, Andrew, 223Mwesigye, Hope, 171

Nadiope, William, 34, 36, 38Naguru, 48Namasujju, 105–7National Assembly, 16, 39–40, 43National Association for the

Advancement of Muslims (NAAM), 42

National Conference, 139National Democratic Forum (NDF),

177, 191, 217National Executive Committee (NEC),

28, 169–71, 180, 189, 214National Population and Housing

Census (2002), 213, 220National Resistance Army (NRA), 55–6,

59, 64, 66, 77, 79, 82–4, 86, 92,99, 146, 179, 183–6, 201–6, 208,212

National Resistance Council (NRC), 24,73–5, 97, 101, 114, 119, 202–6

National Resistance Movement (NRM), 3

National ResistanceMovement–Organization (NRM-O), 175, 177, 194, 215, 217, 225,228–9

National Resistance News, 76National Security Council (NSC) Bill,

210

Index278

National Union of Youth Organization(NUYO), 42

Nebbi, 83Nekyon, Adoko, 42neopatrimonial, 4, 7–10, 12–13, 23,

28–9, 39–41, 43, 46, 55, 72, 92,104, 107, 131, 158, 162, 188,190, 193, 195, 197

class, 26–7, 102, 105, 120, 122, 127, 186

governance, 5–8, 12, 14, 21–3, 63,106, 191, 194

legitimacy, 4, 7–8, 14–15, 17, 26–7,29, 131, 137, 142, 162–3,167–8, 173–7, 189, 191, 194–5, 197

rule 15, 27, 47, 163, 178state, 6–7, 9, 13–14, 40, 55system, 12, 53, 169

Neumann, Sigmund, 140, 192

new broom, 92, 186, 192New Movement, 190New Vision, The, 150, 219Ng’ethe, Njuguna, 183–4Ngime, Ngoma, 146, 151Ngobi, Mathias Mbalule, 38Nile Hotel, 136Nimieri, Jaffer El, 198njua kali, 80Njuba, Gertrude, 116–17Nkangi, Mayanja, 135–6Nohlen, Dieter, 125nongovernmental organizations

(NGOs), 79, 85, 116–18, 184no-party democracy, 5, 11, 13, 61, 69,

71, 74–5, 90–1, 93, 100, 111, 125,131, 187, 191

Northern NGO Forum, 227Norway, 168, 226–7NRA/M, 3, 53NRM/A, 64, 79, 84–5NRM Secretariat, 73, 107, 136Nsibambi, Apolo, 68, 71,

215, 219Ntungamo District, 112, 216Nubi, 51Nyakairima, Aronda, 220, 224Nyanzi, Evaristo, 201Nyeko, Tollbert Yadin, 229

O’Donnell, Guillermo, 75Obasanjo, Olusegun, 148Obbo and another vs. Attorney General,

178, 216Obote II, 4, 29, 39, 53, 56, 91, 150,

152, 162, 179–81, 186, 191, 198

Obote, Milton,1966 Constitution, 39–40Buganda Crisis, 37–9Common Man’s Charter, 43–4, 56General Service Unit, 42, 51, 55, 180lost counties, 36–7, 39Move to the Left, 43–4

Obote, Miria, 63Obwangor, C. J., 34Ochieng, E. O, 37Ocula, Mike, 174, 226Odaka, Sam, 37Odoki, Benjamin, 97Odoki Commission, see Constitutional

CommissionOdur, Thomas, 86Ogoola, James, 195Ogwal, Cecelia, 90, 229Ojok, David Oyite, 51Okello, Tito, 51, 81, 86, 92, 201, 205Okumu, Reagan, 174, 201, 226Olanya, Tony, 86Olowu, Dele, 104Omara, Joel Aliro, 86Omaria, William, 86Ombudsman, 95

see also Inspector of GovernmentOmnibus Constitution (Amendment)

Bill, 219–20Omugabe, 115omujwara nkondo, 115Omukama, 19, 115Onama, Felix, 37, 42Open General Licensing (OGL), 88Operation Wembley, 28, 173Order in Council, 36Otafire, Kahinda, 135–6, 164, 171Otai, Peter, 202–3Otim, J. J., 86Otiti, Paul Amule, 86Otti, Vincent, 223–4, 228Otto, Odonga, 174Otto, Sam Kolo, 219, 222

Index 279

Oulanyah, Jacob, 175, 228Owor, Lakati, 222

Pabo subcounty, 174, 226Paimol, 17parastatals, 10, 16, 21, 43, 48–9, 51,

103, 119, 123, 184Paris Club Consultation Group, 88,

119, 204, 209Parish Resistance Council, 65Parliament Buildings, 61Parliamentary Advocacy Forum

(PAFO), 168, 177, 191, 217Parliamentary Committee on Legal and

Parliamentary Affairs, 224party of integration, 140, 192party state, 140, 158patrimonial(ism), 4, 21, 29, 34, 47, 49,

61, 192patron-client network, 14, 131, 163patron-clientelist, 49, 159Pax Musevenica, 4, 29, 39, 60, 62, 67,

71, 81, 85, 92–3, 99, 102, 105,108, 113, 120, 126, 132, 159,161, 167, 178–9, 196

People’s Redemption Army (PRA), 223,225

Pepsi Cola, 119pigeonhole constitution, 76, 78Plan for Modernisation of Agriculture

(PMA), 210Police Ordinance, 41Police Ordinance (Amendment) Act, 41political culture, 18, 53, 61, 64, 90, 98,

162, 196political liberalization, 79, 199Political Organisastions Act (POA), 212Political Organizations Bill, 224Political Parties Organizations Act

(PPOA), 10–11, 169–70, 174,176–8, 180, 188, 191, 209, 214

politics of the belly, 192Popular Resistance Army (PRA), 64, 66Porter Commission, 164, 213Porter, David, 211Poverty Eradication Action Plan

(PEAP), 154–5, 207poverty ratio, 122Poverty Reduction Strategy

Paper, 209

power consolidation, 15, 29, 37, 39,45–6, 56, 64, 67–8, 70, 72–3, 75,79, 91, 95, 112, 178, 198

Praetorian Guard, 172, 180Praetorian Rule, 45precolonial, 4, 6, 17, 19, 21, 34, 66,

115, 192prebends, 4, 12, 42prebendal, 15, 21, 40, 113, 163, 180prebendalism, 70, 179, 197predatory individualism, 52Presidential Election Act (PEA), 43,

146, 149presidential election results, 125, 210Presidential Guard Brigade, 172, 180Presidential Protection Unit (PPU), 172presidentialism, 7, 12, 27, 45, 56, 72,

76, 104, 131, 137, 139, 145, 150,152, 158, 162–3, 167–73, 176,189, 193, 195, 197

Prevention of Mother-to-Child HIVTransmission (PMCTC), 211, 213

princely rule, 191Privatisation Unit (PU), 212privatization, 10, 25–7, 61, 103,

119–20, 123, 152, 155, 163, 184procedural democracy, 8Produce Marketing Board (PMB), 119Program for the Alleviation of Poverty

and the Social Costs of Adjustment(PAPSCA), 88

Progressive Party (PP), 34protected villages, 83Protestants, 42, 61Public Accounts Committee (PAC), 168Public Civil Service Commission, 40public enterprises (PE), 119, 121, 204,

212Public Enterprises Reform and

Divestiture (PERD), 119, 204Public Safety Unit (PSU), 48Public Service Revenue and

Reorganization Commission(PSRRC), 113

Puritanism, 61

Quebec, 37

Rabwoni, Okwir, 150–1Radio Veritas Kyoga, 174, 214

Index280

rational/legal authority, 9, 189RC Statute No. 9, 70–1reciprocity, 6–7, 20, 24, 45, 48, 55, 64,

93, 95, 128, 152, 159, 173, 175,185, 195, 198

Referendum (Political Systems) Act(1999), 11, 141, 171, 188–9, 209

Referendum (Political Systems) Act(2000), 11, 140–4, 146, 151–2,157–8, 177, 188, 190, 197, 209,217

Referendum Bill, 141Reform Agenda (RA), 177, 190–1regime hegemony, 27, 131, 161, 170,

178, 189regime-party-military, 176regime validation, 8, 72, 128regional tiers, 4, 112, 118, 167, 184,

227Reinikka, Ritva, 155religioethnic cleavages, 22Renegade Rwandan Army

(Interahamwe), 208rent-seeking, 7, 50

behavior, 7, 9, 12, 43, 155, 159, 163,179, 197

representation/governability, 18Republic House, 61resident district commissioners (RDCs),

4, 103, 110, 113, 129, 139, 142,150, 171, 176, 178, 184, 188

Resistance Committees and Councils(RCs), 64–5, 67–8, 74, 104,107–8, 184, 203, 206–7

res publica, 9, 14, 68, 95, 198results oriented management (ROM),

113Rosberg, Carl, 191Rugumayo, Edward, 86, 210Ruhaama, 226Rural Electrification Programme, 217Rwakitura, 135Rwanda, 132–4, 221

Sabataka, 204Saleh, Jovia, 164Saleh, Salim, 83, 134, 164, 172, 210,

213, 215sang froid, 61Schmidt, Siegmar, 125

Sebagala, Latif, 151Sebaggala, Nasser, 228Sebei, 17Sebuliba, Nsubuga, 151Sebutinde, Julia, 164, 210Second Five-Year Plan, 43Second National Operator (SNO), 207sectarianism, 5, 20, 25, 61, 91–2, 96,

202Seko, Mobutu Sese, 132–3Sentamu, John, 224silent boycott, 143–4Smith, B. C., 104social capital, 7, 51, 93, 99social development, 123social trust, 14, 93, 101, 104, 123, 127,

131, 152, 161–2, 183Soroti, 83, 140Soroti District, 82, 202Soroti Flying School, 82, 202South Africa, 35, 120, 154, 166, 207,

216, 224–5, 227Spain, 193, 203Special Forces, 51, 180special interest groups, 72, 126Speke Island, 219Ssali, Jaberi Bidandi, 35, 110, 168, 170,

180, 214, 217Ssekandi, Edward, 228Ssemogerere, Paul, 84, 91, 103, 124–5,

140, 206state hegemony, 64, 162, 168State House, 181State Research Bureau (SRB), 48states penetrative capacity, 15, 52, 67,

127statism, 8, 28, 102–4, 118, 162, 184,

197statist regime/statist regime type, 7–8,

12–14, 22, 39, 42, 45, 55–6, 66,102, 129, 131, 189, 191, 196

Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs),26, 80, 87, 89, 92, 132, 155, 184

structural monopoly, 7, 12substantive democracy, 8–9Sudan, 83, 132, 198, 201, 203, 206,

212, 216, 218, 222–3, 228Supreme Court, 11, 41, 141, 146, 149,

171, 173, 210, 216–17, 227Suruma, Ezra, 179, 219

Index 281

Tabliq, 84Tanzania, 35, 51, 62, 119, 139, 166,

211, 214, 216Tanzania African National Union

(TANU), 139Ten Point Programme, The, 23, 66–7,

87, 109, 186Teso, 17, 34Therkildsen, Ole, 144Tidemand, Per, 105–6Tinyefuza, David, 203, 227Toko, Wilson, 86Tolit, Fred, 215Tooro, 115, 117, 170, 204Trade, Tourism and Industry, 209transparency, 25–6, 68, 75, 137, 166,

227Tripp, Aili Marie, 140tuberculosis, see Global Fund to Fight

AIDS, Tuberculosis and MalariaTumukunde, Henry, 164–5, 172, 215Tunisia, 136Twaddle, Michael, 61

Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 153Uganda Commercial Bank (UCB), 119,

121Uganda Democratic Alliance (UDA),

205Uganda Development Corporation

(UDC), 49Uganda Electricity Distribution

Company Limited (UEDCL), 216Uganda Federal Army (UFA), 205Uganda Freedom Fighters (UFF), 64,

66Uganda Grain Milling Corporation, 119Uganda Hotels, 119Uganda Human Rights Commission

(UHRC), 98, 150, 173, 201Uganda Investment Authority (UIA),

16, 121, 184, 190, 211, 215Uganda Journalists Association (UJA),

177Uganda Law Society (ULS), 177, 184,

225Uganda Muslim Community (UMC),

42Uganda National Congress

(UNC), 34

Uganda National Liberation Army(UNLA), 55

Uganda National Liberation Front(UNLF), 55

Uganda National Rescue Front(UNRF), 201, 208, 212, 223

Uganda Penal Code, 41Uganda People’s Army (UPA), 202–3Uganda People’s Congress (UPC),

34–7, 39, 41–2, 44, 53–5, 74,90–2, 108, 124–5, 141, 143, 168,170, 175, 177, 180, 191–2, 219,227–8

Uganda People’s Congress/KabakaYekka (UPC/KY) Coalition, 35–6

Uganda People’s Congress YouthLeague (UPCYL), 37, 42

Uganda People’s Defense Forces(UPDF), 150, 164, 172–3, 190,193, 209, 211–17, 219, 224,227–9

Uganda People’s Democratic Army(UPDA), 82, 201–2

Uganda People’s DemocraticMovement/Army (UPDM/A),81–2, 201–3

Uganda People’s Union (UPU), 34Uganda Posts and Telecommunications

Corporation (UP & TC), 207Uganda Protectorate, 20, 22Uganda Railways Corporation (URC),

135, 203Uganda Revenue Authority (URA), 12,

16, 184, 189Uganda Road Safety Initiative, 211Uganda Telecommunications Limited,

207, 210Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA), 136Ugandan Health Ministry, 218, 223Ugandan Multilateral Debt Fund

(UMDF), 205Ugandan Multiple Debt Fund

(UMDF), 119Uganda’s Program for Trade and

Opportunities and Policy(UPTOP), 213

United Nations Development Program(UNDP), 121, 123, 227

United Nations High Commissioner forRefugees (UNHCR), 221–2

Index282

United Nations World Food Program(WFP), 218, 227

United States, 24, 35, 61, 72, 133, 137,164, 177, 211–12, 227

United States Agency for Development(USAID), 116

Universal Primary Education (UPE),103, 154, 156, 207

University of Dar es Salaam, 61

value added tax (VAT), 134–6, 207van de Walle, Nicholas, 12, 18Victoria Group, 164Vienna Convetion of Diplomatic

Relations, 226Violent Crime Crack Unit (VCCU),

173, 180, 189, 195

Wacha, Ben, 219Wagaba, Ross, 208Wamala, Katumba, 224Wapakhabulo, James, 216Weber, Max, 185

Weberian, 23Weltanschauung, 61Whitehall, 19, 22white paper, 172, 217Wi Tong, 83World Bank, 24, 26, 87–9, 102–3, 109,

116, 118–20, 123, 135, 152–3,202–5, 207–8, 211, 213, 217, 221,227

World Bank Group, 154World Trade Organization (WTO), 152World War II, 193Wunsch, J. S., 104

Young, Crawford, 20, 22Young Democrats, 190Young Parliamentarians Association,

190Yumbe County, 142

Zaire, 198Zartman, I. William, 185Zimbabwe, 133, 166, 198

Index 283

ime Line of Key istorical Events - Home - Springer978-0-230-60336-3/1.pdf · Time Line of Key...

Documents

Transcript of ime Line of Key istorical Events - Home - Springer978-0-230-60336-3/1.pdf · Time Line of Key...