Identity in University Students the Role of Parental and Romantic

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Identity in university students: The role of parental and romanticattachmentq

Marisa vila*, Joana Cabral, Paula Mena Matos*

University of Porto, Portugal

Keywords:

Parental attachmentIdentity developmentRomantic relationshipsMediationUniversity students

a b s t r a c t

In this study with 236 Portuguese university students, we examined two competingmodels for understanding identity. In the first model, the direct independent effects ofparental and romantic attachment on identity were tested. The second model examinedthe mediating role of romantic attachment representations in the link between parentalattachment and identity. The participants completed measures of parental and romanticattachment at the beginning of the freshman year (Wave 1), and a measure of identitydevelopment 18 months later (Wave 2). Structural equation modeling for the independentmodel indicated that identity is exclusively predicted by romantic attachment at this lifestage, and not by parental attachment. Regarding the second model, our mediationalhypothesis was supported, since the association between parental attachment and identitywas totally mediated by romantic attachment representations. Both models presentedadequate indices of adjustment, and provided a complementary understanding of thedifferential role that romantic relations play in contributing to explaining identity

development. 2011 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by ElsevierLtd. All rights reserved.

The influence of attachment on psychosocial development has been both theoretically and empirically supported.Research has pointed out that secure parental attachment promotes adaptive psychological functioning (Leondari &Kiosseoglou, 2000; Lopez & Brennan, 2000) and encourages the development of identity (rseth, Kroger, Martinussen, &Marcia, 2009; Kennedy, 1999; Marcia, 1983; Quintana & Lapsley, 1987). Parental attachment also affects competence inromantic relationships. Adolescents who are more securely attached have closer and more durable relationships with theirdating partners (Collins & Sroufe, 1999; Mayseless & Scharf, 2007). Using an alternative, yet complementary approach,researchers began examining peer relationships in late adolescence, more recently focusing on romantic relationships,exploring the influence of this relational context on identity development (Vogensen, 2003).

Although the value of these studies and reviews is unquestionable, the assessment of clear links between the nature of theparent-adolescent relationship and the development of identity remains difficult to examine (Meeus & Minet, 2007). This islikely due to the complexity of this developmental task and its consequent assessment and measurement. Moreover, theemergence of new relational contexts during this life phase might influence both parental attachment relationships andidentity development, factors that must be considered. The role of romantic relationships in the development of adolescentshas recently appeared and merits further examination (Collins, 2003; Collins, Welsh, & Furman, 2009). There is a lack of

q This study was supported by a research grant (PTDC/PSI/65416/2006) from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT). This study hasalso been supported by a PhD. scholarship grant (SFRH/BD/18357/2004) attributed to the second author.* Corresponding authors. Marisa vila or Paula Mena Matos, Faculty of Psychology and Science Education, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Manuel Pereira da

Silva, 4200-392 Porto, Portugal. Tel.: 351 226 079 700.E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. vila), [email protected] (P.M. Matos).

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Adolescence

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / j a d o

0140-1971/$

see front matter

2011 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.05.002

Journal of Adolescence 35 (2012) 133142
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01401971http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jadohttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.05.002http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.05.002http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.05.002http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.05.002http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.05.002http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.05.002http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jadohttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01401971mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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research on whether identity is related to romantic attachment (Berman, Weems, Rodriguez, & Zamora, 2006), despite therecognition that the attachment system functions on the formation of new bonds in young adults ( Bowlby, 1988; Hazan &Shaver, 1987). Therefore, studies that consider the role played by both parental and romantic attachment in the predictionof identity in late adolescence might contribute to a broader and more comprehensive understanding of the articulation ofboth relational contexts in the lives of late adolescents. Driven by the potential of both parental and romantic attachmentrelationships in promoting psychosocial growth, namely identity, we designed and tested two competing models. We firstinspected the direct influence of both attachment contexts (parental and romantic) on identity. We anticipated that romanticattachment representations might operate as stronger predictors of this dimension, considering the significance of romanticrelationships during this period of life. In a second model, we present a mediational hypothesis in which we anticipated thatromantic attachment representations might function as a mediating mechanism whereby parental bonds are involved inidentity development. In the following sections, we discuss the links between parental attachment and identity in lateadolescence and summarize findings from available empirical studies. We then provide a conceptual and empirical review ofromantic attachment in late adolescence and its influence on the developmental outcome under study.

Parental attachment, romantic relations and identity in late adolescence

Identity formation is a dynamic and life-long process, characterized by continuous changes in individuals amount ofexploration and the strength of their commitments (Erikson, 1968; Marcia, 1983). This process takes place while the parent-adolescent relationship is also undergoing major changes. As adolescents become more capable of self-sufficiently dealingwith lifes challenges, parents may learn to recognize and adjust to their children s near-adult maturity and encourage theirdevelopment either implicitly or explicitly. The changes that occur on both sides allow parents and adolescents to movetoward a relationship that is less hierarchical and more egalitarian (Matos, 2006). Nevertheless, these relationships continueto be crucial contexts for psychosocial development. In general, affective support and connectedness with parents seems toprovide an optimal environment for the encouragement of identity formation (Noom, Dekovic & Meeus, 1999). Previousresearch supports the developmental advantage of a secure attachment representation. Secure attachment to parentsencourages identity development (Meeus, Oosterwegel & Vollebergh, 2002; Samuolis, Layburn, & Schiaffino, 2001;Zimmermann, 2002), whereas less secure parental attachment appears to be related with identity diffusion (Matos,Barbosa, Almeida, & Costa, 1999). Additionally, it was found that parental attachment is predictive of social skills, whichaffect competence in romantic relationships (Engels, Finkenauer, Meeus, & Dekovic, 2001). In a similar study, acceptance andencouragement of independence in the parental relationship contributed to better social competence, which in turnpromoted higher capacity for intimacy in romantic relationships (Scharf & Mayseless, 2001). Young adults who retrospec-tively reported close and autonomous relationships with their parents also reported closer, more intimate and more securerelationships with their romantic partner (Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Furman & Simon, 1999; Kobak & Sceery, 1988). More recentstudies reveal that attachment organization in infancy was found to be predictive of the emotional quality of romanticrelationships in early adulthood (Simpson, Collins, Tran, & Haydon, 2007). There is also evidence that the quality of observedinteraction patterns in the family (e.g., warmth and sensitivity) seems to be positively related to attachment security andsimilar behaviors between romantic partners (Dinero, Conger, Shaver, Wideman & Larsen-Rife, 2008). Taken together, thesestudies bring to light the implication of parental attachment on identity development and on the creation and development ofromantic relationships. However, in a meta-analysis review, Meeus and Minet (2007) questioned the nature of the associationbetween parent-adolescent relationships and identity development. More specifically, in terms of parental attachment, theauthors found that few studies revealed direct links. This may be due to the reorganization of the parent-adolescent rela-tionship that occurs at this life stage and to the diverse environmental characteristics involved, namely the importance ofpeers and the romantic partner. It is plausible to consider that parental attachment may influence identity developmentthrough these other relational contexts.

Romantic attachment and identity development in late adolescence

During their adolescent years, youth gradually abandon idealized representations of their parents and become increas-ingly involved in intimate relationships with their peers. These relationships ultimately become primary sources of socialsupport by the time these adolescents enter young adulthood (Overbeek, Engels, Meeus, & Volleberg, 2003; Seiffge-Krenke,2003). Furman and Shaffer (2003) argue that romantic relationships play an important role in the development of identity, inthe development of close relationships with peers and on the level of transformations in family relationships. Romanticpartners influence identity formation in a variety of ways, including by providing encouragement and direction and byserving as role models (Vogensen, 2003). The partners actions, non-verbal signs and verbal expressions provide a rich sourcefrom which to infer and adjust one s self-view (Hinde, Finkenauer, & Auhagenc, 2001). More recently, it was discovered thatthe developmental demand for establishing a separate identity is an important contributor to young adults romantic rela-tionships across most stages of adolescence (Collins et al., 2009). Therefore, there is a common assumption that optimal closerelationships are characterized by a balance between self and others (Kegan, 1982; Seiffge-Krenke, Shulman, & Klessinger,2001). Taking an opposite approach, Berman et al. (2006) found that identity status was significantly related to romanticattachment style. However, these researchers pointed out the complex nature of the associations between identity andromantic attachment, mentioning that identity statuses do not dictate romantic attachment styles.

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This study seeks to expand on these previous studies by investigating the differential function of romantic attachment onidentity development in a sample of university students, given that we consider their direct application (e.g., with parentalattachment) as well as their intervening role (e.g., between the link of parental attachment and the psychosocial processesunder study).

The present study

In this study, we intend to analyze the influence of parental and romantic attachment on identity development by meansof two competing models. We expected that in the independent model (Model A), differences in parental attachment rela-tionships as well as in romantic attachment representations would predict differences in identity. We predicted that rela-tionships characterized by secure attachment dimensions would promote identity development, while relationships markedby insecure attachment dimensions would have the opposite effect. Moreover, given the salience of romantic relationships atthis age, as well as the process of reorganizing emotional family bonds, we expected that romantic attachment could functionas a better predictor of identity development (Fig. 1).

With regard to the second model, we predicted that the influence of parental attachment on identity could be mediated byromantic attachment (Model B). More specifically, emotionally close and supportive parental relationships that allow formovement toward psychological independence and autonomy, without exaggerated separation anxiety, should promotesecure romantic relationships. As a result, these late adolescents should be able to develop a positive sense of identity. Theopposite effect was expected among adolescents whose parental relationships were characterized by insecure attachmentdimensions. Finally, we hypothesized that romantic attachment would mediate the expected association between parental

attachment and identity. The conceptual model for the mediational hypothesis is represented in Fig. 2.

Method

Participants

We used longitudinal data gathered from 236 first-year Caucasian students attending various courses at the University ofPorto, the largest university in Portugal, located in Porto. One hundred and sixty-eight females (71.2%) and 68 males (28.8%),ranging in age from 17 to 20 years (M 17.96; SD .53) participated in the two waves of the study. Participants came frommedium socioeconomic strata, based on their fathers level of education and current profession. All participants were engagedin a romantic relationship, with durations varying from one month to approximately 4.5 years ( M 13.92 months;SD 11.71). Fifty-seven participants (33.5%) were in relationships that ranged from one month to one year, 41 participants(24.1%) were in relationships that ranged from over one year to two years and 42 participants (24.7%) were in relationships

ranging more than two years. The maximum relationship duration for this last group was 4.5 years.

Procedures

Participants were recruited from seven different faculties within the University of Porto: Architecture, Science, Law,Economy, Pharmacy, Medicine and Psychology. Students were asked to voluntarily participate in a larger study concerning thepsychosocial development of university students. The main goals of the study were briefly presented both orally and in anintroductory letter. Participants were assured that their responses to survey questions would be kept confidential. These

Romantic

Attachment

Parental

Attachment

Identity

Fig. 1. Conceptual model A.

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students then completed the package of questionnaires during the initial weeks of their first year, in classrooms and understandardized group administration conditions. In the first wave of the study, each participant was assigned an identificationcode that enabled their identification in the subsequent wave of the study. Participants were not offered any incentives forparticipation, such as extra course credit or monetary compensation, since the use of such incentives in survey research is notcommon practice in Portugal. In the second wave, midway through the students third year of studies (18 months after thefirst administration), data concerning psychosocial development was gathered.

We checked for random pattern of sample attrition and found that participants who remained in the second wave(N 236) did not differ from those who dropped out of the study after the first wave (N 573) in any of the demo-graphic measures or in parental attachment (Pillais trace .01; F

(9, 2772) 1.63, ns) or romantic attachment (Pillais

trace .01; F (12, 2739) 1.05, ns).

Measures

Parental attachmentParental attachment was measured using the Father/Mother Attachment Questionnaire (FMAQ; Matos & Costa, 2001a),

a self-report measure that was developed in Portugal and is being widely used in empirical research with Portugueseparticipants. It assesses attachment representationsseparately for each parent along three main subscales. Thefirst, Quality ofEmotional Bond, assesses the experience of an emotional, close and supportive relationship with parents (10 items; e.g., Iknow that I can count on my parents whenever I need them). The second, Inhibition of Exploration and Individuality,assesses the absence of encouragement from parents when exploring the environment as well as the perception that parentsare intrusive and inhibiting of psychological differentiation (10 items; e.g., My parents discourage me when I want to try newthings.). The third and final subscale, Separation Anxiety, taps the disruptive experience of levels of separation anxiety(10 items; e.g., I am afraid of being alone if I lose my parents. ).

Results from psychometric and validity studies with several independent samples indicate that FMAQ is a valid andreliable measure for studying attachment representations in adolescence and young adulthood (Matos & Costa, 2004; Matoset al., 1999). Father/Mother Attachment Questionnaire scores have correlated in expected directions with scores on inde-pendent measures of parental/peer attachment, separation-individuation, self-perceptions and family environment. In thepresent study, however, we used the continuous scores on the three subscales. Our results revealed that secure attachedindividuals presented high levels ofQuality of Emotional Bond, low levels ofInhibition of Exploration and Individuality, and lowto moderate levels of Separation Anxiety. On the other hand, insecure attached individuals tended to present low levels ofQuality of Emotional Bond, high levels ofInhibition of Exploration and Individuality and either very low or very high levels ofSeparation Anxiety. In the present sample, internal reliability was high for scores on all FMAQ subscales (Cronbachs alpharanged from .89 to .89 and from .85 to .86 for father and mother, respectively).

Romantic attachmentThe brief version of the Romantic Attachment Questionnaire (RAQ, Matos & Costa, 2001b) was used to assess attachment

representations regarding the current romantic relationship. This instrument was developed and validated with Portugueseparticipants. We considered the following subscales for this study: Trustassesses the extent to which the romantic partner isseen as a source of emotional support (5 items; e.g., I know that I can count on my boyfriend/girlfriend whenever I need him/her); Dependence assesses the need for physical and emotional proximity, separation anxiety and fear of loss (5 items; e.g.,When I cant be with my boyfriend/girlfriend, I feel abandoned); and Avoidance reflects the secondary role of the romanticpartner in the fulfillment of attachment needs (5 items; e.g., When I have a problem, I prefer being alone instead of beingwith my boyfriend/girlfriend). The questionnaire presented adequate internal consistency (Cronbachs alpha ranged from .70to .91). Predictable relationships between RAQ and other constructs (rejection sensitivity, social support and networkorientation) were found to evidence construct validity (Matos, 2002; Santos & Matos, 2007). In addition, based on thesubscales of the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale (Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998), it was observed that anxietycorrelated significantly with dependence (r .61, p < .001) and avoidance correlated with avoidance (r .31, p < .001).Avoidance was negatively correlated with trust (r .71, p < .001).

Parental

Attachment

Romantic

Attachment

Identity

Fig. 2. Conceptual model B.



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IdentityThe Erikson Psychosocial Inventory Scale (EPIS; Rosenthal et al., 1981) assesses the six stages of psychosocial development

proposed by Erikson. The questionnaire was translated into Portuguese according to International Test Commission(Hambleton, 2005) guidelines. In this study, we used the subscales of Autonomy (6 items, a .83; e.g., I like to makedecisions on my own.) and Identity (6 items, a .86; e.g., I have a sense of who I am and what I want from my life.), both ofwhich presented adequate internal consistency.

Overview of analyses

We sought to test two comprehensive yet parsimonious models involving our key variables.Given the high correlation between separate father and mother scores on the IEI, QEB and SA dimensions (all rs > .80,

p < .01), each FMAQ dimension was represented in the model as a latent variable combining both the father and motherscores as indicators. The same procedure was applied to the psychosocial dimensions being studied, considering themoderately high intercorrelation between Autonomy and Identity scores (r .79, p < .001). In addition, taking into accounttheir conceptual overlap and the proximity between both processes, we combined scores on these measures to createa composite variable that we labeled as Identity. Latent variables using item parcels as observed variables were used for all thevariables in this study. Applying a domain sampling rationale, we assigned each item to each one of the parcel groupings,randomly and without replacement. Random assignment of item groupings resulted in parcels that contain roughly equalcommon factor variance (Little, Cunningham, Shahar, & Widaman, 2002).

Both hypothetical causal models contained manifest (measured) and latent variables. These models were examined using

Structural Equation Models (SEM; with EQS, version 6.1), using maximum likelihood estimation. In the first model, we testedthe direct independent affects of parental attachment and romantic attachment on identity, imposing covariances betweenthe predictors (latent variables). In the second model, the analyses were conducted using the same method and following theprocedures outlined by Baron and Kenny (Kenny, 2006) for testing mediational effects.

Results

Preliminary analyses

Table 1 presents the intercorrelations as well as the means, standard deviations and ranges of the scores for the studys keydimensions. Regarding parental attachment, Quality of Emotional Bond (QEB) and Inhibition of Exploration and Individuality(IEI) correlated negatively (r .47, p< .001), while QEB correlated positively with Separation Anxiety (SA) (r .52, p< .001).Quality of Emotional Bond correlated positively with Trust (r .21, p < .01), while IEI correlated positively with Avoidance

(r .22, p < .01) and SA correlated positively with Dependence (r .29, p < .001). Results were consistent according to theconceptualization of the attachment dimensions. Also as expected, QEB positively correlated with Identity (r .20, p < .01)and IEI negatively correlated with Autonomy (r .16,p< .05). No significant correlations were found between SA and any ofthe psychosocial dimensions. Intercorrelations of scores on romantic attachment and psychosocial measures were also asexpected. Dependence was negatively correlated with Autonomy (r .21, p < .01), while Trust positively correlated withIdentity (r .16, p < .05). No significant correlations were found between Avoidance and any of the psychosocial dimensions.

Measurement model A

This measurement model indicated an adequate fit: c2 (84, N 236) 131.97, p < .0001; CFI .98; RMSEA .05 (90% CI:lower bound .033, upper bound .066); and SRMR .06. Table 2 shows that all loadings of the measured variables on thelatent variables were statistically significant, therefore all of the latent variables appear to have been adequately measured bytheir respective indicators. Measurement model A was used to test the structural model, which will be described ahead.

Table 1

Means, standard deviations, and correlations among dimensions.

M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Inhibition of Exploration and Individuality 2.84 .91 -.47*** -.16* -.27*** .01 .22** -.16* -.16*2. Quality of Emotional Bond 5.17 .65 .52*** .21** .00 -.16* .10 .20**3. Separation Anxiety 3.53 .85 .02 .29*** -.17** -.11 .044. Trust 4.99 .75 .37*** -.69*** .10 .16*5. Dependence 3.19 .78 -.59*** -.21** -.066. Avoidance 2.52 .86 .01 -.117. Autonomy 4.67 .73 .78***8. Identity 4.61 .82

Note. N

218.*p < .05 **p < .01 ***p < .001.

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Independent affects of romantic attachment on identity

Results from the structural model supported some of our expectations, as illustrated in Fig. 3. The observed affects from

the final model demonstrated that only romantic attachment dimensions, which were assessed at the beginning of partic-ipants first year of university, had a direct influence on predicting identity, which was assessed midway through the thirdyear of university (18 months after the first administration). No dimension of parental attachment was found to be directlyassociated to identity when simultaneously considering the direct influence of romantic attachment dimensions.

With the exception ofAvoidance, all romantic attachment dimensions were related to Identity through different paths andmagnitudes. Dependence was a negative predictor of Identity (r 34, p < .001), while Trust was found to forecast (r .55,

p < .001).

Measurement model B

This measurement model indicated an adequate fit: c2 (125, N 236) 208.82, p< .001; CFI .97; RMSEA .06 (90% CI:lower bound .041, upper bound .067); and SRMR .06. The model did not include any correlated error terms. Table 3illustrates that all loadings of the measured variables on the latent variables were statistically significant; therefore, all ofthe latent variables appear to have been adequately measured by their respective indicators. Measurement model B was usedto test the structural models described next.

Mediational hypothesis

The results from the structural model partially supported the mediational hypothesis, as illustrated in Fig. 4. In our finalstructural model, the Avoidance dimension was removed, since it was found to have no relation to the final variable in the

Table 2

Factor loadings for measurement model A.

Measure and variable B SE Z

TrustTrust Parcel 1 1.00 .86***Trust Parcel 2 1.00 .07 14.93 .86***Trust Parcel 3 .96 .07 13.86 .81***

Dependence

Dependence Parcel 1 1.00

.69***

Dependence Parcel 2 1.27 .13 10.16 .84***Dependence Parcel 3 1.36 .14 10.08 .83***

IdentityIdentity Parcel 1 1.00 .88***Identity Parcel 2 .87 .08 11.77 .88***Identity Parcel 3 .88 .08 11.77 .88***

Note: N 236. According to Byrne (1994), in order to guarantee the specification of the measurement model, some of the factor loadings should be con-strained to a known value, typically 1.00.***p < .001.

Fig. 3. Model A: Independent effects of romantic attachment on identity.



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study. First, we observed an indirect effect ofInhibition of Exploration and Individuality (IEI) on Identity, through a connectionwith Trust. More specifically, we found that IEI constitutes a negative predictor ofTrust(b .24, z 3.54, p < .001). Theselower levels ofTrustare predictive of lower levels of Identity (b .22, z 2.59, p < .01). Considering the role of Quality ofEmotional Bond (QEB), we found that the relationship between QEB and Identity is partially mediated by Dependence, sinceQEB continues to directly predict the final outcome to a lesser degree. Quality of Emotional Bond is a negative predictor of

Dependence (b

.33, z

4.45, p

Identity in University Students the Role of Parental and Romantic

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