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Advancement in Research on Coastal Agricillture

..`

lssN 0972-1584

Journalof

TIIE INDIAN SOCIETY OF COASTAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

Volume 24 July -December 2006 Number 2

Papers Presented

State-of-art technologies for higher production in aquacultureand animal husbandry including integrated farming system

Mangroves, forests, agroforestry and ecological security

Integrated farming with resource recycling and extensioninitiatives for sustainable economy

and

Natural disasters vis-a-vis stability of coastal ecosystem

at the

National SeminarOn

``Strategies for Improved Farming andEcological Security of Coastal Region"

Thiruvananlhapulam, Kelala. 21 -24 I)eceml]el. 2005

INDIAN SOCIETY OF COASTAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCHRegn. No. T/40093 of 1982-83

Executive Council for 2006-2007

Patron Pre sidentDr. M. V. Rao Dr. J. S. P Yadav

Vice PresidentsDr. S 8. KadrekarDr A K Bandyopadhyay

Homy. SecretaryDr H S Sen

Dr R A RajuDr. A R. KhanDr 8 GangwarDr SingaravelDr. R. E SingandhupeDr V S Chandrasekharan

Dr R J. OosterbaanNetherlandsProf I J. FlowersU.K-

Dr. D BurmanDr 8. MajiDr S K AmbastDr Venkat SubramaniamShri C Karpagam

Jt. Secretary Asst. Secretary

Dr N K. TyagiDr.I. V. Subba Rao

TreasurerDr. B. K. Bandyopadhyay in. D_ Burman Shri s, K Dutt

Members of the CouncilDr A. 8. MandalDr. K. R. NaskarDr. V RajagopalDr. J. V. PolaraDr. S. C Nayak

Members of the Editorial BaaedEditor-in-Chief

Dr. A` K. Bandyopadhyay

Foreign

IndianDr P. R. K. PrasadDr. U K. MishraDr. K. JanakiramanDr. A. K JanaDr. S. Roy Choudhury

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JOURNALOF

ISSN 0972-1584

THE INDIAN SOCIETY OF COASTAL AGRICUI:TURAL RESEARCH

VOLUME 24 Jul:Y -DECEMBER 2006 NUMBER 2

CONTENTSPresidential AddressImproved Farming and Ecological Security in Coastal Region

J. S. P. YADAV229

Session -Ill : State-of-art technologies for higher production in aquacultureand animal husbandry including integrated farming system

Status and Environmental Impact of shrimp Aquaculture in East Godavari District, Andhra pradesh 241

M. MURALIDHAR, B.P. GUPTA and P. RAVICHANDRAN

Environmental Impact of Brackishwater Aquaculture in Pichavaram, Tamil Nadu

M. JAYANTHl, S. RAMACHANDRAN, P. NILA REKHA and M. MURALIDHAR

Growth and Survival of Macrobrach/'um Rosenberg/./ (Giant Freshwater Prawn)under Monoculture Practice in Sindhudurg District of Maharashtra

P. E. SHINGARE , N. H. SAWANT, a. P. BHOSALE and S.C. BELSARE

Surface Dugout Pond: Boon for Coastal Integrated Farming System in Maharashtra

J. H. DONGALE, S. S. DHANE, P. E. SHINGARE and S. J. IVIESHRAM254

Studies on Growth and Survival of Cypr/.nus carp/.o Fry upto Advanced Fingerlings in the Rajnfed Ponds 258P. E. SHINGARE , N. H. SAWANT. a.` P. BHOSALE and S. G. BELSARE

Fish Fauna of pawashi Irrigation Tank in sindhudurg, Maharashtra -A case study 261

8. P. BHOSALE, P. E. SHINGARE, N. H. SAWANT and S.G. BELSARE

Studies on Effect of Laclobaci//us act'dopht./us, a Feed Probiotic on Growth of Seed of Labeo rob/.fa 264P. E. SHINGARE, S. J. MISHRA, R. K. SINGH, J. H. DONGALE and S. S. DHANE

Studies on Effect of Different Levels of protein on the Absorption Efficiency in Heferapenesfus Foss/./s 267S. J. MESHF`AM, P. E. SHINGARE, R. K. SINGH, J. H. DONAGLE and S. S. DHANE

ldentification and Assessment of Nutri.ent Availability in Backyard system of poultry Farming 269

S. K. SAH00, a. K. PANDA, S. C. GIRl and M. K. PADHI

Growth and production performance of Rhode Island Red chicken in orissa 272M. K. PADHl, a. K.PANDA, S. C. GIRl and S. K. SAHOO

Indigenous Ethno veterinary practices for Animal Husbandry under coastal villages of sundarbans 276

C. KARPAGAM, D. BURMAN., a. K. BANDYOPADYAY and A. R. BAL

Integrated Fish Culture with Piggery in Different Districts of Meghalaya -An Enterprising Approach for Economic Benefit of Tribal Communlty

N. M. CHAKRABARTY, N. K. DAS, P. P. CHAKRABARTl and S. C. IVIONDAL

Session - lv : Mangroves, forests, agroforestry and ecological securityEcological Peril in Coastal Regions -An Overview

D. KUMARA CHARYULU, H. DEEPTHl and S. NARASIIVIHAM

Adaptability of Mangroves in Shrimp Farm Discharge Water

P. NILA REP(HA and M. JAyANTHI

Session -V : Integrated farming with resource recycling and extension initiatives for sListainable economyModel for Poverty Alleviation in Coastal Agro-ecosystem

S. ARULRAJ, C. V. SAIRAM and C. THAIVIBAN

Extension Methodology for Sustainable Coastal Aquaculture

M. KUMARAN, S. RAJA, M. ALAGAPPAN, D. D. VIMALA, C. SARADA, V. S. CHANDRASEKARAN and N. KALAIMANI

Extension of Jute Agriculture in Sundarbans Biosphere for Conservation of Biodiversityand Coastal Zone Security

A. BANDYOPADHYAY, A.1<. MAHAPATRA and A. K. JANA

Technological lnterventions for Women Empowerment in Coastal Agro-ecosystemS. RAWIANATHAN and M. ANATHARAMAN

278

302

Empowering Fisherwomen in Coastal Sectors -A Strategy for Improving Farming

8. SHANTHl and M. JAYANTHI

National Agricultural Extension Policy Framework -Scope and Prospects for Coastal Agro-ecosystem

C. KARPAGAM, a. K. BANDYOPADYAY, D. BURMAN and A. R. BAL

Agro-ecosystem Analysis of a village in Coastal Areas of Sundarbans through Participatory Approach

S. K. JHA, C. R. BISWAS, a. MAJl and a. K. BANDYOPADHYAY

Integrated Restructuring of Homesteads through Farmer Participatory Approach -A Case Study from Central Kerala

M. JOY JOHN JACOB and S. REGEENA

Farmers Participatory Assessment of Biological Control Measures in Rice Based Coastal Agro-ecosystem

K. PONNUSAMY, M. JAYANTHI and M. KUMURAN

Problem ldentificatjon and Intervention Selection through PLA Approach in Sundarbans

S. K. JHA, a. MAJl, C. R. BISWAS and a. K. BANDYOPADHYAY

Adoption of Cassava Production Technologies by Farmers of Coastal Districts of Kerala

T. SRINIVAS, M. ANANTHARAMAN and T. SIJU

Research -Extension Linkage in Coastal Aquaculture

M. KUMARAN, M. ALAGAPPAN, §. RAJA, D. D.VIMALA, C. SAIIADA, V. S. CHANDRASEKARAN and N. KALAIMANI

Communication Behaviour of Shr`mp Farmers

D. DEBORAL VIMALA, M. KUMARAN and M. KRISHNAN

Shrimp Seed -A Critical Problem Faced by Shrimp Farmers -A Cross Sectional AnalysisD. DEBORAL VIIVIALA, S. RAIVIACHANDRAN, P. S. SWATHILEKSHMl and M. KUMARAN

The Impact of TAR/lvLP in a Coastal Village of Sundarbans in West Bengal

A. a. MANDAL, C. KARPAGAM, a. K. BANDYOPADHYAY, A. R. BAL, S. K. DUTT, K. K. MAHANTA and S. K. TRIPATHI

Brainstorming Session. : Natural disasters vis-a-vie stability of coastal ecosystemImpact of Tst/nan/ on Coastal Agro-ecosystems of India and Strategies for Restoration

V. RAJAGOPAL

Crop Rehabilitation and Management for Supercyclone Hit Coastal Areas of Orissa

D. P. SINHABABu, a. N. SINCH, a. K. MAITY, N. SARANcl, H. N. VERMA,H. PANDEy, a. K. PANDA, G. NAIK, S. K. NASKAR and G. SATISH KulvIAR

Supercyclone -A Natural DisasterASHWANI KUMAR and N. SAHOO

Integrated Management of Water Resources in Post-cyclone Situation

N. SAHOO and S. K. JENA

Natural Disaster: Plan for Mitigation

A. K. BANDYOPADHYAY

Recent Floods in Konkan and Ecologlcal Disasters: A Case Study

S. a. KADREKAR and C. V. BHAMBURE

Impact Assessment and Rehabilitation Strategies for rsunamt. AffectedAgrlcLiltural Lands of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

R. RAJA, S. GHOSHAL CHAUDHURl, T. P. SWARNAM, N. RAVISANt(AR. V. JAYAKUMAR and SUDIPTA DAS

Impact of rsunamt. on Soil Quality and Reclamation Strategies in the u T of Pondicherry

A.BASKAR, U.BAGAVATHI AMMAL, R.SANKAR, G. VEMBU and K.VALLIAMMAL

Tsunam/ Effect on Coastal Soil and Water

V. PETHAPERUMAL, C. SOUCIKALA and V. N. VARMA

Impact of Tsunamt' on the Coastal Vegetation of Boat Island, South Andaman

A. VENKATESH, C.B. PANDEY, N. KALA, N. RAVISANKAR, R. P. MEDHl and R. a. RAI

Has rsunam/. Affected the Quality of Seawater and Backwaters? -Case Studies in and around Chennai, Tamil Nadu

M. MURALIDHAR. a. P GUPTA, R. SARASWATHY, ABEY VARAMPATH ABRAHAM and A. NAGAVEL

Impact of Tsunam/. on the Ground Water Quality in Pondicherry Region

A. BASKAR, U. BAGAVATHI AMMAL, R. SANKAR, L. ARUNA, D. JAYANTHl, M. BALACHANDER and K. COUMARAVEL

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Published by the Hony. Secretary, Indian Society of Coastal Agricultural Research Canning Towr t743 329)and Printed by Media, Kolkata -700 029, Phone : 2223 5529

J Indta,n Soc. Coastal agnc. Res., 24`2), 229-240, 2006 Presidential Address

Improved Farming and Ecological Security in Coastal RegionJ. S. P. YADAVI

President, Indian Society of Coastal Agricultural Research

An economically robust agriculture ls the key to overall economic development and will contlnue to bethe backbone of the Indian prosperity. Agriculture contributes about one-fourth of the nationdl GDP a]idsustains livelihood of about two-thirds of the population. With the application of modern agriculturaltechnology, India has moved from an era of chronic food shortages to food self sufficiency aiid c>\icn foodexport. Since independence, the productivity gains are nearly 3.3 times in food grains, 1.6 times in fruits,2.1 times in vegetables, 5.6 times in fish,1.8 times in milk, and 4.8 times in eggs.

In view of globalization of marketing and liberalization of economy, we have to take cognizance of therecent rapid advances in molecular breeding, genc)mics, biotechnological tools, cloning of Dolly, transgeniccrops and other discoveries. Our information technology has to be upgraded to promote knowledge-basrciagriculture. Prudent conservation, utilization and management of resources and malntenan(`(` of high

productivity are crucial to enhance and sustain the targeted tempo of growth in agricultural pri)duction tomeet the increasing needs of the swelling population which is expected to become 1.4 bi"on I)y 2025 andI.7 billion by 2050. Any ill-planned and indiscriminate use of the resources is bound to create seriousdecline in productivity, resulting in dreadful crisis. This poses a formidable challenge in view ot practicallyno hope of sizeable expansion in the net cultivated area. One of the options for overcommg the siluation isto extend the benefits of modern advances in science and technology to the hitherto low productivit} areassuch as coastal and rain fed regions.

Despite unique endowments sulted to diversified and productive farming systems, the pr()ductivity

growth rate in the coastal areas is lagging behind due to extremely fragile ecological situation The Agc`nda21 of Earth Summit of UNCED 1992 has stressed the need of development in the coastal areas 1` isindeed gratifying to note that the Indian Council of Agricultural Research has realised the critical role oflhls agro-ecosystem ln impacting agrlcultural production and socio-economic development of the country.The Council has lately launched a Mission Mode Project "Land Use Planning" under the World Bankfunded programme of NATP, laying emphasis on different production systems in the coastal ctTeas relatlngto agri-horti production, livestock production and fish production with the chief objective of upgrading theagricultural productivity of these areas.

Coastal ecosystem

Coastal ecosystem includes estuaries and coastal waters and lands located at the lower end of drainagebasins, where stream and river systems meet the sea and are mixed by tides. It can consist of rocky cllff,sandy beaches or mud flats besides river or estuary. The coastal ecosystem includes saline, brackish andfresh waters, as well as coastlines and the transition of lands from terrestrial to marine influences andvice versa.

Around the world, nearly I billion people live along the 312,000 kin long coastline. The coastal areas

provide livelihood security for millions of people by supporting roughly 60% or world's population. About40% of world's population lives within 60 kin of coastline. Amongst 18 countries (Table 1), Canada, Japan,Australia, Norway, USA, China, U.K., Mexico and India have coastline greaLter than 8,000 kin in each.Canada has the longest coastline. In the remaining 9 countries the length of coastline varies from 2,289 to7,600 kin The narrow coastal stretches are under immense pressure today. Most fertile agricultural landsare found near the coaLst, and the industries also prefer to be located close to the coast for easy dischargeof their effluents. Pemnsular India is bound by sea water on three sides: the Bay of Bengal in the East, theArabian sea in the West and the Indian Ocean in the South. The Indian coastline runs to around 8,129 kindistributed among nine coastal states (West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in the east

I Present address: 814, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa Campus, New Delhi -110 012

230 J, S. P Yadav

coast, and Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala and Goa in the west coast), two groups of islands

(Andaman & Nicobar and I,akshadweep), and two union territories (Pondichcrry and Daman & I)iu). Thecoastal belt comprises of a wide range of ecosystems extending from sandy beaches and mangroves tocoral reefs and rocky areas.

Table 1. Length of coasttine in some counines

Country Coastline (ktn) Country CO&,tline (h'Canada 243,791 Italy 7,600Japan 29,751 Brazil 7,491

Australia 25,760 Turkey 7,200Norway 21,925 Spain 4,964

USA 19,924 France 3,427

Chlna 14,500 Thailand 3,219

UK 12,429 Sweden 3,218

Mexico 9,330 South Africa 2,798

Indla 8,129 Germany 2,289

The coastal ecosystem is highly fragile and vulnerable to natural hazards, sea level rise andanthropogenic activities. Coastal belt has been located in the east as well as in the west. The east coast islowlying with lagoons, marshes, beaches and deltas rich in mangrove forests, whereas the western coastlinehas a wide continental shelf and is marked by backwaters and mud flats. In general, the following constraintsaffect the productivity in the coastal areas.

Constraints

> Influence of tidal waves and periodical Inundation of soil by tidal water

> Shallow water table enriched with salts contributing to increase in soil salinity during winter and summer months

> Heavy rainfall (except in some parts of Gujarat) and cyclonic weather

> Poor surface and §ub§urface drainage conditions

> Lack of good quality irrigation water during dry period in certam areas

> Agriculturally pnr`` ,lands and monocropping in some parts

> Undeveloped imgd[ion

> Seawater Intrusion in aquifers

> Threat from environmental and man-made pressures

> Toxicity ofcertain elements in soil and water

Soil resources

Soil is a dynamic, living, non-renewable resource whose healthy condition is vital to the production ofboth food and fibre and also to the global balance and ecosystem function (Doran et a!.,1996). The qualityand health of soils determine agricultural sustainability (Acton aLnd Gregorich, 1995), environmental quality(Pierzynski ec a/.,1994), and as a consequence, plant, animal and human health (Haberern,1992). Soilsof coastal areas are generally deep to very deep having coarse sandy to fine loamy texture, non-calcareousto calcareous, poor to rich in organic, slightly to moderately saline, and highly acidic to alkaline, In manycoastal areas uncontrolled extraction of ground water has resulted in intrusion of seawater and developmentof high salinity. Importam physlcal and chemical properties of coastal soils of India arc given ln Table 2(Velayutham €t ci/.,1998). Some details in respect of (1) coastal saline soils, (2) acid sulphate soils, and (3)coastal sand dunes follow:

Coastal saline sc)ils

Out of 49 million hectare area under the salt affected soils in the south and southeast Asia` about 27million hectares (55%) are within coastal areas. In India, the salinity status in saline soils \arles wldel}`from Ece 0.5 dsm-i in monsoon to 50 dsm-I 1n summer. Mostly Nacl followed by Na2S04 are thc domlnantsoluble salts, with abundance of soluble cation§ in the order Na>Mg>Ca>K with chloride as the predominai `anlon, and bicarbonate in traces. The soils are, in general, free of sodicity problem except in a fe\\ pocketsin the south and west coast.

Improved farming & ecological security

Table 2. Pkysical and cherhical propeT1.es of coastal soils of India

231

State AESR No. pH( 1 :2. 5) EC(dsm.1) 0.C. (%' CEC(cmol(p') 1g-I) B.S.(%)

West Bengal 15.1 6.3-7.4 I.5-9 8 0.15-0.52 19 4-22.7 70-80

18.5 6 5-7.6 4.I-35.04.6-27.0 0 3-0.78 6 6-10.6 74-82

orrisaAndhra Pradesh 18,4 6.7-7.4 0.10-0 22 12.8-13 4 75-85

18.5 4.5-6.3 Tr.-0,20 33.8-55.5 49-6989-loo

183 8.0-8 4 0.9-1.1 2-6

Tamil Nadu 181 51-6.I 0.06-0.09 4.0-6.6

KeralaKarnataka 19.3 2.4-3.2 9.2-19.9 26.4-58.0 8-57

19.3 5.1-5.6 0.3-2.6 3.9-7.6 48-58

19.3 3.9-5.7 0.07-123 0.7-4 6 29-89

Maharashtra 19.3 6.6-7.0 0.4-0.7 20.8-28.0 40-45

Goa 19.1 5.4-5.9 0.28-0.60 0.5-7.8 48-69

GUJarat 22 8.2-8 7 0.20-6 50 0.18-1.10 I.3-3.7

100

S3 7,7-8.0 0.46-3.20 0.13-015 12.26-19.26

Lakshadweep 20.2 8 5-9.1 0 . 1 -0 . 2 011-0.77 0.4-I.5

Acid sulphate soils

Acid sulphate soils contain sulfides (mainly pyrites, which become very acid when sumdes are oxidizedto sulphates on drying; and usually have a pH below 4 in water. Acid sulphate soils cover large areas oftemperate lands. In India, presence of acid sulphate soils has been reported in the lowlying coastal areasof Kerala, Andaman and Nicobar islands, and recently in the coastal areas of Sundarbans, West Bengal

(Bandyopadhyay and Maji, 1995) Acidification of these soils is caused by a combination of abiotic andmicrobial oxidation of pyrites (Fes2).

Many plants appear to bc able to tolerate relatively large concentrations of H+, although work usingsolution cultures indicates some root Injury at low pH. It' is'probable, however, that Al and Mn toxicity ismore Important than that due to H+. In acid sulphate soils, phosphate deficiency is widespread and alsothere are deficiencies of Ca and K; whereas the levels of exchangeable Mg may be high.

Coastal sand dunes

Coastal sand dunes arc deficient in plant nutrients due to extenslve leaching which occurs duringtheir formation, transport and deposition. Dune fertilization is a useful management tool for Improvingthe establishment and growth of new plants. [f fertilization of sand dunes with urea is contemplated as amanagement tool, it may be prudent to apply a nitrification inhibitor such as.N-serve in order to minimizeN03 -N losses. On the debit slde, such a combination mlght enhance NH4+-N volatilization, therebynecessitating the addition of urease as well as nitrification inhibitor.

Water resources

Water is the most crucial Input, which must be developed, conserved and used judiciously. The ultimateirrigation potential in the country is tentatively estimated at 139.89 mlllion hectare (M ha) comprising58.46 M ha through Major and Medium irrigation projects and 81.43 M ha from minor irrigation, whichthe country is expected to achieve by 2010 (Brij Kishore, 2002). An action plan is needed for coastalecosystem separately keeping in view the objective of optimal and sustainable development and managementof water resources of the country as envisaged in the National Water Policy 2002 document. The strategyfor research has to focus on augmentation of available water resources and their optimal utilization withoutsacrificing on its quality, with active participation of aill the stakeholders. All available water resources

(surface as well as ground) have to be managed in an Integrated and synergic manner. The National WaterPolicy 2002 further envisages that the drainage system should form an Integral part of water management.

Coastal ecosystem occurs in the vicinity of creeks, rivers, deltas, lowlying lands, estuaries, and ischaracterized by high salinity of groundwater, besides paucity of good quality water in the post-monsoonseason. It poses serious problems and challenges to cultivation. The entire area is almost monocropped,

232 J S. P Yadav

rice being the major crop. Though these areas receive good rainfall ranging from 1000 to 4000 mm duringmonsoon, there is vlrtua.Ily no source of irrigation to the crop except the rainwater. The paucit`y' of good

quality irrigation water, besides building up the salinity in soil and groundwater, is always a limitation fortaking second post-monsoon crop. The nature and extent of the problems vary from region to region, butin most of the places the coastal ecosystem presents a unique problem of water management. In view ofthe peculiar characteristics and problems of coastal ecosystem appropriate strategies for Integrated watermanagement merit serious consideration.

Biologically productive ecosystem

The coastal regions constitute one of the most biologically productive environments cndowcd with awlde diversity of physiographical features including mountain ranges of varying slopes and valleys, altitude,climatic variatlon, rainfall pattern with spatial and seasonal changes, soil types, quality and quantity ofavailable water and other related aspects. Because of these endowments the coastal areas have thedistinction of rich biodiversity of many flora and fauna. Beside biologically diversified production system,Kerala stale, in particular, has the common practice of multi-tiered high density cultivation, a.s a result ofwhich almost every piece of land is exploited to its full capability. The system contributes immcnscly tothe sociocconomic upliftmcnt of the local people as reflected in highest literacy rate, per capita incomeand employment opportunities, etc.

Some details relating to diverse marine and coaLstal habitats (Ayyappan and Modayil, 2005) revealthat the Indian Ocean accounts for 29% of global oceans,13% of marine organic carbon synthesis,10% ofcapture fisheries, 30% of coral reefs and 100/a of mangroves. India has 246 estuaries draining Into ahinterland greater than 200 km2 besides coastal lagoons and backwaters. Out of a total of 22,000 speciesof fish, about 4,000 are found in the Indian Ocean, of which 1800 species arc from the coastal areas. Thecoastal ecosystem provides Important services viz., breeding ground for many fish species, storing andrecycling of nutrients, regulating water balance, protecting land against erosion from storms and waves,r.illering pollutants, regulating climate and oxygen supply. Nevertheless, the anthroponegic dcgradalionIncluding over-exploitation, pollution, sand mining, tourism, and natural disasters including climate change,wcalher aberrations, storms and cyclones, etc. cause tremendc)us damage to the habitat conditions aswell as productivity levels. Therefore, restoration, rehabilitation, conservation, protection and Judiciousmanagement of the biological asset of the coastal ecosystem are concerns of major importance.

Cropping systems

Rice is the major crop in coastal ecc)system. During the last 50 years, while the rice area in India hasincreased only by one and half times from 30 million hectares to about 45 million hectares, the ricc productionhas increased more than four times from 22 million tons to 90 million tons and the productivity has increasedt,hrec timcs from 700 kg ha.I to 2000 kg ha-I. It is estimated that the rice demand will be 100 million tons in2010 and 140 million tons in 2025. Rice research has to be geared up to surmount the technological challengesin breaking the genetic yield barriers, improving input use efficiency, and finall.v in developing environmentallyacceptable strategies for alleviating losses due to pests and diseases (Mishra, 2004).

New tools in rice research to meet challenges of WTO regime

Hybrid Rice: In the immediate future, hybrid rice is the practically feasible and adoptable technologyfor enhancement of rice production and productivity. Hybrids have recorded 15-20 percent higher yieldthan the highest yielding inbred varieties in the farmer's fields. However, its suitability under varied agro-climatic conditions and weather adversities in coastal ecosystem is yet to bc rigorously tested.

Genetic transformation in rice.. It is another tool that promises to revolutionize rice improvement

programme in India. The most important advantage of transgenic technology is the capacity to mobilizeuseful genes from non-rice gene pool to rice with least disruption to rice genome. Transgenic rice wlthresistance to insect pests and pathogenic viruses, fungi and bacteria .r`ave Tjeen developed and are beingtcsted under limited field evaluation in India (Mishra, 2004).

Crop diverslflcation

Diversification of agriculture has been acknowledged to give better returns to generate additional9mployment for rural masses and to conserve natural resources. Diversification to horticultural crops has

Improved farming & ecological security 233

been found to be the best option as these crops not only meet the above requircmcnts but also arc adaptedlo a wide range of climate, produce higher biomass than field crops per unit area, are more remunerativefor replacing subsistencc farmlng, and thus, alleviate poverty particularly in rain fed, coastal, dry land,hilly and arid ecosystem The emphasis should be mainly on production, protection and post-harvestmanagement of horticultural crops. India contributes 10-13 percent of the total world production of fruitsand vegetables occupying second place in the world. The area under flower crops has also been increasingand protcctcd cultivation of cut flower has been established (Chaddha, 2004). Coastal ecosystem has widescope and warrants special attcntion.

In case of tropical root crops, the annual production in the country is to the tune of 170 million metrictonnes, roughly equivalent, in caloric content, to 50 million metric tonnes of grain. While cereals are grown onsuperior lands with imgation or better moisture, roots and tubers are prcdominantly grown in the upland orrainfed areas, mainly by resource poor small and marginal farmers. However, there is an urgent need toImprove the productivity of thc`sc crops since they are related to food security. IIence, it is desirable to integrate

production of various tuber crops with the major cropping systems in vogue in the coastal areas.Out of 109 spices listed by the ISO, only 63 are grown in the country. Commercial cultivation is

limited to about a dozen of spices which attained importance in the internal and international markets.Indla ls the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices in the world. The international spice scenariodcplc[s a quantum leap over the past decade to more than 4.5 mllhon tonnes, valued at US $ 1,500million. India's share of the world spiccs trade is estimated as 45-50 percent by volume and 25 percent byvalue. The present annual production of spices in the country is 3.0 million tonnes from over 2.5 millionhcclarcs. The I,ion's share (90%) of the spices produced in India is absorbed in the domestic market andonly 10 percent ls exportc`d to over 150 countries. About 8.5 percent of lndia's export earnings. fromagricultural and allied products come from spices which constitute I.24 percent of the total export earningsduring 1999-2000 (Pelcr and Nybe,` 2002). Since the spices occupy a prominent place in the productionsystem in the coastal tracts, inlensified research to exploit the full potential of these crops in compatiblediversified cropping in t,hc coastal environment is needed.

Integrated nutrient management in horticulture and plantation crops with inclusion of leguminuouscrop`s--as cover Cropping in--pcrenhial .plantations,_iind incorporating `them un. the +ields.wffl help improvesoil fcrlility, thereby supplcmcnting the fertilizer needs; and reducing cost of production. Organic farminghas Immense potential and needs to be validated through intensive research.

Post-harvest technologies

The need to reduce post-harvest losses by proper pre-and post-harvest handling, proper packaging,and creating suitable Infrastructure e.g„ cold storages for fruits and vegetables, cold chain transport, andother technologies cannot be overemphasized. Use of pre-cooling units, controlled/modified atmosphere/refrigerated containers, particularly for transport by sea will go a long way in enhancing the self life offruits and vegetables, and rcducing transport losses.

Agro-techniques have been developed in all major crops suitable for different regions. These includehigh-dcnsity plantations in banana, pineapple, citrus, mango and apple, and high production technologyin several crops e,g. pincapplc, black pepper and cardamom. Use of F, hybrids of vegetable needs to be

promoted (Chaddha, 2004). Here again, inspite of specific need, practically very little work progress hasbccn made in the coastal ecosystem to develop suitable agro-techniques for storage and transport offruits, vegetables and flowers` thereby depriving the farmers of due benefits.

Quality Improvement

ln the post-liberalization period, the main thrust needs to be on low cost technologies for Improvingthe quality of various horticultural and other crops, to make our produce qualitatively competitive in theworld market. At present, various products in India do not conform to the standards prescribed by majorimporting countries. Therefore, popularization of Improved agro-techniques, use of INM, IPM, growthregulators, organic Inputs, biopesticides, and cultivation of specific varieties for table and processing

purposes for export needs emphasis. Several plant growth regulators are commercially employed inpromoling both production and quality improvement of horticultural crops (Chaddha, 2004) and hence,adoption of such technologies will benefit the coastal areas from the international trade.

234 J. S. P. Yadav

Forests including mangroves and agroforestry

Forests occur predominantly c)n the hill slopes though many plantations also constitute an important

part of coastal ecology The forest coverage in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands is as high as nearly 880/o ofthe total land area. Indiscriminate denudation of forests on the sloping lands accelerates runoff` sedimentmovement, nutrlent loss, and hydrological degradation which is ccinsplcuous in the Western Ghats Themangrove forests are usually found in the littoral regions in the tropics, in the estuaries of rivers, increeks and lagoons, and in low mud flats along the sea coast where soil is silty loam or stiff clay dependingupon the salinity status and vicinity to the tidal Influence These forests are developed mainly within thezone Inundated dally by the high and low tides, and stop sharply beyond the_ influence of salt water. Themangrove species are mostly evergreen with thick leathery leaves which minimize the transpiration lossunder the physiologically xerophytic condition in such swamps and tidal habltats impregnated with salinityThe dense Impenetrable growth together with extensive network of numerous stilt roots as in case ofJEh[zaphoms mucronafcz and the knee root of Burguiero ggmmerhraa protect the trees against the tidalaction and washing away of soil, as the roots hold the silt and also facilitate deposition of silt brought bythe tides. The profuse growth of breathing aerial roots called pneumatophores above the ground in thepresence of numerous lanticals on the root surface as in Au{cerim.a o#c[na!i.s and Sommeratta apetaJa aresource of adequate aeration. The mangrove wetlands provide a variety of protective and productive servicesto the coastal communities. Specifically, the mangroves serve as (i) protective function against tidal action,(ii) soil conservation, (iii) economic products, (iv) source of fodder timber, poles, tanning bark, fuelwood, charcoal,(v) promotion of cottage industries, (vi) breeding ground for prawns, rish, crabs and mollusks, etc

ln India, the mangrove forests occur along both east and west coasts as also in islands in a total areaof 4482 sq kin (roughly 0.45 M ha) accounting for 0.14% of the geographical area of the country and about5% of world's mangroves. The data on mangrove forests in different districts of various coastal states/UTs(Table 3, Forest Survey of India, 2001) reveal that the delta of the Ganga-Brahmaputra river systemcarries the largest single patch of magroves in the world in Sundarbans of West Bengal (2081 km2) togetherwith Bangladesh. This is followed by Gujarat (911 km2), A&N (789 km2), AP (333 km2), Orissa (219 km2)and Ma.harashtra (118 km2). Among the districts, 24-Pagranas South tops the list. It is reported that 35mangorve areas in the country have been identified for intensive cctnservation and management becauseof their defensive vital role to mitigate the damage.

Table 3. Extent of mangrove forest in the states/UT§ (in sq kin)

States/UTB Districts Total

Andhra Pradesh Godawari East (194), Krishna (91), Guntur (47), Prakasam (1) 333

Goa North Goa (4), South Goa (I) 5

GujaratKarnataka Bharuch (28), Bhaunagar (16), Jannagar (142), Kutchchh (706), Surat (13), 9112

Nawsari (2), Porbandar (I), Rajkot (I), Ahmedabad (2)

Kanada Dakhshina (2)

Mahara§htra MumbaLi City (1), Mumbal (26), Raigarh (34), Ratnagiri (9), Thane (47), 118

orissa

Sindhudurg ( i)219Baleshwar (3), Bhadrck (19), Jagatsinghpur (5), Kendrapara (192)

Pondicherry Yanan ( I) I

Tamil Nadu Chidambaranar (I), Caddalore (7), Nagapattmam (10), Ramnathapuram (I), 23

West Bengal

Thanjavur (4)2081Midnapur (8), 24 Parganas North (27), 24 Parganas South (2046)

A85N Islands Andamans (772), Nicobars (17) 789

Total 4482

( ) figures in km2

The single greatest threat to mangroves worldwide is shrimp farming, which requires clearing ofmangroves to build ponds. Once the mangroves are ripped out, the coast is rendered unstable and manycreatures lose their habitat. Fish catches decline and ecosystems are knocked out of balance. In additionto the loss of biodiversity, the destruction of mangrove areas also means the loss of access for the local


coastal communities to their only source of Income. Thirty percent of the shrimp and prawns producedworldwide came from aquaculture in 2001, and the share continues to grow as the demand for shrimpIncreases. About 35 percent of mangroves worldwide have been lost in the last 20 years.

In terms of agroforestry the common systems practised in lndla are agri-silvlculture (crops + trees),agri- horticulture (crops + frult trees), agri-horti-sllviculture (crops + fruit trees + multipurpose trees),silvipasture (trees + pasture + animals), hortipasture (fruit trees + pasture + animals) and homesteadagroforestry (multiple combinations of various components) Some of these agroforestry systems offer

promising opportunities in the coastal areas.

Integrated farming system

For sound and sustained socioeconomic progress, the small farmers such as those in Kerala statehaving average holding size of 0.27 ha (smallest in any state of India) have to aLdopt a prc)duction systemwhich provides not only cereals but also fruits, vegetables, milk, egg, fish, fodder, fuel, fibre as well asmore income from value addition options to ensure regular now of goods, services, and employment. Thevarious components of the system have to be mutually synergic, complementary and efflcient throughrecycling of the by-products like organic wastes/residues, thereby rendering the system more remunerativeand environmentally safe.

Under the World Bank funded NATP, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research has identified coastalagro-ecosystem as one of the five major agro-ecosystems with the chief objective of enhancing efficiency,relevance and responsiveness of the system under the location-specific biophysical and socioeconomicenvironment for integrated agricultural growth. A coconut-based integrated farming comprisin,g coconut,banana, pepper, mulberry, fodder grass, dairy, poultry and fishery was developed and validated at CPCRIKasaragod in Kerala. The output from the system consisted of 23,535 coconuts,11,445 litres milk, 645 kgbroiler birds, 173 kg fish, 17 kg silkworm cocoon, 3,477 quail eggs and 87 kg banana with a net return ofRs. 73,142 in a year. Besides, the nutrient maLnagement through recycling of organic wastes/residuesfrom different components was more efficient in this system. In Lakshadweep, coconut-based farmingincluding papaya, poultry, turmeric, ginger, beetroot, radish and onion could help provide vegetable

production in the island which otherwise depends on the mainland for vegetables (CPCRI, 2005).

Intercropping of juvenile phase of oil palm with crops like maize, tobacco, chillies, ridged gourd,bhindi, banana, colocasia and Niper grass yielded encouraging results under West Godavari conditions,whereas intercropping with banana, spider lily and turmeric was found promising in Gujarat. Under theupland rain fed condition of village Chenkal, intercropping of coconut with ginger (variety Varada) tried byCTCRI, Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala) under the Institute-Village Linkage Programme (IVLP) gave a netreturn of Rs. 105,940 per ha against only Rs. 16,990 per ha under coconut cultivation without any intercrop.At Bhubaneswar, integration of fisheries and plantation crops with traditional monoculture of rice raisedthe farm income from Rs. 4166 to Rs. 69,275 per ha per annum (Samra, 2005). Thus, the integratedintercropping farming systems have vast potential for improving the livelihood of the farming communitywith more efficient and ecofriendly resource utilization.

The Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Cochin with the financial support from DST, New Delhihas launched a project on "Action research on community-based coastal zone management with specificInvolvement of women". Attempt will be made to develop micro-level model to address the problems relatingto fishing methods, sustainable aquaculture, coastal erosion and degradation of natural resources, wastedlsposal, and alternative livelihood. The outcome of the project is expected to improve livelihood of womenwhose role in the coastal areas is of major significance (ICAR Reporter, Oct-Dec„ 2004).

Fish production

Indian fisheries has made a long leap of over eight fold increase in production from 0.75 MT in 1950-51 to 6.2 MT in 2002-03 (Col, 2004) in the last about five decades. This achievement has not only contributedImmensely to the animal protein deficit of the country but has also played an important role in globaltrade Cc)mpared to the marine sector the country has made higher growth in Inland sector, with productionof over 3. I million tonnes and occupies second position in the world next only to China.

236 J, S P Yadav

Presence of rich and diverse inland water resources in the form of 29,000 kin of rivers, 0.3 in ha ofestuaries, 0.19 in ha of backwaters and lagoons, 0.2 in ha of floodpain wetlands, and 0.72 in ha of uplandlakes, besides 3.15 in ha of man-made reservoirs and 0.12 million kin of canal, has been the pride of thecountry. Considering the Increasing gap between demand and supply of fish, and stagnation of productionfrom the sea and inland open water resources, the inland fisheries development in India must depend mainlyon aquaculture and culture-based fisheries in reservoirs and floodplain wetlands (Jana and Sena, 2004).

The proposed Inter-river basin linkage might have both positive and negatlve impact on overall fish

production in the coastal areas by augmenting area under water bodies in the former case, and deteriorationof water quality and ecology in the downstream estuaries, delta, etc. in the latter case A recent study byCMFRl, Cochin reveaLls adverse effect caused by changes in chemistry and quality on the fisheries inestuaries (NAAS, 2004). Relatively, marine conservation and Its blodiversity have received less attentionas compared to terrestrial conservation. The Onssa Marine Fisheries Regulation Act (OMF`RA) prohibits alltrawlers from fishing 5 kin of sea shore, but the act is not followed in practice, as the fisher folk fish evenin nearshore areas. A huge quantity of wastewaters including municipal sewage water and industnalefnuents Impregnated with toxic metals and other harmful substances rind their way Into the coastalareas through different rivers. In the eastern part of Kolkata city, a large number of sewage-fed fisheriesare located where hlgh accumulation of bd, Pb and Cr in fish muscle aLnd braln is reported, which is asource of health hazard. Heavy metal pollution in Ganga river water adversely affects the aquatic faunaIncluding fish in the Industrial coastal belt.

Land disposal or release of untreated wastewaters into the water bodies affects the quality of differentwater bodles and consequently aquatic productivity including marine productlon. In a programme ofwastewater treatment through stabilization ponds followed by use of pond effluent for fisri production,wherein slow flowing sewage gets diluted with rainwater, high concentration of nutrients promotesphytoplankton plant-based organisms, production of which serves as fish food chain. In Kolkata alone,wastewater is used in 3200 ha of pond to produce 5-7 t-Iba-tyr-I fish (Minhas and Samra, 2004). Therefore,the need for Improvement or environment and food chain through adoption of appropriate techniques forhigher fish production in such cc)astal areas subjected to water pollution is quite obvlous. Mumbai generatesabo.ut 2,800 million litres of sewage dai.ly. The `marine outfall', which is basically a conduit, disposessewage after partial treatment roughly 3 kin inside the sea through a pipeline running along the seabed.The sewage network comprises 41 satellite pumping stations and 7 major pumping stations Earlier,untreated sewage was dumped into it affecting marine fish life, but after establishment of this facility,marine fish life has improved.

Livestock management

Livestctck sector is a prominent sector among agriculture and allied activities in India. In 1997-98,livestock alone contributed to 25 percent of the total value of agriculture GDP. This has increased graduallyfrom 14 percent in 1980-81. The annual rate of growth in GDP from livestock and agriculture in these

years were 7.3 percent and 3.1 percent, respectlvely. Dairy sector ranks first among the individualagriculture commodities in terms of totaLl value of production. The value of milk output and Its products is70,000 crore rupees and that of dairy Industry as a whole is 1,05,000 crore rupees (Kadirvel, 2004).

Dairy

Dairy farming is visualized by the farmers in the country as part of an integrated agricultural systemwhere dairy and agriculture complement each other. We have to look forward to the 21 St century, its challengesand opportunities. Some 70 million farmers maintainlng a milch herd c)f 108 million heads of cattle (64 millioncows ancl 44 million buffaloes) make this possible. Buffalo contributes largest to the milk pool with about 46.5million tonnes (55 percent), followed by indigenous cows, with 18 3 millic)n tonnes (24 percent), and crossbredcows, with 13.5 million tonncs (16 percent), and goats contributing 4.2 million tonnes (5 percent).

Dairy development in India has been acclaimed world over as one of the modern lndia's mostaccomplished developmenlal programmes. Productivity performance of dairy industry across the countryhas registered an annual growth c)f 17.1 percent with highest market share of 23.5 percent for Maharashtrafollowed by Gujarat (17.2 percent). The contribution ln value addition from the manufacture of dairyproducts ls only 5.4 percent of gross output against 12. I percent achieved in the food processing sector.The legendary Amul, the ANAND pattern of dairy cooperatives started in 1946 ln the district of Kheda in


Gujarat During 1959-60, the Government started Intensive Cattle Development Project (ICDP) tha.t focusedon providing artificial insemination and veterinary services to the milk producers through planneddevelopment of the dairy sector was initiated with the launching of the first five-year plan in 1951. The

policies and programmes during the first three five-year plans were inadequate to boost milk productionand therefore, milk output continued to be stagnant.

Subsequently, milk production in rural milk sheds through milk producers' cooperatives and movement ofprocessed milk to urban demand centres became the main focus of government policy for dairy development.The much needed linkage between producers aind the consumers had been established, thereby resulting inwhite revolution. Policy` linkage involved pricing structure, procurement and marketing system, breeding,cattle feed, disease control and veterinary services. The launching of technology mission by the government ofIndia in 1987 is another major milestone for dairy development in the country (Kadirvel, 2004).

Trends in milk production

Milk production in the country witnessed very slow growth between 1950-51 and 1970-71 from 17 int to just 22 in t. But thereafter, the production increased to 31.6 in t in 1980-81, 53.9 in t in 1990-91, andreached a milestone of 80.8 in t in 2000-01. With 84.8 in t of production in 2001-02, India ranks first inthe world milk production (Col, 2004).

Impact of WTO agreement

Indian dairy sector has achieved remarkable progress during the last two-and-half decades, when theexport and import of dairy products were restricted through various measures. However, the situation ischanging very fast when Indian dairy sector is moving towards open economy environment of liberalizationdue to commitments made at the WTO as well as domestic economic reforms. In the early l990s, theGovernment of India introduced major trade policy reforms, which favoured increasing privatization andliberalization of all sectors of the economy.

Future policies

A survey conducted by Economic Times reveals that Indian consumers are moving towards valueadded rich diets like milk and milk products compared to cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, meat andfish. It is estimated that the present consumption of 64.1 MT of milk and milk products may witness agrowth of 159 percent reaching a level of 165.8 MT in 2020. The nutritional and economic demand fordairy products may escalate further due to the increasing awareness among the people about the nutritionalqualities of dairy products, increase in per capita income and rapid urbanization. The planners and policymakers in Government and industry may concentrate on the options for fine-tuning the dairy production,processing industry and trade to meet both domestic and global demand. Low productivity is an importantconstraint in dairying, and hence, intensified efforts should be focused on cross breeding programmes, to

produce high yielding cows/buffaloes (Kadirvel, 2004). There is tremendous scope for improvement inproductivity in the coastal ecosystem having hot and humid climate. The productivity is particularly lowhere on account of poor animal health and lack of fodder. F`ollowing are the recommendations:

> Artificial breeding of animals be given due Importance.

> Artificial breeding of animals be given due importance.

> Ensure creation of disease free zones in milk-shed areas to boost production of quality milk. Enact laws forcontrol of Infectious diseases of animals, disease surveillance, drug and vaccine quality enforcement.

> Ensure collaborative research on clinical studies, epidemiological surveillance for contaminants like metals,

pesticide residuc, aflatoxin and drug resldues.> Stringent quality control -The lso 9000 series and HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) norms

should be strictly adhered by entrepreneurs/corporate bodies, which plan for exports. An autonomous body likeQuality Councll of India should be established to monitor the quality standards

> The common land property resources owned by the village local administration should be exclusively used for

pasture/fodder development, since non-availability of adequate feed and fodder seems to be one of the primeconstraints faced by the dairy farmers

> Owing to the success ofcooperative system ofmilk production and marketing, more number offarmers should bebrought Into cooperative sector -this structure should be strengthened. The Operation Flood should be introducedln non-Operation Flood areas also. Marketing infrastructure should be strengthened. Refrigerated trucks, chillingcentres and processing centres should be given encouragement with an eye on export quality.

238 J. S. P Yadav

Cyclones and tsunam/. occurrence

The fragile coastal ecosystem is highly prone to disasters such as cyclones and hurricanes. The cyclonesover the warm tropical oceans cause huge loss of lives and damage to the property, primarily in coastal areas.Approximately, on an average, 80-loo tropical cyclones occur globally in a year. Average annual damage hasbeen estimated at about US $ 1500 million, and over the past 30 years or so the average annual death toll hasbeen about 15000. In a recent example from India in 1999, the supercyclone in the Bay of Bengal took a recordtoll of nearly 15,000 lives of human population and half a million of bovine population, apart from a near totalloss of agricultural crops and other properties in ten coastal districts in South Orissa. In 1998, the heavy stormtook toll of more than 1000 people besides colossal loss of property in the coastal region of Saurashtra. In thesame year, severe erosion due to strong sea waves resulted in tremendous damage to the buildings, roads,vegetation and human lives especially of the fishermen in the coastal belt of Karnataka. Other notable exalnplesof extensive cyclonic damage in the past were those in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in 1930, 1940,1943,1962,1977,1979 and 1990, and that in West Bengal in 1981. Extensive areas in Bangladesh suffer due tocyclonic damage almost every year.

The unprecedented recent horrible occurrence of tst/naml. on December 26, 2004 engulfed the coastalareas of Indonesia, Sumatra, Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Maldives and India, and is reported to havea toll of roughly I,50,000-2,00,000 people, rendered thousands of families homeless, and damaged enormousmovable and immovable properties. In addition, it also caused serious damage to the coastal ecologicalresources. The poor people were the first to be affected mc)st and were the last to recover. In India, theonslaught of severe tidal waLves upto 40 ft high at a speed of roughly 450 kin per hour due to tsunami inthe sea coast of Andaman and Nicobal islands and in eastern coast of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry causedmore alarming loss of life, crops, buildings and other prc)perties.

A study was undertaken by ISR0 through Satellite mapping at the initiative of the Ministry ofEnvironment and F`orests, Col to assess the colossal damage caused by tsttnami` in A & N Islands. Thereport revealed extensive depletion of forests, large scale erosion of coral reefs, destruction of ma~rine life,and vanishing of several important beaches including some famous tourist spots. In Nicobar group ofislands 12,224 ha of forest cover was lost. Even some of mangrove trees failed to resist the forceful ravagesof gushing tidal waves. The report clearly indicates that rehabilitation of the badly damaged coastalecosystem will take many years. In this context, collection of accurate scientific data on changes in importantsoil characteristics as well as on salinity and other harmful effects in water bodies like ponds, lakes, openwalls and groundwater will help immensely in developing suitable strategies to rehabilitate the a.Ireadyaffected areas and also to avoid recurrence of devastating effects in future.

The coral reefs and mangroves provide the barrier between the sea arid human habitation and thereforein accordance with the Coastal Regulation Zone guidelines of 1991 no developmental work is allowed upto300 in from the high tide line for the protection of coral reefs and mangroves, but in practice the guidelinesare hardly followed in the name of development. tsunamt' waves in the lowlying areas occupied by settlementsin Nagapattinam and Cuddalore caused greater loss of life and property than in the areas having densebelt of mangrove. Therefore, conservation and rejuvenation of these natural buffers as green belt to minimizethe destructive impact of the tidal waves are of paramount importance.

Apart from the mangrove wetlands, coastal shelterbelt plantations, mainly casuarinas, were raised bythe Forest Department of State Governments with support of centrally sponsored schemes (CSS) andfunding agencies like Japan Bank for International Cooperation (BIG) in order to mitigate the adverseimpact of storms and cyclones in the coastal areas. The coastal communities, both fishing and farming,raise coconut, palm and cashew plantations along the coastal areas, particularly in between their villageand sea for both productive and protective services.

The government of India is planning to set up a statutory body as `Natural Disaster ManagementAuthority' and is also considering the possibility of constructing a high wall all along the seashore, thoughsome reservations from ecological considerations are expressed in certain quarters. It is also planned toestablish an accurate forecast system relating to tsunaml' disaster by 2007. The United Nations is expectedto help in setting up a fstJnarm. early warning network for the Indian Ocean similar to that for PacificOcean. Japan has one of the world's most advanced warning systems, using supercomputer linked bysatellite to an array of seismic, pressure and tidal sensors to help forecasting about the size of wavesapproaching the coastline.


A deep water fish wilh red tail locally known as "araraival' reported to measure about 12 cm whenfull.y grown, surfaces during ùpwelling' - a phenomenon of water at the bottom `coming up'. This wasobserved by the fishermen of l'ondicherry about 2 months before occurrence of {sunam{ disaster on December26, 2004. A detailed scicnlific investigation to validate the appearance of the red tail fish as a signalregarding occurrence of fsu7icimi may be one of the cost-effective options.

The major programme in this area should be the establishment of bio-shields alc)ng the coast involving

plantations of mangroves in suitable areas along with casuarina, bamboo and other appropriate coastalplants includmg economically Important tree species such as cashew, coconut, etc. The eco-restorationpogramme should also Involve the promotion of joint mangrove forest management and the raising ofcommunity nurseries of suitable bio-shield plants. This programme may be envisaged with an objective ofblending ecological security of the coastal ecosystems with livelihood security of coastal communities in amutually reinforcing manner. The global warming caused by emission of green house gases is also projectedto threaten the livelihood of the lowlying coastal belts, which deserves appropriate attention to mitigatethe problem through proper proactive planning well in advance.

I belit`ve, the bramstorming session scheduled in the seminar on this very serious issue will thrownew hght on the present status and various management options.

'I`hc enlire nation and particularly those living in the coastal areas of the country look forward to all of

us for more effective and scic`ntificall}' sound recommendations to alleviate poverty vis-a-vis Improvedsocioeconomic standards of t,hc poor farming community in the coastal areas. I expect very meaningfuland successful outcome emanating from the deliberations during these three days.

The Indian Society of Coastal Agrioultural Research since its inception in 1983 has brought homevividly the various potcntials and constraints of the coastal regions through scientific deliberations heldduring the last seven national seminars in different coastal states and also through publication of latestrcscarch findings in Its Journal The Societ.v has now received recognition nationwide through the activesupport and cooperatlon from all members. Fùrther, in the international arena also problems related tocoastal ecosystem have bccòme an Issue of great concern in view of the colossal damage to lives and

properties taking place almost as a ritual each year in different parts of the globe and special attentionrcquircd to be given for Improved productivity on account of soil and climatic constraints in these areasdiffercnt from those in lhc Inland areas ln this context we feel the Society may perform a very Importantrole to discuss these Issues on an international platform. We propose to organize an International Seminarin India under the aegis or Indian Society of Coastal Agricultural Research possibly in early 2008, whichmay be the most befitting way to celebrate silver Jubilee of the Society, for which we have to work veryhard with actlvc support and cooperation from each one of you

Coming back to this seminar, I particularly express my profound thankfulness to Dr. Edison, DirectorCTCRl and his dedicatcd team for their relentless hard work and willing exccllcnt cooperation in organizinglhis scminar I also thank all the participants for their active participation which would be the main Inputbase for the discussion On behalf of the Society I also wish to record my sincere gratitude to ICAR,I)cpartmenl of Land Resources (Ministry of Rural Development), CSIR and DST for their generosity insponsoring this national scminar

Kerala is a land of the God, blessed with extremely rich natural biodiversities, cultural heritage, andwarm sense of hospilality which are widely acclaimed I am sure that all of you will have enjoyable andfruitful stay here

ln the cnd, I wish you all a very happy Christmas and a prosperous 2006.

Thank you.

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Ayyappan, S and Modayil, M (2005) Indian marine biodiversity IVAASIvett;s 5(2).10-12

Bandyopadhyay, 8 K and Mall. 8. (1995) Nature of acld soil of Sundarban delta and suitability ofclassifying them as acid sulphate or potential acid sulphate solls JOL{maJ o/Jridian Socz€fg o/Sot.'Science 43: 103-107

240 J. S. P. Yadav

Brij Kishore, B.H. (2002). Agricultural development in India: is it still a long way from promise to prosperity?Jndtro Gandhi M€mor[al Lecture, I.G.A.U., Raipur,

Chaddha, K.L. (2004). Diversifying strategies. The H].ridu SttrL/ey o//rid[-art Agn.culture 2004, pp. 119-121.

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Doran, LJ. W., Sorrantonio, M. and Liebig, M. (1996). Soil health and sustainability. Ac!Llances t'n Agronomg56, pp.1-54, Academic Press, Sam Diego.

Forest Survey of India (2001). State a/Forest Report, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Dehradun.

Col (2004) . Agn.ou!furoJ Stati.stlcs at a Chance, Department of Agnculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture.

Haberern, J. (1992). Viewpoint: a soil health index. Joumal So{J Water C'onserL/attori 47: 6.

Jana, R.K. and Sena, R.K. (2004). Overwhelming growth. The Hindt/ St/rueg o//ndrdn Agr].cuitt{re 2004, pp.Ilo-113.

Kadirvel, R. (2004). Towards open economy. The Hindu Surueg a/Jndt.an Agn.ctt!fure 2004, pp.101-103.

Minhas, P.S. and Samra, J.S. (2004). Wastetoater Us? I.n Peri.-Urban AgncuJtttre.. Impact arid OpporttJ".ti.es.Tech. Bull. No 2/2001, Central Soil Salinity Research lnstltute, Karnal. 74p.

Mishra, 8. (2004). Exploring new opportunities. 7`he HI'ndu SurLteu o/Jrldlàn Agr!'cu!fure 2004, pp. 22-31.

NAAS (2004). Jmpact o/Jri{er I?!'uer Basin Li.nhages ori Ft.sheri.es, Alpha Lithographics lnc., New Delhi. 7p.

Peter, K.V. and Nybe, E.V. (2002). Dominating global markets. The Hirtczu SttrL/eg o/Jndi.art Agn.cuzfure2002, pp. 87-95.

Pierzynski, G. M., Sins, J. T. and Vance, G.F. (1994). Sot.!s and Enul.ronmeutaJ OtJa!!.tg, Lewis Publishers,Boca Raton, FL.

Samra, iJ.S. (2005). Natural resource management issues in 2 lst century. /nd!.an Socl.ety o/ Soil Sol.ericeIvetusèfter 18.

Velayutham, M„ Sarkar, D., Reddy R. S., Natarajan, A., Shiva Prasad, C. R., Challa, 0., Harindranath, C.S„ Shyampura, R. L., Sharma, J. P. and Bhattacharya, T. (1998). Soil resources and their potentialsin coastal areas of India. Proceedings 5th National Seminar Fronfi'ers a/J?eseczrch cind tis App!t.caf{'onI.ri Coasfcl! Agr].ctJ/fore, held at Gujarat Agricultural University, Navsari, Gujarat, 16-20 Sep, 1998.Indian Society of Coastal Agricultural Research, CSSRI, RRS, Canning Town, West Bengal.

State-of-art technologies for higher production inaquaculture and animal husbandry including

integrated farming system

J Indian Soc. Coastal agnc. Res., 24(2|, 24\-246, 2006

Status and Environmental Impact of Shrimp Aquaculturein East Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh

M. MURALIDHAR, B.P. GUPTA and P. RAVICHANDRAN

Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture75. Santhome High Road, R.A Puram, Chennai -600 028, Tam`l Nadu

ln India area under shrimp culture and production incroas®d by 234°/o and 325%. respectivelyfrom 1990-91 to 2002-03. A comparison on status ol shrimp farming between 1999 and 2004was made and studies wore conducted on water and soil quality from different sources, their®flect on soil salinisation to assess the impact of shrimp culture on the environment in EastGodavari District, Andhra Pradesh. During 2004 the shrimp culture was in 18 manda/s compai.odto 13 mande/s in 1999. The number of farmers and area under shrimp cultui.e has increasedfrom 4814 and 6207.2 ha, respectively in 1999 to 10479 and 9252.82 ha, respectively dui.ing2004. About 92.6 percent of farmers are having loss than 2 ha area under shrimp fai.ming during2004 compared to 82.2 percent in 1999, reflecting the increase in number of marginal farmers.Shrimp farmers were practising improved/modified extensive farming of tiger shrimp withstocking density of 4-10 nos. of post-larvae par sq in. No adverse social or economic impactshave boon reported by the local population excepting conversion of rice fields into shrimpfarms ln a few cases. The pollution indicators like ammonia N and chemical oxygen demandwei.a woll within the pormissiblo limlts indicating no adverse impact in the external sourcewater. The electrical conductivity values of soil ranged I)otwoon 1.0 and 1.89 ds in-1 in variousagi.icultural fields adjacent to shrimp farms indicating that the soil salinity was not affected bythe shrimp farming activities in the areas surveyod.

(Keg ulords: Shr`mp aquaculture, Water and sotl qualtty, EnuronTnental rmpacts)

Scientific shrimp farming in India developed asan off-shoot of the traditional filtration system andhas been given the "Extreme Focus" status amongthe fisheries development programmes of thecountry. The potential area for aquaculture isestimated around I.2 in ha. Shrimp culture areaand production increased from 65,loo ha and35,500 in tons, respectively during 1990-91 to1,52,080 ha and 1,15,320 in tons, respectivelyduring 2002-03. The contribution of cultured shrimp

production to the total shrimp production in thecountry increased from 56.9 % during 1990-91 to79.1 % during 2002-03. Early 90s witnessed a

quantum Jump in the development of shrimp farmingwithout much control c>r planning. Shrimpcontribution to total seafood export was 29% out of4,67,297 tonnes contributing 67% earnings of US$1425 million in 2003 (Anon., 2004). Among thecoasta.I states Andhra Pradcsh occupies vanguard

position by contributing more than half of the shrimpfarming area and productlon. Development ofshrimp farming in Andhra Pradesh was at a

phenomenal rate during the years 1990-1996. In1990, a total of 6000 ha was under shrimp farmingwhich rose to 88,290 ha during 1997-98 and

presently it hass declined to 53,246 ha.

Commercial shrimp culture has gained globalattention not only on account of the role it playedin strengthening the economy of a country but alsoby the sudden collapse the industry registered incertain countries. The issues related to aquacultureand environment belongs to two broad categories;impact of aquaculture on environment and impactof environment on aquaculture. Aquaculture utilisesthe resources and causes slight environmentaLIchanges. Many reviews lead to the conclusion thataquaculture had both positive and negative impacts,but occasionally negative impacts have received wide

publicity (Lee and Wickins, 1992, Csavas, 1994).Unfortunately, the issue of salinisation because ofshrimp farms has been, blown out of proportionwithout any substantiating data. Most of theseissues are site specific and are localised in nature,The present status of shrimp farming was comparedwith 1999 data and the environmental Impacts ofshrimp farming are discussed in the present paper.

MATERIALS AND IVIETHODS

Study area

Bast Godavari district is situated on the NorthEast of Andhra Pradesh at 16° 30' and 180 20'northen latitude and 81° 30' and 820 36' of eastern

242 M Muralidhat' ef a/.

longitude. The district is bounded on the north byVisakhapatnam district and the State of Orissa, onthe east by Bay of Bengal, on the south by WestGodavari District, and on the west by Khammamdistrict. The map of the district along with theboundaries is given in F`ig. 1.The district has an areaof 10807 sq kin, with a population of 49,01,420

(2001 census). There are about 59 mandaJs in thedistrict. It is a major rice producing State with 52%of the total area of the district under rice cultivation.

Fig.1. Map showing the location of East Godavari districtsand Its boundaries

The mcmdciJ-wise area details on shrimpfarming, farm size distribution and the location andextent of farming area with reference to coastalregulation zone were collected from the StateFisheries Department and the present status ofshrimp farming in the district was compared with1999 data. Thirty shrimp farms were chosen in 8mandc{Zs for the detailed study regarding the cultural

practices. Water and soil samples from the farm,source creek, Irrigation canal and the bore werecollected to study the environmental impacts. Thesamples were ana.Iysed for various parametersfollowing the standard methods (Piper, 1966;Jackson, 1967, Strickland and Parsons, 1972,APHA, 1989).

Soil salinisation studies

The associated villages around the shrimp farmswere selected randomly to assess the impact of theshrimp farming on salinisation of land, if any. Soil

samples were collected from the adjoining paddyfields in triplicate at a distance of 50, loo, 250 and500 in away from the farms in a straight line andanalysed for pH and electrical conductivity in 1:2.5soil-water suspension.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Status of shrimp farming

East Godavari district ranks third as of now withrespect to shrimp farming area compared to fourthposition during 1999. Shrimp farms were located in18 manda!s in two fisheries divisions, viz. Kakinadaand Amalapuram compared to 13 coastal martc!aJsin two fisheries divisions, i.e. Kakinada andRajahmundry division during 1999. The mandal-wise details of shrimp farms during 1999 and 2004are presented in Table 1 and the farm sizedistribution and location and extent of coastal farmsin relation to CRZ in the district are presented inTables 2 and 3.

There was a tremendous increase in the areaover the last five years. The district has devel_opedabout 10085.17 ha of actually brackishwater areainto shrimp ponds compared to 7800.55 ha during1999 (Table 1). Uppalaguptam maric!czZ followed by

the Tallarevu manda! had maximum shrimp farmingarea in the district. The percentage of actuallydeveloped area for the shrimp culture in the districthas Increased form 79.36 in 1999 to 91.75 in 2004

(Fig.2). About 82.23% are small farmers having lessthan 2 ha of water spread area in 1999 compared to92.6 0/o in 2004 (Table 2). As per the CRZ rules outof 10085.17 ha area developed, 7242.95 ha area wasdeveloped within CRZ and 2842.22 ha area outsideCRZ (Table 3).

Fig. 2. The percentage of developed area under shrimpculture in East Godavarl dlstrict

Farming practices

Shrimp farmers of this area are practisingimproved/ modified extensive farming of tiger shrimpwith stocking density of 4-10 nos post larval per m2

Impact of shrimp culture

Tabte 1. Sh;unp farrrmg area details in Bast Godavan dtstnct during I 999 and 2004

243

Handal

1999 2004No. of Potential Area under No. of Potential Area under

farmers area (ha) culture (ha) farmers area (ha) culture (ha)

Kakinada Division Kakinada Dlvl8lon

Tallarevu 961 2335,6 1905.2 1684 2280.74 2018.55

Kajuluru 14 85.06 56.71 295 308.76 308.76

Karapa 46 138.88 101.71 225 222.30 207,62

Kakinada rural 10 27.44 18.34 10 27.5 27.5

U. Kothapalll 122 155 55 125.24 142 261.03 261.03

Thondangi 8 13.85 13.85

1153 2742.53 2207.18Total 2364 311418 2837. I I

Rajahmundry Division Amala|)umn DivleiolnSakhinetipalli 516 656 08 524 769 324.76 324.76

Malikipuram 247 254.2 190 09 938 479.53 479.52

Razole 38 51.3 38 4S3 173.05 172.96

Mamidikuduru 310 375.54 313,75 984 469.77 442.08

Allavaram 738 1094.41 782.09 1465 1175.50 1174.60

Uppalaguptam 1079 , ` 1482.02 1244.3 1858 2713.45 2713.40

Katrenikona 513 616.09 . 493.32 552 745.07 497.05

I Polavaram 2203657 528.385058.02 414.434000.02 508 536.03 358.31

Amalapuram 47 40.20 40,20Inivilll 7 5.80 5.80

P.Gannaivaram 101 37.76 35.96

Mummidivaram 433 TJ 0 .Orrl 170,87

Total 8115 6970.99 6415.51

Total for tbedistrict 4814 7800.55 6207.2 10479 10085.17 9522,82

Table 2. Farm s\ze disinbution in ECLst Godauan drstrret dunng 1999 and 2004

Year

Farm < 2 ha Farm 2-5 ba Farm > 5 ha Total

No. WSA (ha) No. WSA (ha) No. WSA (ha) No. WSA (hal

1999 3959 3530.95 737 1339.59 118 1350.56 4814 6221.1o

2004 8750 6434.65 650 2324.2 54 493.97 9454 9552.8

Table 3. Details of shrimp farming area (ha) as per the CRZ rules tn East Godauan distnct during 2004

Actual BW area developed into ponds Actual BW are; under cultureAmalapuram Kakinada Total Ama]apuram Kakinada Total

Within CRZ 6627.99 614.96 7242.95 6095.51 452.77 6548.28

Outside CRZ 343 2499.22 2842.22 320.00 2384.54 2704.54

Total 6970.99 3114,18 10085.17 6415.51 2837.31 9252.82

They were raising two crops, one in summer (Feb-Mar 1o Jun-July) and the other in winter (Sep-Oct.to Doc.-Jan), They were of the view that the formerwas successful and the latter was uncertain due toheavy rain, severe cyclone, non-availability ofrcquired salinity and outbreak of disease.Intcrestingly during summer farmers of this area

mixed godavari canal irrigation water with creekwater for culture and in winter the former was mixedwith borewell water (20-25 ppt) to lower the watersalinity to 10-15 ppt which they felt optimum forshrimp culture. All the farmers followed similar pond

preparation procedures. Most of the farmers testedthe quality of the seed before buying them. Most of

244 M Muralidhar et a/

the farmers reported t,hat disease menace

particularly white spot virus and poor seed qualitywere the major constraints in 1999, whereas during2004, low market rate of shrimp and poor seed

quality were the major constraints. Labourers frc)inlocal villages were engaged. The production variedacross the farms from 0.8 to 2 tonnes per ha percrop of 30 g size Penaeus rrionodorl in 120-150 days,during summer. The successful winter crop yleldwas 0.5 to 1 t ha-I but it was uncertain.

Environmental impacts

Aquaculture being a biological productlonactivity, the interaction of Inputs such as shrimpseed, feed etc. with the ambient water resulted in

growth and production of shrimp and changed waterquality (Gupta et a/., 2001).

Water quality

The average water quality condition of creeks,borewell, irrigation canal and river and shrimp

ponds are given in Tables 4, 5, 6, and 7, respectively.

The water quality characteristics of the pond a.ndcreek revealed that that there was no seriousnutrient loading in the creek water The salinitylevels in the creek were low in most of the casesand the farmers were using saline water from theborewell to raise the salinity levels Wherever thesalinity of the creek was higher, water from Irrigationcanal was used to reduce the salinity. Borewellwaters registered high values of total ammonianitrogen (TAN), nltrite N (N02 - N) and chemicaloxygen demand (COD) than those in the creek,irrigation canal and river waters. The pH, salinity,TAN, N02 -N and COD values ranged from 6.97-7.29, 2-24 ppt, 0.007-0.138 ppm, 0.007-0.023 ppmand 8.7-96.5 ppm in creeks; 6.97-7.05,17-32 ppt,0.059-2.539 ppm, 0.012-0.588 ppm and 68.7-1121

ppm in bore wells and 6.74-8.13, 5-23 ppt, 0 011-0.197 ppm, 0.015-0187 ppm and 5-67.5 ppm in

pond waters, respectively.

The pollution indicators like ammoma~N andchemical oxygen demand (COD) were well within the

Table 4 Water qualtty characterrstics of creeks in clifferent pond clusters in East Godauan clistr.ct

Site pH Salinity Total N03-H Phosphate Total Alkalinity COD(ppt) NI3-H(ppn) (pl'm) (ppm) phosphorus'ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

Pathirajaram 7.27 4 0.035 0.007 0.036 0046 162.4 10.IG Mollapalem 7.09 24 0.095 0.018 0.016 0.042 . 152.4

84.9N. Kothapalli 7.32 3 0.126 0019 0.042 0.073 172.8 6.7Katrikona 710 6 0.037 0.008 0.016 0062 1608 40.3Bodasakuru 7,21 3 0091 0.015 0.019 0.054 168,4 2.6Ponamanda 710 3 0.054 0.023 0021 0.042 198,8 559Korangi village 729 8 0.040 0.023 0.028 0044 1444 159Korangi creek drain 7.16 2 0.138 0.022 0009 0.064 165.2 8.7Ramanaleapeta 697 18 0.007 0.012 0.016 0.053 161.6 96.5

Table 5 Water qualtty charac`tensttcs of boreu)ells in the study area

Site pH Salinity Total N02-N Phosphate Total Alkalinity COD(ppt) NH3-N(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) I)host)horu8(l'pm) 'ppm) (ppm)

Yeduralenka 6,97 32 0.059 0.588 0.028 0.088 219.6 91.8Uppud, 705 20 0.70 0.012 0.011 0.021 324.8 68.7Lutukuru 7.02 17 2.539 0.548 0.041 0079 308.8 1121

Table 6. Water qualitg in the tmgation canal and rtuer

pH Salinity Total NOB-N Phos|)hate Total Alkalinity COD(ppt) NHS-N(I'Pm) (ppm) (ppm) phosphorus(ppm) (rpm) (ppm)

Vainatha river 714 25 0032 0.023 0.065 0070 1348 774Uppudi irrigationcanal 7.44 4 0126 0015 0.037 0123 245,2 342

Impact of shrimp culture

Tchle 7 Vva{er qucthty in ponds from different utllages in East Godavan cl+strtct

245

Site I'H Salinity Total N02-N Phos|)hate Total Alkalinity COD

(ppt) NH3-N(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) phosphorus(ppm) (ppml (ppm)

Yedurulanka 6.74 10 0.041 0.187 0.011 0.095 108.4 27.2

Pathirajaram 693 13 0.032 0.016 0.004 - 0.064 117.2 39,8

Pathirajaram 6.92 10 0.14 0.018 0037 0.045 1436 41.9

Bodasukuru 712 17 0.089 0.015 0.058 0.089 138.4 59.8

Lutukuru 6.96 23 0.109 0.017 0075 0,094 103.6 65.7

Korang, 7.77 5 0.063 0,022 0.018 0.048 179.6 15

Lakshmipathipuram 7 :Sr2 15 0087 0018 0,056 0.07 1692 63

Ramanaleapcta 705 20 0034 0.018 0.037 0062 1496 67.5

G Mollapalem 6,93 [5 0.131 0.015 0.043 0.019 1296 49.6 --

Table 8. Sotl qualitg in creek, shrrmp ponds and agnc:ultural fielcls near to shrimp farms

Parameter Creek Shrimp ponds Agrl. rields neartoshrimpfarm

pll 7.34 -8.33 7.53 -8.75 6.75 -7 52

Electrical conductivit.v (ds/in) 0 83 -4.08 0 S8 - 5 95 1.06 -189

Organl(` carbon (%) 0.555 -I.722 0.258 -1311 I.218 -I.593

pcrmissiblc limits (MOEI`, 1993) Indicating noadversc` impact in the external source water. In mostof the cases, the creek acted as the intake as wellas outlet, thercb`y incrcasing risk of cumulativeloading of nutrienls, but due to the improvedtraditional system of culture practiced reduced the

possible pollution load was reduced.

Soil quality'I`he p[I and organic carbon content in creek and

pond soil ranged from 7.34-8.33 and 0.56-1.72 %and 7.53 8.75 and 0.25811.809%, respectively

(Table 8L

Soll salinisatlon'l`he soil quality of the agricultural lands located

adjacent lo the shrimp farms were tested for salinlty.The electrical conductivity in various agriculturalfields ranged between 1.06 to 1.89 ds in-t (Table 8),\\'hich Indicated that thc' shrimp farming activitiesin the areas surveyed docs not affect the soil salinity.^gricultural fields were located very close to theshrimp farms and the crocks and there was nocomplaint from the agriculturists regarding theshrimp farming activities. Practically there was nosoil salmisation even at a distance of 50 in awayfrom the farm except in four villages out of 14 villagesstudied in Nellore District and Tamil Nadu

(Muralidhar et al , 2000) NEERI`s study alsoreported that salinity. of the soil did not change at adislance of about 2`5 in (Chandran, 1998). In

Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu, during a study

period of 18 months, the soll beyond 250 in wassuitable for agriculture as the EC values ranged from1.1 to 3.9 ds in-1 (Gupta et aJ., 2002).

Conversion of agricultural land

ln East Godavari district, conversion ofagricultural fields into shrimp farms was reportedin a few case. It was found that rice fields had beenconverted as shrimp farms due to the highly

profitable nature of shrimp farming Recentlyconversion of shrimp farms back to paddy fields hasbeen observed in some of the places.

CONCLUSION

Shrimp aquaculture has contributedsignificantly to employment generation andinfrastructure development for the welfare of thecoastal community and development in the district.Shrimp farming is continued in East GodavariDistrict although with some constraints The mixingof borewell and creek waters with fresh Irrigationwater, use of extensive and intensive feeds duringthe yearly and later period of culture, and shrimp +coconut + paddy farming system are the uniquefeatures of shrimp farming being practised in thisdistrict. There are no adverse Impacts on theenvironment due to shrimp farming and in many

places the positive impacts have outweighed thenegative Impacts, if any, like conversion or

246 M Muralidhar et a/

agricultural lands into shrimp farms and others. Thetype and scale of any environmental change willdepend on the method of culture, the level of

production, and characteristics of the coastal area.Unless the pollution load in pond wastewaterexceeds the assimilative capacity/ carrying capacityof a water body that is seldom known (Muralidharef aJ., 2004), adverse environmental changes willnot occur.

REFERENCES

Anon. (2004). In BtJsi'ness L!'ne, 22 LJanuary, 2004.

APHA (L989). Standard Methods for the Estinationo/ Wafer and Wasf€Luarer, 7th Edn, AmericanPublic Health Association, Washington D.C.,USA. 1430p.

Chandran, K.K. (1998). Myths a facts: Environment,ecolc)gy and aquaculture. F].shirtg Ch!mes 18(6):29-34.

Csavas,I. (1994). Important aspects in the successof shrimp farming World AgLtact/Jfure 25(1):34-56.

Gupta, B.P„ Krishnani, K.K., Joseph, K.O„Muralidhar, M., All, S,A. and Gopal, C. (2001).Soil & water characteristics and growth ofPerlaetts monodort fed with formulated feed inexper\mental ta.nks. Indian Journal Of Fishenes48(4): 345-351.

Gupta, B.P., Krishnani, K. K., Joseph, K.O.,Muralidhar, M„ Nagavcl, A, and Parimala, V.

(2002). Studies on the effec`t of shrimp farming

on adjacent agricultural land and undergroundwater in Cuddalore District of Tamil Nadu.AppJ].ed Fishenes & Aquacuzture 11( I ): 47-50.

Jackson, M.L. (1967). Sol'J Chem!cci/ AriciJgs{s.

Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 498p.

Lee,D'OC. and Wickins, J.F`. (1992). Crustczceczn

Farm!ng. Blackwell Scientific Publication,Oxford. 392p.

MOBF (\993|. NotifecatioT\-General Standards fcirDlscharge Of Enunronmental Pollutants , Part A -E/fluents, Ministry of Environment and Forests,Govt of India, May,1993.

Muralidhar, M., Gupta, B.P„ Joseph, K.O. andKrishnani, K.K. (2000). Impact of brackishwatershrimp farming on surrounding coastal soil andwater. Proceedings National Seminar CoasfaJZone 2000, held at Hyderabad, 26 -27 Feb. 2p.

Muralidhar, M., Gupta, B,P., Ravichandran, P.,Pillai, S.M„ Sarada, C. and Mathew Abraham

(2004). Significance of assessment of carryingcapacity of source water body for shrimpfarming. Proceedings National SymposiumDisease problems in Aquaculture.. Challenges,Approaches arid MQriagement, pp. 59, held atMumbai, 6-7 Feb, 2004.

Piper, C.S. (1966). So!'! and Pzartf AnaJusi.s. HansPublishers, Bombay, 368p.

Strickland, iJ.D.H. and. Parsons, T.R. (1972). APracticalHandBookofseowaterAnalysrs.BulletinFishery Research Board, Canada 167. 3lop.

L/. /nd[cln Soc. Coastal agrlc Res., 24(2), 247-249, 2006

Environmental Impact of BrackishwaterAquaculture in Pichavaram, Tamil Nadu

M. JAYANTHl1, S. RAMACHANDRAN, P. NILA REKHAl and Ivl. MURALIDHARI

Institute for Ocean Management, Anna universityChennai -400 025, Tamil Nadu

and'Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, 75. Santhome High Road

Chennai -400 028, Tamil Nadu

Shrimp aquaculture has been developed from 65,100 lia in 1990 to 1,54,600 lia in 2004 withincrease in production by 217°/o. This fast rate of development of shrimp culture has invitedmany environmental issues like crianges in water quality in nearby water bodies and conversionof agricultural lands to aquaculture. The development is still expected because our potentialarea for shrimp aquaciilture is 1.2 million ha. Pichavaram lias unique mangrove ecosystem andshrimp culture lias been developed in the last decades in this area. To assess the impact ofaquaculture water quality, samples were collected and analysed from shrimp farms and alsofrom the creek nearby aquafarms and away from aquafarms. Shrimp farmers are practising improvedtraditional farming with stocking density of 50,COO -1 Iakh ha-1 . No adverse impacts have been reportedexcept conversion of rice fields into shrimp farms. The water quality parameters are well within thepormissible limits indicating no adverse impact in the source water.

(Key words .. Aquaculture, Vvater quality assessrnent` Agneulture land conuerston, Impact, Mangroves)

Aquaculture has traditionally been practised inIndia in both freshwater and coastal saline waters fromtime Immemorial. These wc`re characteristically lowmpul and low pr ,`duction systems depending on wildseed collection and stocking in natural ponds, orImpounding seed in large water bodies withc)ut anyfurther management measures. During the last twodecades, aquaculture has been transformed into acommercial activity of high profit sector and productionand area under culture was Increased from 65,100 haand 35,500 MT in 1990 to 1,54,600 ha and 1,12,780MT in 2004, respectively.

Due to high profit, economic viability, low labourrequirement. suitable soil and environmentalconditions and encouraging market for products,shrimp aquaoulture induslr.v has expanded in veryshort duration and occupied around 80 0/o of totalshrimp production. Howevcr` Its Impressive growthhas also often been accompanied by signiflcantlàilures, which made it as a high risk activity. Inman}r cases, problems have arisen because of a lackof ur.derstanding of the aquatic environment andthe use of unreliable means for resource assessment,rather than production technology problems.

Known for its unique mangrove ecosystem,lìcha\'aram has an estuarinc type of mangrove.\lany aquaculture farms have beer. developed'``cièntl:\' I:icl, 1-iiir'Lher developemnt is also expected

considering the high profit margin compared toagriculture. Fastest rate of development of shrimpaquaculture has emphasized the need for moreeffective Controls on the quality of water dischargedInto the environment. Approximately 100/o of the feedis dissolved and 15% remains uneaten. Theremaining 75% is ingested, but 50% is excreted asmetabolic waste, producing large amounts of

gaseous, dissolved and particulate waste. If thedischarge water is enriched with nutrients, it causesthe eutroplilcation in the receiving water body andalso leads to self-pollution of aquaculture ponds.

Since mangroves serve as a nursery andbreeding ground for many reef organisms and theirintricate root systems provide shelter for manymarine and terrestrial animals, small changes inwater quality will have a big impact on environment.So, the study was carried out to assess the impactof aquaculture on environment in Pichavaram,

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The area under different land use class wasanalyzed and the percentage of each class wascalculated. The discharge water from twentyaquaculture farms were collected during winter

(September to December) and summer (March toLJune) every month to assess quality of the waterdischarged Into creek. Simultaneously, the samples

248 M Jayanthi e[ a`

were also collected from creek at five places nearerto aquaculture farms and away from aquaculturefarms. The samples were analyzed for pH, salinity,dissolved oxygen, nitritc, nitrate, and phosphorususing standard methods (APHA, 1995).

RESULTS AND DISCUssloN

Shrimp aquaculture is growing in very fast rate(l``ig.I) and our potentlal area for aquaculture is I.2million ha. The area and pr.oduction underaquaculture increased by 134%, and 217%,respectively between 1990 and 2004. Aquaculturein Pichavaram started after 1980's and occupied5.01% of area (Fig.2) . Shrimp farmers are practisingimproved traditional farming with stocking densltyof 50,000 -1 lakh ha-I, Agriculture is the majoractivity and 42.29% of the land is under agriculture.Since environmental issues have been raised overthe development of aquaculture further developmentshould go with proper planning and anticipatednegative impacts should be prevented.

1 7 5cOO

1 5 0000

1 2 500 0

I 0 Cma 0

75un

5l]Cflo

250cO

0iggoig€iii992i993i994i995i996n9971.`]sen99gmcrecioi2oo22co3I 91. 92 -93 -94 -95 I 96 -97 I 98 , lJ9 , 00 . 01 -02 -03 -04

Yea,

Fig.1. Development of shrlmp culture ln India

Conversion of agricultural lands

Conversion or agricultural lands was one of theIssues raised over the development of aquaculture.In Pichavaram, most of the farms have beenconverted from agricultural fields. High profit and

good water scarcity were the two main reasons

I Aq`iaculture E] Fallour EI Agnculturi: E] Mangroive

E]t)egmngrcme DMulflat BAgrl plantabon gsand

a S¢ttleme nt . Wct¢r leg5 a Forest ph ntatro``

Fig. 2. Land use pattern

according to local people. The farmer's perccptiondiffers from the environmental considerations. As

per the opinion of the farmer, agriculture is notprofitable now and they may be able to get 5-10times higher return in aquaculture compared toagricultural activity.

Assessment of water quality

11 can be seen that pH was ranging from 8.03-8.04 in summer and 7.34-7.52 in monsoon periodsin farm ponds and the creek water pH was littleless (7.35-7.88) than farm pond water (Table 1). Thedischarged water salinity was 30.16-37.85 ppt insummer which reduced to 16.15-25.36 ppt in winterseason. It was also observed that the D0concentration was more in monsoon period and lessin summer period because of more salinity and hightemperature in summer. Earlier studies by Boyd

(1990) also revealed the similar variations, whereasChattopadhyay (1998) observed highest dissolvedoxygen in the pond water treated with fertilizersduring July inspite of salinity level being highest inthat time. The dissolved oxygen (DO) values werelittle high in farm ponds than creek water and thismay be due to the aeration systems provided in thefarms. The nitrite and nitrate values did not differ

Table 1. Water qualitg in discharged ujater from shnmp farms an,d in creek

Parameters

Summer Winter StandardsforSh,impDischarge Creek "ter Creek "teT Discharge Creek water Creek Water

water near shrimp a-y from Water near shrimp a"y I,Om farm waterfarms Shrimp fame farms Shrimp farms dischargedintocreek

pH 8 03-8 04 7.35 -7.42 7.30-7.34 7.34T7.52 7,81-7,88 7170-7.80 6.0-8 5<3

Sallmt). (Ppt) 3016-37 85 22.0 -25.52 20-2212 16.15-25.36 6.72 -7 82 6.55-7.72

DO (mg/I) 3.92-4.02 3.05-3.12 2.98-3.10 5.94`6.28 4. 34 -4. S8 4.04-4.50

Nitnte (mg/1) 0 007-0,009 0,004 -0,006 0.003-0.006 0 008-0,009 0.012 -0,014 0.010-0,015 05

N,trate (mg/I) 0 16-0 23 0 064 -0.097 0. 060-0 . 091 0.17-0 23 0121 -0131 0124-0.129 30

Total P (mg/I) 0,039-01051 0. 009-0. 015 0.008-0.014 0.044-0.055 0 008 -0.021 0.007-0 010 2,0

Brakishwater aquaculture impact 249

much in winter and summer seasons. The total

phosphorus values were high in winter than summerin creek and discharged water. None of the

parameters have exccedcd the standards (Table I)prescribed b}-the Ministry of Agriculture for shrimppond water dischargcd into creek

CONCLUSION

Shrimp culture has brought significant changesin utilization of uncultivable lands and alternateones wherever the fresh water scarcity persists.There are no adverse impacts on the environmentdue to shrimp farming apart from the conversion ofagricultural lands. In lhc agricultural landsconverted to aquaculture, most of the agriculturefarms were abandoned few years before the start ofaquaculture. This development has not affected the

water quality characteristics of creek in PichavaramConsidering the future development, the dralnagecanal networking with the community based wastewater treatment facility is suggested to prevent thefuture negative impacts.

F`EFERENCES

APHA (American Public Health Association) (1995).Standard Methods for the Examination of Wateranc! Waste Water,19th Edn, APHA, Washington.

Boyd, C.B. (L990\. Water Quahty in Ponds forAquciouifure, Alabama Agricultural ExperimentStation, Auburn University, Alabama, USA. 482p.

Chattopadhyay, G.N. (1998). [n Chemtcaz AriciJgst-so/Fish Ponc! Sol.I cind Water, pp.110-122, DayaPublishing House, New Delhi.

I. Indian Soc. Coastal agric. Res., 24.(2), 250-253, 2006

Growth and Survival of M¢croz7r¢cbS.#ow Rosc#bcrg!.£.

(Giant Freshwater Prawn) under Monoculture Practicein Sindhudurg District of Maharashtra

P. E. SHINGARE1, N. H. SAWANT2, a. P. BHOSALE3 and S.G. BELSARE3

Agrlcultural Research Station, Dr. a S. Konkan Agricultural University, MuldeDist. Sindhudurg -416 520. Maharashtra

There is a growing awareness among (h® fish farmers of Western and vidarbha region ofMaharashtra (o undertake the culture of NacrobracAjum /os®nJ}®rg/... (Gian( freshwater prawn)in fresliwa(ei. earthen I)onds. The culture experiments Were conducted using Al. /osenberg/'/s®od in Sindhudurg district of Konkan region of Naharasht.a to assess the productivjfy and tostandardize the culturo techniqLio for W. rosenberg/./ in the rogjon. The prawns were liarvestedafter 170 days of culture perlod. The survival and average growth of prawn in pond 1, 2 & 3were in the range of 33.02®/a to 36.97®/a and 31.49 g to 35.55 g, respectively at the time ofharvesting. The feed conversion ratio was in the range of 1: 3.5 to 1: 4.5. The production ofthese three ponds was in the range of 520.120 to 620.380 kg ha-1.

(Key ulords: Grant freshu)ater prau)rL, Monoculture practice, Grou)th & surulual, Feed con,uersionratio, Harvest)

Mcicrobrach[um rosenbe>rgt'i' (Giant freshwater

prawn) is the largest growing species of freshwaterprawns and is preferred for culture due to its fastgrowth rate, high nutritional value, hardy nature,easy acceptability of supplementary feed, highmonetary value and ready demand in domestic aswell as in export market. Considering Itsdistinguished features, there is a wide scope to

popularize the culture technique of this sp€cies. InMaharashtra, about 182.57 hactare area is under

prawn farming and out of which 57.61 hactare areabelongs to Bhandara District (Raje, 1997). Thisreveals the emergent awareness for the culture ofM, rosenbergtÌ among the farmers of Vidharbharegion of Maharashtra State. In Sindhudurg District,about 500 ha water spread area comes under minorirrigation tanks and village ponds, however there islittle attention towards freshwater prawn farmingin this region

ln South Konkan region, adults occur in allrivers but in very small quantity, mainly duringmonsoon season and occasionally during remaining

period of the year (Sankoli and Shenoy, 1994). Thisregion has laterite type of soil with high percolationrate, low moisture holding capacity, low fertility andacidic nature. If this available area is properlyutilized for at least one crop of freshwater prawn in

year, it can yield large quantities of this high-pricedexport commodity. It was therefore decided toundertake culture experiment in Sindhudurg districtto assess the productivity and to standardize thesuitable culture method. The details of cultureexperiment conducted are presented in the text.

IVIATERIALS AND MEHTODS

The study was conducted in three earthenrainfed ponds using stocking density of prawn seed

@ 50,000 nos ha I (Sandifer et a!., 1982 Cohen efaJ., 1983| besides usual stocking density a 30,000nos ha" (Shirgur ef af., 1988). The hatchery-bred

juveniles of M. rosenbergl.I. were obtained fromM.B.R.S. Ratnagiri in the month of December andwere stocked in earthen ponds with different waterspread area at Agncultural Research Station, Mulde,The experimental duration was reduced to short

period of 170 daLys due to rapid fall in water level.The prawns were fed @ 5 to 10% of body weightusing artificial pelleted feed (Mathew €t cz/.` 1990).The raw cattle dung, urea and singlesuperphosphate were applied as manure for themass production of zooplankton before starting ofstudies. The artificial feed was commonl\' available'and relatively inexpensive with ingreclitìits \'iz soya

floor, rice bran and wheat floor whi(Tl` \\t`rtl applied

I Present address Kharland Research Station, Panvel, Raigad -410 206, Maharashtra2Present address-College of rìsheries, Shirgaon, Ratnagiri -415 629, Maharashtra} PIèsent address Marine Biological`Research Station, Pethkilla, Ratnagiri -415 612, Maharashtrd

Monoculture of giant freshwater prawn

Table 1. Expenmental stle features ancl mput detcLtls

251

Particulars Pond 1 Pond 2 Pond 3172m2Water spread area 196 m2 185 m2Mean water depth 1.00 in loom loomSource of water Rainfed Rainfed Rain fedSource of seed Hatchery bred (M.B.R.S) Hatchery bred (M B.R.S) Hatchery bred (M B,R.S)Duration of experiment 170 days 170 days 170 dayslnitial average length (mm) 17.20 1 5 . 84 16.04

Imtial average weight (g)± 0 .30 ±030 ±0300.029 0.027 0.028

Number of seed stockeda)Perpond(Nos.)

±0.6980 ±0.6925 ±0.6860

b) Per hactare (Nos.)lnitialbiomassofthe seeda)Perpond(g) 5000028.42 5000024.97 5000024.08

b) Per hactare (g) 1450 1350 1400Feed used Supplementary feed in Supplementary feed in Supplementary feed in

Feed quantity used(kg)the form of pellets the form of pellets the form of pellets

a) Perpond 40.50 4050 40.50b) PerhactareTotalquantityoffertilizer used (kg)a)PerpondI)RCD 2066.330loo.00 2066.330loo.00 2066.330loo.00

li) SSP 5.00 5.00 5.00lil) Urea 5.00 5.00 5.00

Total 110.00 1 10. 00 Ilo.00b) Perhactare i)RCD 5000.0 5000.0 5000.0

ii) SSP 250.0 250.0 2500lil) Urea 250.0 250.0 250.0

Total 5500.0 5500.0 5500.0

in pelleted form (composition. protein -38.4%, fat -12 8%, ash - 10.5% and moisture - 8.3%). Thesupplementary feed in measured quantity was giventwice a day The detailed features of the study areaand Input details are given in Table 1. The initiallength, weight, number of seed stocked, initialbiomass of seed etc. were recorded. The pH,dissolved oxygen, temperature etc. were recordedat the interval of 15 days (Table 2) by adoptingstandard procedure for maintainlng good water

quality (APHA,1985).

The sampling for growth from all the three

ponds was undertaken at the Interval of 30 days byusing cast net and drags net. After 170 days ofexperimental period, all the three ponds weredewatered and prawns were collected. The data

pertaining to length-weight, percentaige survlval,

total prawn biomass harvested, net gain in biomassand actual feed conversion ratio were recorded.


The results upon harvestlng at the end of 170days culture duration are shown in Table 3 Underexperlmental study, prawns were grown with

Table 2. Water propertLes of the experimerutal pond

Particular Pond 1 Poad 2 Pond 3pHDO (mg/I,t)Temperature (°C ) 6.5 -6.8 6 5 -6.8 6.5 -6.8

(6,6) (6.6) (66'

5.8 -8.0 5.6 -8 4 5.6 -8.0

(6-75) (6.78) (6,74)

24.4 - 30 6 24,4 -30,6 24.4 - 30.6

(27,56) (27.56) (27-56)

252 P E. Shingare et a`

Table 3. Results of M.rosenberg\L harvest

Particulars Pond 1 Pond 2 Pond 3

Culture duration (days) 170 170 170

Number harvested347 342 284

a) Perpond17700 18485 16510

b) Perhactare35.4 36.97 33.02

Survival 0/o

Final length (mm) 151.8 152.0 1508

± 0.30 ± 0.40 ± 0.50

Final weight (g) 32.197 33,558 3 1 . 498

±246 ±515 ±695

Prawn biomass weight11.144 11.477 8.964

a) Perpond (kg)570.00 620,38 520.12

b) Perhactare (kg)

Net gain biomass11.144 11.477 8.921

a) Perpond (kg)568.57 620.38 518.66

b) Per hactare(kg)1 : 3.63 1 : 3.53 1 . 4.53

Feed conversion ratio (FCR)

Gross Income / ha from sale of prawn @ Rs. 150 /-per kg 85000 /- 93057 /- 78018/-

Expenditure on inputs per hactare in Rs.30000 / - 30000/- 30000/-

a) [email protected]/1000nos.

b) Costoffeed@,Rs.9/kg 18900/- 18900/- 18900 / -

c) Cost offertilizer5000/- 5000/- 5000/-

I) RCD (fi' Rs.1 /kg

ii) SSP(ti Rs. 3/kg 750 / - 7 50 / - 750/-

lil) Urea rt( Rs.3/kg 750/- 750/- 750/-

Sub Total 6500/- 6500/- 6500/-

d) Labourcostfor200man days@Rs 25 / day 5000/- 5000 / - 5000/-

Total Expenditure (Rs ) 60400 / - 60400/- 60400/-

Net income / hectare (R8.) 25100/- 32657/- 17614/-

constant feed Input and at specified stockingdensity. The average growth of prawn in pond 1,2and 3 was 32.19 g, 33.55 g and 31.49 g, respectively.The growth reported by other research wc)rkers was26 g in 115 days (Mathew et ciJ ,1993), 30 g in 180

days (Durairaj ef aJ.,1992) and 33 to 160 g in 9-10months (Raje and Joshi.,1992). These growth ratesare comparable to growth reported under presentexper`ment. In lndia„ production of freshwater

prawn from monoculture was reported in the rangeof 280 -700 kg ha-1 in 6 months (Subramanyam,1984) and 535 -3125 kg ha-) in 10 months wlth anaverage growth rate of 1678 kg ha-1 (Raje and Joshi,1992) The average production of 808 kg ha-1 in 153

days has been rcporled (Ma[hew et aL 1993) Theaverage survival has been reported to be 24 4%

(Parameshwaram ef ciJ , 1992), 33-43% (Raje andJoshi,1992) The survival rate of 35 40%, 36.97%and 33.02% for pond 1, 2 & 3, r€spectively wlth PLstocking, as reported ln this study, was better evenwhen compared with the data reported earller, Thefeed conversion ratio (FCR) under low cost input was

1: 3.63, I: 3.53 and 1: 4.53 in pond 1, 2 and 3,respectlvely. The feed conversion ratio earlierreported are 1.66 to 2.33 (Smith and Sandifer,1980), 4.7 (Sebastian et a!„1992) and 12 49

(Parameshwaran ef a!., 1992).

Physicochemical factors in regards totemperature Indicated the range of 24.4 to 30 6° CThe pH varied in the range of 6.5 to 6.8 which wasslightly acidic in nature, where as the dissolved oxygenvaned in the range of 5.6 to 8 4 mg l-I (Table 2) Themain observation of present study was that prawnswere able to withstand pH as low as 6.5. The low

pH was due to acidic soil of this region. The datarevealed maximum growth rate and percentagesurvival in poncl no 2 followed by pond no 1 and 3.Further, lt was observed that feed converslon ratiowas alsc) found minimum in pond no 2` while it wasmaximum in pond no 3. The poor survival and

growth or the prawns may be due to presence ofweed fishes like Barbs, Danios, Puntius, Rasbora,etc. as well as carnivorous fishes like Eels. magur,Murrel, etc.suggesting that there \vas competition

Monoculture of giant freshwater prawn 253

\\'ilh \\eed fishes and predation by predatory fishes.The result showed that growth rate and survival

percentage can be increased by avoiding entry of weedfishes and carnivorous fishes so as to utilize thesupplementary feed b.v prawns (Shingare ef aJ.,1995).

The production of M. rosenbergii undermonocullure practice depending upon natural trophic .k`\'el \\'as thus 136. 5 kg per hectare, while under 100°/osupplementary feeding with 199 days culture durationmaximum production was 334.3 kg per hectare (Shirgure( fl/ 1988` Vasudevappa, e(aL 1998). Hence, it can

be (`on(`1uded from the above results that monocultureot` pra\\/n with stocking density of 50,000 nos per hectareusmg locall}i' available artificial fccd is feasible. The total

gross irlcome on hectare basis variecl from Rs. 78018.00`Lo Rs 8`5000.00 as per the current prices of prawn in

the market Therefore, the net income per hectare underthis t.\ pc of c`ulture was in the range of Rs 17614.00 toIts. 25100.00 for a period of 170 days.

In conclusion` this type of monoculture showedthat lhc overall production of pond can be doubledif Input of supplementary feed is proportionatelymcrcascd and culture duration is prolonged up to10 months by releasing thc` seed of M rosenberg]iImmediately after monsoon season.

REFERENCES

.\Pll^ |1985|. Standard Methods for the Examinationo/ WJ.af€r and Wasfetuater,16th Edn, AmericianI'ubllc Health Association, DC. 1134p.

Cohen. D„ Ravanar, Z., Rapport, V. and Ariell, Y. ( 1983).The production of freshwater prawn M. rosenbergil

(Deman) in Israel. Bam7c!geh 35(2): 31-37.

Durairaj, G , Chandrasekaran and Umamaheswary,R (1992). Experimcntal culture of giantfreshwater prawn in Tamilnadu. In Fresfru/aterPraum, E.G. Sailas (ed.), pp. 249-256, KeralaAgricultural Univcrsity, Trissur.

Mathcw, P M , Sebastion, M J , Thampy, O.M. andNalr, C.M, (1990). Observations on the cultureof Giant freshwater prawn, M. rosenbergi in

pokkali ficlds ln AqL{act/lfure, P C. Thomas (ed.),pp. 36-41.

Mathew, P.M , Sebastion, M J„ Thampy, O.M. andNair, C M. (1993). Preliminary observations onthe culture of Gaint freshwater prawn, A4.roseribergt in pokkali fields. Proceedings Seconc!lrLdian Fishery Forum.

Parameswaran, S., Manbodh, M. and Hawabhay, K

(1992) Aquaculture of freshwater prawn, Mroscrtbergt`!' (De Man) in Mauritius. In

Freshu;ci!er Prczu;n, E.G. Sailas (ed.), pp 10-12,Kerala Agricultural University, Trissur.

Raje, P.C. and Joshi, V.P. (1992). Multilocational growout trials of M. rosenbrglz in western Maharastra.In Freshowater Proton, E.G. Sailas (ed.), pp.180-182, Kerala Agricultural University, Trissur.

Raje, P.C, (1997). Status of freshwater prawnfarming in Maharashtra. Proceedings WorkshopFreshit/afer Prciu/n Fczrmmg` pp. 1-4, held atCollege of Fisheries, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra),23 Mar,1997.

Sandif€r, P A , 'l`heodore, I.J. and Smith. (1982)Gatrtf Prau/n Famirig, M.B. New (ed.), ElsevierScientific publishing company, New York 170p

Sankoli, K.N. and Shenoy Shankuntala (1994)Status of freshwater prawn farming in Konkan(Maharashtra). Proceedings WorkshopFreshu)ater Praujn Farwing in India, \7 -18 Ma.I ,1994. Spl. Pub.10.113p.

Sebastlan, M.J , Nair Mohankumar, C and Thampy,D M (1992) Culture of M. rosenbergiz inhomestead ponds. In Freshtuafer Praz„n, E.G.Sailas (ed.), pp 200-205, Kerala AgriculturalUniversity, Trissur.

Shlngare, P.E., Shirgur, a.A., Singh, R K. andMehata, V.B. (1995). Assessment of polycultureof gaint freshwater prawn (M. rc)senberg[/ wttha mosscmb]cus and carps. ProceedingsN a.t\or\al SemLnar Challenge and Opportumttesof Research and Development in CoastalAgn`cttJfure, held at Bhubaneswar, Orissa, 4-7Dec,1995 Indian Society of coastal AgriculturalResearch, Canning Town, West Bengal

Shirgur, G.A., Chavan, J. 8., Indulkar S.T. andSiddiqui, S.Q. (1988) Extensive pond cultureof freshwater prawn M. rosenberg!i, pp. 429-438.Proceedings National Seminar AgttcicujtureProdL(cfr.on, held at New Delhi.

Smith, T.I.J. and Sandifer, P.A. (1980). Influence ofthree stocking strategies on the production of

prawn, M. rosenbergii from ponds in SouthCarolina, U.S A Proceedings.Symposium Coasfcl/Aguacu!fure, held at Cochin, 12-18 Jam, 1980.

Subramanyam, M (1984) Experimental pondculture of giant freshwater prawn, M. rosenbrgil.Proceedings Seminar Agt/acuztttre, pp. 57-68,held at CIF`RI, Cuttack.

Vasudevppa, Swamy Vijaykumara, C„ Mohire, K.V.and Kumarl, N. 8. (1998). Culture of gaintfreshwater prawn M roseribergii- A case stud}1n Current and Emergmg Trends in Aquaculture,P.C. Thomas (ed ), pp. 69-73.

L/ Jndiari Sac. C`oasfaJ agric. j3es„ 24(2), 254-257, 2006

Surface Dugout Pond: Boon for Coastal IntegratedFarming System in Maharashtra

J. H. DONGALE, S. S. DHANE, P. E. SHINGARE and S. J. MESHRAM

Khar Lancl Research Station, Dr. B.S. Konkan Krishi VidyapeethPanvel -410 206, Dist Raigad, Maharashtra

Ivlar`arashtra is having 4.03 lakh hectare of saline soil, out of which 64,465 hectare is situatedin Konkan region called as coastal saline soil. In Konkan, the annual rainfall ranges from 2500to 4000 mm. Surface dugout farm pond showed the advantage of desalinization of an area Liptoa radial distance of 27 in by periodical pumping of saline water into the drain. The periodicalpumping, intensity and distribution of rainfall were the major factors governing the leachingand recharging process. Those soils are fertile in nature, riowover, due to lack of freshwatersources, it is monocropped having only rice in khar;f season. Therefore, surface dugout pondtechnology acts as good Source of irrigation to meet freshwater demand cluring dry spell periodof khar/.f and rabi hot weather season. Water depth ot 1.0 to 1.5 in for 7 -8 months allows gi.owingfishes like Indian major carps. L®fes ca/car/./er. Cypn.nus carp/.o. AlacrobracAjum rosar)J}ertyi.i., etc.to generate additional incom.. Further this water can be utilized for grovring riorticu[ture crops likecoconut and vegetables on bonds witl` protective irrigation in coastal saliae soils.

(Key words.- Ir.tegrated famil\g system, Surf:coe dngou. pond. Ramfall analysis, Konhan soil)

The coastal saline soils, locally called `KharLands" in Konkan, are the problematic soils or theregion. The repeated ingress of saline creek wateras well as upward rise of salts due to low groundwater table during hot season make these soilsunsuitable for cropping. The average BC of the soilsduring pre-monsoon period is 25 ds in-t. Na+ andCl-are the dominant Ions on exchange complex. Theheavy texture of the soil reduces the hydraulicconductivity and Infiltration rate which impedes thedrainage. The soils are adequate in availablenutrients. However, their productivity is affected byhigh salt content (Anon.,1992).

The MaharaLshtra State has 720 kin of coastal lengthwith rifty four creeks. It comprises the disthcts of Thane,Raigad , Ratnagin and Sindhudurg. It is having total alcaof 65,465 ha out c>f which is 80% in Thane and Raigaddistrict (Anon., 1990).

Thane and Ralgad district come under VRN Zoneof non-lateritic type of soils. These land are havinginfiltration rate 7.84 to 8.71 cm d-I and hydraulicconductivity 0.62 to 1.05 cm d-1 in the low range.Clay percentage in this soil is 45% showing betterwalcr holding capacity which helps in storage ofwater in pond for about 8 to 9 months.

The paper presents the scope for creatingadditional surface water resource in dugout pondbased on climatic data, and its use for integratedfarming system in coastal saline soil areas.

Rainfall plays an important role in the croppingsystem of Khar Lands. The rainfall data of last 27years were analyzed yearwise, seasonwise, monthly,weekly and dally lt is observed that average rainfallis 2854.21 mm with 86.68 rainy days. Highestrainfall of 4320 mm was observed in the year 1990over 105 days and lowest rainfall or 2050 mm wasobserved in the year 1986 over 70 days. The averagerainfall during khan/was observed to be 2683.93mm, in rcibt-151.37 mm and in summer 18.7 mm.In khciri/ higher percentage of rainfall occurredwhich is 94.03% as compared to 5.320/a in rabi and0.85% in summer. Maximum rainfall occurred in themonth of July 1010.7 inn followed by August 730.75mm. Thus assured period of rainfall is helpful for thestoring the water in surface dugout pond

Weekly analyzed rainfall data showed that 23rdto 39th meteorological weeks are having annualrainfall of 52.98 to 295.05 mm. In these weeks totalrainfall was 2638.85 mm (92.45°/a) 29th weekshowed highest rainfall and 38th week showedlowest rainfall. In the 25 to 34th weeks there waslot of scope to harness the water for pond.

Analysis of dry spells

F`rom the above rainfall data it is clear that theseareas are having maximum rainfall. Inspite of suchheavy rainfall, occurrence of dry spells is commonand has significance in the management of coastalsoils. The maximum dry spells are 13,17 and 31days, which occurred in the months of August,

\

Integrated farming in Konkan 255

September and October, respectively. Due tooccurrence of dry spell the salinity of land increases,damaging the rice crop.

Prediction of 500/a dry spells occurred for 8, 3,2 and 6 days in the month of June, July, Augustand September respectively. Weekly dry spells wereobserved in the 23rd, 35th and 38th week, whichwere more than 40%.

In the Khar Land there is no source of water forlrrigation during rabl. season. The brackishgroundwater of coastal saline soils is a constantsource of soil salinity. The critical depth ofmineralized ground water was found to be 407±15cm at Panvel (Sahu et a!.,1982). The ground watertable rose to 0.17 in in the month of September anddropped from October onward. The water table depthand it's salimty were measured through observationwells installed at Pargaon (Mchta, 1991). It reachedthe average depth of I.74 in in the month of May.To stop this cycle of salinity, it is essential to t)ringthe land under cultivation during rabl season. Butdue to lack of imgation facilities it becomes difficultto take second crop during rabl. season.

To overcome the above problems of Khar Landand to fit for second crop surface dugout pond wasthe best solution (Sahu et.aJ. 1981). This storedwater will be utilized for the agriculture, horticultureand aquaculture.

Construction of surface dugout pond

The depth of pond should be 1 to I.5 in deepbelow ground level. It is obscrv€d that width of bt/rldshould be 3 in. This buric! can be utilized for the

growing of horticulture and vegetable crops, Toovercome the problem of seepage it is better tostrengthen the Inside slope with stone or bricks.Bund height above ground lcvcl should be 1 to 1.5in, so that it doesn't gets flooded during rainyseason, which will also serve as a protection ofIncoming water from outside. It should be in arectangular shape with minimum 0.1 ha waterspread area. Burici slope should be I.5: 1 to 2:1.

Water quality in surface dugout pond

The studies conducted on water quality depthat Panvel showed that the initial salinity of 0.20 ha

pond started decreasing after the construction ofpond, data are presented in Tablel.

The above saline data on salinity of water ofsurface dugout pond indicated that the samedecreased continuously however, Its suitability forimgation purpose throughout the year was observedfrom 5th year onward.

Table 1. Salinity Of 0.20 ha pond(1.5 in depth ) at Panuel

Year Salinity (ppt) Water depth (in)in.the month in the month

of April of April

1993-94 14.5 1.2

1994-95 92 I.0

1995-96 6.5 i.1

1996-97 6.2 1.0

1997-98 4.5 I.0

1998-99 2.5 I,0

1999-2000 I.0 10

Chemical properties of water

The chemical properties of water also plays anImportant role in aquaculture and irrigation. Thestudies conducted on chemical properties of waterat different levels of pond at Panvel are presentedin Table 2.

The above data clearly indicate tha.t pH doesnot have much difference at the depth of pond water.Whereas EC, calcium and magnesium of waterincreased as per the depth of pond. Also thechlorides, sulphate and carbonate concentrationsincreased as the depth of pond water increased.From the above data it is clear that the surfacedugout pond should bc excavated upto I.5 in belowthe ground level and raised to the bt/rid height 1 to1.5 in above ground level. The water stored in such

pond acts as a good water source for irrigation andaquaculture.

Benefits of surface dugout pond

Surface dugout farm pond showed addedadvantage of reclaiming an area upto a radialdistance of 27 in by periodical pumping of salinewater into drain and flushing it out (Chavanet.aJ. ,1985) .

The stored water will be utilized for nursery ofrice if dry spell occurs in khart/season and also forthe critical growing stages of rice if required. Thestored water can be used for growing other cropswith protective irrigation during root season.

The pond bL{rid will be utilized for the growing

horticultural crops like coconut and vegetable croplike ladles finger.

The stored pond water is also used foraquaculture activity. Studies on growth of euryhalinespecies, fresh water fishes and prawn were carried

256 J` H. Dongale ef a/.

Tab.e 2. CheTmcal pToperties of pond uJater at clifferent u)ater depths

Pond Water Hontb pH EC Ca`` Ca`` + Cl HC03 SO-4

No. depth (a) dam-I mel -I mg+I mel-1 me-1 mel-1 mel-I

I)2)3) 2.752.003.00 Dec. 7.4 0.68 I.58 2.25 5.0 1.6 12

Jan. 7.4 0.72 I.60 230 60 I.8 14

Feb 7.7 0.86 1.25 180 8.0 2.0 I.5

Mar 75 0.86 0.40 120 70 4.0 17

Apr 79 I.35 0.60 160 100 60 16

May. 8.0 I.60 0.80 2.80 16.0 8.0 18

Dec 7.4 0.93 0.92 2.65 9.0 17 18

Jam, 7.3 0.98 i.00 2.85 100 18 20

Feb 7.5 I.02 0.86 210 120 40 20

Mar. 7.7 107 065 120 160 40 21

Apr. 7.6 1.63 0.80 1.40 170 4.0 I.9

May 7.8 2.34 1.10 2.70 18.-0 6.0 2.2

Dec. 7.4 • 8.20 6.50 18.00 170.0 1.7 21

Jam. 7.3 910 7.40 2000 180.0 18 23

Feb. 7.7 9.88 7.40 30.00 222,0 6.0 2,4

Mar. 7,4 13.72 9.00 36.60 282.0 6.0 2,2

Apr. 7.6 16.64 10.00 62.00 406.0 6.0 2.5

May 7.3 34.84 11.90 125.0 776.0 9.8 2.9

Tab.e 3. Species suitable for culture in surface dugout pond

Species Culture duration Weight range Yield(month) (k8) k8/ba

Sea bass |Lates calcarifer| 8-9 0 5-0 7 500-700

Tilapia (0 mossambfcus) 8-9 0.I to 0.2 300-500

lndlan Major carp + Cgpnnus caxpro + Grass carp 8-9 0.5 to I.5' 1000-1200

[MC + sea bass + Tilapia 8-9 0 5 to I 5 1200-1500

Freshwater prawn (M. roseribergil-/ 8-9 50-60 gin 600-1000

Brackish water prawn (P. monodon) 5-6 40-48 400-520

Nursery rearing of IMC seed I 0-327 8in 50-60% survival

Nursary rcaring of C. carpio 1 0.407 gin 40-50% survival

out since the last 15 years. Sea bass (Lates ca!can/er)culture is fairly wide spread in the coastal area ofthe Raigad and Thane districts, and thus rankssecond after Indian Major Carps. When tilapia wasused as forage fish growth, a range from 450-700 gin eight months was observed in case of sea bass.Under the combination of sea bass, Indian majorcarps and tilapia, the production was in the averagerange of 1200 -1500 kg ha-I in seven months culture

period. (Shingare ef a7., 2002).

With t.he technique of phased fertilization, thefresh water prawn M. rosenberg]i grew to an averageweight of 50 g in 8-9 months, while the tiger prawn,P. monodon grew to weight range of 42 to 48 g in 5-6 months (Shirgur ef aJ., 1986).

The results revealed that there is a vast potentialfor the culture of above fish and prawn species inthe surface dugout ponds.

If nursery ponds are constructed near the areaof surface dugout ponds, it is possible to take thenursery rearing of Indian Major Carp and C. Carpl.oduring rainy season with survival percentage of 50to 60.

Many trials of different varieties of fishes and

prawn were undertaken in surface dugout pond atPanvel locations (Table 3).

REFERENCES

Anon. (1990). Report, Present Status a/Khar LaridDeue!apment, Government of Maharashtra.

Integrated farming in Konkan 257

Anon. |\992). Coastal Saline So`ls of Maharashtra.Research Bulletin 5, Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth,Dapol,.

Chavan, K,N., Patil, S.P. and Kadrekar, S.B. (1985).Leaching and recharging of salts in coastal salinesoils of Pargaon (Panvel) . JOL{mcz! o/Jndtan Soci-ecg

Of Coastal Agncultural Research 3(2|`. 7 \-76.

Mehta, V.B. (1991). Seasonal fluctuations in level

and salinity of ground water in coastal saltaffected soils of Maharashtra. Journa/ o/Maharashtro Agn`cuJfL(rciz Lrrii'uers!tgr 16(1): 99.

Sahu, R.K., Chavan, K.N. and Kadrekar, S.B. (1981).

Some hydrological observations of coastal salinesoils of Konkan. Proceedings 2nd ConferenceProblems and Management of Coastal SalineSoT!s, pp. 199-207, held at Bombay. C.S.S.R.I.Canning Town (W.B.).

Sahu, R.K., Chavan, K.N. and Kadrekar, S.B. (1982).Ground water characteristics of coastal salinesoils of Maharashtra. Ct{rrenf Agricu/Cure6(3-4): 1-4.

Shingare, P.E., Shirgur, G.A., Singh, R.K. andMehta, V.B. (2002), Assessement of polyculturetrial of Giant Freshwater prawn (M. rosenbergt]\with Tilapia /0. mossambi.cus ) and carp in the

pons of Aquafarmer of Raigad district (MS).Proceedings 2nd Congress /nc!]'an F!`sher#Sc]`erice, held at Bhopal, 23-25 0ct, 2002.

Shirgur, G.A., Singh, R.K. and Chavan, J.B. (1986).On the prospects of pond production of seed ofM. rosertberg[z and culture trials besides P.morloc!on and carps common phased fertilization.Proceedings National Seminar Persp€c![`L/e tnHudrobz.oJogu, pp.69-74, held at Ujjain, 8+ 10 Feb,1986.

J Jndian Soc. C`oastal agric I?es., 24(2), 258-260, 2006

Studies on Growth and Survival of C#r!.##s c¢rp!.oFry upto Advanced Fingerlings in the Rain fed Ponds

P. E. SHINGARE1, N. H. SAWANTZ, a. P. BHOSALE 3 and S. G. BELSARE2

Agricultural Research Station. Dr. a S Konkan Agricultural University, MuldeDist. Sindhudurg -416 520, Maharashtra

Among the three varieties of o.xotic carps Cyprinus carp/.a vat communis i§ in great demandand farmers prefer it for paddy-cum-fish culture, both monoculture and composite, in ponds. Afew trials on seed rearing under different agroclimatic conditions were undertaken in northKonkan zone. Experiment was undertaken on rearing of Cypr/.nus ca/p/.o seed upto advancedfingerling size to assess tl`o gro\^rth arid survival using in®xp®nsiv® artificial feed and fertilizerunder rain fed coiiditions. The experiment was conductocl at Agricultural Researcri Station, Muldein small rain fed ponds measuiing 200m2ar®a by stocking (he advanced fry at the rate of 10 lathper ha against the normal rate of 5 lakh I)®r ha for .ainfed pol)ds. After rearlng the fry for 30days, the advanced fing®rlings measuring 60 to 90 mm and 4.20 to 12.24 g wore harvested. Theconversion ratio of fish biomass to fe®d (FCF`) varied from 1: 1.20 to 1: 1.56. The survivalpercentage varied from 77.92 to 84.20 ./a. The scads wore able to withstand water pH as low as6.5. AboLit 84 a/® of large size fingorliiigs with mean total length of 78.8 mm wore obtalnod. Theresults indicated that there was oven growth of large size fingerlings with better survivalpercentage iJnder application Of inexpensive aitilicial feed and fertilizers. It was furtherconcluded that size ol)tained under this study was siiitable for paddy-cum-fish culture.

(Heg words: FirLgertin,gs, Grou]th & suruwal, Supplernentang feed, So\l & u)ater properties)

The preliminary studies on fry to ringerlingrearing using live feed and artificial feed have beenmade by several research workers (Charlon andBergot, 1984, Dabrowski ef al., 1978, Jeychandranand Raj, 1976, 1977, Lakshaman, 1966, Szlaminskaand Przybyl, 1986). In Maharashtra, few trials wereundertaken in laboratory and field to standardizethe technique of spawn to fry and fry to fingerlingrearing by using variable techniques of feeding inNortth Konkan zone (Shirgur, 1986, Shirgur andShingare, 1989, Shirgur ef a!., 1988). However, nosuch trials were conducted in Shindhudurg distict.This district has laterite type of soil with high

percolation rate, low moisture holding capacity, lowfertility and acidic soil pH Due to stocking ofundersized seed, growth and survival were very poorin the ponds. To increase survival percentage and

production of fish in small and medium irrigationtanks, it was necessary to stock good number ofadvanced fingerlings.

However, there was confusion regardingoptimum size of flngerllngs to be stocked inreservoirs. All these measures were taken in orderto reduce the mortality and to enhance fish

production. This zone receives around 3000-3500

mm rains during monsoon. Hence there is a scopeto develop inland fisheries to enhance fishproduction. However, a fish seed farm has not beenwell established in this district. The seed istransported from nearby districts.

The main objective of the experiment was toassess the growth and survival by rearing uptoadvanced ringerling stage using natural live feed andartiricial feed in rain fed ponds results of which arediscussed herein.


The expenment was conducted in small earthenponds measuring 200 m2 area each by stocking theadvanced fry @ lot lakh per ha for 30 days besidesnormal stocking rate of 5 lakhs per ha (Shirgur andShingare, 1989). The commonly available andinexpensive feed and fertilizer were provided for day-to-day metabolic activities and enhancingzooplankton biomass (Rao et al., 1987, Shirgur,1986). The facilities of areation and water exchangewere not provided. The Initial length weight, blomassof seed, number stocked etc were recorded. The rawcattle dung, urea and single superphosphate wereapplied at the rate of 3000 kg, 50 kg and 50 kg per

lpresent address: Kharland Research Station, Panvel, Raigad -410 206, Maharashtra2Present address' College of Fisheries, Shirgaon, Ratnaglri-415 629, Maharashtra.3 Present address Marine Biological Research Station, Pethkilla, Ratnagiri-415 612, Maharashtra

Growth & survival of fingerlings 259

ha respectively. The artificial feed witb ingredients,viz. soyafloor, rice bran and wheat fir)or were appliedin pelleted form @ 5% body weig.1l (composition:

protein-38.7%, fat-12.6%, ash-10.8% and moisture-8.6%) to the three pc)nds at the rate of 2700 kg,2650 kg and 3000 kg per ha, respectively. Afterrearing for 30 days, the advanced fingerlings of size60 to 92 mm and 4`20 to 12.24 g were harvested.Sampling for growth from all the three ponds wasdone by using drag net. The data regarding finallength-weight, percentage of survival, numbersharvested, food conversion ratio, eta. were recordedat the end of experiment.

The daily observations on pH, dissolved oxygenand temperature were recorded by adoptingstandard procedure to monitor water quality

(Strickland and Parson,1972, APHA,1985).


After 30 days of rearing of fry their growth in

pond No.1, 2 and 3 was in the range of 60 to 90 mm(4.20-11.15 g), 65 to 90 mm (5.24-12.04 g) and 60to 92 mm (5.24-11.24 g), respectively (Table 1). The

sinrvival percentage in three ponds was 79.67%,84.20°/a and 77.92% respectively. The final totalbiomass of seed in these ponds was in the range of108.246 kg to 128.648 kg (Table I). Under low inputof organic and inorganic substances, the feedconversion ratio was in the range of 1: I.34 to 1: 1.74.

It was important that the seeds were able towithstand water pH as lctw as 6.5. The length-weight-wise growth rate and progressive percentageincrease were minimum during second fortnight inall the ponds. The weight-wise growt'n of seed after30 days was 500°/o more than the initial weight. After30 days rearing period, the percentage of large size75 to 92 mm with mean size of 78.8 mm was 60% in

pond 1, 72°/a in pond 2 and 84% in pond 3 (Table 1).It revealed that maximum number of large sizedfingerlings in the range of 75-92 mm with mean totallength of 78.8 mm was obtained.

Considerable studies have been made regardingfry to fingerling rearing by the earlier workers usingnatural and artificial feed (Charlon and Bergot,1984, Dabrowski et aJ.,1978, Jeyachandran and Raj,1976, 1977, Lakshmanan, 1966, Szlaminska andPrzybyl, 1986). A preliminary study on rearing ofcarp fingerlings was also done to achieve bettersurvival and quality seed (Lashamanan, 1968,Randhir et a!„ 1988, Singh, 1988, Tripathi andKhan, 1988). Comparative work considering thedigestive physiology during fry to adult stages

(Ranade and Kewalramani,1986) has indicated thatcarps showed high rate of proteolytic enzymeactivities in their guts Indicating thereby necessityof rich proteinaceous diet during fry to fingerlingphase. Keshvappa and Devraj (1990) also reportedthe possibility of using deoiled silk worm pupa and

Table 1. Detarts of experments in durerent ponds at Agricultural ReseaTc`h Station, Mulde, Dlst. Sindhadurg

Particular Pond 1 Pond 2 Pond 3

Initial length range and aLverage (mm)Initialweightrangeandaverage(g)Numbersstockeda,10lakh/ha 42 - 63 42 - 64 40 - 62

(49.7) (49-4) (49.8)

± 0.12 ± 0.13 I 0.13

I.0 -4.58 1.04 -4.24 1.02 -4,26

(2.07) (197) (192)

± 0.20 ±018 ±019

20000 20000 20000

Initial biomass of seed (kg) 41.540 39.560 38.540

Final length range and average (mm)Finalweightrangeandaverage(g)Numberharvested 60 - 90 65 - 90 60 -92

(74.2) (76 7) (76 4)

± 0.21 ±020 ±019

4.20 -11.15 5.24 -12.04 5.24 -11.24

(6.79) (7.64) (7 29)

±023 ± 0.21 ±020

15935 16839 15583

Percentage survival 79.67 84.20 77.92

Total biomass of seed (kg) 108.246 128.684 113.740

Percentage of large size seed (75 - 92 mm) 60 72 84

260 F' E. Shingare ef a/

earthworm meal as alternative protein source in thediet of carp fry.

It was observed from lhc results and work doneby earlier scientist that under stocking denslty of10 lakh try per ha, the growth (length and weight)and survival percentage was better in all the three

ponds. The size recorded was suitable for stockingthe medium and large irrigation tanks. Further itwas recorded that optimum growth upto advancedfingerling size was possible in rain fed ponds byapplying inexpensive supplementary feed andfertilizers. There was even growth of large sizedfingerlings (75-92 mm) which was very essential forstocking in the reservoirs to raise the overall growthand survival percentage. The studies reported have

given very useful information regarding rearing ofseed upto advanced fingerling size in the soil havinglow fertility and acidic nature (pH 6.5) under rain fedcondition.

REFERENCES

APHA |\985) Standard Methods for the Exammatrono/ Wczter ancz Wasfet®afgr, 16th Edn., AmericanPublic Health Association, Washington, D. C.1134p.

Charlon, N. and Bergot, P. (1984). Rearing systemfor feeding fish larvae on dry diets, trial withca`[p (Cyprinus carpio L.I. Journal of InlandFishery Society of lirdia XN.. 24-28.

Dabrowski, K., Dabrowski, H. and Grudniewski, Cz.

(1978). A study of the feeding of common carplarvae with artiricial food. Aquaculfur€ 13 : 57-64.

Jeyachandran and Raj Samuel Paul (1976).Experiments with artificial feed on C`gpr['nuscarpio {inger\ings. Journal of Inland FisherySociety of India VIT1.

Jeyachandran and Raj Samuel Pa.ul (1977).Formulation of pelleted feeds and feeding trialsw.\th comon ca\Tp. Journal of Inland FisherySociety of India lx`. 42- 52 .

Keshavappa, G.Y. and Devaraj, K.V. (1990).Evaluation of three animal meals as proteinsource in the diet of common carp fry.PToceed\n8s Second Indian Fisheries Forum,pp.1-3, 27-31 May,1990.

Lakshmanan, M.A.V. (1966). Study on new artificialfeed for carp fry. FAO Fi'sh I?eport 44(3): 373-387.

Lakshmanan, M.A.V. (1968). Preliminary study onthe rearing of carp fingerlings. /ndian I/ottmaJo/F{sheny 15(1&2): 40-52.

Ranade, S.S. and Kewalramani, H.G. (1966). Studies

on the rate of food passage in the intestine ofcarps. FAO Fish Report 44(3): Ill/E I 2.

Randhir, M., Gupta, S.D. and Reddy. P V,CLK.

(1988). Economics of carp seed production.Proceedings National Workshop Cczrp SeedProdrcl[`on rechnoJogg, pp. 63, held at Eluru.

Rao Prabhakar, Radhakrishna, G.Y. and RaoSambasiva ( 1987) . Plankton productivi|y in fishnurseries with different fertilizers. ProceedingsNational Seminar Freshwater AqucicL(Jfure in/ndt'cz, pp. 54, held at Nagarjunagar.

Roop Singh, T.K. (1988). In Sfafus o/Fish SeedProduction in Andhra Pradesh, pp. 34-37 .

Shirgur, G.A. (1986). A note as further revisedschedule of phased manuring in fish nurseriesFt.shorty BUJJeti'n IX(1): 77-78.

Shirgur, G.A., Shingare, P.E. and Vipradas, K,C.

(1988). On optimum rearing of common carp(C`gpn.nL(s caxpo) fry into fingerlings. ProceedlngsNational Symposium Aquc[cL(lture Produc!{on,18-19 Nov,1988.

Shirgur, G.A. and Shingare, P.E. (1989) On

optimum oulture parameters for rearing thefingerlings of major carps from fry stage. Fish€rgBu77ef].ri XIII (2).

Strickland, LJ.D.H. and Parsons, T.R. (1972). A

Practical Handbook of Seau)ater Analysis.Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Ottawa,Bulletin 167, 2nd Edn.

Szlaminska, M. and Przybyl, A. (1986). Feeding ofcarp (C`gp7lrms carp[.o) larvae with an artificialdry food, living zooplankton and mixed food.Agt/act{Jture 54(1&2): 77-82.

Tripathi, S.D. and Khan, H.A. (1988). Carp seed

production technology. Proceedings NationalWorkshop Carp Seed Production Teclmology, pp .8-9, held at Eluru.

I/, /ndzari Soc, Coos{a/ agr[c. I?es , 24(2), 261-263, 2006

Fish Fauna of Pawashi Irrigation Tank in Sindhudurg,Maharashtra - A Case Study

8` P. BHOSALE1, P. E. SHINGARE 2, N. H. SAWANT3 and S.G. BELSARE1

'Marine Biological Research Station, Pethkllla, Ratnagiri -415 612, Maharashtra

2Kharland Research Station, Panvel, Raigad -410 206, Maharashtra

and3College of Fisheries, Shirgaon, Ratnagiri -415 629, Maharashtra

Sindliudurg district of South Maharashtra is characterised by thick laterite soil, heavy rainfallof an average of 3000-3500 mm, high humidity, ample sunshine and numerous water resourcesincluding the ones like perennial water tanks, viz. Pawashi minor irrigation tank. The fish faunaof this tank includes introduced Indian major carps, several varieties of commercially importantfishes like Tilapia, Etroplus, Magur, Ompak, Channa and other fislies like Puntius, Danio, Labeokawrus, Gagata, Monopterus, Ambasis, Chiramenu, Garra, glassogobius. Crab(Mefopegograpsus spp.) and gait freshwater prawn (MacrobrachJ.urn rosenbergj/. spp.). In orderto utilize the available fish fauna of Pawashi irrigation tank of Sindhudurg region for bettereconomic returns, the following technologies could be made use of for developing locatjon-specific packages and their subsequent transfer to tlie actual users. These are: (1) optimumutilization of tanks of the region throiigh stocking of advanced fingerlings for culture of carps,(2) commercial harvesting the fish fauna from the reservoir or tanks at the right time, i.e.immediately after or dui.ing the first rain shower jn monsoon by using the nylon gill net, (3)scientific management and fishery enhancerient programs to increase the average tishproduction. (`4) adoption of pen and cage culture techniques ot aquacultui.e for effectiveutilization of water bodies ol the region, and (5) utilization of other available freshwateraquaciilture technologies such as freshwater prawn farming, pearl culture, etc.

(Keg words.. Reseruoir, Irngat\on tank, Ftsh fauna)

Maharashtra is having 1,19,515 ha small,39181 ha large and 1,15054 ha medium reservoirarea (Sagunan, 1995). Pawashi tank in Sindhudurgdistrict of Maharashtra comes under the categoryof small irrigation tank. Thc- study of fish fauna ofl'awashi minor Irrigation tank was undertakenduring 1992 to 1998 lo assess the percentagecontribution of fish fauna and their commercialsignificance in this region which has been discussedin this paper.


Pawashi minor irrigation tank constructed on[3c`11 river (local nala) of Pawashi village near Mumbai- Goa highway and geographically situated on

longilude 70t'-42' and longitude 16°-2'. Total waterspread area of tank is 10.49 km2 and maximumdepth of water is 27 metre. The catchment area ofthe tank basin recieves on an average annual rainfall75 % of which occurs during south-west monsoon.Earthen burtc! of length 435 in, top width of 4 in andmaximum height of 17.5 meter was constructed onthe lower side Wasteweir of clear over fall type oflength 55 in was constructed at the lower reachesof tank to control overflow of the excess water during

heavy mansoon. However, one nylon net of one Inchmesh size of length 65 x 6m acted as close barrier

Just 8-10 in behind of the wasteweir to avoid escapeof fishes during excess water flow.

Different locations were selected in the tankarea for collection of fish fauna in each nettingoperation. Gill net, caste and drag net of nylon andmono filament type were used for cc)llcction of fishes.One wooden dmgt of 3.5 in x I.5 in was used fornetting operation. Fish catch and percentagecontributions were estimated immediately. A partof the catch was preserved in the 5% formalin foridentification.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

A large varieties of I-reshwater flshes were foundin Pawashi minor Irrigation tank in S`,ndhudurgdistrict. The average fish production of this tankwas estimated at 12.5 kg yearL' ha-1 during the study

period. Fish representatives of 5 orders,14 families,24 genera and 28 species with two species ofcrustaceans were so far collected from the Pawashitank. Commercially important species alone wereIncluded ln this study. From this stand point, Indianmajor carps, namely catla (CafJa cafzcz), rohu (Labeo

262 8. P. Bhosale et a/.

rohtta) and mrigal (Cirrh[.nus mriga!a) were theIntroduced species and contributed as much as 60%of the catches. The exotic varieties of carps, viz.Silver carp (H9paphthaJmichthgs mo!i.f") , grass carp

(Cteriophargngdori I'deJ!a) and common carp(Cgrpnnus carpio) became Important components ofspecies mix ln composite fish culture operatlons lnthe area. However, these exotic carps enjoyed asubdued market status in the nearby region ascompared to Indian major carps.

The air-breathing fishes such as magur (C`Ja"sbcitrachtts) and ompak (Ompak bl.macula!us) are c)fspecial significance in this region as they have ahigh nutritive and therapeutic value. One speciesof murrel or snakehead (Channa maruli.tis) wascommonly encountered in this area which belongedto the category of air-breathing fishes and alsoattracted consumers These fishes collectively

contributed as much as 10 to 15% of the catch inPawashi tank. The catch of Cichlid species, namelyOreochromis mossamb]cus and Etroplus (EtrapJusst/rcitensts) were also captured during fishmg ofPawashi tank Tilapla specles and Etropus are ofconsiderable commercial significance. These fishescollectively account for about 20% cif fish landing inthe Pawashi tank. The air breathing fishes,especially magur (C`Jcir"s bcitrachus), singhi

/Heteroprieustes j`osstJis) and kabai (AncibcistetttdlnetJs) are of special significance in that region.These fishes thrive in highly euthrophicated swampyand derelict waters of the district. Four species

(Chama manil..us, C. sfrla{us, C. punctatus and Cgachua) were commonly encountered but they didnot attract consumers as magur, singhi and kabai.Featherbacks (IVotopfertJs chl'faJa and IV. rtotopfen/s)are also air breathing fishes. Of the two species,

Table 1. Chec.klist of fish fauna of Pclwashi lrrigatron +ank

Scieatiflc nameCarla cat!a quamilton - Buchanan/

Cirrhim/s mngala manilton ~ Buchanan/CgpnntJs carpio (Linnaeus)

Labeo katijnts (Sykes)

Labeo rorutcl (HamhorL - Buchanan)

Fir nt{us cLmphibius (Valenciennes)

furttlt/s naragranl (Hora)

funtins saram sptlu"es (Gunther)Punt!t{s scironci si/bnasutt{s (Valenciennes)

Hypop hihalmichthys mohtnx (V atenc\ennes)

Gcirra gotglcl gotu!a (Gray)

Dari[-o malcibaricus (Jordon)

For(I/ciosoma c!ariiconms (Hanilton - Buchanan)

Ornpcik blmacuJcitL(s (Bloch)

Gagata gcigatci (Hamilton - Buchan)

C(artus batrclchas (Linnaeus)

Xencnthodon cancila /JJcim{lton - Bucha7ian/

Monoptems/Amp`ipnous/ indicus (Silas & Dawson)

APJoche[1us linea!us (Voencienues)

Ambassis gymnocephalus /Lflcepede/

Btraplus sLtraterists (Bloch)

Oreochromis mossamblca (Peters)

ChiramertLt fluulatus (Rao)

Glassogobius b\ocellatus

Channa nici"!ius (Hanllton - Buchanan)

Mastacembci/us armatL(s (Lacepede)

Macrobrochium rosenberg]! (Deman)

Metopograpsus maoulatus (Milne - Edwards)

Local Marathi name

Catla, Tanvar

Mrigal, Mirya, Tamar

TanarTamar

Rohu, Tambada nasa, Tamar

Bhondgi / Khavll

Khawall

Khawali

Khawali

Chavada nasaShingcha,- mallya, Malva

Danlo

DandakaiMooni, Valatai

Shingatl

Thigur

Kutsa, Tikali, Tol

Kodal

Piku , Chandaka

Kalundcr

Tllapla

Kharchi

Murrel

Van, Kadai

Shlvad

Khekada„ Chimburi

Fish fauna in reservoir 263

ho\irever „ chlfa!a, localy called bhunna is considerdas a delicac}. and enjoy good consumer preferenceThese rishes collectivelly contributed nearly upto 15-20 to the market arrival of fishes in the area.

Other species of fishes Include Puntius, Danio,LcizHo kawrus, Gagata, Monopterus, Ambasis,Chiramenu, Garra and Glassogobius, etc. Largespecies of tengra included M. seer[ghaJa alone.Ompak binaculatus, locally called banspatta is alsoa catfish of considerable commercial significance.These fishes collectively accounted for about 15

percentage of the fish landing in the area. Otherspecies of fishes included suha (GadLts{a chapra),

gaincha (Mastcicemb€/Jus spp ), mara, etc.

Wczcrobrachl'z/in rosertbergt.z' (Gaint fresh water

prawn) generally came Into the cast net hauls withmiscellaneous fishes in Pawashi tank, while one crab

species of Metopegograpsus mactt!afus appeared lnshallow water areas. Harrison ef a!. (1986) reporteda low cost effective trap for use in sampling of aquaticfauna„ Several varieties of small prawns and crabsfound in Darbhanga district area were treated as adelicacy. Prawns, as by-catch, come into the castnet hauls of miscellaneous fishes from ponds, poolsand ditches, while crabs appeared red in shallowwater bodies, especially paddy fields The details offish fauna of Pawashi irrigation tank are given inTable 1.

REFERENCES

Harrison T.D., Ramm, A.E.L. and Cerff, E.C. (1986).A low cost effective trap for use in samplingaquatic fauna. I/oumciJ o/AqtJacu!tt/re 58(1-2)145-149,

J. /rlcz[arl Sof Coostcl[ agrlc Res., 24(2), 264-266, 2006

Studies on E££ect o£ Lactobacillus acidophilus,a Feed Probiotic on Growth of Seed of L¢bco robe.£czP. E. SHINGARE, S. J. MISHRA, R. K. SINGH1, J. H. DONGALE and S. S. DHANE

Khar Land Research Station, Dr B.S. Konkan Krishi VidyapeethPanvel -410 206, Raigad, Maharashtra

The manipulation of feed could bo done by using feed with probiotic or Ingredient mix forbetter utilization of nutrient, which ultimately helps in improvement of growth, survival andresistance to diseases. The experiment was conducted in triplicate to observe the effect ofLacfobac/.//us acjdoph/-/us on growth of seed of i. rohjta. The seeds size range 2.49 (± 6.07) -2.69 (i 6.58) cm was fed with five different dosages of i. ac;doph/./us at the I.ate of 2, 4, 6, 8 and10 g per kg ot laboratory made feod and compared with the control, i.e. without probiotic. Thewater parameters recorded were in the favourable range. Out of live treatments, the dose at therate of 6 g per kg rlas shown significantly highest growth. The growth was found lower for doseof 8 g per kg and 10 g per kg of feed.

(Keg words.. Feed probiotlc, Seed grou)th & suTu\ual of L. rohrta)

Probiotics may be single or mixed cultures ofselected strains of bacterial which have variedbeneficial effects. The use of antibiotics andchemothera-peutants indiscriminately to overcomethe disease problem ln aquaculture may result inthe accumulation of residues and development ofresistant strains of bacteria, Therefore, the use ofbiological or probiotic feed additives is the onlyaltcrnative. Now-a-days many cc>mmercial feed

probiotics are available for livestock feed. However,the use of probiotlcs in aquaculture feed is underdevelopment and studies conducted have shown thevast scope in improving the growth of fishes and

prawns by use of feed probiotics. The beneficialeffects of probiotic microorganisms are well knownin veterinary medicine and target specles aredomestic animals (Fuller. 9189, Sissions, 1989).Ghosh €f a!. (2002) noted the potential of bacterialflora for use as a probiotic


The experiment was conducted in laboratory atKhar Land Research Station, Panvel, District Raigar(Maharashtra). The plastic troughs of 30 litrecapacity were used. The Lactobcici.!Jus acidophiiuswas used as feed probiotic. The doses of i.acldaphi!us were @ 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 g per kg offeed. The control tank was without application of

probiotics. The supplementary feed was given at the

rate of loo/o of bod`v weight. Total 20 numbers ol`Labeo rohita fry were introduced with initialaverage wcight of 218 g and length of 2.59 cm.The experiment was conducted for 60 days periodin triplicate. The feed ingredient composition and

proximate composition of feed on dry basis aregiven in the Table 1. The physicochemicalparameters such as temperature, dissolvedoxygen, free carbon dioxide, pH, total alkalinityaLnd total hardness were estimated by usingstandard methods (APHA 1989) and presented lnthe Table 2. Formulated diet was analysed for

proximate composition (AOAC, 1990).


Results of present studies (Table 3) Indicatedthat there was better growth in all five treatments,such as 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 g of probiotic I. Qciczaph]!us

per kg of feed over the control. I-Iowcver, thelengthwise (4.55 i 0.01 cm) and weightwisc (0.991

i g) growth were significantly higher (p<0.05) in thetreatment of 6 g feed probiotic per kg of feedcompared to other treatments. The growth waslowest (3.76 i 0.02 cm, 0.629 i 3.68 g) in control

(without probiotic). The growth was also found lowerfor dose of 8 g per kg (4.38 i 0 01 cm, 0 892 I0.01 g) and 10 g per kg of feed (4.33 i 0.015 cm,0.866 i 5.58 g).

'ipresent address. TMBRS, Mumbai

Feed probiotic for fish 265

Table 1. Experrmental detatls and feecl treatmentsuiith c`o mpos itio n

Ex|)erimental details

Plastic but volumeRepllcationTreatmentControlNo of rohu fry in each tankl'robiotic usedI)osages

30 litresTriplicate5no.Ino20Lactob acillus acidophilus2 g, 4 8' 6 8' 8 g & 10 g/kg

Feed treatments

DOse (8/18) Tub number24 1,2 3,6

4,56 7,8 98 10' 11,12

10 13, 14,15

Control 16' 17,18

Feed ingredients

Ingredients % c®mpesitioDDeoiled cake of groundnut 22.90Wheat nour 31.28

Soyabean meal 22.91

r,,lil Meal 22.91

loo.00Proximate composition o I feed on dry weight basis

Component PercentageCrude protein 42.75

Crude lipid 6.79

Ash 8.92

Molsture 3.50

Dr}' matter 96.50Carbohydrate 41.54

Feeding rateExperimental periodlnitial length u'eight details:

` 10% oft)od.y weight-Two months

(a) Initial average length (cm) - 2 59(b) Initialaverageweight(g) -0218

Table 2. PrLg`sicoche"cal properties of uiater

Parameter Range

Temperature (°C) 26.5-28 5

Dissolved oxygen (ppm) 4.0-4 8

pH 7.S2-7 98

Total alkalmity (mg/I) 130-155

Total hardness (mg/I) 25-45

The percentage gain in length and weight after60 days in the treatment of 6 h feed probiotic perkg of feed was 186% and 77.3%, respectively, whichwire higher than any other treatments The finallengthwise growth was increased considerably from165 to 186% in the treatment of 2, 4, 6 g probiotic

per kg of feed, while it was reduced from 178 to116% in treatments of 8 and 10 g of probiotic perkg of feed and control. The same trend was observedin case of weightwise gain (Table 3).

The incorporation of probiotic in feed haLs longtradition in animal husbandry (Stavric andKomegay, 1995) but use in aquaculture is very rare.The stains of Bacillus sp. used in feed for terrestrialanimals have telluric origins. They are notautochthonous in gastrointestinal tract but may beactive during intestinal transit (Gaurnier-chateauef aJ.,1994). The beneficial role of bacterial enzymeson fish growth have been discussed by Ghosh et a!,(2001). The strain, I. aci`c!aphl'Ztts used in the presentstudies might have induced growth in rohu byproducing essential nutrients not present in theformdlated diet. Further, it might have improveddigestion by supplying digestive enzymes to the fish.The effect of lactic acid bacterial in the feed on the

growth and survival of fry of Atlantic cod (Goc!us

Table 3. Groujth ancl suTviual of Tohu seed ijjith dtfferent doses of pTobtottc

Days 2 8/k8 4 8/k8 6 g/kg 8 8/kg 10 g/k8 Control

L W I, W L W L W L W L W

0 2.49 0.420 2.60 0.96 2.69 0.218 260 0.234 2,59 0.245 2.60 0196+6.07 +2.50 +8.44 + I.56 +6.58 +161 +7.24 +2.23 +0.86 + 1.63 +8.04 +165

15 3.29 0.398 3.27 0.331 3.531 0.60§ I 3.34 0.524 3.31 0.439 295 0.268+001 +3.07 +0.01 +4.41 +0.01 +5.19 +001 +657 +0.01 +4.12 +001 +3,09

30 3.44 0.509 3.951 0.674 3.91 0.7091 3.86 0.675 3.75 0.584 3.37 0.397+0.07 +5.35 +0,01 +7,67 +0.01 +6.05 +0.07 +5.88 +0.01 +0.03 +0.01 +4.79

45 3.79 0.607 422 715 4.321 0.8651 4.24 0.780 4.03 0.711 3.61 0530+0.01 +6.29 +001 +488 +0.01 +0.01 +0.01 +9.19 +0.01 +481 +0.01 t3,87

60 414 0686 431 0.802 4.551 0.9911 4.38 0.892 431 0.866 3.76 0.629+0.01 +6,33 +001 +538 +0.01 +0.01 +0.01 +0.01 +0.01 +5.58 +0.01 +3.68

% ga,n 165 466 171 60.6 186 77.3 178 65.8 172 62.I 116 433

Survival' loo loo loo 100 loo loo 100 100 100 loo 100 loo

\ Survival at 5% level ol sigmficance; L, length (cm), W. ``.eight (g)

266 F' E. Singare €t a/

nr[orht/a) has been studied by Gildberg et c{!. (1977).

Sharma and Kumar (1998) showed the positiveImpact of microbial population on the growth ofCtrrhmtts mngala. Mohanty ef clJ. (1996) observedbetter efficiency in growth and survival of fabeorohi`ta spwan, when treated with bacterialconcentrative, vitamin C and minerals.

Thus, the present study showed thatLactobac].l!us c{ctdaph[Jus bacterial may be used asa supplement in formulated diet for Labo roht.ta seedfor better utilization of nutrients.

REFERENCES

A,OALC (\990|. In Association of Offroial AncdytiealChemists /AOAC`/,15th Edn, Vol.1, W. Horwitz

(ed.), Offlcial Analytical Chemists, Washington.

APHA (\989\ . Standard Methods for the Examinattono/ Water and Waste Water. American PublicHealth Association, 17th Edn, Washington,D.C.1452p.

Fuller, R. (1989). Probiotics in Mean and Animals.Journal of Apphed Bacterrology 66.. 365-378.

Ghosh, K., Chakraberty, K., Sen, S.K. and Ray, A.K.

(2001). Effects of thermostable bacterial 2 -amylase on growth and feed utilization in rohu,Labeo roht.to (Hamilton) , ringerlings. JsrcieJi JotJma!o/Aqruacu!fure Bamrdgeh 53(3-4): 101-109.

Ghosh, K., Sen, S K. and Ray, A.K. (2002). Acharacterization of bacilli isolated from gut ofrohu, Lczbeo rohi.ta, fingerlings and itssignificance in digestics. JoumaJ o/ App`tedAqttczcu!ture 12(3): 33-42.

Gildeberg, A., Mikkelsen, H., Sandaker, E and Ringo,E. (1977). Probiotic effect of tolactic acidbacteria in the feed as growth and survival offry of Atlantic cad (Godtts morhtia).Hydrobialogia 852.. 279-285.

Gournier-Chateau, N. Larpent, J.P., Castellanes,I.and Larpent, J.L. (1994). In Lesprobtofiques onAlimerttc. on Animale et Humaine Teclmique atDocumerut.tion LeyoLsier, Pa\Tis. \92p.

Mohanty, S.N., Swain, S.K. and Tripathi, S D.

(1996). Rearing of catla (Ca{!a cat!a Ham.).spawn on formulated diet. JOLtrna! o/AqucictJ!ture Trapi.cs 11. 253-258.

Sharma, O.P. and Kumar, A. (1998). Growth offlngerlings of Cirhtmus mngaJa (Ham.) in watersfertilized with fishmin. Fishirig Cfrt.mes 18(5):15-16.

Sissons, J.W. (1989). Potential of probioticorganisms to prevent diarrhea and promotedigestion in farm animals: A review. Joumcil o/Sot.ence &. Food Agn.cttJfure 49: I-13.

Stavric and Komegay, T. (1995). In Mlcrob!.azProbioties for Pigs and Poultry, pp. 205-23L .

J Jndiciri Soc. Coastciz agn'c. Res., 24(2), 267-268, 2006

Studies on Effect of Different Levels of Proteinon the Absorption Efficiency in Hcfcrapc#cs£#s Foss£.JsS. J. MESHRAM, P. E. SHINGARE, R. K. SINGH, J. H. DONAGLE and.S. S. DHANE

Khar Land Research Station, Dr. B,S. Konkan Krishl Vidyapeeth, DapoliPanvel, Dist. Raigad -410 206, Maharashtra

Being air breathing fish the HotoropAeslus loss//a is cultured in some village ponds ln traditionalway. However, there is not much attention paid on artificial feed containing fish meal which isthe main protein soul.ce and should be cost effective. Concentration of dietary ingredients hasan important effect on absorption efficiency. The experiment was conducted in laboratory for30 days to study the absorption efficiency of H. foss/./s at dilferent protein level§ in the diet.The fishes were fed with four different protein levels, such as ZOO/a, 30%, 40% and 50°/®. Theresults showed that absorption elficioncy ot H. foss/./s is associated with increase in the proteinconcentration. It was significantly highest (89.89+0.080/a) at the protein lovol of 40°/. fouowedby 87.40% (+0.29) at 30°/o protein level and 86.71% (0.02%) at 50% protein level. It was lowest(84.63+0.39%) at 20% protein levol in the diet.

(Key u)ord.: Heteroper\estns fossils, Protein absorptlon effic\ency)

The culture of H. /osslJs can be possible inderelict and sewage water Some of the village pondswith high vegetation grow this fish in their ponds intraditional way Not much work has been done onthe artificial feed in relation to H. /oss{ls. Forartificial feed fish meal is a main protein sourcewhich is cost effective. Therefore in order to prepareeconomical based feed it should have goodabsorption efficiency.

Absorption is a useful measure of metabolismand growth because it Indicates the energypotentially available from energy consumed.Therefore the present experiment was conducted toknow the protein absorption efficiency in H. /osslis,which is a measure of metabolism and growth.


The experiment was conducted in laboratory ofKhar Land Research Station, Panvel in 60 x 30 x 30

cm glass aquaria for one month. The seeds werecollected naturally from the village ponds. Aftercollection it was acclimatized to laboratoryconditions before using for experimental purpose.Four artificial feeds having protein percentages of20, 30, 40 and 50% were prepared. Experimentalfishes were slowly acclimatized to artificial feed andthereafter fed completely on artificial feed duringexperimental period. Tanks were siphoned out tocollect the feaces and then nitrogen was estimated.Proximate composition was done on dry weight basisfollowing standard methods.

RESULTS AND DISCussloN

Feed consumptions of experimental fishesduring experimental period are shown in Table 1The average length was found to be 8.94± cm Fromthe data it is clear that fishes fed with protein richdiet of 39.02% showed significant absorption

Table 1. Composttron of different feecl ingredlents (on drg weight basts)

Feed ingredients Protein %

20 30 40 50

Fish meal (g) 15 30 45 60

Starch(g) 62 47 32 17

Chromic oxide (g) 01 01 01 01

Gelatln (8) 10 10 10 10

Cod liver oil (g) 9 09 09 09

Vltamln (8) 3 03 03 03

Crude protein (%) 1898 29.39 39.02 48.92

Carbohydrate (%) 68.78 54.10 36.52 24.18

268 S J. Meshram ef a/

Table 2. Consumption and absorptron of protein by H. £ossL\s fed with different j`ee(]`s

Percentage Protein Weight Of F`ood Nitrogen Nitrogen - Nitrogen Absorptionof protein in diet (%) rlsh '8) consumed consumed aB in feaces aB absorbed as efriciencyin feed (%) (8) protein (g) protein (8) protein (8) (0/.)

20304050 18982939390248.92 15.79 100 86 19,14 2.93 1620 84.63

+0.35 +0.18 +0.12 +0.01 +005 +0.39

15.61 105 95 3113 3.92 27.21 87.40

+0.34 +0.20 +0,03 +001 +0.03 +029

15.27 104.04 49.59 410 36.49 89 89*

+031 +0.23 +0.02 +0.03 +0.03 +0.18

15.20 102.95 50.36 6.69 43,67 86,71

+036 +0.28 +0.02 +0.01 +0.04 +0.02

* Significant at p=0,05

cfficiency as compared to (Table 2) those recordedunder 20% protein level (84,630/o) and 30% proteinlevel (87.40%), Muros et a!. (2003) studied the effectof feeding pattern of Spa"s aurata and observedbetter efficiency with experimental diets containing45°/o protein level. Madrid (1994) reported that thesame diet offered at different times of the day isassimilated differently.

CONCLUSION

The absorption efficiency of fJ. /ossiJs isassociated with the increase in the protein

concentration upto 39.02%, beyond which the

protein efficiency falls significantly.

REFERENCES

'Madrid, J.A. (1994). Effect of demand feeding on

protein assimilation. Aqua ReLJ{ew: 52-53.

Muros, M.J„ Corchete, V., Suarez, M.D„ Cardenete,a., Gomez-Milan, E. and Higuera, M. De la

(2003). Effect of feeding method and proteinsource on SpcirL!s aurcztcz feeding pattern.Aquaculfure 224: 89-103.

J. Inc±ian Soc. Coastal agnc Res., 24(2|, 269-271, 2006

Identification and Assessment of Nutrient Availability inBackyard System of Poultry FarmingS. K. SAH00, a. K. PANDA, S. C. GIRl and lvl. K. PADHI

Reglonal Centre, Central Avian Research InstituteJokalundi, (in front of Kalinga Studio), Bhubaneswar -751 003, Orissa

A study was conducted to study the system of rearing poultry in backyard, type of feedingredieiits available, feeding pattern of birds, crop contents and blood biological value offield birds. For this study 30 farmers from three villages were taken. It was revealed that inbackyard sector most of the care and management of poultry birds were taken by womenmembers of the family. The people have special preference towards colour birds. The averageflock size was 5-10 birds per family. On analysis of crop contents it was revealed that they weredeficient in protein and energy. A wide variation was observed in both physical and chemicalcomposition of the crop contents. Normal values were observed in SGOT, SGPT, total cholesterol,calcium and phosphorous besides higher value of glucose.

(Key words: Backyard poultry, Nutnem auoilabitity, Crop contents)

The poultry sector in India mainly consists oftwo components, i.e. commercial and backyard

poultry. Commercial poultry sectors mostly dependupon pure exotic lines, whereas the backyard sectormostly consists. of different indigenous varieties ofchickens The`rural people practised backyard

poultry farming from time immemorial. Recentlymore emphasis has been given towards backyard

poultry farming as a means of nutritional securityto rural people through orgamc farming. The farmersusually rear the birds by allowing them to scavengein the field with little or no supplementation. Thebirds grow by taking the feed materials available tothem, which varies from season to season, place to

place, and also the number of birds reared in thespecific area at a point of time. The feed materialsavailable in the scavenging system are limited withlow in quality. The scavenging feed resource basecan be assessed by examining the feed in the cropat different times, of day to determine how much ishousehold waste, how much is from supplementaryfeed, and how much is from the environment

(Roberts and Gunaratne, 1992, Roberts, 1995).

The population of backyard chicks in village

grows till the scavenging feed resource base isexhausted. The low crude protein in the scavengingfeed is inadequate for chicks and growers. Mostlythe weaker chicks and growers die of starvationwhere there is competition for scavenging feed.Growth and survival rate of the chicks usuallyimprove if they are provided with preferential accessto household waste supplemented with protein.Supplementation of small quantity of animal protein

improve the growth and production of such birdsbecause it provides essential amino acids (Robertsef ci!.,1994). Farmers who take little care of theirbirds with little supplementation of available feedingredients find better performance than those whorear in the free range system without anysupplementation. Horst (1991) reported 12-20%increased hen day production with better plane ofnutrition. Cresswell and Gunawan (1982) reported40% increased egg production when Indonesianvillage birds were provided with excellent nutritionin pens. Rangnekar and Rangnekar (1996) havereported that there was a need for critical study onnutritional status of backyard poultry.


Three villages in the vicinity of the Bhubaneswarcity were selected for this experiment. A total of 30respondents were selected for this study to surveythe pattern of keeping poultry birds, number of birds

per family, type of birds, feed ingredients availableand feeding pattern of the birds. Observing the birdswhile scavenging identified the feed ingredientsconsumed by the birds from the environment by

preference. The feed samples were collected fromthe farmer's house and also from the environment.The blood samples were collected from the field birdsto study different blood parameters in the serumsamples. The blood parameters like SerumGlutamate Oxaloacetate Transaminase (SCOT) andSerum Glutamate Pyruvet Transaminase (SGPT),

glucose, total protein, total cholesterol, calcium (Ca)and Phosphorus (P) were determined by using

270 S. K. Sahoo et a/.

standard diagnostic kit manufactured by BayerDiagnostic India Ltd., Baroda-390 019, Gujarat.Three birds from each village were sacrificed to studythe crop contents ln the evening before housing thebirds. The crop contents were examined physicallyto Identify the individual feed ingredients consumedby the birds. The pulverized feed samples collectedfrom the field and the crop contents were analyzedfor the proximate principles like Dry Matter (DM),Orgamc Matter-(OM), Cndc Prott'.in-(CP), CrudeFibre (CF) and Ether Extract (EB) as per AOAC (1990)and Gross Energy (GE) content by 1425 OxygenBomb Semi-micro Calorimeter (Parr ScientificEquipments). Data collected during the investigationwere subjected to statistical analysis as per Snedecorand Cochran (1989).

' RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The results of survey conducted in the villagesabout the status of backyard poultry are given inTable 1. It was revealed that the backyard poultry

production system was practised in the rural areasby most of the farm families below poverty line witha small number of stocks ranging from 5-10 birds

per family. The farmers have special preference fordual purpose colour birds, which fetched a moderatereturn in terms of meat and egg. The female andchildren in the familics looked after the poultryflocks as the male members usually went out forfieldwork. The birds were allowed to graze in thenearby areas with a constant watch on them to savethem from theft or predators. Occasionally the birdswere called with a typical voice and feed ingredientsavailable with them. By this way they nourish theblrds and also keep constant watch on them. It wasalso observed that the kitchen waste is gathered ina pot and placed in a particular place so that thebirds can easily take it.

The feed ingredients identified in the cropcontents are given in Table 2. From this table it was

Table 1. Survey of farm families rearing poultrybirds in backyard sgstem

Particular ot)servatioD

Status of farmers Small, marginal and landless labourer

Categor), SC / ST, Muslims

No, or birds per fanily 5-10

System of rearing Semi-mtensive

Type of birds Deshi, somet]mes ]mprovcd varieties

Members of fanily Mostly womenlooking after birds

Table 2. Feeclstuj:f iclentif led fTom the cropcorLtents Of scauengmg ch`ckens

Particular IngredientCereals

Legumes

Byproducts

K]tchen waste

Insects

Metazoans

Green vegetations

Inert substances

Paddy, wheat

Black graln, green gram, arhar

Rice polish, wheat bran, su]i

Boiled rice, vegetable covcririgs,fish scale alid bones, left over foodmaterials, Bread pieces

Red and black ant, millipodes,maggots, bittle worms, larvae

Earth worms, snail, oyster

Tender parts of different grasses,herbs, weeds

Stones, sand, rubber tube, hair

Table 3. Composuton Of crop contents ofscavenging chickens

Particular Average Value Range

D M O/o 35.42±2.38 25.76 -45,95

0 M O/o 75.56±4.65 57.63 -95.04

CP% 9.94±0.66 8.67 -13.86

CF% 5.46±0.61 3.98 -6.92

EE% 1.72±0.33 0.39 -3.06

Total Ash % 24.44±4.65 4.96 -42.37

Acid Insoluble Ash % 2o.14±4.99 3,67 -30.37

GE (k cal /g) 3389.87±244.45 2679.89-4201.89

Table 4. Different blood parameters of the birds inthe backyard system

Particular Average Value Ratl8e

SCOT („/L) 160 , 66±4 .48 142,99 -174.52

SGPT („/L) 15.89±0.94 13.32 -19.96

Protein (g/ dl) 410±0.32 3.13 ~ 5.58

Glucose (mg/dl) 240.16±6.40 231.37 -252,94

Cholesterol (mg/dJ) 318.27±17 37 233.72 -370 93

Calcium (mg/dl) 7 i 'rl +_0 .J 5 5.13 -10.88

Phosphorus (mg/dl) 2.01±0.25 l.7S -2.95

revealed that along with various feed ingredients,the birds consumed several non-feed ingredients likestone, sand, hair, rubber tubes, etc. The compositionof crop contents is given in Table 3. A wide variationin composition of crop contents was observed amongthe birds. The average CP content was 9.94±0.66%,which falls between 7.6-11.8% as reported byGunaratne et al. (1993). The GE value of the cropcontents were lower which might have been due tohigher levels of ash in crop contents. The bloodparameters like SCOT, SGPT, Glucose, Total

Nutrient availability in backyard poultry 271

Cholesterol. Ca & P determined in the blood of fieldbirds \`'ere well within the normal value as reportedb.\' Kaneko €f a!. (1997), except the serum glucoselevel which was higher than the normal value

(Table 4). This might have been due to variableperiod of collection, as the bloods were collected inthe evening and by that time the crop was filled withfeed materials. These normal blood values indicatethat the birds consumed sufficient nutrients fromthe backyard.

It was concluded that further study is requiredto assess the production potential of dual purposebirds in the backyard system of rearing.

REFERENCES

AOAC ( 1990) . O/Ti.cl.aJ Method o/AnaJgsis, 15th Edn,Association of Official Analytical Chemists,Washington D.C.

Cresswell, D.C. and Gunawan, 8. (1982). Jnc!!'gerioL(s

Chicken in Indonesia: Productlon andCharacteristtcs in an Improved Environment,Report No. 2: 914, Research Institute forAnimal Production , Bogor, Indonesia.

Gunaratne, S,P., Chandrasiri, A.N.D., Hemlatha,W.A.P. and Roberts, J.A (1993). Feed resource

base for scavenging village chickens in SriLa`nka Tropica[ Amma[ 1Iealth arid Production25, 249-257.

Horst, P. (1991). Nativc fowl as a reservoir for

genome and major genes with direct andIndirect effects on productive adoptability and

their potential for tropically oriented breeding

plan - A review. Arltmal I?eseorch andDeLJeJapment 33: 93-101.

Kaneko, LJ.A., Harvey, J.W. and Bruss, M.L. (1997).Clinical Bioche"stry Of DOTnestic Aninals , 5thEdn, Academic Press, California, USA.

Rangnekar, D. and Rangnekar, S. (1996). TraditionalPoultry production system - A need for freshlook from rural development perspective.Proceedings 20th World Poultry Congress,Vol. 111` pp. 405-405, held at New Delhi.

Roberts, J.A. and Gunaratne, S.P` (1992) Thescavenging feed resource base for villagechickens in a developing country. ProceedingsI 9th World Pottitng C`ctngress 1, pp. 20-24, heldat Amstedam.

Roberts, J.A., Gunaratne, S.P., Wikramaratne,S.H.G. and Chandrasiri, A.D.N. (1994). The

benefits from use of creep feeder for scavengingchickens in villages. Proceedings 7th AAAPAriimci/ Sct'ence C`ongress, Vol. 11, pp. 69-70, held

at Bali, Indonesia.

Roberts, J.A. (1995). Assessing the scavenging feedresource base for sustainable smallholders

poultry development. Proceedings ANRPDWorl±sbop Sustainable Rural Poultry Product\onln A/r[.cci, pp. 40-52, held at Addis Ababa,Ethiopia.

Snedecor, G.W. and Cochran, W.G. (1989).Stc!ft.stlcal Methods, Oxford and IBH PublishingCompany, Kolkata.

J Inc±ian Soc. Coastal agnc Res , 24(2|, 272-275, 2006

Growth and Production Performance ofRhode Island Red Chicken in OrissaM. K. PADHI, a. K.PANDA, S. C. GIRI and S. K. SAHOO

Regional Centre, Central Avian Research InstituteJokalundi, Bhubaneswar -751003, Orissa

Rhode Island Red (RIR) chicks were reared under deep litter system of management. Growthand procluction performance of the birds were recorded. The body weight (g) at 4,6,8, and 20thweek of age ln male, female and combined sex wore 232±4.17, 203±3.13, 214±2.66; 429±7.36,378±5.89, 397±4.86; 679±10.93, 576±7.89, 614±7.16 and 2216±31.78,1725±20.57,1892±24.69 g,respectively. Significant differonco (p<0.05) for body weight was observed between differentsexes except at 2nd week. Body weiglit of the female at 40th week of age was 1850±" g. Thehatchability % on total egg set was 65.78%. First egg of the flock was obtained at 124 day and50 % hen housed ogg p.oductlon was recorded at 150 day. Peak hen housed production wasobtained at 181 day. Egg production of the bird on lien housed basis was 89.38 eggs upto 40thweek of age, whereas hen day production per bird upto 40th week of age was 93.90 eggs. I+enhoused and hen day production % ot the flock at loth week of age were 53.90 and 63.95 a/„respectlvely. Average egg weiglil at 40th week ot age was 52.28±0.36 g. Mortality % of the flockfrom 0-8 and 18-40 week of age were 7.82 and 11 a/„ respectively.

(Key words: 13ody T)jeighi, Egg pToductron, Egg u]eighi, Hatchabthly, Mortahty)

Poultry production in the country has made asignificant achievement in its journey from backyard

poultry to a dynamic and viable industry within thelast three decades. India to day ranks 4th in theworld egg production. However the per capitaavailat)ility of 34 eggs is lagging far behind therecommendation by ICMR of 180 eggs per year. Sothere is need for further improvement in poultry

production, mostly in backyard sector in thecountry. In Orissa more than 70 % of the poultry

population are of indigenous types whose growthand production potential are low tpadhi and Panda,2002) . Many people prefer brown or tinted eggs thanwhite egg Shell due to their similarity to the desi.egg appearance. So there ls a demand for brown/tinted egg in the rural and urban market. RhodeIsland Red (RIR) which lays brown/tinted egg is adual purpose bird which can be used both for meatand egg production. The performance of RIR arereported by some authors (Kataria ef ci!., 2003,Anon., 2004, Panda ef aJ„ 2004). In the presentstudy the growth and production performance of RIRwere recorded under deep litter system ofmanagement in Orissa.


A total of 450 fertile eggs of RIR selected flockkept at the Regional Centre, Central Avian ResearchInstitute, Izatnagar were collected for hatching.Chicks hatched at 22nd day of incubation were wing

banded and kept for brooding under deep littersystem. Standard feeding practices were followedand starter feed was given from 0 to 8 week of age,and grower feed from 8-16 week of age. Individualbody weights were recorded at 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8thand 20th week of age in a top pan balance. Extramales and weakling females were discarded for saleat 8 week of age. Standard management practiceswere followed. Male and female are reared separatelyfrom 8th week onward. The females selected were

provided with layer feed from 16th week onwards.A total of 118 females were kept for egg productionstudy in deep litter system. Daily egg productionwas recorded from first egg of the flock to 40th weekof age. Egg and body weight at 40th week wererecorded. Hatchability % was calculated on total eggset basis. Mortality records were kept dally andmortality % was calculated from 0-8 week, 8-18 weekand 18-40 week of age. Hen housed egg production% and hen housed egg production per bird werecalculated for each week ctf egg production from 18thweek of age as per the standard formulae. Similarly,hen day production % and hen day production perbird were calculated for each week from 18 to 40week of age. Data were subjected to analysis ofvariance ( Snedecor and Cochran, 1989).


Hafchabi.J{fty: The hatchability °/o on total egg setbasis was found to be 65. 78 % in RIR breeds. The result

Performance of Rhode Island Red chicken 273

are in agreement with Anon. (2004) and better thanthe report of Kataria €f a!. (2003). The hatchability %showed the adaptability of the birds to Orissa climate.

Bodg we[ghts: The body weights recorded atdifferent week of age in male, female and combinedsex are presented in Table 1. From the perusal ofthe data significant difference (p<0.05) for bodyweight was observed between different sexes for 4th,6th, 8th and 20th week of age. However, nosignificant difference was observed at 2nd week ofage between the sexes. So the sexual dimorphismbetween male and female were observed at 4th weekof age. In female 20th week body weight was1725±20.57 g which was higher than the reportsavailable (Sharma et a! , 1992, Kumar ef a/., 2002,Panda et ciJ., 2004). This may be due to better growthrate of the birds during the study. In case of malethe 20th week body weight was 2216±31.78 gindicating the suitability of the birds for meatpurpose. The extra maile can be used for meatpurpose due to their higher growth. The 40th weekbody weight of the female was found to be 1850±20.94

which is in agreement with the reports of Sharma efaz. ( 1992) and higher thaLn the reports of Hazary et a/,

(1991). However, in most of the reported results thebirds were kept in cages and in the present case thehens were kept in deep litter system.

Age of the foock for different productionpciramefers: Since the birds were kept under deeplitter system as a flock/group the flock production

performance was recorded. Age at first egg of theflock was recorded at 124 day of age, whereas 5%hen housed egg production was recorded at 126 dayof age. Hen housed egg production % was 50% at150 day age of the flock. This result is in agreementwith the reports of Hazary ef aj. (1991), Sharma efa!. (1992) and Kumar e{ a!. (2002). However thesereports are from cage system of rearing and in thepresent study the flock average was taken underdeep litter system of management. It is assumedthat at 50% hen housed egg production all the henslaid their first egg and are sexually mature. Age at

peak production on the basis of hen housed wasobserved at 181 day of age.

Table 1. 13odg weighi Of RIB at different ages in different sexes

Age in 'ccl Male (88' Fe"le (150) Combined Sex (238)

2nd wk 8 wt. (g) 87±1.54 84± 1.10 85±0,91

4th wk B.wt. (g) 232±4. |7a 203±3.13c 214±2.66t,

6th wk B.wt (g) 429±7.36a 378±5.89c 397±4.86b

8th wk B.wt. (g) 679±10.93a 576±7.89c 614±7.|6b

20th wk B.ut(g) 2216±31. 78 (60) 1725±20.57 (118) 1892±24.69b (|78)

Means bearing different superscript in a row differ significantly (p<0.05).Values in parenthesis for 20 week body weight showed number of observation,

Tc.ble2.llenhoused(HH)productionperformance:*fferen±u)eekOfage

Age in Hen housed Progressive % Age in Hen housed Prog[e8Bive %week production ben housed Of lay weel production hen housed Of lay

per bird productionperbird pe. I,ird productionperbird

18 0.07 0.07 0.97 30 4.79 45.14 68.40

19 0.67 0.74 9.56 31 4.80 49.93 68.52

20 I.77 2.51 25.30 32 5.03 54.96 71.79

21 2.37 4.88 33.90 33 5.03 59.99 71.79

22 3.43 8.31 49.03 34 4.76 64.75 68.04

23 3.86 12.17 55.09 35 3.86 68.61 55.21

24 4.53 16.70 64.65 36 4.15 7 2 .I 6 59.32

25 4.68 2 1. 37 66.83 37 4.39 77.15 62.71

26 4.72 26.09 67.43 38 4.11 81.26 58.72

27 488 30.97 69.73 39 4.09 85.35 58.48

28 4.75 35.73 67.92 40 3.98 89.34 56.90

29 4.62 40.35 65.98

274 M K. Padhi ef a/

Tables. HerL dag (HD) production performance at drffereut u)eek. of ci,ge

Aein Hen housed Progres8ive % Age in Hen day Progre8Bive %8week

production hen housed Of lay weel production hen day of lay

per bird productionperblld per bird I)roductionI,erbird

18 0.07 0.07 0.97 30 5.00 45.63 71.43

19 067 0.74 9.56 31 5.09 50.72 72.63

20 1.77 2.51 25.30 32 5.34 56.06 76.32

21 2.37 4.88 33.90 33' 5.34 61.40 76.32

22 3.43 8.31 49.03 34 5.06 66.46 7233

23 3.86 12.17 55.09 35 4.27 70.73 6096

24 4.53 16.70 64.65 36 4.62 75.35 6604

25 4.68 2 I. 37 66.83 37 4.89 80.24 69 I 8 1

26 4.72 26.09 67.43 38 4.58 84.82 65.45

27 4.88 30.97 69.73 39 4.60 89.42 65.71

28 4.86 35.83 69.43 40 4.48 93.90 63.95

29 4.79 40.63 68.47 111111-

eggpEr%#::,:::fto9fnth:hfleochke:r:°p::::n::ddt:eTnabdL:¥2 and 3, respectively. From the results it is evidentthat more than 60% hen housed egg production wasobtained from 24 to 34 week of age. However, Incase of hen day egg production where mortality wastaken into consideration more than 60% productionwas observed from 24 to 40 week of age. The averagehen housed egg production from 20 to 40 week ofage was found to be 60.27% which is in agreementwith the reports of Swain et a` (2005). Hen housedegg productlon per blrd upto 40th week of age was89.34, whereas hen day egg production per bird was93 90 eggs. The results are in agreement with thereports of Kataria e! a!. (2002), Swain et a!. (2005)and better than the reports of Hazary et al. (1991)and Sharma et a!. (1992). However, it is to be notedthat all the reports are in cage system of rearingwhere Individual hen egg production was recordedfor calculation of average egg production and in the

present study hen housed and hen day eggproduction are presented The results showed thatthe birds can be useful for brown/tinted egg

production as well as for higher growth.

Egg tuetghf. Average egg weight of the flockmeasured at 40th week of age was found to be52.28±0 36 g which is in agreements with the reportsavailable in the literature (Sharma et a!., 1992,Kataria et al., 2003).

Mortal.tg %: The mortallty % calculated forcombined sex from 0~8 week and 8-18 week of agewere 7.825 and 3.57 %, respectively. The mortality

% from 18 to 40 week of age was 11% in femaleThe mortality % in combined sex are comparable tothe report of Panda et ciJ (2004).

From the results it is evident that the RIR

perfomed comparable or better for some traits. So thisbreed of chicken can be reared successfully for tinted/browneggproductioninOnssa.Thebirdsmaybeusefulfor backyard poultry production as a dual purpose birdfor Its better growth, higher egg production and tinted/brown egg shell colour as well as colour plumage

REFERENCES

Anon. (2004). Comparative performance of RIR purestrain. In Annuaj I?eporf, 2003-04, pp.26,Central Avian Research Institute.

Hazary, R.C., Johari, D.C., Kataria, M.C. andMohapatra, S.C. (1991). Evaluation of responseto sclection for egg mass in Rhode Island Redflock 2. Correlated response. Jnd]an Jottmc{/ o/Pot/ltrg Scterlce 26(2). 71-76.

Kataria, M.C., Nath, M , Singh, B.P , Singh, D.P ,Gopal Ram, Dash, 8.8. (2002) Improvement of

poultry for egg production. In Armual j3eporfCARI, 2001-02, pp.5-7.

Kataria, M.C , Padhi, M.K., Singh, B.P , Nath Mintu,Singh, D P. Gopal Ram and Sharma, D (2003).Improvement of poultry for egg production lnAnm{czJ J3aporf, CARl, 2002-03, pp 15-16.

Kumar, A„ Sharma, R K , Singh liarpal, Singh, C Vand Singh, a. (2002). Genetic studies on someeconomic traits of Rhode Island Red. /ndianJot/maJ o/ PouJirty Sctence 37( 1): 31 -34

Performance of Rhode Island Red chicken

Padhi, M.K. and Panda, B.K. (2002). Status ofIndigenous fowl in Orissa. Proceedings NationalWorkshop C`harcicferizcif].ori cind ConserLiati.ori o/Indigenous Poultry Germplasm, pp.1 \9-\26,held at Port Blalr, 26-27 F`eb, 2002.

Panda, B.K„ Padhi, M.K„ Sahoo, S.K. (2004).Comparative growth and performance studiesof exotic breeds in the intensive and extensivesystem of rearing at Orissa state. /ndian Jouma!o/PotJ!frg Sct`ence 3913): 285-288:

Sharma, D., Jc>hari, D.C., Kataria, M.C. and Singh,D.P. (1992). Combining ability analysis for egg

275

production traits of light and heavy breedcrosses of egg type chicken. Jndran Jouma! o/Powzfrty Science 27: 183-] 87.

Snedecor, G.W. and Cochran, W.G. (1989).

Stcift`sflcclJ Methoc!s, 9th Edn, Iowa StateUniversity Press, Ames, Iowa.

Swain, B.K., Sundaram, R.N.S. and Chakurkar, E.B.

(2005). Effect of feeding supplemental calciumfrom different source on the performance ofRhode Island Red laying hens. Jndlart +ot/mazo/Pot/!trg Sci'erice 40(1): 79-82.

I/. Jridiari Soc. CoastaJ agnc. I?es., 24(2), 276-277, 2006

Indigenous Ethno Veterinary Practices for AnimalHusbandry under Coastal Villages of Sundarbans

C. KARPAGAM, D. BURMAN., a. K. BANDYOPADYAY and A. R. BAL

Central Soil Salinity Research lnstitiiteRegional Research Station, Canning Town -743 229, West Bengal

To control and manage the various animal diseases, farmers in Sundarbans area are practisingvarious indigenous as well as varioils Modern Veterinary Drug (MVD). The Indigenous TechnicalKnowledge in animal husbandry under this coastal area is little documented. In the regime oflpR, it is of paramount importance to document any innovations or new knowledge. Ko®pingthese things in mind a study has boon undertaken during 2004-2005 in the six selected coastalvillages of Sundarbans to identify and document the various indigenous animal diseasemanagement practices of farmers. This paper reveals that various animal diseases, likediarrhoea, food and mouth diseases, arthritis, otc. r`as been treated indigenously with variouslocally available material mainly with various plant parts.

(Key ulords: Anrmal husbctndry, Indigenous, Bthno uetennang).

Various animal diseases are traditionally treatedby using Indigenous practices in many parts in IndiaIncluding coastal areas. Since the coastal area ofSundarbans in West Bengal comes under tropicaland humid climaLte, the health condition of the farmanimals are usually seriously affected by variousdiseases and the productivity of farm animal declinesover a period of time. Keeping the above saidbackground in mind, a Study has been undertakenwith the objective to identify and document theIndigenous animal practices of farmers in the coastalvillage of Sundarbans.


By using multistage random sampling method,district, sub division and block has been selected.From the selected Canning I block, 6 villages hadbeen selected. From each one of the selected villages,10 key Informants have been selected based on snowball technique and thus totally 60 farmers wereconstituted for the present study.

Prior to data collection, a baseline survey wasundertaken. Based on the baseline survey a semi-structured interview scLedule was formulated andthe survey was undertaken in the project site. Thecollected Information were compiled and analyzed.


ITK for food and mouth disease (FMD)

The common symptom of this disease isdevelopment of characteristics bubbles ln mouth andclaws. Most of the farmers did not treat their animals

with Modern Veterinary Drugs (MVD) like FMDvaccination. Patra e{ ciJ. (2003) also reported thatvaccination is a precautionary measure and is nothighly accepted by rural farmers due to high cost,lack of awareness and by other reasons.

Most of the farmers in the study area have beentreating their animal by local practices that oralfeeding of paste made of Bash (Bamboo), leaLf andsemi-rlpened saphedcz (Sapota) fruit. In the samevein, the paste made of Bash leaf and Dttmur (Fig)leaves has also been an effective control measure.Apart from these; paste made of Tefu! (Tamarind)leaf and Go!mcit`rch (13lack Pepper) seed were also aneffective local control measure for the same disease.Among all the ingredients Bash leaf was animportant mgredient to treat the disease and thepracticabillty and applicabillty of this practice is alsovery simple.

Tobacco leaf dust for mites control in cattle

Red batches over the skin, hair coat becomerough, severe scratching and development of foulsmell are some of the common symptoms in cattledue to mites attack. Paste made of tobacco leaf dustand Choon (Lime) was applied externally in the skin.Farmers opines that the smell from the tobacco leafdust kept away the cattle from mites attack.

ITK for easy delivery in cow

Most of the time delivery in cow becomes moredifficult due to various reasons. A commonly foundlocal practice that makes the delivery become veryeasy is mixture of Durbghczs (Cgriodon dczctulon) leaf,

ITK in animal disease management

Tablel. Indigerrous pr.actices for Various aninal diseases

277

Disease/Plot)len ITK practised

Cattle feverArthritls/Joint pain (pcinchzmci/Sot(nbo[ghanainpoultryStomachrelatedproblemsincow Oral feeding of paste made of 50 g cidhQ (Ginger) rhizome and 15-20 GOJmirch

(Pepper)-

External application of paste made of 100g of Arjuna tree bark, 50 g of gingerand 50g of Masoor (lentil) leaf.

Paste made of one green Jarlka (Cireen chilli) with 5 drops of mustard oil. Afterthis treatment the birds are not allowed to feed anything for the whole day.

Paste made of 2g of /ttrrlko root, 5g adhci (ginger), 21 numbers Golrri!rch (black

pepper) was fed to the affected animal.

Kata no!ae (Amaranthus sp) root, rice washed waterand molasses which is fed to the pregnant cowduring pre-delivery time.

ITK for Ga/a Pho/a control in cow

The common symptom or Gala PhoJci

(Hemorrhcigtc septicem{.a, HS) diseases are suddenrise in temperature, swelling in jaw followed bydifficult in respiration, and swelling in neck and

perennial region. Most of the farmers ln the studyarea are not treated their animal with HS vaccinedue to their unawareness, careless and paucity ofmoney, At farmers' level, common local practice hasbeen followed to treat HS disease that the juice

prepared from Desh[ sheen (local beans) waswarmed and applied externally in the affected

portion. After applying of the juice the swelling hasbeen found to be reduced to a significant level.

lTK for sleeping sickness in poultry

Due to this, eggs become too small, productlvityof the birds were reduced. A commonly practisedlocal treatment for this disease is that juice madeup from Dhtttra (Datura methal) seed was given asoral feeding to the affected birds. In the same vein

juice from Teful (Tamarind) leaf has also been usedto treat the same disease in the study area.

Apart from the above discussed problem andtreatments some commonly available disease andtheir local practices were given in the Table 1.

REFERENCES

Patra, N.K., Majhi, K., Basu, D. and Mazumder, G.

(2003). Identification and documentation oftraditional knowledge based medicine of tribal

people. Jouma/ a/JnferocaczQ".ca 7(2) : 202-205.

J. Indian Soc` Coastal agnc. Res., 24(2), 278-281, 2006

Integrated Fish Culture with Piggery in Different Districts ofMeghalaya `- An Enterprising Approach for Economic

Benefit of Tribal CommunityN. Ivl. CHAKRABARTy, N. K. DAS, P. P. Cl+AKRABARTl and S. C. MONDAL

Reglonal Research centre, Central lnstrme-offreshwateTAquacutture IA-5 (Phase -111), Santalpara. Kalyani, West Bengal

ln`ogration of fish farming with livestock I.as al`i/ays takeii deeper roots and extensively practisedin China and Thailand where the technology has been successfully impl®mentod with a greatdegree of sophistication. In India raising Of pig is fruitfully combined with fish culture by sitingpigsties on pond embankment so that (he wastes are directly drained into the pond. Pig dungacts as excellent for(ilizer for fisli pond and fishes dir®c(Iy food on them. The expenditure ofthe fish culture is drastically reduced, since pig dung is utilised both as feed and f®rtiliz®r. Thereturn is highly profitable. With the idea in mind and con8id®ring the scope of integration ofpig and fish farming jn different dlstrlcts of Meghalaya, where pig rearing is a way of life ofrural poople, a number of trials were made in 16 beneficiary I)onds, having the water spread on0.10.0.20 ha area located at 7 different districts. Indigenous but upgraded piglets suitable forraising were procured and installed in pigsties/ pig houses constructed by using bamboo/wooden structure with asbestos roofs. In Octoboi'-November 2003, initiaHy 3 piglets had beenstocked per 0.10 ha @ 30 nos/ha with an average weight range of 7.0-10.0 kg comprising 2females and 1 male. Pigs were fod with pig mash @ average 0.8 kg per pig per day in additionto grass and green fooder. Pig mash were prepared by mixing various ingi.edients availablelocally, fortified with vitamins and minerals, etc. As per the availability of fish fingerlings,depending upon the altitudinal variation. three different types of culture were practised. Theinitial stocking size of carp fiiigerlings varied ov®r tl`® range of 8.0-15.0 cm per 10.0-20.0 g andthe combined stocking density of 12000 nos. ha-t were main(ainod uniformly in all ponds. Nosupplementary feed was requlrod ln this system as fishes fed directly on pig excroata containing70°/o digestible food for fishes. On liarvest, the high range of fish production of 4800 kg ha-1yr-1 to8400 kg ha-1yr.1 was obtained from the culture of 6 sp®cios of carps from Garo hills (East, Westand South Garo hills ), followed by the production range of 2120 kg ha-1yr-1 to 5000 kg ha-1yr.1from 3 species of carp culture at East and West Khasi and Jayantia hills. The range of productionof pigs was between 200-390 kg in a year from different pig-cum-fish culture units. The variablecosts and the return function of the system have been worked out and it is evident triat theinvestment level of Rs. 29060/-assures a return of Rs. 51300/-and the percentage of profit onvariable cost worked out to be 76.53%. The initial inputs, expenditure and estimated profit froma unit of 0.1 ha pond after one year culture is furnished.

' (Key words: IrL{egrated fish-pig culture, EcorLomic appronsal, Tnbal commumty)

The sustained research efforts were made byseveral workers to develop low cost farming systembased on the principles of productive utilization offarm waste that has resulted in development ofintegrated farming system involving fish culture with

piggery. The excreata of pigs were recycled inpolyculture fish ponds which resulted in increasedproduction of high grade of animal protein at lowcost. A mass demonstration on integrated rish-cum-pig farming was conducted by many in differentdistricts of Meghalaya where pig rearing is a way oflife for the rural people. The proposed system onfish-cum-pig farming is the effective and possibleway to help economically small and marctnal farmerswho can go a long way in increasing the animal

protein production and generating employment forthe people of the hilly state.

IVIATEF{lAL AND METHODS

A total of 16 beneficiaries having water arearanging from 0.10 -0.20 ha located at 7 differentdistricts of the state of Meghalaya were selected forfish-cum-pig culture demonstration. For providing

good housing with accommodation incorporating allessential requirements necessary for pigs, pighouses were constructed on the pond embankmentsfacing the pond to facilitate the drainage of pig dungdirectly to the pond for all 16 ponds under thedemonstration programme. Pigsties havingcemented floor with side walls made of locallyavailable ingredients such as bamboo, mat and roofsmade of asbestos materials were constructed. Thesize of each pig house was 10 x 8 x 5 ft for facilitatingfree movement and up-keeping of health. Indigenous

Integrated fish-pig farming 279

but upgraded piglets procured from the animalhusbandry department were installed in the pighouse. Pigs were fed with commercial pig mash, @0.8kg per pig per day in addition to grass and greenfodders provided regularly to them.

Stocking of pigs

Initially 3 piglets per 0.01 ha (@ 30 mos. perha.) have been stocked cc)mprising 2 females and 1male. The piglets were reared for six months whenthey matured and attained the weight of 60-70 kg

per pig. About 5 nos. of piglets were obtained fromeach female on mating. The parental stock was readyfor sale and out of the new stock of the piglets ( 10 nos.from 2 females), 7 mos. were sold out retaining the 3nos. required for continuation of the culture system.

The quantity of pig dung going to ponddecreased after 6 months when first lot of pigs wasdisposed off and a fresh lot of piglets was broughtto the pig sties. This did not affect the fish growthas the organic load in the pond by that time wassufficient to tide over for the next few months when

fresh piglets grown and quantity of pig dung

produced increased.Stocking of fish

As per the availability of fish fingerlings,depending upon the altitudinal variation, threedifferent types of culture were adopted:

A. 3-species culture -silver carp (SC) + common carp(CC) + grass carp (GC) (highest altitude zone)

8. 4-species culture - catla + SC + CC + GC (mid.altitudinal zone)

C. 6-species culture -catla + rohu + mrigal + SC +GC + CC (lowest altitude zone)

The initial stocking size of carp fingerlings variedfrom the range of 8.0-15.0 cm per 10.0-20.0 g and thecombined stocking density of 12000 nos. ha-I weremaintained uniformly in all ponds. Keeping in viewthe size attained, prevailing market rate, demandof carps in local market, partial harvesting of thetable sized fish was done, and the stock wasreplenished with the same number of fingerlingsdepending upon the availability of fish seed. The detailsof fingerlings stocked are furnished in Table 1.

Table 1. The details Of stockmg Of tiuestock and fish fingeTlings

Initiation Tyl,e of No of |ionds Stocking Stocking Size Stocking Weight Or(Months) culture utilised and density of (length in cm/g| no. of piglets piglets

location nngerlings(no/ha) (no/ha) (kg)

October - 3-species 7 ponds 12,00012,00012,000 8.0-10.0 30.030.030.0 7.0-9.07,0-10,07.0-9.0November.2003 cultureS.C-40CC-40GC-204-species (East Khasi hills-2,WestKhasihills-3&Jaintiahills-2)3ponds / 10.0-15.010.0-15.0

cultureC-15SC-25CC-40GC-206-species (R|-Bhol)6ponds(East, West, / 15 0-20 010.0-15.0

cultureC-25R-20M-10sc-10CC-25GC-10 & South Garo Hills•2mos.each) / 15.0-20.0

C -Catla, R -Rohu, M-Mrigal, GC -Grass carp, SC-Silver carp, CC -Common carp

280 N. M. Chakrabarty ef a/.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION primary production and yield of fish stock at

The details of livestock and fish production are dlfferent rates (Teichest et a!„ 1990). In earlierfurnished in Table 2. experiments by Hickling (1968) and Huet (1972),

Reports are available on trials on effect of manure Was applied ln a single large dose at thellquefled swaln manure to fish ponds which affects beglnnlng of culture season, but in a later

Table 2. Production of fish and pig on harvest

District Pond Size Culture Sy8ten Production of fish Production of pig(ha) 'k8/ha/yr) (k8/yr)

East Khasi HillsWestKhasiHillsJalntlaHlllsRi-bhoiEastGaroHillsWestGaroHillsSouthGaroHills 0.I 3 species of carp & pig 3600 305

0.I 3 species of carp & pig 2160 390

0,I 3 species of carp & pig 2120 380

0.I 3 species of carp & pig 2310 390

0.2 3 species of carp & pig 2600 280




0.15 4 species of carp & plg 1846 295

0.2 6 species of carp & pig 4800 3900.13 6 species of carp & pig 3400 200

0.15 6 species of carp & pig Not harvested Not harvested

0.15 6 species of carp & pig and sold and sold0.20 6 species of carp & pig

8400 3500.1 6 species of carp & pig01 6 species of carp & pig not available 380

Table 3. Initial inputs fioT 0.10 ha pond (urTit area) under pig-cum-fish culture demonstrati.on at Meghaleya

A. Expenditure

Sl. Item Rate AmountNo (Rs.) (R8.)

I Construction of 1 pig site ( 10x8x5 ft)

Rs. 900 each

10,000.00

2 F'urchase of 3 pLglets 2,700 00

3 Purchase of pig feed (0.8 kg/pig/day) 10/kgRs.3/ringerling 8,760.001,000,00876 kg/3 pigs/yr(292 kg/pig/yr)

4. Renovation of ponds

5. Stocking component; Carps fingerlings 3,600 005 to 6 species 1200 mos.( @ 12,000/ha)

6/kg 600.006. Lime,loo kg/year (1000 kg/ha/yr)

7. Prophylactic measure 400,00

8 Periodic raking, sampling & harvesting 2000,00

Total 29060.00

8. Expected prorit after 12 months of culture

1. Sale offlsh Rs. 500kg/yr (1000no8 of500g each) @R8. 40/kg R8. 200002. Sale ofpigsafter6months 180kgpigmeat(3 pigsx60kg/pc) €; Rs. 50/kg Rs. 9000

3. Sale ofpiglets 7nos. €i,Rs 950/pc Rs. 6650

4. Saleofpigsafter6months 180kgpigmet(3pigsx60kg/pc) @Rs. 50/kg Rs. 9000

TOTAI, R8. 44650

C. Gross Prorit : 8 - A = Rs. 15590Perceatage or I)ront oo variable cost = 76.53 a/a

Integrated fish-pig farming

experiment the rate and frequency of manureapplication to ponds were increased during growingseason (Hopkins ef cz!„ 1981). This practice wasreasonable as fish required more nutrients with theincrease in biomass. In the present demonstrationinitial applica.tion of pig manure stimulated primary

production and early fish growth while subsequentfertilization through regular application of pig dunghelped to maintain optimum primary productionrequired for fish growth. The organic carbon loadresulting from the application of raw and fresh pigmanure enhanced phytosynthetic activity due to thegrowth of phytoplankton, which maintained highnatural fish food resources, all these finally resultingin increased fish growth and production. The organiccarbon was converted to fish I;tci both algae anddetrital food chain through zooplankton andzoobenthos, which were consumed by fish. Besides

providing protein rich food at low cost the systemproved to be an effective method of waste disposaland waste utilization. The additional advantage offish-cum-pig culture was that the fish utilised thefeed spilled by pig and the excreta which were richin nutrients for fish, no additional land was requiredfor piggery operation as pigsties were constructedon the pond embankment, and the pond providedmuch more needed water for washing of pigsties andpiglets. It resulted in high production of animal

281

protein per unit area and ensured high profit withlower investment. The variable cost and returnfunction of the system have been worked out for0.I ha pond (Table 3). It is evident that theinvestment of Rs. 29060 assured a return of Rs.51300 and the percentage of profit on variable costworked out to be 76.53%.

REFERENCES

Hickling, C.F. (1968). 7`heFcirm!.ng o/F[sh, PergemonPress, NewYork.

Hopkin, K.D., Cruz, E.M., Hopkin, M.L. and Chong,K.C. (1981). Optimum manure loading rates intropical freshwater fish ponds receivinguntreated piggery wastes. Report The JCLAJ"- CLSV Integrated Aninal Fish Farm:ing Project,Poultry-Fish and Pig-Fish Trails, lnterna.tionalCentre for Leaving Aqua.tic ResourceManagement, Manila, The Philippines.

Huet, M. (1972). Text Book o/fish Cu!fur€, FishingNews Books, F`arnham, Great Britain.

Teichert, D. R„ Behrends, L. I. and Smitherman,R.O. (1990). Effect of manuring regime andstocking rate on primary production and yieldof tilapia using liquid swine manure.Aquacu!fure 88: 61-68.

Mangroves, forests, agroforestryand ecological security

J IndLan Soc Coastal agnc Res., 24(2|, 283-284, 2006

Ecological Peril in Coastal Regions - An OverviewD. KUMARA CHARYULU1, H. DEEPTH12 and S. NARASIMHAM.

1&3College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030, A P.

and2ICRISAT, Patancheru, A.P.

Out of the total landmass of about 3.28 million §q kin, nearly 0.15 million sq kin of coastal Iand-belt (considering 25 kin landward distance) girdles three sides of the country's sea front. Theseabed up to the territorial limit covei.s about 0.13 million sq kin. India has a coastline of about7,500 kin and 2.02 million sq kin of Exclusive Economic Zone. About 47 porc®nt of the populationlives in the coastal states. The coast also has some of the largest and most donso urbanagglomerations sitch as lvlumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Kochi and Visakhapatnam. About 60 porcontof the labour force in the coastal region is occupied in agriculture. Several tllousarids of plant .,species are endemic to our country and they have so far not been roportod from anywhere elsein the world. The biological diversity of our country is so rich that it may play a very importantand crucial role in future foi. tho survival of ontiro mankind if it is conserved and used withutmost care. With the view of ttie hlgh Importance of ecological security ln coastal r.glon8 the

present Paper is an attempt to recaH the Government for reinforce and implement more stringentlaws to protect and preserve the ecological balance in coastal regions for sustainable longJlable future. The paper also briefly highlights some of the serious perils in coastal regionswhich needs immediate attention to correct them.

(Keg ulords: Ecology, MarLgroue destruction, Tourrsm development, Shrimp aquaculture, San,d. mt]Tmg, .DeforestcchorL)

Yet, India has signed and ratified variousInternational conventions and agreements onenvironment and related issues and it has beenimplementing them effectively. India is among thecountries which are in the vanguard ofenvironmenlal protection. India has environmentalstandards for products and processes, hasenvironmental impact assessment, and hasIntroduced environmental audit as an eco-labellingscheme. India believes that environmentally harmfulprocesses should be stopped and that over-exploitation of non-renewable resources should becontrolled. Even after making several efforts, Indiacould not succeed in protecting the coastal ecologicalsccurity in a significant way. They have often not

proved very effective in regulating competinginterests and addressing conflicts concerningnatural resources and the environment because theyact only when violations have become too obviousto Ignore. It was due to the lack of committed

political will from the government leading to seriousperils which resulted in ecological imbalance in thecoastal region. We should not blame the gc)vernmentalone, but it is also because of lack of awareness, fasterurbanization and development and poor planning. TheIdentified some of the serious perils are as follows

Direct Physical Alteration and Destruction ofHabitats (PADH) is now viewed as the most importantthreat to the coastal environment. It is estimatedthat 80 percent of the pollutants load in the coastalregic>ns originates from land-based activities. Themajor threats to the health, productivity andbiodiversity Of the marine environment result fromhuman activities in coastal areas as well as in thehinterland. Environmental degradation is often.theresult of the convergence of factors such as a limitedresource base, an accelerating rate of economic anddemographic growth, inadequate knowledge ofresource management, and poor enforcement ofregulations. Normally, with the convergence ofcommercial activities in urban centres, traditionalactivities get squeezed out of existence which resultsin more dense populations in nearby places for betteremployment and livelihood options. In the case of

physical alterations and destruction of habitats, thedriving force is the poorly planned and rapid socialand economic development in coastal areas, whichin turn results from such increasing pressures like

population, urbanization and industrialization,maritime transport and tourism. Recent studiesdeveloped an index of potential threats to coastal

284 D. K. Charyulu et a/.

ecosystems due to development related activities whichhas shown that more than half of the world's coastsare under `moderate' or nigh' threat from development.

Destruct(on a/marLgroi^es.. In India, the area undermangroves is about 4,900 sq kin constituting about7 percent of the world's mangroves and about 8percent of lndia's coastline. The Sundarbans are theworld 's largest contiguous mangroves spread acrossIndia and Bangladesh. The Sundarbans BioaphereReserve (SBR) was established in 1989 covering anarea of 9630 sq kin, but SBR has only 4246 sq kinunder reserved forest, the rest being inhabited.Destruction of mangroves can affect a variety ofactivities like fisheries breeding areas and nurseriesfor many commercially important fish, molluscs andcrustaceans, and also may result in increase coastalerosion because of the absence of sediment-trappingmangrove roots. etc.

Major activities leading to PADH

Tourism development

Tourism is one of the fastest growing industries inthe world. Statistics from the World TourismOrganization (WTO) indicates that the industry hasgrown at a very accelerated pace over the latter half ofthe past century. Projections for continued growth makeit an important sector of the world economy. Whilecoasts are increasingly the preferred destinations oftourists, coastal tourism is an attractive choice for smallcoastal countries and islands with limited developmentoptions. There are a number of problems associatedwith the rapid and unplanned development of coastaltourism. They are like destruction of mangroves, coralreefs, habitats of shore birds and turtles, etc. ascom ponents of fragile coastal infrastructure leading toenvironmental degradation. It is also leads todisplacement of traditional culture and loss of skills.

Shrimp aquaculture

Export ori;nted shrimp aquaculture grewrapidly in the 1980s, fueled by the growing demand

for seafood in wealthy countries, with simultaneousdepletion of wild ocean shrimp stocks. Cashstrapped economics was attracted with thepossibility to earn large amount of foreign exchangein a short time frame.

The indiscriminate exploitation or fisheryresources and unregulated use of nets of small meshsize for the collection of tiger prawn seeds haveresulted however in biodiversity `losses.

Sand mining

Sand is essential for beach and shorelineprotection as wave action is dissipated by thepresence of sand. When sand is mined close to theshoreline, wave action attempts to replace the lostmaterial by taking sand from the beach or someother source resulting in erosion. It is necessary toprohibit large scale sand mining from the activebeach area.

PortsAn important activity that can have signiricant

effect on coastal environment is the constructionand operation of ports and harbours. While thereare some natural harbours, in many places artificialharbours have been constructed because of thedemand by trade. I'rotection of the port and thevessels berthed in them may require theconstruction of breakwaters, groyne§, etc., whichmay disturb the natural current patterns andsediment deposition patterns, causing erosion oraccretion.

New threats to forestsLife in the hills is hard; the huge time and effort

involved in the critical activities of collecting water,fodder and fuelwood and the viability andproductivity of hill agric.ulture are directly linked tothe status of local natural resources like forests.Ill-conceived, lopsided policies and projects degradeor destroy the natural resources on which peopleare directly dependent.

+ /r[c![an Soc. Coasfci! agric. j3es., 24(2), 285-287, 2006

Adaptability of Mangroves in Shrimp Farm Discharge WaterP. NILA REKHA and M. JAYANTHI

Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture75, Santhome High Road, R.A. Puram, Chennai -600 028, Tamil Nadu

ln brackishwater aquaculture, discharge water ls generated oith®r from water exchange tomaintain water quality in ponds or during the harvest of a crop. The treatment of the aquacultureoffluent is expensive because of the large volume of diluto effluent. In fact the wastewatorenriched with nutrients is a resource, and oxploitatlon of nutrient sources from wastewater isan appropriate strategy. In case of low saline aquaculturo offluent, it can be used for the irrigationof salt tol®rant liold crops, whor®as the brackishwater aquaculturo offluents roquir® most salttolerant fiold crops. In this context mangrove proves may bo an appropriate solution. Howeverthe adaptability of the mangroves in §lirimp tarm discharge water needs to be ascertained.Hence a prellmlnary pot cultur® experiment was condLicted to assess the adaptability ofmangrove Species (rhlzophora) under dlfforont types of soils pr®vailing ln coastal areas, viz.sandy loam, loamy sand and clay loam. The seedlings wore irrigated with wastewater collectedfrom the shrimp pond. The I.iometric paramotor§, viz. height (cm), number of lateral branchesand leaves and surface area of the loaves of tlie seedllngs wore monitorod w®okly lor throemonths. The changes in the soil quality were assessod. The Study r®voal®d that th®ro was notmuch variation in biometric parameters among the three soils. Review on mangroves as bloflltershas also been enumerated.

(Key words: Shrrmp porLd, Effluent discharge u)ater, McmgToues)

In brackishwater aquaculture discharge wateris generated either from water exchange to maintainwater quality in ponds or during the harvest of acrop. Intensive shrimp aquaculture systems rely onhigh protein feed pellets to produce high rates of

growth, but a large proportion of the pellets are notassimilated by the shrimps. Approximately 10% ofthe feed is dissolved and 15% remains unused. Theremaining 75% is ingested, but 50% is excreted asmetabolic waste, producing large amounts of

gaseous, dissolved and particulate waste. Thedissolved nutrients and organic material in shrimpponds stimulate rapid growth of bacteria,phytoplankton and zooplankton. Though all thesenutrients and organic wastes are biodegradable, thedischarge water if enriched with nutrients, maycause the eutrophication of the receiving water body.Moreover, it may also lead to the self pollution ofaquaculture ponds, 1.e. the pond effluent is fed backthrough the farm intake and associated with diseaseand low quality,aquaculture products (Sakthivel,2001 ). Although aqua-culturists are moving ,towardssystems where the discharge of wastewater isminimized and treatment methodologies developed,the problem of the disposal of the discharge watercontinues to challenge the brackishwateraquaculture. In case of low saline aquacultureeffluent, it can be used for the irrigation for salttolerant fleld crops (Macintosh and F`itzsimmons,

2003) , whereas the brackish water aquaculture effluentsrequire a most salt tolerant field crop. In this contextmangrove proves to be an appropriate solution.

Mangroves have multipurpose uses. They

provide important economic benefits to coastalcommunities including the production of charcoal,firewood and construction materials for localfisheries and as well as for coastline protection.Mangroves can tolerate upto varyin gdegrees ofsalinity and it plays a vital role in breeding andnursery phases of many riverine and marineorganisms of commercial value. Hence theenvironmentalist highlights the importance ofmangroves in coastal areas. Deforestation ofmangroves is caused by conversion to agriculture,salt ponds, industrial uses, urbanizaticin or miningactivity and also due to shrimp farms in manycountries and it is associated with decline in shrimpseed densities, saltwater intrusion and acceleratedcoastal erosion (Rao and Ravichandran, 2001). Infact, most of the mangrove rehabilitatic)n programmeis for the cyclone prc)tection, erosion control ratherthan wastewater treatment.

IVIATERIALS AND METHODS

Mangroves seedlings were collected and plantedin pots of different soils, viz. sandy loam, loamy sandand clay loom. The seedlings were irrigated withwastewater collected from the shrimp pond. The

286 P Nila Rekha & M Jayanthi

Initial water characteristics were monltored forvarious water quality parameters, viz. pH, salinity,turbidity TAN, nltrite nitrogen and total

phosphorous. The biometric parameters, viz. height(cm), number of lateral branches and, leaves andsurface area of the leaves of the seedlings weremonitored weekly for three months. The height ofeach Individual was measured from the stem baseto the nodes of the last leaves. The changes in thesoil quality were assessed. The collected data wereanalyzed statistically.


The discharge water from aquaculture pond hasbeen collected and the characteristics were studiedas given in Table 1. On comparison with the

guidelines issued by the Ministry of Agriculture, itcould be observed that all the parameters werewithin the permissible limits. The total suspendedsoil ranged from 35-42 mg I-I. The ammonicalnitrogen ranges from I.1 to I.8 mg I-I. The nitritenitrogen ranged between 0.045 to 0.013 mg I-I.Similarly the phosphate ranged between 0.224 to0.344 mg 1-1.

The biometric parameters observed, viz. the heightand the no. of leaves of the mangrove seedlings are

-seedy born -foamy saml -clay I

given in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. It could be observed fromthe F`ig.1 that the height of the seedlings was morein clay loam, The statistical analysis revealed thatthere was no significant variation with respect toheight among the three soils, whereas the growthof the number of leaves was significantly differentin sandy loam when compared with loamy sand andclay loam. The changes in the soil characteristicswere given in Table 2 The soil analysis revealed thatthe soil pH and EC increased. The Increase in soil

pH and EC was due to continuous application ofthe discharge water which was saline. The organiccarbon also Increased slightly. The presence ofhigher concentration of suspended and dissolvedsolids contributed to the build-up of organic matter.

Mangroves grow well on silty clay soils whichare prevalent along the coastline. Research inRanaong on the Andaman sea coast of SouthernThailand has shown that mangroves could beplanted successfully in shrimp waste sludge,dumped into holding areas in the intertidal zonearound the shrimp farm (Macintosh, 1996).

It has been suggested earlier that mangroves,grasses and other hydrophonic system can filter thenutrients in wastewater. Besides their nutrientsripping capabilities, mangrove also trap suspendedsediments (SS) to a great extent. Earlier research

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Oveck.

Fig.1. Height of the seedlings in different soils Fig. 2. No of leaves of the mangrove seedlings ln different solls

Tabte 1. Characteristics of the shnmp pond discharge ulater

Parameter Shrinp pond Standards for the aquaculture pond General standardswaste water wastewater discharged into

Coastal marine Creek Marine coastalwaters areas

pH 8.3-8.7 6.0-8.5loo 6.0-8.5loo 5.5-9.0loo

Sallnlty (ppt) 36-39

Suspended solids (mg/I) 35 - 42T. Ammonia N (mg/I) 1.I-I.8 I.02.0 0.520 5

Nitrite N (mg/I) 0.045 to 0.13

Phosphorus (mg/I) 0.224 to 0.344

Mangroves in shrimp farm discharge water

Table 2. Soil characieristtcs

287

Parameter Initial soil cbaracteri8tics Soil chamcteri8tic8 after three months

Texture Sandy loam Loamy sand Clay loam Sandy loam Loamy sand Clay loamSo,I pH 8.3 7.9 8.4 941 9.06 947

BC (ds/in) 40.15 150.24 225.3 4402 1835 2856OC (0/.) 023 025 0.34 0.23 0.28 0.42

shows that heavy metals can also be absorbed bymangroves (Tan and Wong, 1995). Though manyresearchers have advocated the role of mangrovesas biofilters (Kutty, 2001) only very few works onthe effectiveness of mangroves as biofilters havebeen done in India.

REFERENCES

Kutty, M.N. (2001). Diversification of aiquaculture.

Proceedings National Seminar Susfa[nab!eFishenes for Nutritional Secunty , T.J ` PE\ridia\n

(ed.), pp.189-212. National Academy ofAgricultural Sciences, New Delhi.

Macintosh, D.J. (1996). Mangroves and coastalaquaculture; doing something positive for theenvironment. AquacuJtt/re Asi.ci 1(2): 3-8.

Macintosh, D.J. and Fitzsimmons, K. (2003).Characterization of effluent from an inland low

salinity shrimp farm what contribution couldthis water make if used for irrigation.Agttcicu/tt/raz EngirieerI.rig 27: 147-156.

Rao, G.R.M. and Ravichandran, P. (2001).Sustainable brackishwater auaculture.Proceedings National Seminar St{stcu'nab!eFisheries for Nutritional Security, T.J . Pelnd±a.n(ed.), pp. 134-152, National Academy ofAgricultural Sciences, New Delhi.

Sakthivel (2001). Challenging tasks for sustainablefisheries development in the millennium 2000.Proceedings National Seminar Susfa].nabzeFisheries for Nutritional Securfuy, T.J. Par\diaLn

(ed.), pp. 6-18, National Academy of AgriculturalSciences, New Delhi,

Tan, N.F`.Y. and Wong, Y.S. (1995). Mangrove soilsas sinks for wastewater-borne pollutants.fJgdrobi.oJog!.a 295: 231-241.

Integrated farming with resource recycling andextension initiatives for sustainable economy

J Indian Soc. Coastal agnc. Res., 24(2), 289-294, 2006 Invited Paper

Model for Poverty Alleviation in Coastal Agro-ecosystemS. ARULRAJ, C. V. SAIRAM and C. THAMBAN

Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod -671124, Kerala

lmplementation of the poverty alleviation project through a large number of activities taken upby Central Plantation Crop Research Institute, Kasaragod, Kerala under lpGRl sponsoi.ed projecton "D®voloping sustainable coconut-based income goneratlng technologies in poor ruralcommunities in India" proved the importance of organizing coconut farmers at grass root l®velby torming a Community Based Organisation (CBO) foi. planning and implementing interventionsfor enhancing their income and standard of living. Capacity building of farmers through trainingand Front Line Demonstrations were effoctivo in bringing the desii.able changes in the attitudeof coconut growers towards adoption of improved technologies to enhance income from coconutfarming. The concept of microcredit could be effectively employed for enabling members ofCBO to take up need based interventions in their coconut gardens. Collaboration with otherGovernment /Nan-Govei.nment agencies were found quite usefiil for devoloping marketinginfrastructure to ensure the success ol all the income generating activities initiated by theCBO. The experience highlighted the relevance of appropriate technologies related tointorcropping and product diversification for the reduction of poverty among coconut growersin the community. From the study it could be inferred that coconut farmers could augment theirfarm based income through community nursery, adoption of coconut based farming systemsand production of high value coconut products through community based organization alongwithmicrocredit system approach.

(Keg words: ( `oconut basecl farming, M\crocredtt system, Commu"ty based orgarLization, Productd\uersifecatron. for Value addition, WornerL empowerrrLent, Poueriy alleu.atton)

Rural development means improvement in thewell being of the people living in rural space. If theimprovement happens for the people who lackcapabilities to meet the basic needs, ruraldevelopment would encompass poverty alleviation.Traditionally poverty is viewed as pronounceddeprivation in well-being. Agriculture generateswage employment for the landless households, asfarmers hire labour for conducting farm operationsand hence agricultural growth indirectly contributesto the growth of income of landless households andhelps them to coine above the poverty line.

In the coconut sector, its cultivation in thecountry is mainly in the hands of small and marginalfarmers in the coastal agro-ecosystem. More than90% of the coconut holdings are of less than 0.40ha in size. In Kerala, it is basically a homesteadcrop having profound influence on the socioeconomicsecurity of 2.50 million farmhouseholds. The averagesize of holdlng devoted to coconut farming is as smallas 0.25 hal and over 90 percent of the holdings

(accounting for 60 percent of the total area underthe crop) are in the category of marginal holdingsnc)t capable of generating adequate Income for thedependent households. Similarly in the Bast coastregion, marginal (< I.0 ha) and small farmers (I.0 -2.0 ha) predominate coconut farming, accountingfor about 95% of the coconut community.

Research work carried out by the CPCRI, SAUsand other organizations have resulted in theidentification of a substantial number oftechnologies for improving the production and

productivity of coconut. But studies have shown thatthere still exists a gap between the productivity levelof coconut at Research Stations and the yield levelrealized in farmers' gardens. The national averageof coconut productivity is >7000 nuts ha-I year-I,while that of the best managed garden is 27,300nuts ha-I year-I. It has been demonstrated that anincrease in yield by four folds can be achieved byadopting proper cultivation practices for coconut ascompared to the poor managed palms. Besides, lackof adoption of appropriate mixed cropping and mixedfarming practices and the very low level of productdiversification are leading to greater reliance on thereturns from coconut only. There is a great scopefor enhancing the production, productivity andreturns from coconut cultivation through theadoption of scientific practices.

Central Plantation Crops Research Instituteimplemented an lpGRI sponsored project (withfinancial assistance from Asian Development Bank)entitled "Developing sustainable coconut-basedincome generating technologles in poor ruralcommunities in India". India is one among the eight

participating countries in this novel extension

290 S. Arulraj et ci/.

project for "Poverty reduction through the use ofnew coconut technologies". CPCRI implemented the

project during 2002-04 in Ariyankuppam andPallikkara communities representing East coast andWest coast regions in India. The three-prongedstrategy for the project included i) growing suitableinter/mixed crops in coconut gardens andintegrating animal husbandry and other subsidiaryenterprises with coconut farming, ii) cultivating high

yielding cultivars of coconut to enhance the yieldand Income, and iii) promote the diversification ofcoconut products. The special feature of the projectwas that the participants were to pay for the criticalInputs, i.e. nothing was offered to the participantsfree of cost. Microcredit was provided to theCommunity Based Organisation members forintroducing the interventions on intercropping incoconut gardens, livestock and fodder productionactivities and production and marketing or highvalue products.

IVIETHODOLOGIES

The methodology in the project included severaltasks such as sensitization of the project objectivesamong the coconut farmers, formation ofCommunity Based Organization (CBO), formation ofthe Executive Committee of the CBO, creation ofmicrocredit system, rapport building measuresamong the community members as well as variousresearch, extension and development agencies,conducting training programmes about the projectas well as various production, protection and

processing aspects of coconut, formulation of anyearly action plan and its implementation,monitoring the action plan and dissemination of thesllccess to other coconut farmers, extension anddevelopment agencies.

Group approach.. Under the project, individualfarmers were encouraged to form common-interest

groups in undertaking similar income generatingactivities, which promoted social cohesiveness and

group unity. It goes without saying thatInfrastructure, machinery, equipment and otherphysical facilities are important in a technologybased poverty reduction project such as this. Underthe project, the physical capital of the communltleswas enhanced by introducing simple, inexpensive,village level machinery and equipment to processcoconut into high value, marketable products. Thiswas a strategy adopted by the project to ensure thatsuccessful technologies would easily be replicated,adapted and expanded by the communities

themselves at minimal cost but with maximumbenefit to its constituents, even when the projectended.

Mt.crocrec!{t system.. One of the main reasons whysmall scale coconut farmers remain poor is becausethey have very limited access to financial resourcesto diversify and invest in higher return, high valueincome generating activities or enterprises. Most ofthe coconut farmers aLre marginalized with less landand collateral to obtain loans and are considerednon-bankable by formal lending institutions.Although the project provided funds to thecommunities, these were mostly in the form ofrevolving funds for microcredit that the CBO usedto loan out to members which were repaid at nominalinterest. With this principle in mind, the CBOs wereencouraged to develop their own microcredit lendingsystem, which would make their revolving fund grow.The establishment of these microcredit systems

provided the `non~bankable' farmers access tocapital which they used to finance their variouscoconut based income generating activities. Such asystem would ensure that farmers have continuousaccess to the needed financial resources to furtherexpand their activities and at the same time catalyzethe fiscal growth of the CBO to serve more poormembers.

Project/rametuork.. For each community, the detailed

project frame included-a. Establishment and strengthening of CBO to

manage the project at the community level.Special emphasis was made on the design ofthe CBO to ensure broad access andparticipation of several categories ofstakeholders, Including women;

b. establishment of a microcredit system andprovision of initial revolving fund;

c. market surveys to identify marketable productsand development of market channels to makesuch markets sustainable;

d. development and implementation of farmers'and women's action plans for income generatingactivities;

e. development of training manuals on incomegenerating tcchnologies and the development ofinstruments for analysis and promotion of viabletechnologies;

f. development of community managed incomegenerating coconut seedling nurseries and thedocumentation, enhancement and conservationof selected and promising local and introducedcoconut varieties;

Poverty alleviation for coconut farmers 291

g, drainingofcoconut farmers, women and villagelevel entrepreneurs on income-generatingtechnologies;

h. production and marketing of high valueproducts from the coconut's kernel, husk, shell,wood, water and leaves;

i, introductlon of: (i) coconut based intercroppingtechnologies for enhancing incomes and foodsecurity; and (ii) livestock and fodder productionto boost total farm productivity and nutrition;and

I. promoting the use of research results throughfield days and the replication and adoption ofresulting viable development interventions bynational governments, developmentorganizations and NGOs.

Act].L/{!ies.. The following activities were undertaken

to achieve target outputs-

i. Conduct a community resource inventory,

ii. establish and strengthen a community BasedOrganization (CBO) and develop a CBO Mission,Vision and Goals per project site,

iii. conduct a baseline socioeconomic and baselinefood security and nutrition survey,

iv. establish a sustainable microcredit system anda CBO revolving fund,

v. conduct market surveys to identify marketableproducts'

vi. conduct pre-feasibility study to identify

profitable marketable products,vii. conduct training on CBO and microcredit

management and on production of identifiedmarketable and profitable products,

vili. develop a farmers' action plan and a women'saction plan,

ix. develop a business plan for each item in theaction plan,

x. integrate the project action plans Into thevillage/town development plan,

xi. conduct production and marketing trials on

production of high-value coconut products,xii. development of catalogues of coconut food

recipes and other village level delicious foodrecipes,

xiii. development of catalogues or high value

products from coconut,xiv. introduce intercropping interventions of cash

and food security crops,

xv. introduce poultry and livestock/fodder

production interventions,xvi. conduct diversity fair, characterize farmers'

coconut varieties and develop a catalogue,

xvii. establish a community-managed nursery perproject site,

xviii. monitor survival of planted seedlings,

xix. conduct farmers' field days at least 1-2 times

Per year'xx. document and publish success stories in each

project site


Situation analysis

Under a DFID funded project, a survey of tenpoor coconut communities, which might form theground for launching poverty alleviationprogrammes, was conducted. Using primary andsecondary data, ten strategically located coconutgrowing communities representing the majorcoconut growing regions in India were identified. Foreach of the ten identified coconut growing

Table 1. SoctoecoTTomic data of selected project sites

S1. Locatlon Average Average Education Soclo- Farmers FarmersNo of the fai`m size farm Income level economic practls,ng ra,s,ng

commumt.y (hal (USS) status intercropping (0/o) livestock (0/o)

i Andhra Pradesh 093 91.42 Secondary Poor 62.00 35

2. Goa I,96 289.79 Secondary Poor 10.00 333 Karnataka 0'42 229.96 Prlmary Poor 56.00 454 Karnataka I.70 213 70 Pr,mary Poor 2700 935 Kcrala 021 6845 Secondary Poor 88.00 536 K|,rala 07,5 130 60 Primary Poor 15.00 40/I Kerilla 0.88 15128 Primary Poor 5 638 Orlssa J . ,5 3 I 47.60 PrLmary Poor 0.00 899 PoIldJchel I \, 0 ,i() 228.60 Pr,mar)- Poor 2200 23t\ T`amil Nadu 06(J 368 23 Prlmar) Poor 0.00 87

292 S, Arulraj ef a/.

communities (with loo coconut farmers percommunity as sample size), poverty situation wasdefined. Constraints, opportunities andtechnological interventions needed for povertyreduction were described. A brief summary of thedetails of the selected communities is presented inthe Table 1.

Outcome

Community Based Organization (CBO)

Community Based Organisations (CBO)consisting of 320 members in Ariyankuppam siteand 472 members in Pallikkara site were organizedto implement the project interventions and operatethe microcredit system. The study proved thatsustainable coconut based Income generatingtechnologies can be successfully implementedthrough group approach. In Arryankuppam, the CBOcalled "Aryiankuppam Commune Coconut F`armersAssociation" (ACCFA) was established and registeredas a society in the Office of The Registrar ofIndustries, Pondicherry". An entry fee of Rs.50/-

per participant was collected and the amount wasadded to the seed money. The ofrice bearers of theExecutive Committee were selected throughconsensus approach and the Executive Committeehas 10 members including a women. A person wasappointed on contract .basis for managing the dayto day functions of the CBO and for assisting theCBO executive. Similarly, a CBO was organized atPallikkara also.

Community nurseries

Production and marketing of elite plantingmaterials or coconut through community nurserywas recorded to be technically feasible andeconomically viable for coconut farmers in the studyarea. For example, at Ariyankuppam, communitynursery for the production of elite coconut plantingmaterials was raised in three different locations ofthe site. During the period 2003-04, 1800 seedlingswere sold @ Rs.13 and revenue of Rs.23400 wasearned by ACCFA. After meeting the cost of

production of Rs. 8 per seedling, the CBO realized anet prorit of Rs.9000/-.

Improving coconut productivity

Efforts were taken to popularise the availablecoconut crop management technolc)gies forimproving the yield levels of existing coconut

gardens. Special emphasis was given on theintroduction of integrated nutrient managementtechnologies which included coirpith composting and

vermicc)mposting technologies, integrated pestmanagement strategies for the control of rhinocerosbeetle, leaf eating caterpillar and red palm weevil.Special emphasis was given on the management ofstem bleeding disease in Aryiankuppam community.

Increasing income through intercrops

Results obtained from the intercroppinginterventions indicated that the coconut farmerscould profitably cultivate intercrops such as brinjal,tomato, snake gourd, chillies, banana, elephant footyam, tapioca, groundnut and fodder grass in theEast coast and crops such as brinjal, chillies,banana, elephant foot yam, tapioca, ginger,turmeric, colocasia and fodder grass in the Westcoast. Mixed cropping in coconut garden with black

pepper is economically viable in the West coast. Inplaces where rainfall is not well distributed,irrigation may be necessary during summer months.However, these crops are to be adequately andseparately manured in addition to the manuresapplied to the coconut palms. At Ariyankuppam,intercropping interventions were conducted for cropssuch as tapioca, groundnut, bajra, napier grass,rice, ragi etc. The realized profit varied between Rs.5640 per ha in the case of tapioca to Rs. 32220 perha in the case of bajra napier grass.

Increasing income through non-crop enterprises

The present study confirmed that the farmingsystem involving diverse cropping models andenterprises, such as dairying, poultry rearing,pisciculture, apiculture etc. depending on theedaphic and climatic conditions that could ensuremultiple sources of income, nutritious food of plantand animal origin and additional on-farmemployment. It could also create opportunities forgainful employlnent to the women members of theparticipating households and facilitate efficientresource conservation. In Ariyankuppam, microcreditwas extended to animal husbandry components whichyielded a net prorit of Rs, 3360 in the case of layersand Rs. 13235 in the case of broilers. Similarencouraging results were obtained in Pallikkara also.

Product diversification and value additionenterprises

Central Plantation Crops Research Institute hasdeveloped many technologies for value addition incoconut through product diversification. Productionand marketing of such high value products fromcoconut provide opportunities to enhance incomeand employment opportunities especially to socio-economica.Ily disadvantaged rural women. The

Poverty alleviatlon for coconut farmers 293

success story of self help groups in the production income enhancement utilizing technologies of valueand marketing of coconut chips, coconut burfy and addition in coconut. At Ariyankuppam, the followingsiiow ball tender nut clearly indicated the scope for enterprises are in operation:

lnterventions Justification for the selection Progress

1. Copra and oil production2,Chipsproduction3.Saleoftendercoconut Good domestic demand for the oil Copra is produced by theand the oil cake obtained will be members. CBO collects the copraused by the members as cattle and then after crushing, oil & cakefeedSince the nearby town is one of are sold out to the inembers or inthedomesticmarketChipsareproducedbytheC,BOon

the famous tourism places, more contract basis by using the membersscope is expected. of CBO and marketed by CBO

Since the nearby town is one of Tender coconut is purchased andand snow ball tender coconut4.Coiryarn5.Handicraftsfromcoconutshell6.Collectionofshellfromthe the famous tourism places, more the snow ball tender nut is

scope is expected.Fibreproducedby CBO will have produced by the CBO on contractbasisbythemembersofCBOandmarketedbyCBOFibreissoldouttothemembers

good market in the areaLargequantityofshell available of CBO. After yarn production, itlscollectedbyCBOformarketinginthenearbyareas.ShelliscollectedbyCBOand

in the coprci and chips making various handicrafts are producedplaces is to be used effectively. and marketed by CBO locally.

Large quantity of shell available Excess shell available is marketedcopra producing farmers and in the copra and chips making to the existing shell flour unitFarmersareencouragedtoputmarketing to the existing shellflourunit7.Vermicompostfromcoconut places is to be used effectively.Largedemandexistsforthe

garden waste8.Coirpithcompost by fungi9.Leafplaiting compost. Large quantity of waste vermicomposting unit in theirmaterials available from other gardens. CBO collects the excesscropping systems also are to beused.I.argedemandexistsforthecompctst. compost for marketing.Farmersareencouraged to put

Large quantity of waste materials coirpith composting units in theiravailable from other cropping garden. CBO collects the excesssystems are also to be used. compost for marketing.

Large demand exists for the Farmers are encouraged tococonut leaf plaits. Large quantity prepare leaf plaits. CBO collectsof leaves which are now beingusedasfuelbythefarmers.TheexpectedreturnsthroughthesaleofleafplaitsisRs.300ha-I. the final product for marketing.

Women empowerment

One of the major objectives of the IPGRI sponsored

project was to increase the income of resource poorcoconut famers and socioeconomically disadvantagedrural women through the production of high value

products from the coconut kernel, husk, shell, water,wood and leaves.

Major avenues for job for the women labourersin the coconut community include beec!i rolling,laterite quarrying, construction works, etc. Number

£94 S. Arulraj ef a/.

of women agricultural labourers is on the decline,mostly because of the low wages and shift to sectorslike construction works and laterite quarrying. Theinvolvement of women in the coconut farm families isconfined to agricultural operations such astransporting and application of manures andfertilizers, copra drying, transporting the harvestednuts, management and milking of cattle where mixedfarming is followed, and other minor activities. It wasassessed that there is immense scope for introducinginterventions related to the promotion of women's

groups for processing of high value coconut productsat the farm household and co.mmunity level. Hence awomen's action plan was formulated under the projectwith emphasis on preparation of value added coconutproducts. Accordingly, a group of women representingthe self help group, Vlz. Sree Durga Kudumbasree unit,Koottakkani has started for the production of coconutchips and coconut burfy.

All the members of the group attended theEntrepreneurship Development Programme on Valueaddition in Coconut' organised by CPCRI under the

project for women at Pallikkara village. They acquiredknowledge and skill for the production of coconutkernel based food products, preparation of coconutcandies, production of coconut chips, etc. by attendingthe training programme. Besides the above topics, theconcept and practices of entrepreneurshipdevelopment, appropriate strategies for effectivefunctioning tor,Self Help Groups, credit facilities forSelf Help Groups and group approach for microlevelinterventions on product diversification in coconutwere also covered in the training programme.

Microcredit system through Community BasedOrganisation (CBO)

Before the implementation of IPGRI sponsored

project on poverty reduction, the coconut farmers invarious communities had faced the problem of gettingquick agricultural loans for their investment. In thosesituations, they were mostly depending upon theprivate moneylenders, who have charged enormousInterest rates for these loans. Hence the coconutfarmers were put into difficulties for raising capitalfor their investments. By the establishment of amicrocredit system through Community BasedOrganizations, a new dimension of Rural Finance foragriculture and allied enterprises was created, whichwas very well appreciated by the coconut farmers.

The strategies envisaged in the project wereimplemented through Community Based Organisationof coconut growers in the selected communities. Themicrocredit operations as well as the group based valueaddition enterprises were the major activitiesundertaken by the CBO. At Pallikkara, to implement

the interventions, a Community Based Organization(CBO) was formed and christened as "PallikkaraCommunity Coconut Development Centre (PCCDC)".

Based on \the criteria for assessing the effectivefunctioning of CBO,1t was found that the PallikkaraCommunity Coconut Development Centre, the localcoconut farmers' organisation, has been successfulin streamlining its activities to achieve the objectives.

The most characteristic feature of thismicrocredit system was that more than 98 percentof the members, who have availed the credit for theadoption of various intercropping/ a.nimal husbandryinterventions, repaid their loan amount with amarginal interest rate of 2 percent per annum andthese funds were ploughed back for carrying outother activities of the society.

Effective linkages e§tablished

For the effective implementation of variousinterventions at various stages of projectimplementation, linkages were established with thefollowing agencies, primarily to avail the servicesoffered by these organizations for the benefit of thefarming community:

• State department of Agriculture• State government sponsored poverty alleviation

project• Service co-operative Banks• Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRI's)• State Department of Animal Husbandry• State Dairy Development Department• Non Governmental organizations (NCO,s)• State Agricultural university• National Bank of Agriculture and Rural

Development (NABARD)

R®plication of results

Efforts were made to replicate this project inmore number of communities in different parts ofthe country through the following approaches.1. Give wide publicity for the results obtained from

the project to encourage other institutionsincluding NGOs to take up similar efforts.

2. Discuss with the Government of Pondicherryand the Government of Kerala and other StateGovernments about the impact of the projectand encourage them to launch similar venturesin the State,

3. Discuss with Coconut Development Board toencourage them to initiate similar ventures indifferent states a§ a Plan Activity under the XlthFive Year Plan.

I Indian Sac. Coastal agrlc. Res., 24(2|, 295-298, 2006

Extension Methodology for Sustainable Coastal AquacultureM. KUMARAN, S. RAJA, lvl. ALAGAPPAN, D. D. VIMALA, C. SARADA,

V. S. CHANDRASEKARAN and N. KALAIMANI

Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture.75, Santhome High Road, Chennai -600 028

Effectivon®ss of the extension sorvlces are greatly influenced by the oxtonsion methodologiesand strategy employod by the extension personnel in convincing their clients to adopt theinnovations. The prosont study carried out along the east coast of Tamil Nadu and AndhraPrad®sh with fishory oxtonsion personnel rovoaled that farm visit, farmers meetings, on-offcampus trainings, exhil)itions, etc. were the extension methodologies adopted by fisheryextension p®rsonnel. However, trieir froquoncjes were observed to be very low. Investments inoxtonsion par S® and capcity building of fl9hery oxton9ion porsonnol on alt®rnativo oxtonsionm®trlodologi®s should be 9lv®n top priority, Moreover planning and infrastructure strengtheningin fish®rios extension are of imm®diat® concern. Organlzatlon for aquafarmors for group action,employment of participatory ext®nBlon m®tliodolooi®s combined with lcT and mass modla couldb® an ®xtonslon strat®9y to promote sustainabl® growth and development of coastal aquaculturo.

(K®§| ulord8: Acquacu ltuTe extens\on, Capac`ty buildirLg, Manpower planrung)

Extension is an applied behavioural science, theknowledge of which is applied to bring aboutdesirable changes in human behaviour usuallythrough various strategies and programmes ofchanges and by applying latest scientifictechnological Innovations. The Bangkok Declarationand Strategy on aquaculture development (NACA/FAO 2000) emphasized that investments in research,extension and training would lead to thedevelopment of aquaculture systems, effectivelymanaged according to best available practicesintegrated with surrounding ecosystems.Investments in extension may certainly be attributeto the rapid development of aquaculture and Chinais an example of this contributing 68% of Asianaquaculture production (Wang 2001, World Bank1998). Successful introduction of technologlcalchange in aquaculture depends on effectivecommunication and extension. These constraints areparticularly acute in developing countries (Jaggerancl Ponder, 2001), where institutions andinfrastructure to promote dissemination ofInformation are lacking. Nonetheless, thedevelopment and dissemination of inexpensivesustalnable technologies to assist aquaculturists arecrucial. Transfer of aquaculture technology requiresa sustained long term effort working directly withfarmers through the develc>pment of an efficientextension system (Engle and Stone, 1989).

Extension and developmental efforts in thefisheries sector could Improve the socioeconomicconditions of fish farmers particularly the shrimp

farmers through gain in knowledge, increased

production and favourable attitudes (Krishna,1986).In India, coastal aquaculture with an enormouspotential untapped in coastal (1.2 million ha) andinland saline soils of north and northwest parts ofthe country (about 8 million ha) could contributefor augmenting its fisheries production. However,

presently coastal aquaculture is confined with tigershrimp culture (Peneaus monodon) which is being

practised in 1, 54,600 ha with a production of1,12,780 metric tonnes for national productivity of730 kg ha-I annum-I (Table 1). Shrimp is a rna.jorforeign exchange earner which accounted for about290/o of the fisheries export (in terms of volume) andabout 66% in terms of value. Effectiveness of theextension services is greaLtly influenced by theextension methodologies employed by the extension

personnel and the techniques used by him inconvincing their clients to adopt the innovations.Aquaculture, being a technically loaded enterprise,needs novel methods of information delivery. Withthis background the present investigation was takenup to study the extension methodology employed,extension materials used, frequency, subject mattercovered, aLnd follow-up undertaken.

METHODOLOGIES

This investigation was conducted along the eastcoast in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh States ofIndia where shrimp aquaculture is being actively

practised. A sample of 30 extension personnel,rifteen personnel each of the Depa.rtment of Fisheries

296 M, Kumaran ef a/

Table 1. Statewise details of shrimp producaon during the year, 2003-04

State Potential area Area developed Area under Production P,Oductivityavailable (ha) (ha) culture (ha) (MT) (Mt/ha/yr)

West Bengal 405000 50405 49925 29714 0.60

Orlssa 31600 12880 12116 12390 1.02

Andhra Pradesh 150000 79270 69638 53124 0.76

Tamil Nadu 56800 5416 3214 6070 1.89

Kerala 65000 16323 14029 6461 0.46Karnataka 8000 3435 3085 1830 0.59

Goa 18500 1001 963 700 0.73

Maharashtra 80000 1056 615 981 160

GUJarat 376000 1537 1013 1510 I.49

Total 1190900 171320 154600 112780 0.73

of each of the above States working in the coastalregions, was drawn using simple random sampling

procedure A structured Interview schedule pre-tested with similar personnel elsewhere and

personal observation were used for data collection.Ten independent variables, viz. age, education,experience, training attended, roles of performance,frequency of contact, resource appraisal,collaboratory work, targets, information behaviorand awareness of good management practices wereincluded to know the attributes of extensionpersonnel and their extent of innuence on theextension methodology employed. The dependentvariable `ektension methodology' employed wasstudied and measured based on a summated ratingprocedure developed for the study, which includesextension methodology employed, frequency andfollow-up undertaken. The da.ta collected were

processed with descriptive, correlation andregression statistics using SPSS package to interpretthe findings.

RESULTS AND DISCuSSION

Attributes of the extension personnel

Persona.I attributes of the respondents werestudied to have a better understanding of their

profile and presented in the Table 2.

Around fifty percent (4.70/o) of the respondentswere aged less than 40 years and the other half(53%) aged above 40 years. This aptly indicated thelack of recruitment of young professionals from thefisheries research and academic institutions to theDOF like extension personnel in the recent past.More than half of the respondents (53°/a) were post-

graduates or diploma holders. Majority of them (80%)had less than three years of field experience incoastal shrimp farming. However, majority of them

had undergone trainings and among them aboutthirty percent had training either on shrimp orscampi (freshwater prawn) culture. Majority of them

Table 2. Attnbutes of fishery extension personnel

Attribute % Response(N=25)

Age

44.00< 40 years

> 40 years 56.0052.00

EducationGraduationAbove graduation 48.00I

Experience ln co8tal aquaculture< 3 years

> 3 years

Bxten8lon a|)p[oachGroup contact

Personal contact

Frequency of contactOnce a month

occasional

Wlllingne8s to vorE with primte ectcndonYes

NO

Communlcatlon of field I)rot)lena toresearch (Through head office)

NativityRural

Urban

Technical information SourceDepartment R& D & Training Centre

TrainingAttended

Needed

8400

16.00

72.00

28.00

40.00

60.00

84.00

16.00

68.00

56.00

44.00

56.00

84.00

60.00

Extension method for aquaculture 297

\

(73%) followed group contact extension method tomeet aquafarmers and group meetlngs wereconducted at different places of their jurisdictiondepending on the field situation Most of them (83%)expressed wluingness to work with private extension

personnel of aquafeed companies since the latterhad regular contact with the farmers. Majority ofthem (70%) reported their field problems to theirhead offices and in turn the same werecommunicated to the research wing of thedepartment for solutions. They were of the

perception that the farmers had followed thelrtechnical advice. Departmental training centre wastheir prlme Information source for majority (57%)of the responder,ts Majority of them (60%) wantedtraining in extension methodologies, humanrelations management and subject matter.

Extension methodologies employed

Extension and technology transfer per se havebeen the responsibility of the State Departments.The Fish Farmers development Agency (FFDAs) andBrackishwater Fish Farmers Development Agency

(BFDAs) with distrlct level jurisdiction have beenthe important machinery for promotion ofaquaculture. Extension methods, materials used,their frequency, subject matter covered and follow-up undertaken by the extension personnel are givenin Table 3.

Fàrm visit to the aquafarms once a week for a direct

personal contact was the prime extension methodologyadopted for majority of the respondents (60%). Personal

phone calls, pamphlets and printed manuals ln locallingua were the extension materials used during farmvisits. Information on Good Management Practices wasshared with their clients and such Interactions werereinforced during the followlng visit. `Farmers meets'up to two meetings per month in different locations oftheir Jurisdiction was the next preferred extensionmethod employed as reported by more than half (57%)of the respondents. Lectures, printed farm publications,etc. complemented the farmers meetings. Aspectsdiscussed during such meetings were followed upduring their next visits. Off-campus tralning

programmes were used as extension methodology byforty percent of the respondents. Printed manuals onlocal language, posters, pamphlets, etc were theextension materials used. Major topics covered were,vra. disease prevention & management, water qualitymanagement. feed management, probiotics culture, etc.Follow-up to this programme was done during the nextvisit or meeting.

Nearly one-third of the respondents reportedthat demonstration on diversification of aquaculturespecies like crab culture, antibiotics free culture,good management practlces of shrimp culture wasone of their extension methodologies. On-campustramings, exhibitions, writing through mass rrèdia,

Table 3. Extenston methodology emploged by DOF extens\on persor\nel

Method o/a response(N=30' Extensionmaterialsused F[equcncy Topics covered Follow-up

Farm visitFarmers 600057.00400033.002000Ii Phone calls, WeeklyMonthly Good Management Practices -especially During next

pamphlets on disease management, awarenesscreationonbannedantibiotics,etc. visit or meeting

lècture On Good Management Practices - During next

meets pamphlets twice problems encountered by the farmers. visit or meeting

Training (off- Printed Throughout Diseases prevention & management, During next

campus)DemonstrationTraimng(on- manuals on the cultureOnceintwo water quality management, feed visit or meetingDuringnext

local language,posters,pamphlets,etc.I)rlntcd management, probiotics culture, etc.Diversification-crabculture,good

1``tcrature onlocallanguag(Ì,`'Ìrs, yearsYearly once management practicesOngoodmanagement practices - visit or meetingDuringfield

campus), \'i7, manuu;s/ selection of quality seed visits or

cyh'h1t,,()n,\\,j,rlst.,,p.\-[In8throughmass I ,?(,oksI`titicimensI) meetings

298 M, Kumaran et a/.

etc. were the other extension methods used by one-fifth of the respondents (20%) to influence thefarmers to adopt their advice. Farm publications,specimens, mass media, etc. were used extensivelyduring these events. All these programmes werefollowed up during their regular farm contacts.

ilt is understood that farm visit, farmers meets,demonstration, training, exhibition, workshop, etc.were the extension methodologies used by theextension personnel. However, personal contact withfarmers, which is cornerstone of extension, isabsolutely lacking. Further, the above programmeswere organized at different locations with a differentaudience, where the follow-up and reinforcement ofinformation were totally ignored. This could bebecause of lack of adequate manpower andorientation of extension personnel with extensionper se and extension education. Extensioninfrastructure, transport and provision of extensionequipments at extension centers are very importantfor an effective extension service. Hence, substantiativeInvestments in extension per se and capacitybuilding of extension personnel on extensioneducation and methodologies should be urgentlyaddressed. Moreover extension campaigns forawareness building, organizing farmers for collectlveaction and use of such groups as nodal points forextension, employcmtn of farmer participatorymethods like PRA, PLA, etc. combined with ICT andmass media could be pragmatic extension strategyfor the coastal fishery rishery extension personnel.A dynamic extension mechanism for informationdelivery aLnd feedback and a strong linkage withresearch system are to be evolved at State level.Packages of practices in the form of rishery extensionofficer, dairy or crop production guide should beprepared and supplied to the extension personnelto facilitate their work.

Regression analysis of attributes with ExtensionMethodology Employed

The nature of influence, the attributes ofextension personnel had during their linkage withR&D Institutions were studied by a regressionanalysis and the results are reported in Table 4.About 86°/o (R2=0.858) of variation in extensionmethodology used was influenced by the attributesof extension personnel. Among the twelve variablestaken for analysis, roles regarding performance andawareness of Good Management Practices of ShrimpaLquaculture were found to have significant influenceat 5% level. Proper perception of the role as changeagent to facilitate the end users to adopt propermanagement practices could have helped theextension personnel in choosing an effective

Table 4. Regresslon analyses of attTibutes u)ith.extension methodology adopted

Attribute Regre8Sion coemcient8 SEm+

Age 0.173 0.126

Education -I.682 0.865Expericnce -0.004 0.130

Trarning attended -I . 378 0.859Rolcr putormance - 1.132* - 0.270Frequency contact 2.605 1.265

Resource appraisal 0.346 0.558Collaboratory work 3.351 2998Targets 0.431 0.365

Information behavior -0.0003 0.063Linkage 0.144 0.082Awareness 0.146*R2=0.858 0.034

•Significant at S% level

extension methodologies or their combination. Theknowledge on the good management practices ofshrimp or scampi farming would facilitate theextension personnel in employing appropriateextension methodology and help in planning a strategyto reach, convince and mo vate the end users.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful to the Indian Councilof Agricultural Research for the funding the project.

F`EFERENCES

Engle, C.R. and Stone, N.M.. (1989). A I?euiett/ o/Extension Methodologies in Aquaculture,Aquaculture Development and CoordinationProgramme, FAO, Rome. 65p.

Jagger, P. and Ponder, J. (2001). Issues foraquaoulture in East Africa: The case of Uganda,Jyaga. The JCLAj?M Ouarferigr 24( I-2): 42-51.

Krishna. S. (1986). Prawn farmin.g: A study on theatt]tude and awareness of farmers. Jrid].an L/owrrm!a/ Erdeusi.ori Edrccitr.on XXI( 1 &2) : 74.-76 .

NACA/FAO. (2000). Aqt{actJ!ttJre DeueJapmenfBeyond 2000: The Bangkok Declaration andSira!egg, NACA/FAO, Rome.

Wang.Y. (2001). China P.R.1: A review of nationalaquaculture development. In Aqt/cicLiJfure {n theTht.rd MI.J!enruum. Technical ProceedingsConference Aquaculture in the Third Millenmum,Bangkok, Thailand.

World Bank. (1998). Subst.sdz.es !.ri World FI.shen.es..A I?e-exami.nQ!t.ori. World Bank Technical Paper406, Washington D.C.

J. Indlan Soc. Coastal agnc. Res., 24.(2|, 299-30L, 2006

\

Extension of Jute Agriculture in Sundarbans Biosphere forConservation of Biodiversity and Coastal Zone Security

A. BANDYOPADHYAY, A. K. MAHAPATRA and A. K. JANA

Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied FibresBarrackpore -700120, West Bengal

One hundred fifty-four Islands on the estuarine moutl` of the river Ganga constitute SundarbansBiosphere Reserve (SBR) in south coast of West Bengal. Fifty Islands are under mangroveforest cover and rest fifty-four are roclaimod for agriculturo and gonoral habitation. This tjdalforest is highly productive and considered as biodiversity rich area. Over-exploitation of naturalresource by Surrounding people is a gi.Oat concern, which nocossitates to take up effectivemeasures for biodiversity conservation and coastal zone security against storm, oceanic surgesand other devastations as well. Though forestry, pisciculturo and epiculture have got somesuccess, agriculture still tops the list to generate employment. Both success and failure havebeen witnessed in trial and error method of several new crops. Introduction of jute with feasibilitystudios is an attempt towards more employment generation, as well as, a step againstdeforestation of mangrove forest tor firewood, thus, tightening coastal security against naturalcalamitios.

(Keg words: Brosphere reseTue in Suridarbcms, Explottatton of natural resources, Aiternatiueagnculture)

India, the seventh largest country of the world,with her 45,000 plant species and 81,000 fauna, isconsidered as a major centre of origin and diversityof more than 20 agricultural crops. It has coastalline of about 7500 -kin with varied precipitation,which constitute rich landscape diversity. About2700 plant species are endemic and EasternHimalaya, Western Ghats and mangrove rich coastalSundarbanss are well known for endemic and plantdiversity. For the sustenance of rich biodiversity,Government of India designated 12 biospherereservers to protect the natural ecosystem

(Sanjappa, 2001). Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve(SBR) was one of them declared on 29 March, 1989.An International programme like Man and Biosphere

programme of United Nations Educational, Scientificand Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) was launchedin 1971 that gave emphasis on i-ri-s[tu conservationof biological diversity in reserves and including PlantGenetic Resources (PGR) (Skouri and Robertson,1995). FAO, UNEP, IUCN and UNESCO are the major

patrons of Biosphere Reserve Programme forconservation of natural resources and sustainabledevelopment.

Under National Agricultural Technology Projecton `Sustainable Management of Plant Biodervisity

(PGR)' three special exploration missions toSundarbans were conducted for collection of PGRof different agri-horticultural crops in last two years.

Observations on status of biodiversity made duringthese visits is discussed. Based on the observationand experiment on jute, introduction of jute andmesta are suggested for some Islands in Sundarbansas an aid towards sustainable develcipment, bio-diversity conservation and coastal zone security.


Features of Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve (SBR)

SBR (latitude 21°32' and 22°40' N and longitude88°05' E and 890 E) covering an area of 9630 sq kinconsists of 104 IslaLnds at the estuarine mouth ofthe river Ganga and lies at coastal West Bengalfacing Bay of Bengal in the south. North-westboundary is demarcated by Dampier-Hodges Line

(named after the surveyors) which extends fromKulpi (Kakdwip) in South 24-Parganas district toBasirhat in North 24-Parganas district. Out of 104Islands, 50 are under forest cover and rest 54 arereclaimed for human habitation. There arealtogether 19 administrative blocks under twodistricts. These are Hingalganj, Hasnabad, Haroa,Sandeshkhali-I, Sandeshkhali-II and Minakha inNorth 24-Parganas and rest 13 blocks of South 24-Parganas are Canning-I, Canning-II, Basanti, Gosaba,Patharpratima, Kakdwip, Sagar, Kulti, Mathurapur-I,Mathurapur-II, Jaynagar-I and Jaynagar-lI.

In this ecosystem, mangrove trees and shrubs

growing at sea-land Interface zone are regularly

300 A. Bandopadhyay et a/.

Inundated twice by saline tidal waves` Mar`grove

plants a.nd associated fauna have developed specialsalinity resistant mechanism for thelr existence inthis environment. Since therc` is no clear definitionfor mangrove plants the total number of species inmangroves differs like 48 (Tomlinson, 1986), 33

(Naskar, 1996), while Banerjee (2001) stated thatSBR harbours 62 mangrove species of which 6-7species are endemic. Besides mangroves plants,huge number of algae, bacteria and othermicroorganisms enrich the biodiversity. This uniqueand fragile ecosystem supports many other life-forms representing terrestrial, aquatic and avianfauna through a definite food chain. Mangrovevegetation of this coast comprising of 60 percent ofIndian mangrove vegetation forms the largestnursery of fish and shellfish€s and therefore, areresponsible for coastal fishery for the whole ofeastern India. In animal, there are about 1586species including mammals, birds, reptiles and

protozoa groups (Das and Nandi, 2001). Like allother biosphere reserves of the world, 9630 sq kinof total SBR area is divided into three zones, namelyCore area, Buffer zone and Transition area.

1. Core area: Sundarbans National park is situatedin the core area of about 1692 sq kin serves astiger and mangroves reserve.

2. Bufferzone: Itlies nextto core areahaving4264sq kin of reserve forest where 3 wild lifesanctuaries, viz. Sajnekhali, Lothian Island andHoliday Island are situated.

3. Transition area: This is next to the buffer zoneand outermost part of SBR, having an area of 3674sq kin. This is the dynamic zone of cooperationwith local communities where emphasis is givenon intensive agriculture, pisciculture, settlement,managed forest, areas of recreation as well as onexperiment with alternative sustainable use ofresource development and for conservation of thisecosystem for eastern coastal zone of India as awhole.

Agroclimatic condition

In summer, temperature hardly exceeds 38 0 Cin May and June. Most of the annual precipitationis received during LJune to October. High humidity

prevails all through the year. Cyclonic storms occursometimes in April and are frequent during monsoonand rainfall in LJuly-August. Tidal water heightranges from 0.96 to 5.8 meters (Sanyal,1996). Soils

of upper deltaic plain are loamy in texture and neutralto slight alkaline while in lower delta acidic to alkaline

(pH 5.0-8.0) with fine texture. Soils of marshes arealso fine textured with acidic to neutral in reaction.

Experiment on alternative agriculture

Total fourteen germplasm accessions, two ofCorchort/s ozifortus and twelve of C`orchoruscapsuiaJi.s after collection from SBR, were primarilyevaluated for their fibre yield and yield contributingcharacters at the experimental farm of CentralResearch Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres

(CRIJAF) at Barrackpore. Data were collected andexpressed on mean value of five randomly harvested

plants, which included plant height, stem diameter(basal, middle and top), number of nodes, dry fibreand stick weight per plant.


It was observed from the study on alternativeagriculture at CRIJAF that in C. capsu/arts (white

jute) fibre yield was low, except in two accessionswhere, the fibre yield per plant was slightly lowerthan existing cultivars, viz. 8.4 g (SBC 1/68) and8.2 g (SBC 2/13). In one accession of Corcfrorttsol{.ton'tts, fibre yield was recorded as 17.8 g per plant,which was higher than the existing varieties. Ofcourse, this was a preliminary data but it indicatedthe possibility of Jute cultivation in Sagar andPatharpratima Islands where mangrove forest wasreclaimed long back for agriculture, and salinity wasvery less. Yadav ef aj. (1978) also stated that excepta few, most of cultivated areas of Sundarbans turnednon-saline during khart/season. Sojute can be wellsuited in this coastal zone. In this regard, alliedfibre, HC mesta (kenaf) is more tolerant to sallnityand therefore, can also be tried for cultivation.Moreover, it can act as a supportive crop for betelvinecultivation, which has come up recently as prime cashcrop of Sagar Island. Most of the farmers cultivatebetelvine here, for which about 300 truck load of jutestick are brought to this Island annually from distantdistricts of West Bengal by road and river transport.Cost of jute sticks varies from Rupees rifty to sixty perbundle of 300 sticks. Mahapatra (1999), in his earlierstudy on SBR, also proposed for probable introductionof jute in Sagar Island.

Our experience on jute agriculture in thefollowing areas indicates its probable cultivation inSagar and adjacent Islands of SBR.

Jute for alternative agriculture in Sundarbans

Data on jute production in Northern Transition Zone of SBR

301

Places in North SBR Area under cultivation (ha) Production of fibre (q/ha)

Hlngalganj 150 19.8

Hasnabad 475 19.8

Haroa 300 25.2

Sandeshkhali-I 40 18.0

Sandeshkhali-lI 20 18.0

Minakha 47 18.0

Earlier sugar beet, cotton, sunflower, chilli andwatermelon were introduced for cultivation. Exceptchilli and watermelon other crops are not cultivatedat present due to some reason or other.

A good number of PGR of jute, mesta and othercrops were thus collected from Sagar Island ofSundarbans and conserved in National Gene Bankin New Delhi. In addition PGR of Jute and otherAllied F`ibre Crops were also conserved in Mid-termGene Bank of CRIJAF for their further use.Experiments on these germplasm, as expressedearlier, for their feasibility as a cultivated crop while

grown under proper agronomic practices had alreadyshown promise. Our experience on jute andH.C.mesta cultivation in Northern transition zoneof SBR was encouraging. Similarly, from recentstudies, it might be resolved that jute and mestacultivation is possible in Sagar and adjacent Islandslying in the western part of SBR. Moreover, withthe availability of jute stick, a good source of fuel,deforestation at an alarming rate due to firewoodcollection will be checked. Stress on this ecosystemdue to anthropogenic pressure could be overcomethrough development of intensive agriculture andthus, introduction of new suitable crop like jute isthe need of the hour.

CONCLUSION

By engaging more and more jobless rural poorin alternative agriculture throughout the year, theirdependence on the natural resources of this coastalecosystem will be reduced. Restoration of this highly

productive ecosystem to cater for a larger area wasvery much necessary for people of this biospherereserve.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Authors are grateful to the National Director,NATP-PB for funding.

REFERENCES

BaLnerjee, L.K. (2001). Status of endangered plantspecies in Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve.Proceedings Workshop Sttndarbans Dat/, heldat Kolkata, 3rd Jun, 2001. SBR & Zilla Parisad,24-Parganas (South).

Das, A.K. and Nandi, N.C. (2001). Endangered andthreatened animals of Sundarbans BiosphereReserve. Proceedings Workshop SundarbarisDay, held at Kolkata, 3rd Jun, 2001 SBR &Zilla Parisad, 24-Parganas (South).

Mahapatra, A.K. (1999) Sundarbans biospherereserve - its perspective. In StJndarbarisMangczJ, Guha Bakshi, e{ a!. (eds.), pp. 386-399,Naya Prakash, Calcutta.

Naskar, K.R. (1996). Status of mangroves inSundarbans in the perspectives of India andWorld Mangal. Proceedings Willium RoxburghMemorial Seminar St{nc!arbaris Mangcl!, pp.19-65, held at Calcutta, 8-10 Nov. Calcutta WildLife Society.

Sanjappa, M. (2001). In State o/ the Art J3eporf,Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve, Bota.nica\Survey of India, Kolkata. 1p.

Sanyal, P. (1996). Sundarbans, the largest mangrovediversity on globe. Proceedings WilliamRoxburgh Seminar Sttndarbans Manga!, held atCalcutta, 8-10 Nov. Calcutta Wild Life Society.

Skouri, M. and Robertson, J. (1995). Success inUNESCO biosphere reserve network inMediterranean will impact biodiversityconservaLtion plans. Btoc!i`t;ers{tg 11 ( 1&2) ; 39-40.

Tomlinson, P.B. (1986). The Botany o/ MartgroLJes,Cambridge University Press, London, New York.414p.

Yadav, J.S.P., Bandyopadhyay, A.K. and Rao,K.V.G.K. (1978). Mariagemeri! o/Coasfa! SaJtrieSoi7 o/Sunderbans, Bulletin 7, CSSRI, Karnal.

I Indian Soc. Coastal agnc. Res., 24(2), 302-305, 2006

Technological lnterventions for Women Empowermentin Coastal Agro-ecosystem

S. RAMANATHAN and M. ANATHARAMAN

Central Tuber Crops Research InstituteSreekariyam, Thiruvananthapuram -695 017, Kerala

Women play a vital, but sllont role in agricultural devolopmont ospocially jn the developingcountries like lndla. Of late, groat attention has bcon paid towards dovoloplng gondor specifictochnologiosaimodatimprovingthestatusofwomen,thoinvislbloworkers,int.rmsofreducingdrudgoryirlcreasingomploymontgomeratlonandorlharlclngincomelevols.MajorityofthefarmfamiliosinK.ralabolongodtosmaHandmarginalfarm.r8andlandle88Iabourorscatogoryandfarmwom.nworeobservodtocontributomuchtowardsth.famllyincomoworklngasagrlculturallabourers and ongaging thomselvos ln off-farm avocations. Tochnologlcal a$8oa8m.nts w.redonetodolinoateapproprlat.tochnologiesundertt.olnstitution-VHlagounkagoprogrammoofcoa8talagro-.cosy8tomoporatodatCh.nkalvillageinNeyyatinkarara/uk,ThiruvanathapuramDistrict, K.rala by th. C.ntral Tuber Crops Research lnstitut.. Koeplng ttio probl.in-causer.Iation8tilpoffarmwomonasth.baa.,t.chnologlcallnterventlonssuchasbackyardpoverty,

{um'pk%v{n.='|hn.g'c%=€r`.,br=3,r==g=.I:.u.8.hF.5^6_ir.-i:lSii;_i`f*:.tl:S=`#..','='T=`Sros=Cu=oaas=na3kzsa=d.sPs°.Vder,`oy:improving the contribution ol farm won.n. The a.tailod socioeconomic a8sossmonl ol theseintei.ventionsrevoalodaddltional.mploym.ntgon.raliontoth.tuneof45-50Iabourday§frombackyard poverty, turk.y and goat real.ing aiid around 100 days lrom mu8tiroom cultivation.Similarlythos.intorvontions.nabl.dttiofarmwom.ntogon.rat.an.tlncom.ofRs1365perhead (poultry R$ loo per bird per year; turkey RS. 226 p.I bird; goat RS. GOO per goat, andmiishroomR§.400p.rporsonfrom100beds).Ttio.xp.rl.nc.lnth.t.chnologicalasso3amontfor women .mpoworment to make thorn self rollant ls discuss.d in thls pap.I.

(Keyu)ords..TechrLolog.calmteruention,Womenempou)erment,Coastalagro-ecosystem,IVLP)

Women constitute the invisible work force andcontribute towards rural and family economy. They

play a crucial role in food production producing morethan half of the world's food (FAO 1986). However,it is often observed that woman remain invisible,their presence not counted, their contribution toagriculture remains unaccounted and their prioritiesand problems remain unattended. In this context iti§ worthy to mention that the Indian National Policyfor the Empowerment of Women, in 2001, stressedthe need to main stream "Gender Perspectives" inthe process of development and envisaged womenspecific interventions where there are currently gapsin policies and programmes. Experience in the pasthad indicated thait if women rather than men aretargeted with resources, the end result is thatwelfare benefits will accrue directly to them and theirchildren (Buvinic and Gupta, 1997). Womenaccounts for more than 76 percent of marginalworkers and about 16 percent of main workers.Amongst the main workers, more women seemed tobelong to the category of agricultural labourers. InKerala about 79 percent of the female work force isabsorbed in agriculture sector and female.agriculture labourer constituted about 47 percent

of total work force (Census of India,1981). Creation of

gainfull employment in and around the homestead isperhaps the most essential requirement to raise theincome levels of farm women so as to empower them.

In this context, different strategies are requiredwhich encompass advocacy, access to resources,capacity building and organizational issues. Whenthe Institution - Village Linkage Programme (IVLP)calne into operation under the coastal agro-ecosystem during 1999 at the Central Tuber CropsResearch Institute (CTCRI) the agro-ecosystemanalysis of the adopted village Chenkal inThiruvananthapuram district, Kerala Indicated thatthe agricultural labourers, particularly womenconstituted nearly 60 percent of the householdsbelonging to scheduled castes and most backwardclasses. Based on problem-cause relationship,various technological interventions werecontemplated and implemented for increasing theIncome of these farm women. The presentinvestigation was conducted under IVI,P with theobjectives of assessment of the performance ofimproved breeds of poultry, goat, turkey rearing andmushroom cultivation, and empowering the farm

Women empowerment 303

women through increased income and employment

generation through these technologlcal interventlons.


The study was taken up amongst the farmwomen beneficiaries of IVLP of CTCRI operated atChenkal village. The selected beneficiaries weresupplied with Improved breeds of poultry, goat,turkey and mushroom. About 160 farm women were

given Improved poultry breeds, namelyKadakkanath, Nicobari and Nakedneck. Likewiseturkey birds of 6-8 week age were supplied to 75farm women. The improved goat breed "Malabari"was distributed to 30 farm women. Two women SelfHelp Groups consisting of 25 members each were

given the critical Inputs for mushroom cultivation,I/iz. spawn of variety -Col and Florida of Pleurofussp. These technological interventions were supportedwith appropriate hands-on training in backyard

poultry rearing, goat rearing, turkey rearing andmushroom cultivation involving the resources

personnel available in other organizations like KeralaAgricultural University, Dept. of Animal Husbandry,Kerala State, etc. Detailed socioeconomicassessment of these technological interventions werecarried out amongst the 315 beneficiaries throughpersonal interview and focused group discussion.


Backyard poultry

The assessment of the performance of improvedbackyard poultry breeds vis-a-Vls the local breed wascarried out amongst the 160 farm women who wheresupplied with these birds. The comparative

performance of these breeds is presented in Table 1.A perusal of the data clearly indicates the superiorperformance of Nicobari breed as compared to otherswith an annual egg production of 210 per bird. WhileNakedneck produced 200 eggs and Kadakkanath,

190 eggs, the local breed could produce only 170eggs. Compared to high mortality rate (>50 percent)of the locaLl and Nakedneck, Nikobari andKadakkanath exhibited low (< 25 percent) mortality.Similarly, these two breeds had medium tolerance

/resistance to diseases. In tune with highest eggproduction Nicobari gave the maximum net returnof the 165 per bird with a benefit-cost ratio of 1.45: 1.Pramanik and Rai (2004) also observed from theirIVLP experience that the farmers of Andaman andNicobar Islands too rated improved Nicobari breedas` the best suited for backyard with an annual eggproduction of 137 per bird. In addition, theyobserved Nicobari to possess very less broodiness

( 10-15 days) compared to Desi. birds. Thus, backyardpoultry has emerged as a strong potential as anincome generating activity amongst the rural poor,especially farm women. Therefore, the performanceassessment and careful selection of right kind ofbreed suited to the specific locality is a key tosuccess in backyard poultry. While Sivakumar eta!. (2005) and CIBA (2005) identified Nandanambreed of chicken as best suited to Kancheepuramand Chennai region, Tamil Nadu, Vanaraja breedwas assessed to be performing better under EastGodavari belt of Andhra Pradesh (CTRI, 2005) andGramalakshmi and Gramasree as appropriatebreeds for Central Kerala condition (KAU, 2005). Allthese pointed to the fact that backyard poultry wasa beneficial avocation to boost the income andempower farm women. It is also noteworthy tomention that the technoeconomic analysis of poultryproduction with technological innovationscomprising rearing of hybrid strains of poultry foregg production, scientific method of housing,management and disease control resulted in a profitof Rs.11880 and generated 300 man days ofemployment from a poultry unit of 1000 layers

(ICAR, 1988).

Table 1. Comparatiue perforTr.ance of tmproi)ed breeds of backyard poultry

Perrorfnance indicator Local K&daklan&th Nicobarl NakedneckMortality High (>50%) LOw (<25%) LOw (<25%) High (,50%)Tolerance/resistance to diseases Low Medium Medium LowWeight gained in 10 months (kg/bird) 1.35 1.20 I.85 I.40Annual egg production (no. /bird) 170 190 210 200Cost of rearing (Rs. /bird) 320 360 360 360Gross returns (Rs./bird) 425 475 525 500Net returns (Rs. /bird) 105 115 165 140Benefit : Cost ratio I. 32 : I I.31: I 1.45: I 1. 38: 1

304 S` F3amanathan & M Anantharaman

Turkey rearing

Turkey rearing was assessed to be another

profitable enterprise for farm women. The turkeybirds of 6-8 weeks age with an average body weightof I kg supplied to 75 women beneficiaries gained abody weight c)f 6 kg at 5-6 month stage. By sellingthe turkey meat @ Rs. 125/-per kg, they earned a

gross return of Rs. 875/- and a net return of Rs.225/- per bird. Good taste of meat, high market

price, less disease incidence, etc. were perceived asthe positive aspects of turkey rea.ring, whereas, highcost of chicks, need for big cage, indiscriminateeating of greenery by the turkey birds in and aroundthe homestead, etc. were expressed as the negativeaspects. Nevertheless, rearing of Beltsville small whiteturkey under backyard system resulted in higher bodyweight and higher revenue to farm women under theIVLP of Livestock Research Station (TANUVAS) atKattupakkam (Sivakumar et a!., 2005).

Goat rearing

The performance of Improved breed of goatMalabari was assessed under IVLP village conditionby 30 farm women as beneficiaries and the detailsof the pa.rameters assessed are given in Table 2.Though both the local breed as well as Malabari hadhigh survival percentage (>90 percent) , Malabari hadhigher percentage of goats conceived (83%) anddelivered (85%), when compared td the local. Thisbreed also gave a marginally higher milk yield (0.25lit per goat per day) than the local. By way of sellingmilk and kids, the farm women realized anadditional income of Rs. 600/- from goa.t rearing.ICAR (1988) also observed that the enterprisessuitable for women might be goat and /or sheeprearing (with 25 cross breed goat or sheep and oneram) which generated 240 man days of employmentwith an annual profit of Rs. 2380/-.

Backyard poultry, turkey rearing and goatraring put together enabled the farm women to earna net income of Rs. 965/-per head and generatedaround 45-50 man days of employment.

Table 2. Comparative performance of Malabcinbreed of goat under homestead

Performance indicators I,ocal malabarl

Survival (o/o) 90 93

Goats conceived (%) 44 83

Goats delivered 64 85

Average milk production 0.50 0.75

(litre / goat/ day)

Mushroom cultivation

Mushroom cultivation is relatively a newtechnological intervention assessed under IVLP foreffective utilization of leisure time of farm women.Under TAR-IVLP at Chenkal village, two mushroomunits were established which were solely managedby the members of two women Self Help Groups.They were given hands on training on variousaspects of mushroom cultivation and critical inputslike mushroom spawn, etc. were supplied under the

programme. The farm women cultivated two varietiesof P!euroft/s sp. namely Col and Florida. On anaverage they produced loo kg mushroom from 100beds at a production cost of Rs. 30/- per kg andearned a net profit of Rs. 6000/-. Preparation andsale of value added products from mushroom like

pickles, cutlet, pakoda, etc. also generated additionalincome. The farm women had gainful employment of100 labour days through mushroom cultivation. Agro-ecosystem Directorate (Coastal) (2005) indicated thatmushroom cultivation was assessed as a profitableenterprise for empowerment of farm women under theIVLP at CTCRI, CPCRI and CSSRl.

REFERENCES

Agro-ecosystem Directorate (Coastal) (2005).Genesis, Assessment, Rerlnement and Success.Report (TAR-IVLP,1999-2004), Ivatl.oricl(

Agricultural Teclmology Project, CTCRI,Thiruvananthapuram.

Buvinic and Gupta, G.R. (1997). Female headedhouseholds and female maintained families. Arethey worth targeting to reduce poverty indeveloping countries? Economic DeLJc!apmenfarid Cu!furaz Charige 45(2).

Census of India (1981). Dtsfri.ct Census Hcmc! Book,Series 10, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.

CIBA (2005). Institution-Village Linkage Programmefor Technology Assessment and Refinement inCoastal Agrc>-ecosystem of Thiruvallur Districtof Tamil Nadu. Final Report Jvatr.onaJ Agri.ctt/furci!Technology Project, CIBA, Chennai.

CTRI (2005). Final Report Techrio!ot-,g Assessmentand Refinement through lnstitutton-VillageLinkage Programme in Knshaa-Godauan Agro-climatic Zone Of the Coastal A€iro-et ii- +'`mCTRI, Rajahmundry.

FAO (1986). Women are farmers too. Vpt{J` 4?L'J/c<c}.tie,

February,1986, F`AO, Rome.

Women empowerment 305

*

J\

lcAR (1988). Future research strategy and linkagewith development systems` ProceedingsInternational Conference Appropr[.ateAgn.cu!furci! 7-echrio!og{es /or Fczrm Womeri, heldat New Delhi, 30 Nov to 6 Dec, 1988.

KAU (2005). Project Report, TechnoJoggAssessment and Refinement throughlrLstitution-Village Linkage ProgramTne (TAR-/Vip/, KAU, Regional Agricultural ResearchStation, Pattambi.

Pramanik, S.C. and Rai, R.B. (2004). Putting thelast first. Report, Parf!.cfpaforu Ass€ssrrieril ciric!Transfer of Agricultural Technology in BayJSJands, CARI, Port Blair.

Sivakumar, T., Velmurugan, K., Perasirian, V. andAkila, N. (2005). Successful farming practicesthrough rerined technologies ( 1999-2005) , Report,TAR-IVLP (NATP) North Bastem Zone of CoastalAgro-ecosgstem Of Kar\cheepuram Distnct, TamilIvadr, Livestock Research Station, Kattupakkam

I/. /itc!iciri Soc Cocistaz agr{c I?es., 24(2), 306-309, 2006

Empowering Fisherwomen in Coastal Sectors -A Strategy for Improving Farming

a. SHANTHIl and M. JAyANTH12

'Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women

Coimbatore -641 043, Tamil Nadu

and2Central lnstitute of Brackish Water Aquaculture

75, Santhome High Road, R.A.PuramChennai -600 028, Tamil Nadu

Women in fishing communities contribute a great deal to the fishing economy. Technologicalcrianges in traditional activities often clisplaco women workers. Low literacy, couplod with lackof training resulting in low level of skills and displacement diie to technology, reduce women'sparticipation in economic pursuits. All these lead to the resulting unequal status of women.Empowerment is an active process enabling women to realize their full identity and power inall spheres of life and build up their capacities to become partners in the process of development.This paper attempts to define the action research aimed at empowering the fisherwomen whichwas a maiden experiment with fisherwomen omploying a set of PRA techniques for situationanalysis based on which capacity building attempts weio made. This study revealed thecontribution of women in fisheries development, examined their living conditions, identifiedtheir needs and problems as well as exF.lored the solutions on their own. If the fisherwomenare motivated to continue their collective efforts, the Integrated Fishing System perceived bythem would be realized over a period.

(Key words: FisherwoTrLen, Capacity building, Integrated system of fishing, Perspectlue plan)

Tamil Nadu having the second longest coastlineof about 1000 kin ranks seventh in fish productionin India and has a rich potential for the developmentof marine fisheries (Sarguna,1998). Nearly one lakhfishermen are engaged in active fishing spreadingover 422 fishing villages in the State. The capital ofthe State, Chennai alone has 44 fishing villages,called `kuppams'.

Fishing is normally a male preserve. However,the post-harvest fish product development in thesmall scale fishing sector is mostly womendominated. Much of the skilled labour in post-harvest enterprises is provided by the womenfolk.The role of women in the subsidiary activities offishing is considerable along the Tamil Nadu coast.About 70 percent of the persons participating inmarketing activities at the landing centers arewomen. Fish marketing forms the greatest singlesource of income for women.

However, fisherwomen as any other women inagriculture, are not in the mainstream, but remainmargil`,\1ized. Their labour and contribution are notreflected in the census or in surveys of the fishingcommunities. Many of their needs remainundocumented, underestimated and ignored.Fisherwomen are often caught in a deprivation trap

of powerlessness, vulnerability, physical weakness,

poverty and marginalization and reflect the Indianscenario characterized by these oppressiveconditions of women (Sathiadas and Panikar,1989,Rajendran,1992, Herzl,1993 and Mazumdar,1984).

Technology opens the doors to modernization.However, technological changes in traditional act]vitiesoften displace women workers. Low literacy, coupledwith lack of training resulting in low level of skills anddisplacement, reduce women's participation ineconomic pursuits. All these lead to the resultingunequal status of women. Inoreasingly in the past fewyears the notion of participation as an exercise ofempowering women has gained wide support.Empowement is an active process, enabling womento realize their full identity and power and build uptheir capacities to become partners in the process ofdevelopment (Devadas, 1997).

There is a growing realization that it is necessaryto understand and appreciate the traditionaltechnologies and the resource endowments of peopleso as to make programmes more effective. Thisresearch is a maiden experiment with fishcrwomenemploying a set of PRA techniques for situationanalysis based on which capacity building attemptswere made. This action research was taken up with

Fisherwomen in integrated fishing system 307

the specific objectives to study the profile offisherwomen, take efforts for empowerment of thefisherwomen with special thrust on awareness

generation, and evaluate the outcomes or the effortsin quantitative and qualitative dimensions.

METHODOLOGIES

This study was carried out in Mattaankuppam,located at `Kannaki Beach', Triplicane, Chennai, thecapital of Tamil Nadu. Semi-structured interviewsand PRA methods was adopted to study the profileof 100 fisher folk. Based on the profile of thefisher folk, capacity building efforts were made interms of technology transfer and exposure toeducational inputs.


Profile of fisherwomen

Women played a major role in pre-preparationand post-harvest fishing activities. Fisherwomen'swork schedule began from 3.00 A.M., when theirhusbands left for fishing. The work schedule endedup at around 11.00 P.M.

MaLtrix scoring exercise was done to elicitinformation related to motivatmg and facilitatingfactors for participation in fishing activity.Interactions and deliberations by the fisherfolk weremarked using beads of different colors and chalk

pieces. Raising of the standard of living was thefactor given the highest score (80%), followed by`economic independence' (50%).

Motivating Factors

S. No. Factors Scores

1. To raise the standard of living * * * * * *. * *

2. Economic Independence

3. To occupy time usefully

4. Dislike household work *

One * = represents 10 % score

Among the facilitating factors, `fishing being atraditional activity' was given the highest score ( 100

percent) followed by `need to help husband/father/son' (80 percent) and `satisfaction in looking afterown business' (40 percent).

The fish processing activity was found to be theexclusive domain of women. Fisherwomen wereengaged also in drying the trash fish and waste fromfish for poultry feed or glass factories and a few wereoccupied in packaging, transportmg and tradmg.

Facilitating Factors

S. No. Factors Scores

I.2.3.4.5. Fishing being a traditional ********************

activity

Need to help husband father/son/others

Satisfaction in looking alterour businessTechnolog)r and labour savingdevices available

F`amily sLzc is small

6. Encouragement from familymembers

One * = represents 10 % score

The major activities carried out by the fisherfolkwas fish drying and preservation. The constraintsin drying and salt-curing expressed by thefisherwomen were:

• Non-availability of drying equipment leading todrying on unhygienic platforms.

• Lack of areas available to put up permanentdrying structures

• Low price for their products owing to poorquality.The fisherwomen played a major role in the

decision making related to both fishing andhousehold activities either singly orjointly with theirmen. The maximum time consuming activity wasfishing, followed by cooking food. The least time wasreported to be spent on `sleep' since they normally

go to bed very late and woke up very early in themorning. Women never participated in fishing.Twenty-five families from the middle income andhigh income groups used labour saving devices toease their household chores.

Impact of the capacity building efforts

The PRA exercises brought to light the socio-economic conditions of the fisher folk under studyand revealed the need to build up the capacity ofthe fisherwomen to promote their quality of living.The capacity building efforts included education onappropriate technologies and exposure todevelopmental inputs.

Demon,stration of appropriate technologies: Theconstraint faced in drying fish, expressed by thefisherwomen, prompted the researcher to design lowcost portable dryers which would ensure hygienicand faster drying. Two dryers, a bamboo dryer and

308 8. Shanthi & M. Jayanthi

a solar dryer, were designed, for drying 2 kg of rish ata time. Demonstrations and field trials were conductedfor the benerit of the risherwomen. In addition training

programmes were conducted on hygienic handling ofrish and fish food recipes. The trials were made by thefisherwomen and the advantages of the new dryerswere understood by them.

Awareness about programmes and welfaremeasures,. Frequent contacts with the ExtensionOfficer of the Directorate of Fisheries, Governmentof Tamil Nadu enabled the fisherwomen, men andyouth to become aware of the programmes andwelfare measures. Twenty fisherwomen got sanctionto receive the aluminum containers used fortransporting fish.

Vocational skill training and entrepreneurshipcieL/eJopnrienf.. EXNORA groups facilitated 45fisherwomen to get training on Entrepreneurial skillsto manage micro-enterprises. Twenty educated

youth (10 boys and 10 girls) could get vocational

Fish related |iroducts

Setting up fish sales depots inthe kuppam and outside

Starting fast food outlets toprepare and sell fishdelicacies at the sea-shore

lnitiating a production unit for

proce§§ing and preparing valueadded products• Fish pickles• Salt-cured rish• Driedfish

skill training in basic computer programmes. After

getting training on making sea shell fancy articles,five youth were absorbed in the production unit bythe trainer himself. After attending thedemonstration on fish pickle making, five womeninitiated pickle making on a commercial basis on asmall scale. An association by name "KannakiEXNORA Sakthi" was registered with 35 womenmembers.

Prepanng a perspechue plan for an irtiegrateds9sfem o//l.shl.ng.. Against the backdrop of the PRAexercises done earlier, the fisherwomen made aSWOT analysis and identified their own strength (S),weakness (W), opportunities (0) as well as threats

(T) and envisaged an Integrated fishing system. Thewomen perceived a number of interlinked activitiesrelated to fish sales, rish waste utilization and settingup auxiliary enterprises.

A perspective plan for Integrated Fishing Systemis shown in Fig. 1.

Fish Waste Utili8ation

Unit for direct supply topoultry feed mix

Unit for supply to glassfactory

Auriliary Enterpri8e8

Starting small scale community coldstorage units and renting them out

Supply of lee/salt throughwomen's clubs

Net mending units

Preparation and sale of decorativearticles from sea-shells

Rcnting out vehicles fortransportation

Fig.1. Perspective plan for an Integrated Fishing System

Preparation of perspective plan for Integrated System of Fishing

The SWOT analysis helped the fisherwomen to reason out systematically and analytlcally the Importantfacts related to strength, opportunities and threats.

Strengths Weakness

• Indigenous knowledge and technology

• Tenacity and capacity to put in hard work

• Understanding of market trends• Ability to withstand crisis during lean periods.

• Willingness to take risks

• Poor communication skills owing to illiteracy,poverty, etc.,

• Lack of technical skills to produce value addedfood products from fish

• lack ofinfrastructural facilities for transportation,provision of Ice and salt, drying or storing fish.

• Inadequate credit/marketing support

Fisherwomen in integrated fishing system 309

Opportunities Threats

• Infrastructural facilities being promoted by . Interference of launches during catamarangovernment fishing

• Access to programmes of Government for . Weather forecast such as cyclones andpromoting fisheries depression in the sea adversely affecting fishing

• Exposure to media and educational facilities leading to risks.

• Vocational skill training programmes for . AS their dwelling area belongs to the templeunemployed youth trust property of `Parthasarathi Swamigal

Temple', there is always a Threat to vacate theland.

The SWOT analysis done by the representativesor the fisherwomen revealed the following:

CONCLusloN

This study has established the credibility of PRAas a tool for applied research in social scienccs. Thisexercise enabled the fisherwomen to examine theirliving conditions, identify needs and problems aswell as explore solutions on their own. IfMattaankuppam people continue their collectiveefforts, the Integrated Fishing System perceived bythem would be realised over a period.

REFERENCES

Sarguna, M. ( 1998). An appraisal of coastal fisheriesin Tamil Nadu (1991-96). M. PhiJ. 7'hesi.s,Department of Geography, Queen Mary'sCollege, Chennai.

Sathiadas, R. and Panikar, K.K. (1989). Socio-economic status of marine fishermen alongMadras coast. Report Marl.rie Fisher!.esJri/or7riatr.on Seru{ce, pp.13-14, Cochin.

Rajendran,I. ( 1992). Marine rish marketing in TamilNa.du. FLeport B0BP Post-Harvest FisheriesI+oject, pp.12-15, ODA.

Herzl, T. (1993). Women in fisheries. Social Wez/areXI,(6)., 27-30.

Mazumdar, V. (1984). In Worrien I.ri FoctJs-ACommunity in Search of Equal Roles, pp. 7-8,Sangam Books, Hyderabad.

Devadas Rajammal, P. (1997). Empowerment ofwomen through education in science andtechnology. Paper, Australian Joint RegionalConference GASAT and JOS7`E, Curtin Universityof Technology, Perth, 5-8 Dec 1997. 89p.

/. /ric!ian Soc CoasfaJ agrtc. I?es., 24(2), 310-311, 2006

National Agricultural Extension Policy Framework -Scope and Prospects for Coastal Agro-ecosystem

C. KARPAGAM, a. K. BANDYOPADYAY, D. BURMAN and A. R. BAL

Central Soil Salinity Research lnsti.luteRegional Research Station, Canning Town -743 329, West Bengal

The Framework of National Ag.icultural Extension Policy provides reforms and suggestion toalleviate the poverty through agricultural development in this changing global environment.This paper attempts to study the broad areas / issues and clause in the National AgriculturalExtension Policy and analyze tl`e various scope and prospects tor aH aloas in general and thecoastal area of West Bengal in particular.

(Key words: National Agncultural E:xtensron Policy, Frameu]ork, Scope, Coastal area)

The Union cabinet of India has approved theNational Agricultural Policy on July 25th, 2000. Ofthis, the generation and transfer of technology forma major thrust area and the reforms in agriculturalextension will be implemented through a unique

policy framework called the National AgriculturalExtension Policy (NAEP). This framework policymainly concentrates in ten thrust area to reinventand re-coil the existing extension system in India.This paper discusses the various thrust areas aswell as various clauses under each area and analyzethe scope and prospects for all areas in general andthe coastal area of West Bengal in particular.

Policy reforms

Under this thrust area there were many clausessuch as farming system approach, multi-agencyextension service, promotion of farmer participatoryapproach, etc. As fair as Farming System approach isconcerned, coastal West Bengal has lot of potential infish farming sector. The average aquaculture

productivity in West Bengal is only 250-500 kg ha-1when compared to the productivity of Andhra Pradeshand Tamil Nadu which is i -2 t hall . In this backgroundthe farming system approach with more emphasis onrishery may be a potential area to be tapped.

Under the agro-ecosystem component of NATP, 13TAR-IVLP proj`ects have been completed in venous partsof coastal area in India ln West Bengal two projectshad been undertaken, one in south 24 Parganas andthe other one ln Midnapore district. Based on thisexpenence the project may be extended to other coastaldistricts too to encourage the farmers' participation.

Institutional restructuring

ln this head, eight clauses have been highlightedDistrict level Agricultural Technology Management

Agency (ATMA) model, Strategic Research andExtension Plan (SREP) through PRA, upgrading theextension staff, strengthening Research-Extension-Farmer linkage, group approach for extension are someof the important reforms under the mstitutionalrestructuring component.

The present extension model in West Bengal isexemplary for democratic decentralization. A recentinnovative approach ATMA has been introduced in 28districts in 7 state.s. The experience of those stateshas been taken in to account to introduce ATMA modelin the coastal distnct of West Bengal on pilot basis.

Another important institutional restructuringreform is the group approach for extension. WestBengalisfamousforitsruralyouthclubs,thosevillageclubs consist of mainly the farmers as its members.So these clubs can be converted to farmer's interestgroup or self help group (SHG) with the initiative oflocal NGOs or other developmental instltutes.

Management reforms

This reform mainly deals with the centre stateco-operation in agricultural extension managementand also the alternative extension system arrangementsuch as para-professional based private extension,NCO based extension service and contracting outextension service.

Unlike Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh thepara extension professional concept has not beenwell developed in West Bengal. Utilizing the potentialof para-extension professional in least developedcoastal districts may be an effective alternativeextension approach as for West Bengal.

Improving Research-Extension-Farmer Linkage

This reform mainly dealing with the aspectssuch as direct interface between farmer and

NAEP framework - scope and policy311

scientist. act]`'ating emstmg mterfacc mechanism activities by expanding the women work force in theand pnont}- setting based on SREP. As per direct rield of agricultural extension services.

bnut:T:bee a:rTc¥t:=eursn:edr=:;n:Sat: 1:cC:recve:: Use of I nformation TechnologySlgnificant success, However, Punjab is a small state The proposed framework policy for Nationalandwhatisapplicablein punjabmaynotbepossib|e Agricultural Extension has been given emphasisin large state like West Bengal. But this can be pilot through IT appllcatlon. It is a fact that IT is getting

;i:S:eedn t(me :[es :a°taes:::e: I::rr]]Cctus] t°ufraYeosrtg:neL:::Ilo:¥ g::aL: %::: r]aT :::t:: ::f:tufrrL:: t[:er::::u°t?:nd;::dse;whlch are working in that coastal area. F`or farreachedmoretourbanareasthantoruralareasimproving the interface between the Research- The use of Information shops on the linesextension; the liaison unit concept may also be recommended by M.S. Swaminathan should beIntroduced in the coastal area. established through out the country, rather than

Capacity building of extension functiona,ies existing in few isolated pockets. The ultimate aim

lt is mainly deals with HRD component All :nfftohrL:apt::I:ys::]paste/dkt]:s[:sL,Sf::::ht:s::°o=::: :::::::

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Empowerment of farmers Financial sustainability and resource mobHjzationThis reform deals with the sut)jects such as cost-Participation of fairmers ln any extension cutting mechanism for extension services, efficlent

programeis the firstway loattaln theempowerment use of available resources, privatizatlon of agroAn example of a case of Successful farmer services towards realistic cost recovery of a8ro

:rna:::ter::netrel|sns:e:ri:t:na:ryparTcaen::i::tuflroew:: serv|ces' etccntlrcl}-controlled by farmers and a direct The coastal agro-ecosystem is unique andtransaction exists bctwcen farmers and buyers. |n mostly it operates under CDR agriculture and it isthe same way, farmers in the coastal area of West mainly consists of small and marginal farmers,Bengal have scope in fish marketing. Other therefore promotingtheprivateextension alonemaysuccessful approaches like Farmers sandy (Ryuthu not be a good option. Public funded extension shouldBazaar in Punjab and Andhra Pradesh, Ulazhavar continue to play a predominant role and whereversandhai in Tamil Nadu) and e-choupal may also be feasible, co-operative and contract farming can betried in coastal area of west Bengal to enhance the promoted. For effective cost cutting mechanism,empowerment of farmers encouragement of NG0s and other corporate sector

lvlainstreaming of women in agriculture involvement may also be taken Into account

This reform deals with two aspects of women in Wherever possible.agriculture, one is about farm women and another Changing role of Governmentone iswomen extension workers. A studyconducted As far as the coastal ecosystem of west Bengalin the coastal area of Sundarbans shows that is concern enhancing competition through Agrl-

participation of women in agricultural operation ls Clinics and Agri-Business center may pave anvery low. For example, participation of Women in effective way to tap the potential of youngactivities like raising nursery and transplanting ln entrepreneur to prepare business plan, conductpaddycultivation isonly22%. Butthiscasemight market survey, and other needed help.be different in state like Tamil Nadu or Andhra Strengthening farmers association is anotherPradesh A FAO study shows that in West Bengal important area for the government to concentrateparticipation of women in small scale rlsheries is |n this context the changingrole of government mayvery limited. The potential of women in coastal area be an effective facilitator rather than a servicecan be brought into agriculture as well as fishery provider.

Jr. Jnc!ran She. CoastaJ agrlc. Res., 24(2), 312-314, 2006

Agro-ecosystem Analysis of a Village in Coastal Areas ofSundarbans through Participatory Approach

S.1{. JHA1, C. R. BISWAS1, a. MAJl' and a. K. BANDYOPADHYAY

Central SoH Salinity Research Institute, Regional Research Station,Canning Town, South-24 Parganas -743 329, West Bengal

ThecoastalareasofSundarbansformatypicalocosystemwithlowproductivityduotoavariotyof constraints,technical,socioeconomicalandjnfi.astructuralinnatiJre,whichwarrantspoclalattention. Therefore, for increaslng the productivity in a sustained manner, partlcipatoryapproach was followed by applying Partlcipatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools, viz. agro.ecosystem mapping, transect walk, problem analysis und.I the top-down approach. ThePsru°gbioes#osdw\ehree:doesns:r',`,:tse`shro°,+%hn`,r^avr±=C.`.r=.I^k.i.=.fiii!5c_ii..=±L-=i_i='i-s::`F[e-Vp:g'bi%Pm%.°Tahcen=`'und.ysuggostodthepossibilitlesoflmprovingthoconditionthroughapproprlatousoofopportunitio8available. The study was concluctod in two hamlets of one vHlage in the coastal areas ofSundarbans under South-24 Parganas district of West Bongal.

(Ecg u)ords: Land utihzattoa pattern, Enterpnses, Production systems)

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) emphasizesfarmers' participation in technology assessment. Itinvolves farmers in determining directions fortechnological Innovations. Such information arecritical in planning on-farm research programmeswhere decisions about the types of farmer§'involvement are integral to research design and themanagement of on-farm trials. This is anInterdisciplinary approach where the opportunity forlearning Interdisciplinary research achievements isavailable. The scientists working in such

programmes facilitate the process of appraisal, andthe farmers do the appraisal themselves in the formof self drawn pictures and diagrams (Mettrick andWessel,1986, Conway,1987). Obuectives of this study,undertaken in Sundarbans region of West BengalIncluded understanding the farming system andidentifying system problems and solutions thereofthrough participatory data collection procedures.


The present study was conducted in twohamlets, viz. Bodo Dumki and Chhoto Dumki of avillage called Dumki, located in Canning Block ofSouth 24-Parganas district of west Bengal. Climateis subtropical with high humidity (80-95 %).Maximum temperature is about 32°c during themonth of May and minimum is 21 °c during January.Rainfall is high (1768 mm annually), of which 80 %occurs during June to September. Rainfall duringrest of the months is erratic and irregular.

1Present address. Central Research

The system tools and methods were used foridentifying the indigenous natural resource types,relationships and key decision making systems inthe village. As the study was completely partlcipatoryand interdisciplinary in nature, the followingmethods and procedures were used to invokeparticipation and data collection.

Agro-ecosystem mapping

The farmers themselves identified resources andlocations, their utility and decision making systems.They drew a map on the ground and later translatedinto the drawing sheet. The farmers discussedvarious decision making system while constructingthe maps, and other useful information about thevillage was also collected while preparing the agro-ecosystem map.

Village transect

Three transect walks through the village wereconducted along with villaigers and discussionsduring the walk helped to Identify Indigenousnatural resource types, elements of systems (Conway1985, Mettrick,1993) to find contrast in variousniches and reasons of contrast.

RESULTS AND DISCuSSION

Agro-ecology

The village Dumki lies in the coastal areas ofSundarbans, which is the biggest delta in the world,and possesses important coastal agro-ecologicalfeatures. Out of the 429 farm households, 70% were

Institute For Jute And Allied Fibres, Barrackpore 700120, West Bengal

Agro-ecosystem analysis through PRA 313

-

+

engaged in agricultural or allied activities, while 2%\vere engaged ln.service, 3% in business and the rest25% as dally paid labourers (DPL). Out of this 429farm households, 3.26% were in high, 14°/o in medium,28% in low and 54.74% in very low income group.

Land utilization pattern

The village is having 835 acres as total cultivablearea. Land holdings of the farmers are mostly lowor marginal without proper water control facility.There were about 37 families in the village withoutany cultivable land, and they were living in the khaslands orpwD, Govt. of west Bengal. On an average,more than 85°/o of the total cultivated area was foundto be monocropped having an average yield potentialof the rain fed rice as low than 1.75 t ha-I. Undersecond crop hardly 15% area was available.Imgation was not well developed in the village andthe main sources of irrigation are ditches, ponds,canal and some shallow tubewells. Various soil typesexhibited in the village determined the land usepattern. The soil types ranged from silly clay loamin the high land to silty clay in medium and lowland.Vegetable crops grown were pumpkin, chilli, potatowhile plantation crops were coconut, mango, sapota.

Enterprises

From the enterprise map prepared by thevillagers, agriculture (70%) came as the .main

occupation of the villagers followed by dally paidlabour (25°/o) due to lack of alternate sources ofincome. There were only four husking machines,eight tailoring machines and three chihan/cin units,the work load and income of which were limited.Some families were having cows as source of milkand fuel; some had goats, sheep, poultry birds andducks but as no-investment enterprises. In ChhotoDumki, pigs are reared for meat purpose but at avery small scale Fish, in general, was found ascommon enterprise and sold ln the local market aftermeeting their family requirement.

System properties

Crop production System

The village is monocropped with rice duringkhartJseason. Out of 835 acres of land 818 acreswere®ccupied by rice. Very small area was cultivatedwith vegetables in uplands. During rabt, 85-90°/o ofthe area was kept as fallow, while on 6% areadifferent types of vegetables on 4% area of boro rice

The cropping intensity (C.I.) of the village was

200% only in 10-20% of the area while for the restarea it was only 10% Scope for Increasing thecropping Intensity was limited mainly due to lack ofIrrigation water and short and mlld spell of wlnterlimiting the choice of rabl` crops.

Table 1. Village transect : Dumhi, Distnct South-24 Parganas (WB)

Upland Medium land I,ow land

Soil type Silty clay-loan Silty clay Sllty clay

Land use Houses, cattle-shed, Houses, cattle-shed, Cultivation, ponds,crops, fallow cultivation, fallow canal, fallow

Soil characteristics Brownish red, gravel, lowPotato,pumpkin,chilll Brownish gray, loam Black fine

Water retention Water retentive Water retentive

Field Crops Rlce Rlce

Vegetables c[op8 Potato, pumpkin, bhindi

Crop residuesPond,canal,ditches

Plantation crops Coconut, palm Palm, date palm,sapota, arecanut coconut,

Fodder Crop residucs Crop residues

Trees Babool, neem, ber Guava, date palm, ber, ficus spp

Water Source Hand pump, pond Hand pump, pond, canal

Weeds Cyperus rotundus Chenopodium album Chard spp,Echinochloa colonum Setana g louca

Livestock Pigs, sheep, goatCow. goat, poultry, duck Cow, duck, goat, sheep

ProblemsOpportunities Low productivity I,ow productivity of Low productivity of rice

of vegetables rice, less cropped areas less productive animals

Increase the scope of Increase the scope of irrigation, Introduction of HYV ofirrigation, Selection of mtroduction of less water rice and paddy-cum-

suilablc HYV and requiring Crops, animal fish farming, Increasecropping pattern production boro rice

314 S. K. Jha ef a/.

Livestock production system

Among the animals, cows, goats, sheep, pigs,etc. dominated the population, while some farmersmaintaincd small population of poultry birds andducks for additional income. Various dlseases likefc)ot and mouth disease, haemorrhagic septicemiawere the major ones which mainly occurred duringMarch-April. The problem in livestock productionsystem was productivity and infertility of animals.Goats were susceptible to diseases during August-December, while poultry birds and ducks were proneto diseases in November-March. Disease infestationln case of fishes and pigs were observed duringOctober to February. Disease Infestation particularlyin fishes some times caused colossal damagefinancially to the fish farmers.

Transect walk map

This was undertaken thoroughly along with agroup of villagers. Information on land, soil,vegetation, crops and cropping pattern werecollected through discussion and visual observationsat site (Table 1).

Scope of irrigation could be increased so thatrabi. (boro) crops could be taken up by the farmersin the area. In addition to this, the productivity can

be increased s,irit,:. '`rough Introduction ofsuitableHYV of rice as \\/I(`11 3s other crops and Introduce

suitable cropping pattern. Introduction of less waterrequiring crops could be another aspect of utilizingthe resources available. Successful Introduction aswell as implementation of paddy-Gum-fish and goodbreed of livestock can augment the Income of thefarmers as well.

REFERENCES

Conway, G.R. (1985). Agro-ecosystem analysisAgnoultural Administration 20: 31 -55.

Conway, G.R. (1987). The properties of agro-ecosystems. Agrzctt/fora/ Sgsfems 24: 95-117,

Hoque, M. Z. (1984). Crappl.ng Sgsfems in Asl.a.. On

Farm Research and Management, IRRI, LosBanos, Phillipines.

Mettnck, H. and Wessel, M. (1986). Fami.ng SystemResearch as an Analiitical Franeu)ark and a Tool/or 7+a{.nt.rig, Bulletin 23, ICRA, Wageningen,The Netherlands.

Mettrick, H. ( 1993). Deue!apmen! Or!.enfed I?esecirchin Agr{.ct/!ft{re, ICRA, Wageningen, TheNetherlands.

L/ /rtc/Ion Soc CòclsraJ agrT-c Res., 24(2), 315-319, 2006

Integrated Restructuring of Homesteads through FarmerParticipatory Approach - A Case Study from Central Kerala

M. JOY JOHN JACOB and S. REGEENA

Cropping Systems Research Centre, Kerala Agricultural UniversityKaramana, Thiruvananthapuram -695 002, Kerala

A two year study was undertaken as part of the National Agricultural Technology Project entitledÀnalysis and Development of Homestead Farms of Kerala -A farmer Participatory Approach'

to restructure an existing homestead in an integrated manner througri planned interventjonsinto a sustainable unit. Technical interventions suggested after on-farm discussions with thefarmer and considering his resources, preferences and constraints were increasing croppingintensity by adding new crops, introducing trees, integrating poultry as subsidiary source ofincome, promoting biomass generation and recycling of farm waste, correcting the farmers'practice with respect to nutrient management and plant protection and promoting integratedapproaches for nutrient and pest management. The technical interventions and restructilringresLilted in higher cropping intensity, improved soil fertility, bjomass production and laboLirgeneration. Interventions like inclusion of intercrops and improved and scientific managementpractices made the system more productive. Technologies that reduced the cost of cultivationand Increased the profitability made the system economically viable. Besides these qualities,the restructured system provided nutritional security to the farm lamily.

(Key words.. Homesteads, Integration, Restnjctunng, Soil fertillty, Nutritronal secunty)

*

Integrated land use practicès are becomingincreasingly Important for the small and marginalfarmers. In Kerala. the small and marginalhomesteads constitute o`zer 90 perceflt of the totaloperational holdings of Kerala. Homesteads/Homegardens of Kerala epitomize an intense agroforestrysystem in which plants, animals and men co-existin a mutually symbiotic manner. Jacob (1997)defined home garden as a functional and selfsustaining farm unit which consists of aconglomeration of crops and multipurpose trees,

planted arbitrarily, with or without animals/poultry/apicu]ture, owned and primarlly managed by thedwelling farm family, with the objectives of satisfyingthe basic family needs (food, fuel, timber) and

producing marketable surplus for the purc`hase ofnon-producible items.

Homestead farming has the advantage of beingbased large|v on local and accessible resources.However, selection and management of enterprisesin the home garden is mostl`' unscientiric and basedon farmer's perception and expenence. Jose andShanmugaratnam (1993) opined that recent trendsin agrarian structure and the high marketorientation exert pressure on the home garden andIts sustainability is under threat. Unless themanagement is directed in the right path, thcrc isImminent danger to the system's sustainaLbility. Inthe past few years, attempts to improve farming in

homesteads have been through a piece mealapproach. The crops/enterprises and itsmanagement aspects have been singled out anddevelopment projects formulated. Improvement ofthis traditional but complex farming system can beachieved only through a whole-farm or systemsapproach. Hence, an attempt was made as part ofthe National Agricultural Technology Project entitledÀnalysis and Development of Homestead Farms of

Kerala-A Farmer Participatory Approach' torestructure existing homesteads in an integratedmanner through planned interventions intosustainable units.

MATERIALS AND IVIETHODS

The two year on-farm study was undertaken lnthe Thrissur Districts of the Central Zone of Keraladuring 2002-2004. During a preliminary surveyconducted, the tree-crop-livestock combination andsocioeconomic aspects of the homestead, thewillingness and suggestions of the farmer forrestructuring and improving the homestead wereascertained. A multidisciplinary team of scientistsalong with the Agricultural Officer of the panchayatvisited the farmers' field thoroughly analyzed theexisting situation, discussed with the farmer (on-farm), and rinalized interventions to restructure anddevelop the homestead. The homestead ofMr.Thomas of Thekkumkara pcinchagcif, Thrissur

M, J. J. Jacob and S. Regeena316

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318 M. I. J. Jacob and S Regeena

with a size of 0.4 ha (100 cents) was one among theseveral homesteads selected for restructuring. Thenet area available for cropping after excluding theareas occupied by house, well and other permanentstructures was 0.376 ha (94 cents). The technicalinterventions suggested included increasingcropping Intensity by adding new crops, introducingtrees, integrating poultry as subsidiary source ofincome, promoting biomass generation and recyclingof farm waste, correcting the farmers' practice withrespect to nutrient management and plant

protection and promoting integrated approaches fornutrient and pest management. The homestead,thus restructured, was monitored for two years forthe changes in cropping intensity, soil fertility,biomass production, labour generatic)n, marketingand consumption patterns and economics.


The crops, trees and livestock met the diverserequirements or the farm family. The variousenterprises, besides increasing the production fromthe farm, resulted in better utilization of family,

generated more biomass and income. The details ofthe situation in the homestead before (pre) and alterintcrventions (post) are furnished in Tables I a 2.The homestead model evolved by restructuring andmlroduction of technical intervention.s_exhibited ahigh degree of interaction and Integration amonglhc various enterprises and with the farm family,which contributed to the sustainability of the model.Planting of new crops and trees in the vacantintcrspaces and unutilized areas resulted in morecl`ficient use of the available land resources andresulted in increasing the cropping intensity fromthe earlier 126 % to 209 C'/o. The interventions and

newly Introduced enterprises were also very effectivein enhancing the utilization of family, labour,cspecially female. Planting of the entlre newlyIntroduced pepper vihes was undertaken by thefarmer's wife over a period of time in the pits takenbv the male labourers and the farmer. The poultrycomponent, besides being remuneratlve, served ln

generating employment for the farm family. Theamount of produce marketed and consumed by thefarm family also increased. The newly Introducedcomponents, especlally banana, augmented thebiomass that could be recycled and added as organicmanure, The coconut wastes generated were moreeffectively recycled in the system. Coconut husk that\vas earlier sold was used for moisture conservation.

The soil fertility status improved progressivelyover the study period (Table 3). The higher organiccarbon and nutrient status in the homestead soilmay be due to the integrated nutrient managementthrough addition of organic manures, recycling ofcrop residues and soil-test based fertilization. Thenutritional security offered by the tree-crop-livestockmix in the homestead to the fa.rm family whichcomprised of two adults and two children wasworked out and compared with the minimumrequirements prescribed by the Indian MedicalAssociation (Table 4), It was found that theavailability of protein, carbohydrate, fat and energyfrom the components in the restructured homesteadwas well above that required for the farm family,thus revealing the nutritionally security offered bythe homestead.

Table 3. Changes in sotl fertility in the homesteadcluring the study penod

Period pH Organic Av.P Av.Kcarbon `%) 'kg/ha) (k8/ha)

Before intervention 5.6 0.88 34 loo

6 months alter 59 1.05 34 175

I year after 56 I.02 48.64 304

2 years after i.2 I.18 45.00 307

®able .. NiLtTit\ona[ balaf\ce sheet Of the homesteadFor a hmily Of 1 tban + 1 veDla + 2 children (below 15 years)

chnualRequirement ^vailat,ility

Protein (kg) 86.50 91.280

Fat (kg) 30.663474800 350.520

Carbohydrate (kg) 850.23

Energy (K cal) 6905571

The interventions like inclusion of intercropsand improved and scientific management practicesmade the system more productive. Adoption ofIntegrated Nutrient Management with a thrust onsoil-test and need based fertilization, Integrated PestManagement with priority for use of biocontrolagents, inclusion of multipurpose trees, especiallynltrogen fixing trees, contributed to protection ofnatural resources. Inclusion of diverse andsubsidiary enterprises has led to stability of thesystem. Technologies that reduced the cost ofcultivation and increased the profitability made thesystem economically viable. The multiple enterprisesin the home garden reduced the risk of adverseeffects from pests, weather, and economic factors.This results in a higher level of stability.

Restructuring homestead 319

•,

I]ome gardens can be improved, provided it isbased on sufficient undcrstanding and sound

principles. Detailed analysis of plant associationsin the home garden could provide ai better knowledgeof the ecological and economic compatibility ofdifferent plant species. This could lead to new

planting patterns based on a selection of speciesand varieties in terms of such variables as nutrientcontent in the produce and market demand, as wellas light tolerance and root structure. Such improveddesigns, however, need to retain the combination or

perennial trees with annuals. Perennials require lesslabour for their care and hence are more affordableto poorer people.

Improvement of home gardens is not onlyhampered by the lack of research but it also requiresa reorientation of existing extension services.Extension work focuses mainly on single crops

instead of using the integrated approach needed forsuch complex and diverse systems.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The research was conducted under NationalAgricultural Technology Project on homesteadfarming at Kerala Agricultural Universlty. Theauthors are thankful to the NATP, ICAR for providing

grant for the research work.

REFERENCES

Jacob, J. (1997). Structure analysis and systemdynamics of agroforestry home gardens ofSouthern Kerala. Ph. D. Thesi.s, College ofAgriculture, Agricultural University, Kerala.

Jose, D. and Shanmugaratnam, N. (1993).Traditional home gardens of Kerala: Asustainable human ecosystem. Agro/orestrgrSystems 24: 203-213.

J Jndiari Sac. Coastai agri`c Res„ 24(2), 320-321, 2006

Farmers Participatory Assessment of Biological ControlMeasures in Rice Based Coastal Agro-ecosystem

K. PONNUSAMY, M. JAYANTHI and M. KUMURAN

Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture75, Santhome High Road, Chennai -700 028, Tamil Nadu

Alarm.r'sparticipatoryfieldstudywasundortakenontheuseofbiologicalagents,vlz.PsoudomonasWuour.scans and Tri.chogramma /.aponjci/in ln the coastal agro-ecosystem of Tiruvallur district ofTamilnadu. It has c.eated an awarone8a among farmers that P. fluorescens was efloctivo in themanagomont of grain discolouration and I. /.apor/cwm ln the management of stem boror.

(Kegwords..Parltapatoryruralappraisal,Btologicalcor.trol\nnce,Gramdtscolouratton,S€emborer)

The two most important pest problems of ricecultivation in the coastal agro-ecosystem of TiruvallurdistrictofTamilnaduaregraindiscolouration(acomplexdisease due to fungal and bacterial infection) and stemborer due to Scpophagci tncerfules. Famers in this areaeither resort to Indiscriminate use of pesticides or neverapplyanypesticidesevenwhenthepestsseriouslyaffectthe crop. Venkateswaralu ( 1992) made an assessmentofthepotentialitiesforincreaseinriceproductionunderdifferent ecosystem in the eastern belt and came to theconclusion that through improved agronomic and othercrop management practices, the yield could beImproved. Chattopadhyay (1993) stated that in orderto achieve the desired results aLnd to evolve appropriatetechnology for an area, on-farm trials are to bcconductedinvolvmgfamers.Theparticipatoryfarmerswill be allowed to rna.nage the trials themselves in theirown way in collaboration with researchers andextension agencies. Farmers prefer this type ofexperimentation because it fosters immediate andobservable feedback on potentiaLlly useful technologies(Ohlmer and Borechmer et ciL 1998). In the abovebackground, a study was undertaken to manage theproblemsofgramdiscolourationandstemborerunderfarmers participatory rield trials.

MATEF{IALS AND METHODS

The grain discolouration and stem borerIncidence were assessed a.s major problems in ricecultivation by the farmers through Participatol`yRural Appraiisal (PRA) techniques The study onassessment of efficiency of various measures incontrolling grain discolouration in rice andassessment of the efficiency of the biological agent,vlz. Tnchogrammajaponicttm for control of rice stemborer were conducted in fields of 30 and 50 farmers,respectively under the project entitled `InstitutionVillageLinkageProgrammeforTechnologyAssessmentand Rerinement in the Coastal Agro-Ecosystem ofTiruvallur district of Tamilnadu'. This project wasimplemented at Kattur village, 50 kin north of Chennai.

The study was conducted during August 2001to January 2002 (Samba season). The size of thetreatment plot was 2000sq in. The weather wasmoderately warm wlth rains received betweenOctober to December. The soil was moderatelydrained clay loam with a pH of 7.4, low in nitrogen,medium in phosphorus, and high in potassium.

The followmg treatments were given:

Treatnent DO8a8C Tine of application

TL Carbcndarm 250 g ha-I 45 and 55 DAT

T2 Nccm oil 3% 500 ml ha-I 45 and 55 DAT

T3 Jedomonus I kg ha-I5ccha-I 45 and 55 DAT20,27,34and41DAT

fouourescerrs

T4 Tnchogramma

japonoum

No insecticides were applied to the plots released with

Trichogramma parasites, DAT - Date of transplanting

Carbendazim and neem oil were obtained from themarket. The biocontrol agents, viz. P. fluourescens andI. japo"oum were obtained from Sun Agro BiosystemPvt. I,td.1, Chennai. All the plots were monitored byscientists and farmers for natural enemies, pests, pestinfections, crop management practices and yields.


The results of both technological interventionsare discussed below:

Assessment of efficiency of various measures incontrolling of grain discolouration in rice

After harvest 1000 grains were selected, atrandom from ea.ch treated plot and number ofdiscoloured grains were counted From thispercentage of discoloured grains was calculated andIntensity of damage was graded as below.

1Does not suggest preference for the product

.

Farmers assessment for biological control

Table 1. Ejfect Of treatmer\t in grain discolouration

321

Observation Farmerspractice TreatmentCa]bendazim been oil Pseudomonas ftuourescerrs

Intensity of Infection H,gh Low Low Low

Wcight of 1000 grains (in g) 15.4 15.8 15.6 15.5

Grain yield (kg/ha) 3719 4180 4080 4010

Straw yield (kg/ha) 4830 5420 5320 5350

Cost of production (Rs/ha) 10840 1 1 145 20945 22040

Gross return (Rs/ha) 27531 30951 30270 29640

Net return (Rs/ha) 16691 19806 19325 18600

Benefit-Cost ratio 2.53 2.77 277 2.68

*

> 50 percent discoloured grain -High incidence

> 10 percent discoloured grain -Low incidence

The weight of the 1000 grains and the total plot

yield of straw and grain were determined. The resultsare given in Tablel .

It could be observed from Table 1 that the percentinfestation \vas high in farmers practice resulting inreduction c)f grain and straw yield. Even though thetreatments of carbendazlm , neem oil and P. /Zuourescensare at par with each other, the application of P.fluourescei'is can be recommended, since it was not onlyuseful in the management of grain discolouration, butalso for the control of other major diseases of rice suchas blast, helminthosporium leaf spots, bacterial leafblight and sheath blight (Nandakumar ef ciJ., 2000,2001, Vidyasekaran et ciz.,1997).

Assessment of efficiency of rrt'chogramma

/apom'cttm in controlling stem borer IncidencePlants affected by stem borer were counted in

each plot released with parasite from 2nd releaseonward to harvest. From this percent incidence wascalculated. After harvest, weight of 1000 grains wererecorded. Further, weights of straw and grain yieldwere measured. The results are given in Table 2.

It could be seem from Table 2 that the incidenceof stem borer in the parasite released plot remainedbelow the economic threshold level, resulting inhigher straw and grain yield Hence it can beconcluded that the release of r. jczporttcum @ 5 cchal I for four times at weekly intervals can effectivelycontrol the stem borer problem in rice.

CONCLUSION

The farmers who participated in the programme

got the awareness about this new concept in pestmanagement and gained the practical knowledge ofusing P flLiourescens and I. /apon[cum. It can beconcluded that technological innovations should belinked closely with what farmers are already doing,thereby reducing the cost of dissemination andensuring the appropriateness of the technology.

Table 2. E/Tec{ o/Trichogramma japonicum oncontrol of stem borer in rtce

Observation F`armer8 Parasitepractice released plot

Incidence of whitc ear > 2 percent < 2 percent

(Stem borer attack)15.2 15.4Weicht of 1000 grams (in g

Grain yield (kg/ ha) 3850 4125

Straw yield (kg/ha) 5230 5450

Cost of production (Rs/ha) 10420 10330

Gross return (Rs/ha) 28500 30495

Net return (Rs/ha) 18080 20165

Benefit-Cost ratio 273 295

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project was supported by Indian Councilof Agricultural Research under National AgriculturalTechnology Project fund.

REFERENCES

Chattopadhyay, S.B. ( 1993) . rechnoJogg GerLerat[.on.. I?o!eof FarTneTs, Extension Agents and Sctentist inE;xterrsionsirategyforAgnc.uturalDeuelopmeritin2PtCenfuny, Samanta (ed.), Mittal Publication, NewDelhl.

Nanda.kumar, R„ Babu, S., Viswanathan, R.,Raguchander, T. and Samiyappan, R. (2001).fteduction of systematic resistant in rice againstsheath blight disease Psendomonasfluot/resceus. SoijBwlogy 85 Biochemistry 33.. 6o3-612.

Ohlmer, 8. K. and Brechmer (1998). Understandingfarmers' decision making process and Improvingmanagerial a.ssistance. AgnouJtumz Economtcs 18273-290.

Venkateswaralu, 8. (1992) East merits more attention.The Hindu SuTuey Of Indian Agriculture, pp. 24-27 ,Chennai, India.

Vidhyasekaran, P., Sethuraman, K., Rajappan, K. andVasumathi, K. (1997), Power formulation ofPseudomoncls flttoLtrescens for control rice blast.Plant Pathology 46 .. 29 \-297 .

J /rid['an Sac. Cocistaz agrl.c. I?es., 24(2), 322-325, 2006

Problem Identification and Intervention Selectionthrough PLA Approach in Sundarbans

S. K. JHA1, a. MAJI1, C. R. BISWAS. and 8.1{. BANDYOPADIJYAY

Central Soil Salinity Research Institute. Regional Research StationCanning Town, South-24 Parganas-743 329, West Bengal

Sundarbans presently exists only at the smallest South-eastern corner of West Bengal. Forincreasing the productivity, identification of probloms and its remedial measures wore soughtthrough partlcipatory approach foHow®d by applying some Participatory Loaning and A.ction(PLA) tools, viz. problem-cau8® analysis techniques with bottom-up approach. Critical analysisof the diagraiTis indicated the actual causes, either primary, secondary or ®von tertiary,r®sponsiblo under a particular situation. The study has been done in two hamlots of one village,namely Dumki.

(Keg uiords.._Sc:c_ioeconoi"c COT.datron, PLA tools, Microfarrr.ing situations, Problem identifecat\on,Problem pnortwhon & ranki::ng, Problem-oouse arm.kysis diagram, Technotogunl interuenton,)

Sundarbans is situated between 21-35' and 22-40' North latitude and between 88-05' and 89-00'Eastern longittide at an altitude of o-3 in above MSL.It covers an area of 0.9630 M ha, out of which, about0.5366 M ha is under cultivation and habitation andthe rest 0.4264 M ha is under reserve mangroveforest. It is the biggest dcl(a of the World withmangrove forest. Apart from the mainland, theregion also consists of 102 delta islands, of Which,54 a]'e under habitation and the rest 48 are undermangrove rorcst vegetation (Anon., 1999). ForSundarbans, the extreme poverty provokes thepeople for over-exploitation of its natural resources,i.e. plants, animals, water and land without anyconsideration for regeneration and preservation. Asa result, the ecological balance in the region isdeteriorating at a very fast rate. Thus, to keep theecology unaffected by further human interference,agriculture in the area should be developed andmade a profitable livelihood means. F`or increasingthe productivity, identification of problems and itsremedlal measures were sought throughparticipatory approach followed by applying someParticipatory Learning and Action (PLA) tools, viz.

problem-cause analysis techniques with bottom-upapproach. This is presented in details in this paper.

METHODOLOGIES

PLA is a family of approaches, methods andbehaviours to enable poor people express andanalyse the realities of their lives and conditions,and themselves to plan, monitor, and evaluate theiractions. The common theme to different approaches

followed was the full participation of people in the

processes of learning about their need`s andopportunities, and in the action required to addressthem. The study was conducted in two hamletscomprising of over 500 farming families in the villageDumki under Canning P.S. representing socio-economically and demographically a typical villageof Sundarbasn.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIOII

Occui)ational statusThe village survey conducted by the authors

using PLA tools on the socioeconomic conditions ofthe people of Sundarbans indicated that about 70°/oot the people were directly or indirectly dependentch`agriculture. Besides, about 25°/a of the peoplewere daily paid labourers and were Indirectlydependent on agriculture, about 5°/o were dependenton other sources of income, viz. services (2%) andbusiness (3%) (Anon.,1999) . Land-holdings of mostof the farmers were low or marginal with complex,diverse and risk prone (CDR) agriculture.Productivity of crops and animals was very low dueto various constraints which were technical,socioeconomical and infrastructural in nature.Majority of the people were below the poverty lineand lived with extreme uncertamties. A good numberof families are unable to provide even two majormeals to their children throughout the year, whilemany others lived under debt throughout the life.The average family size of the area was found to be7.01 members while the average size of holding was

`Present address Central Research lnstitue For Jute And Allied Fibres, Barrackpore-700 120 West Bengal

lhtervention selection through PLA 323

as meagre as 0.76 acre (Jha et a!., 2003). Theeconomic condition of the farmers could be clearly

gauged from the fact that they had to feed sevenmouths from less than one acre.

A very large number of men and women folkdid not have more than three months employmentin a year. At present, the area did not show anyimmediate prospect for industrialization.

Micro farming situations and problem identification

During the transect walk of the village, alongwith the villagers, different micro farming situationswere identified based on the various soil and watercharacteristics and related biophysical factors of thearea. Considering the characteristics of differentmicro farming situations along with their croppingsystems, problems and production systems were alsoidentified by the farmers and the scientist-facilitators. After necessary discussion, interactionand triangulation these were thus categorizeddescribed below (Table 1).

All the farming situations belong to Complex,Diverse and Risk Prone (CDR) class within SmallProduction System (SPS), Problems of the above

micro farming situations were identified on the basisof problem-cause analysis involving the farmers. The

problems identified against each of the micro farmingsituations are given below.

The problems, thus identified on the basis ofimportance to the farmers for each micro farmingsituation, were prioritized through matrix ranking basedon their extent, importance, severity and frequency.The foremost part of the exercise was to identify the

priorlty of the listed problems through matrix ranking.After ranking, the problems were designated with aspecific number as per priority in action.

Problem analysis for finalization of interventionpoints

Agro-ecosystem analysis helped to carry out

problem analysis. The problems in the system wereidentified, analysed (Mettrick,1993) and ranked onthe basis of various criteria identified by the farmersand the intensity of yield loss (Sabarathnam andVennila,1996). There was an in-depth analysis ofthe top most problem in the form of problem-causeanalysis diagram constructed after focused groupdiscussion with key stakeholders.

Table 1. Identtficat.on of problems accoTdmg to mierofarming situations and their rnatnx ranking

Microfarmingsltuatlon Problems identified Extent Importance Seventy Frequency Rank

MFS-IRainfed uplandMFS-2 Low productivity of riceLowproductivityofpotato 00000000 000000000 000000000 00000000 I1„

Irrigatcd uplandMFS-3Rainfedmedium landMFS-4 Low productivity of vegetables(gourd,hindi,chilli,pinach,knol-khol,brinjal,etc.)LowproductivityofriceLowproductivityofrice 00000000000 00000000000 000000000 00000000000 VIVII

Partially irrigated Low productivity of potato 00 000 00 00 VIII

medium landMFS-5RainfedlowlandMrs-6 Low productiv}ty of vegetables(gourd,bhindi,chilli,pinach,knol-khol,brinjal,etc.)Lowproduct]vityofriceLowproductivityofrice 00000000 000000000 0000000000 0000000000 V]11VII

Partially irrigated low land Low productivity of cow milk 00 000 000 00 VII

AIlied enterprisesFood&economic security Low productivity of fish 0000 00 000 0000 VIII'

Low productivity of pig meat 00 000 00 00 IV

Low productivity of coconut 00 00 00 00 IX

Additional and essential 00000000Essential

324 S K Jha eta/.

While analyzing the system properties variousresearchable problems were identified on the basisof problem-cause analysis involving the farmers. Theproblems, thus identified on the basis of importanceto the farmers were ranked in order of theirimportance which are as follows:

I. Low productivity of rice.

2. Low productivity of potato.3. Low productivity of vegetables.4. Low productivity of cow milk.

5. Low productivity of pig meat.6. Low productivity orcoconut.

(a) Rain fed kharf/ rice

(b) Vegetables

All the Identified problems were subjected to

problem-cause analysis to pin-point the interventionpoints for action. Critical analysis of the diagramsindicated the actual causes, either primary,secondary or even tertiary, responsible under aparticular situation which, again, may be ofbiophysical or socioeconomical in nature. The detailsof the analysis for identification of interventionpoints through causal diagram have been presentedhereunder |Fig. I (a)I. The low yield ofvegetatile cropswas analysed and presented below in Fig. 1(b)

(including the types of interventions required to dealwith such problems/ causes).

Fig.1. Problem-cause diagram for low productivlty of crops

Most Important intervention points are marked with asterisk in the diagram

Intervention selection through PLA 325

DISCUSSION

Out of the total cultivated area about 90 % wascultivated with rice during jchart/. Soil was silty clayin texture. Water level reached upto 15-30 cm range.Analysis of data revealed low yield of rice underkharif season due to various biophysical andsocioeconomic factors [Fig. 1(a)I. Through furtherinvestlgation, the probable reasons of primeimportance, found were :

1 Use of traLditional varieties

2. Poor crop stand3. Less plant population per unit area.4. Excessive weed infestation5. Imbalanced use of fertilizers6. Non-use of insecticides.7. Poor soil health

The secondary reasons for the problems were :I. Non-availability of HYV seeds2. Improper plant density3. Nutrient deficiency4. Undulating rield surface

The various socioeconomic constraints of primeimportance were :

1. Lack of awareness2. Poor extension linkage3. Poor economic condition of the farmers

For Increasing the productivity of rice, thefollowing intervention points were thus suggested,which can be taken up on a priority basis.I. Introduction of the latest HYV suitable forthe area2. Need to introduce balanced use of fertilizers3. Need to Introduce and popularize the use of

indigenous low-cost method for weed control4. Proper use ofinsecticides and fungicides to check

insects, pests and diseases for a healthy crop5. Increase awareness amongst the farmers about

recommended package of practices for ricecultiva.tion

CONCLUSION

The participatory approach in planning andconducting the demonstrations was to help tomotivate the farmers for adopting the newtechnologies. The approach in conducting thedemonstration was very much positive from thefarmers' side, as they felt Involved. The bottom-upapproach in planning and conducting thedemonstration proved better as it treated a senseof belongingness among the farmers. This approachled to the selection of the right Intervention pointsand critical inputs for better transfer of technologyfor the betterment of the farmers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We a.cknowledge our sincere thanks to theDirector (NATP) for providing financial help to carryout this study and completion of this work. Further,we also appreciate the help and cooperationrendered by the farmers of Dumki village.

REFERENCES

Anon. (1999-2003). In Anmta! jieporf, Central SoilSalinity Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana.

Jha, S.K., Bandyopadhyay, B.K, Maji, a. andTripathi, S. (2003). Socio-economic profile oftypical coastaLl village of Sundarbans. I/otJr7ia!

Of Indian Society of Coastal Agricutural. Research21(2): 45-48.

Mettrick, H. ( 1993). DeLre!opmenf On.euted Jiesearch!n Agri.cti!fure, ICRA, Wageningen, TheNetherlands.

Sabarathnam, V.E. and Vennila, S. (1996).Estimation of technological needs andidentification of problems of farmers forformulation of research and extension

programmes in Agricultural Entomology.Expermental Agriculture ®2.. 87 -90.

J` indian Soc. Coastcil agnc. Res., 24(2|, 326-329, 2006

Adoption of Cassava Production Technologies byFarmers of Coastal Districts of Kerala



Cassava productlon technologlos ln terms of recommended package of practlcos are availableslnco long. The oxtont of adoption of th®s® practices by the cassava 9rowors is of much help inunderstanding the influenc® of the8® practices on the yield of cassava. An attempt is made inthis paper to understand the extent ol adoption of cassava production technologies in thesol®cted coas(al districts of K®rala. The ovorall adoption level by the farmers wlll b® measuredusing the adoption qiiotient (^Q) forrTiula. Three districts, viz. Thiruvananthapuram, Kollamand Nalappi.ram w®r® s®l®ct.a ais they vere ttie top th..e coastal districtS having large. cassavaareas in K®rala. Data v®r® coll.cted li.log a stri.ctur®d int.rviev .ch®dLII®. Average Adop(ionQuotient for the three districts `.rae vorted out to be 67..3 %. R®comm®nd®d practlc®s llkeland p.®paratlon, s®tt I®ngtr., s®tt making, plantlno in.thod and Storago of plantlng matorlalw®r® adopl®d correctly by all the farm.rs whll® very few farmers w®r® adoptlng trie technologiesllko high y]oldlng vari®tl®s, spacing, fortlllz®rs, organic manures, I.etainlng two shoots per plant.and cassava mosaic dis®aso manag®m®nt, etc.

(Key words: Cassava, Production techrrologies, Adoptior\ quotient)

The end uses of cassava saw a sea change withthe production of many value-added products, suchas starch, sago etc. Indonesia, Thailand and Indiaare the major countries growing cassava in Asia.India acquires significance in the global cassavascenario due to its highest productivity in the world(27.91 t ha-I), It is cultivated in an area of 0.24million ha producing 6.7 million tones.

Although it is cultivated in India in 13 states, itis concentrated in the Southern peninsular regionof the cctuntry and to certain extent in North-eastregion of the country. The crop is concentrated owingto the favourable climate and efficient utilizationcommercially in the Southern states of Kerala, TamilNadu and Andhra Pradesh. Among the Southernstates, Kerala stands first in cassava area (45°/o) inthe country. Maximum production goes for humanconsumption in Kerala.

Though the consumption of cassava hasreduced over years in the State, its importance as asecondary staple still exists. Area and productionof cassava show a declining trend over years in thestate but productivity shows considerable increase.The increasihg trend in yield is due to adoption ofvarious improved cassava production technologiesby the farmers. The study of extent of adoption ofthese technologies by the farmers is of much helpin understanding the role of these technologies on

the yield of cassava. An attempt is made in this paperto understand the extent of adoption of improvedcassava production technologies in the selectedcoastal districts of Kerala.


Among the nine coastal districts of Kerala, threedistricts, viz. Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, andMalappuram were selected as they were the top threecoastal districts having larger areas under cassavacultivation in the State.

Two blocks having larger area under cassavawere selected from each of these three districts.From each selected block two villages were selectedrandomly. Thus a total of 12 villages were selected.Ten cassava growers were randomly selected fromeach of the selected villages, thus making the totalsample size to 120.

Central Tuber Crops Research Instituterecommended the package of practices for cassavacultivation in both low land and upland conditionsduring seventies. Weightages were assigned to theseselected technologies based on opinion surveyconducted among the scientists of Central TuberCrops Research Institute (CTCRI) involved in cassavaresearch. Weightages assigned to cassava productiontechnologies based on the opinion survey werefurnished in Table 1.

J. Indian Soc. Coastal agnc. Res., 24(21, 326-329, 2006

Adoption of Cassava Production Technologies byFarmers of Coastal Districts of Kerala



Cassava productlon tochnologios in terms of recommended package of practlcos are availableslnco long. The extent of adoption of those practices by the cassava 9rowors is of much help jnunderstanding the influonco of those pi.acticos on the yield of cassava. An attempt is made inthis paper to understand the extent of adoption of cassava procluction technologies in tlieselected coastal districts of K®rala. The overall adoption level by the farmers will bo measuredusing the adoption quotient (AQ) formula. Three districts, viz. Thiruvanan.hapuram, Kollamand Malappuram wore sol.cted as they were the top thro. coastal districtS having larger cassavaareas in K®rala. Data v®.e collect®d Lislng a structur®d [nt®rvi®w Sch®dLll®. Average AdoptionQuotlont for the throe districts was vorfed out to b® 57..3 %, R®comm®nd®d pract]c®s llkeland preparation, s®tt length, s®tt maklng, planting in.tliod and storage of plantlng materialw®r® adopted correctly by all the farmers whll® very few farmers w®r® adopting trie technologiesllko hlgh yloldlng varietlos, Spaclng, fortlllzers, organic manures, I.etainlng two shoots per plant.and cassava mosaic dis®aso manag®m®nt, etc.

(Key uiords. Cassava, Production techrrologies, Adoption quotient)

The end uses of cassava saw a sea change withthe production of many value-added products, suchas starch, sago etc. Indonesia, Thailand and Indiaare the major countries growing cassava in Asia.India acquires significance in the global cassavascenario due to its highest productivity in the world(27.91 t ha-I). It is cultivated in an area of 0.24million ha producing 6.7 million tones.

Although it is cultivated in India in 13 States, itis concentrated in the Southern peninsular regionof the country and to certain extent in North-eastregion of the country. The crop is concentrated owingto the favourable climate and efficient utilizationcommercially in the Southern states of Kerala, TamilNadu and Andhra Pradesh. Among the Southernstates, Kerala stands first in cassava area (45°/o) inthe country. Maximum production goes for humanconsumption in Kerala.

Though the consumption of cassava hasreduced over years in the State, its importance as asecondary staple still exists. Area and productionof cassava show a declining trend over years in thestate but productivity shows considerable increase.The increasihg trend in yield is due to adoption ofvarious improved cassava production technologiesby the farmers. The study of extent of adoption ofthese technologies by the farmers is of much helpin understanding the role of these technologies on

the yield of cassava. An attempt is made in this paperto understand the extent of adoption of improvedcassava production technologies in the selectedcoastal districts of Kerala.

IVIATERIALS AND IVIETHODS

Among the nine coastal districts of Kerala, threedistricts, viz. Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, andMalappuram were selected as they were the top threecoastal districts having larger areas under cassavacultivation in the State.

Two blocks having larger area under cassavawere selected from each of these three districts.F`rom each selected block two villages were selectedrandomly. Thus a total of 12 villages were selected.Ten cassava growers were randomly selected fromeach of the selected villages, thus making the totalsample size to 120.

Central Tuber Crops Research Instituterecommended the package of practices for cassavacultivation in both low land and upland conditionsduring seventies. Weightages were assigned to theseselected technologies based on opinion surveyconducted among the scientists of Central TuberCrops Research Institute (CTCRI) involved in cassavaresearch. Weightages assigned to cassava productiontechnologies based on the opinion survey werefurnished in Table 1.

Adoption of cassava production technologies

Table 1. Selected oassaua production technologiesalong with their u]eighiage

aLho ]an. ®r th. Technology Wel8htageI vanety 3.53

2 Land preparation 2.87

3 Sett making 2.73

4 Sett length 1,93

5 Planting method 2.20

6 Spac,ng 3.67

7 Rctainlng two shoots per plant 2.27

8 Application of organic manures 3.27

9 Application of N fertilizers 2.93

10 Appllcatlon of P205 fertilizers 2.60

11 Application of K20 fertilizers 3.13

12 CMD management 2.33

13 Storage of planting material 2.47

All the sample farmers were personallyinterviewed using a well structured pre-testedinterview schedule for collecting informationregarding adoption of various improved cassava

production technologies like cultivation of improved/high yielding varieties, land preparation, settmaking, sett length, planting method, spacing,retaining two shoots per plant, application of organicmanures, apphcation N, P, K nutrients, adoption ofCassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) managementpractices, and storage of planting materials. Datawere compiled and analysed using tabular andpercentage analysis.

327

The adoption level of various cassava productiontechnologies were measured using AdoptionQuotient (A.Q) formula developed by Chattopadhyay( 1963) modified to suit the famer and the crop type.The modified formula is

NN

Adoption Quotient (AQ) = & (efw, /P,)/ Z w]} loo

i=l i=1

where, e, = Extent of correct adoption ofith practice

P, = Potential area for adoption of ith

practicew, = Weightage given to ith practice

N = Number of improved practices underconsideration


Post-sampling stratification of the selected farmerswas done based on land holdings as Marginal farmers(< 1ha), Small famers (1-2ha), Semi-medium farmers(2-4ha), Medium farmers (4-10ha) and Large farmers(> 10ha) for better understanding of adoption level offamers of these groups. All the sample farmers werefalling under marginal and smau famers categoriesonly. None of the sample farmers were in the categoriesof semi-medium, medium and large farmers. Theclassification of the sample farmers is presented inTable 2.

Value of Adoption Quotient (AQ) of cassavafarmers in the selected coastal districts werepresented in Table 3. Adoption quotient of cassava

Table 2. aassification sarriple cassowa jdrmers in the selected coastal distncts Of Kerala

8t&te Percentag. of Sample farme[e ln e.ch categoryHar8lnal Small Seal-medlun Medium I`a'8efarfner8 farmere rarmer8 farmers f&rmer8'>|Oha(<|ha) (1-2ha' (2-4ha) '4-10hQ)0

Thiruvananthapuram 97.50 2.50 0)0

Kollam 100.00 0 0 0 0Malappuram loo.00 0 0 0 0Average 99.17 0.83 a 0 a_1-1

Table 3. Adopton quottem of cassava fa:rners in selected cocLstal distTrats Of Kerala

DistrlctAdoptlon Quotlcbt Overauadoptlon

unr8laal 8"11 Semi-mealum Medium Largefarmers fa,mere r&rners famer8 farmere quotle.t(<1ha) '1-aha) '2-4ha' (+10ha) (>|Oha)0

Thmvananthapuran 58.60 63.05 0 0 58.71Kollan 58.61 0 0 0 0 58.61Malappuran 54.99 0 0 0 0 54.99Average 57.40 63.05 0 0 0 57.441_-1

1=.9i;®Iaa®L,®i5,J2uaaJ=03-F]•£=1i:,=0

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i:o3EoooOa c) c> a

ee® o a c' 60 Ei Elali ---+

•i:i =8?a'jg±B §?S!

=aal01ca s ? s3 Sa; ?*E

.gg 8888i3€ o c) c) o®® O C' 0 0=f]

I+ I rJ I

-€ 8888:¥ c> cS cS c5C) a a a---,

cO~.E! 888?i; Jl, oooOeea] c> a 0 aa ---I

Ia.9®t:

egg?1=* a o c; aj8-®01 a C> O 0I+ r+ + H

8`£5 S88Si u. c> t`

aj

?iI j!

:i I ± gja,I t;I .=

C]

T. Srinivas et a/.

farmers in Thiruvananthapuram was estimated tobe 58.71 which was the highest among the threedistricts. While in Kollam and Malappuram districts,it was estimated to be 58.61 and 54.99, respectively.The average AQ of the three districts was workedout to be 57.44.

Percentage of farmers adopting cassavaproduction technologies as per recommendation inthe selected coastal districts of Kerala are presentedin Table 4. Among the cassava productiontechnologies considered, all the respondents werecorrectly adopting technologies like land

preparation, sett making, sett length, plantingmethod and storage of planting materials in all thethree selected districts.

Nearly 72 percent of the total respondents werecorrectly adopting technologies like recommendedspacing and retaining two shoots per plant. InMalappuram only 32 percent of the respondentswere following the recommended spacing Only57.50 and 60.00 percent of the respondents wereretaimng two shoots per plant inThiruvananthapuram and Kollam districts,respectively. While in Malappuram district all thefarmers were adopting this practice as perrecommendation.

Only 10 percent of respondents in each districtwere following management practices for controllingcassava mosaic disease like using disease freeplanting materials, using some pesticides to controlwhite flies, etc.

Most of the farmers were not using organicmanure as recommended in all the three districts.Only 22.50 percent of farmers were correctlyapplying the organic manures as recommended.

ImbaLlanced use of fertilizers was observed inall the three districts. Most of the farmers were notapplying the correct recommended dosage of N, P,K nutrients On an average only 8.33 percent,11.67

percent and 3.33 percent of the total farmers werefollowing the correct dosage of N, P and K fertilizersrespectively. This Indicates that there is scope toincrease the productivity of cassava in these coastaldistricts if farmers adopt these recommendationscorrectly.

CONCLUSION

The average AQ of the three coastal districtswas worked out to be 57.44 which ind\c`ates thatthe overall adoption level of improved cassava

production technologies in these districts is

i®E:S!®3t,eQ1SC3a)0)E)Pat3€Eia8I:B±+£!

1=€aL0aaa0*tai,a:JJa3lJJS!8eatLi=ct®

EE: 8888¥i:. c) o c, c;I. a] t a 0 Cj a:iia

---1

tia!E8888

u® a c, a c;a E! Ela ---I

•i!i s§?ais 5i§

¥0aa,OD s8sSs5 =%:

.¥% 8888~J=1=+ a c> a oale a C> a C'=f!

---I

a?8888c, cj c; o0 a C> a---I

cO,.g888?

i;Jd o o c, acOE! 0 0 a C,---I

1=ae¥

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e`.2 =§8S§ I L® o t<

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:i I ± g=a,

T. Srinivas et a/.

farmers in Thiruvananthapuram was estimaLted tobe 58.71 which was the highest amc)ng the threedistricts. While in Kollam and Malappuram districts,it was estimated to be 58.61 and 54.99, respectively.The average AQ of the three districts was workedout to be 57.44.

Percentage of faLrmers adopting cassava

production technologies as per recommendation inthe selected coastal districts of Kerala are presentedin Table 4. Among the cassava productiontechnologies considered, all the respondents werecorrectly adopting technologiesi like land

prepairation, sett making, sect length, plantingmethod and storage of planting materials in all thethree selected districts.

Nearly 72 percent of the total respondents werecorrectly adopting technologies like recommendedspacing and retaining two shoots per plant. InMalappuram only 32 percent of the respondentswere following the recommended spacing. Only57.50 and 60.00 percent c>f the respondents wereretaining two shoots per plant inThiruvananthapuram and Kollam districts,respectively. While in Malappuram district all thefarmers were adopting this practicc as perrecommendation.

Only 10 percent of rcspondcnts in each districtwere following management practices for controllingcassava mosaic disease like using disease freeplanting materials, using some pesticides to cc)ntrolwhite nies, etc.

Most of the farmers were not using organicmanure as recommended in all the three districts.Only 22.50 percent of farmers were correctlyapplying the organic manures as recommended.

Imbalanced use of fertilizers was observed inall the three districts. Most of the farmers were notapplying the correct recommended dosage of N, P,K nutrients. On an average only 8.33 percent,11.67

percent and 3.33 percent of the total farmers werefollowing the correct dosage of N, P and K fertilizersrespectively. This Indicates that there is scope toincrease the productivity of cassava in these coastaldistricts if farmers adopt these recommendationscorrectly.

CONCLUsloN

The average AQ of the three coastal districtswas worked out to be 57.44 which indicates thatthe overall adoption level of improved cassava

production technologies in these districts is

Adoption of cassava production technologies

reasonabl}' good. Adoption level of improvedtechnologies like cultivation of improved/high

.Yielding varieties, application of recommended doseof N, P, K, application of organic manures and CMDmanagement practices were very low in theseselected coastal districts. Thus future extensionactivities need to concentrate on these areas so thatadoption level of these cassava production

.

329

technologies can be improved thereby yield or cassavacan be enhanced considerably in these districts.

REFERENCES

Chattopadhyay, S.N. (1963). A study of some

psychological correlates of adoption ofinnovations in farming. Ph. D Thesis, IARI, NewDelhi.

/. /ridzarl Sac. Coastal agr[c. j?es., 24(2), 330-333, 2006

Research - Extension Linkage in Coastal AquacultureM. KUMARAN, M. ALAGAPPAN, S. RAJA, D. D.VIMALA, C. SARADA,

V. S. CHANDRASEKARAN and N. KALAIMANI

Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture (CIBA)75, Santhome High Road, Chennai -600 028, Tamil Nadu

An investigation carried out along the east coast of the country revealed that the fisheriesextension personnel had moderato linkage with fisheries research institutions, NGOs to performtheir function. However, a vibrant extension at State levol and a mechanism for regularinteraction, joint problem diagnosis, prioritization and implementation with above stakeholdersneed to be evolved and institutionalized for an effective research-extension linkage andsustainable growth and development of coastal aquaculture.

(Key u)ords: R. .earch-extenston linkage, Aquaculture, Extension persorLrLel atinbutes)

In India, coastal aquaculture has an enomouspotential ( I.2 million ha) for enhancing its risheriesproduction. However, presently, coastal aquacultureis confined with tiger shrimp culture (PenenusmorLoc!on) which is being practiced in i,54,600 hawith a production of I,12,780 metric tonnes with anational productivity of 730 kg ha-I yr-t (Table 1).Sustainable coastal aquaculture development isclosely related with the development of the abilityof the farmer's understanding and adoption of newtechnology. Thus, fisheries extension bridges the gapbetween fisheries research station and the farmingcommunity by establishing suitable learningsituations at various levels that would create accessand interaction between the technology evolvers andits end users (De ef ci!.,1999). Keeping the above asbackground the present study was undertaken toinvestigate the nature and extent of linkage existbetween the extension and research subsystems ofcc>astal aquaculture.


This investigation was conducted along incoastal Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh whereshrimp aquaculture is being actively practised. Asample of 30 extension personnel, fifteen each fromthe Departments of Fisheries of the above States,working in the coastal regions was drawn usingsimple random sampling procedure. A structuredinterview schedule pre-tested with similar personnelelsewhere and personal observation were used fordata collection. Ten personal attributes, viz. age,education, experience, training attended,performance, frequency of contact, resourceappraisal, collaboratory work, targets, information

behavior were included for the study. The dependentvariable, viz. extent of linkage with the FisheriesR&D Institutions was studied and measured basedon a summated rating procedure developed for thestudy, which included linkage with an agency,frequency of contact and perceived satisfaction ofthe respondent. The data collected were processedwith descriptive, correlation and regression statisticsusing SPSS package to interpret the findings.


Attributes of the extension personnel

Personal attributes of the respondents werestudied to have a better understanding of theirprofile and presented in Table 2.

Around fifty percent (47%) of the respondentswere aged less than 40 years and the other half(53°/o) aged above 40 years. This aptly indicates thelack of recruitment of young professionals from thefisheries research and academiTa institutions to theDOF as extension personnel in the recent past. Morethan half of the respondents (53%) were postgraduates with biology as their main subject andthe remaining (47%) were of graduates or diplomaholders. Though the respondents had more than 15-28 years of experience in the department, majorityof them (80%) had less than three years of fieldexperience in coastal shrimp farming. However,maijority of them had undergone trainings andamong them about thirty percent had training eitheron shrimp or scampi (freshwater prawn) culture.Majority of them (73°/o) followed group contactextension method to meet aquafarmers and groupmeetings were conducted at different places in their

Fiesearch-extension linkage

Table 1. Stoteui.se details of slinmp production dunng the year 2003-04

331

State Potential - Jha 4ethrd dr.a under Production Productivityavailal)le |hl| qL,I cultue (ha) (HT) (Mt/ha/yr)

West Bengal 405000 50405 49925 29714 0.60

Orissa 31600 12880 12116 12390 1.02

Andhra Pradesh 150000 79270 69638 53124 0.76

Tamil Nadu 56800 5416 3214 6070 1.89

Kerala 65000 16323 14029 6461 046

Karnataka 8000 3435 3085 1830 059

Goa 18500 1001 963 700 0.73

Maharashtra 80000 1056 615 981 1.60

Gujarat 376000 1537 1013 1510 I.49

Total 1190900 171320 154600 112780 0.73

(Source MPEDA, 2004)

Tab.e 2. Attrtoutes of exterrslon personnel

Attribute % of Responses(N=30'

Age< 40 years

> 40 years

EducationGraduationAbove GraduationExperience in costal aquaculture< 3 years

> 3 years

Extension apt)roacbGroup contactPersonal contactFrequency of contactOnce a monthOccasionalWillingness to work with privateextensionYes

NO

Communication of rield problemsto researchThrough Head officeNativityRuralUrbanTechnical information sourceDepartment R& D & Tramlng centreTrainingAttendedNeeded

47.00

5300

530047.00

80.0020.00

73.0027.00

40.00

60.00

83.00

17.00

70.00

57.00

43.00

57.00

83.00

6000

jurisdiction depending on the field situation. Mostof them (83%) expressed willingness to work with

private extension personnel of aquafeed companies

since the latter had regular contacts with thefarmers. Majority of them (70%) reported their field

problems to their head offices and in turn the samewere communicated to the research wing of thedepartment for solutions. They were of the

perception that the farmers had followed theirtechnical advice. Departmental training centre wastheir prime information source for majority (57%)of the respondents. Majority of them (60%) wantedtraining in extension methodologies, humanrelations management and subject matter. Manyrespondents were of the view that since every aqua-extension ofricer has the jurisdiction of more thantwo to three manddrs or taJtzhas in addition to otherwork there should be an exclusive person foraquaculture in the department or this work can begiven to a reliable NCO or qualiried private extensionpersonnel.

Linkage with fisheries R&D institutions

The nature and extent of linkage therespondents have with the fisheries R&D institutionsare indicated in the Table 3. Linkage between theextension agencies and the fisheries R&Dinstitutioiis is very vital for development of needbased location specific technologies and holisticdevelopment of the sector. It may be seen from theTable 3 that majority of the respondents (67%) hadlink with Marine Products Export DevelopmentAuthority (MPEDA) by participating in the meetingsorganized by the latter at frequent intervals. TheMPEDA being the promoter of aquaculture offeredseveral subsidy-oriented schemes and the DOF` isthe member of that subsidy committee. Therespondents on behalf of their superiors participatedin such meetings and interaLcted with MPEDAofficials and exchanged information with them.Further, scheduled banks like, State Bank of India

332 M Kumaran et a/

Table 3. Extension personnel linkage u)ith R&D InstLtuti,ons

Ingtitution %ofre8ponses*(N=30) Through Frequency Perception Remarks

MPEDAFC&RI 67.0047.00& Farmers mcetings, Guidelines, MonthlyOccasional SatisfiedSatisfied Need to be

Subsidy/ License, enquiry strengthened

Reference/ Need to be40.00 T€chnical information strengthened

Development Monthly Moderately33.00 AA License - Meetings Need to beDepartments satisfled strengthened

27.00 Guidchines, Subsidy/ LLcense, OccasionalAquaculture Satisfied Need to beAuthor,ty policles, F{egulations strengthened

20.00 occasional SatisricdNGOs Meetings Need to bestrengthenedNeedtobestrengthened

Bankers 1700 Farmers meetings Occasional Satisfied

• Multiple responses

Table 4. Regresston analyses Of attnbutes inlinkage u]ith R&D mstitwtione

Attributes Regre88ion co-efricient8 SE(I) 5%

Age -0.458 0.407

Education 7.954* 2.128

Experience -0.006 0.411

Training attended 4.263 2.720

Role performance -I.851 1.225

Frequency of contact 12.109* 3.053

Resource appraisal -0.952 1.768

Collaboratory work -8,568 9.624

Targets -0.229 1.215

Information behaviour I.433 0.811

*Significant at 5% level

and Canara Bank, etc. were offering creditassistance to aquafarmers on the basis of theprojects prepared by MPEDA and DOF and throughthese programmes also they had close interactions.The respondents satisfied with the existing linkageand opined that linkage with MPEDA needs to bestrengthened considering the role played by theboth.

About half of the respondents had rapport withFisheries Colleges (47%) and Research Institutions

(40%) at occasional intervals throughjoint meetingsand inviting technical experts from the above fortheir training programmes. Many respondents hadattended training programmes conducted by lcARinstitutes like Central Institute c)I BrackishwaterAquaculture (CIBA, Chennai) and Central Instituteof Freshwater Aquaculture (CIFA, Bhuvaneswar).

The respondents were satisfied with those

programmes and felt that linkage with researchinstitutions and fisheries colleges need to bestrengthened on a regular basis for obtainingscientific research findings and to communicate fieldproblems. The respondents had linkage with theaquaculture authority (27%) and NGOs (20%)working in aquaculture. The respondents wereinvolved in approval of shrimp farms by theaquaculture authority and had frequent contact withit. Similarly, majority of respondents (33%) hadlinkage with development departments likeAgriculture, Ground water board, Revenuedepartment, etc. since they all are members of thedistrict Committee for screening the applications oflicenses submitted by the farmers and felt thatlinkage with developments is to be strengthened.Some NGOs working in coastal villages were involvedin organizing Wc)men Self Help groups for taking upfisheries activities like crab fattening, value additionof fishes, ornamental fish farming and training offarmers. The frequency of interaction with suchNGOs was occasional and they were of the view thatlinkage with them needs to be improved.

It is observed that the organizational set up forfisheries extension in the Central as well as in Statesector needs reorientation. Even the nominal setupexisting at present differs from State to Statedepending upon the priorities assigned to fisheriesdevelopment and resources available. However, astrong fisheries extension set up is an essentialprerequisite for a dynamic and effective research-extension system. The linkage between the extensionorganizations of different States/UTs and between

Research-extension linkage

Central and State risheries departments are to bestrengthened. Explieit linkage anong tJ]e eatensions}'stems of the fisheries onganizations Of tlle Ccntlie,State, UTs and SAUs and between criEnsion andinput supply agencies ought to bc established atdifferent levels to ensure prompt transfer oftechnology and efricient extension services to theend users. State Fisheries Eriension system shouldsupport research institutions (Rls and SAUs) inproviding comprehensive feedback information fromthe production systems for evaluation and use forfurther improvement, refinement and reinventions.Similar observations were made by CMFRI (1980),Kumara.n ef aJ. (2003).

Regression analysis of attributes in linkage withR&D institutions

The nature of influence, the attributes ofextension personnel had with R&D institutions inlinkage with was studied by a regre§sion analysisand the results are reported in Table 4. Among theten variables taken for analysis, education andfrequency of contact with end users were found tohave significant positive influence at 5% level withtheir extent of linkage with fisheries R&Dinstitutions. Higher education facilitated for closerInteraction with research and developmentinstitutions to acquire and update the technicalknowledge of the extension personnel, hence it waspositively influencing. Moreover, the frequent

333

contact with the end users would dLfinitely forcethe respondents to obtain appropriate and adequateinformation from the R&D institutions tocommunicate and con nee the end users to adoptproper scintific management practices.

REFEREIICES

CMFRI (1980). Seminar on fisheries extension.Marine Fisheries hifiincho:n Seririce , TechnicalExtension Series No. 27. 20p.

De, H.K., Saha, G.S. and Sahu, 8.8. (1999). Problemidentification using farmer participatoryrese8Lrch tool. Journal Of Extension Ed:uocmonIV(1&2): 36-40.

Kumaran, M. , Chandrasekaran,V.S. and Kalaimani,N. (2003). Aquaculture extension -the nedcctedaspect in aquaculture development. Fishl.ngCht'mes 23(6): 29-34.

Suliman, R.V. and I]all, A.J. (2004). TotuardsExtension Plus,. Opporiuhities and Challenges,National Centre for Agricultural Economics andPolicy Research, Policy Brief No.17.

Venkatesan, V. (1985). In PoJtcg arid Jnstr.tuftonaJIssues in lmproumg Research-Extension Linkagein India in Research, Extension, Farmers: A Tu)o-way Continuum for Agricultural Deueloprneut,Michael Cernea, M„ John K. Coulter and JohnF.A. Russell (eds.), The World Bank, Washington,DC, USA.

J. IndiarL Sac. Coastal agric Res., 24(2), 334-337 , 2006

Communication Behaviour of Shrimp FarmersD. DEBORAL VIMALA, M. KUMARAN and lvl. KRISHNAN

Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture75, Santhome High Road, R.A. Puram. Chennai -600 028, Tamil Nadu

An ®ffoctive two-way communication is the soul of extension education which /.nlor a//a strivesto evoke desirable changes lp the attitude and behaviour of both communjcators and receivers.Possession of rich knowledge base js fundamental in making appropriate in-time decisions inshrimp farmiilg, an input and risk loaded enterpi.ise. An attempt has boon made ln tt`isinvestigation conducted among the 34 proportionate randomly chosen shrimp farmers toexamine their communication cliannels and information procosslng behaviour. Porsonal locallte(Peers), personal cosmopollte (formal sources) and impersonal cosmopollte (mass media) weretheir order of preferred communication sources. Information received wore processed withpeers, stored in classlfied ilotebooks and shared with follow farmers. Evolving and strengtheningof extension networking systems, revamping the state fisheries extension systems with adequateoxtonsion skilled staff supported with required logistics, promotion and facilitation of farmer§'fora at field level and optimal utilization mass media for aquaculture extension would help theend user well informed and take appropriate decisions.

(Key words: Commumcatton behaviour & chan,nels, Shnmp farming, Communieation approach)

Communication is the process of exchangingany information between the communicator and theaudience. An effective two-way communication is theSoul of extension education. Possession of richknowledge base is fundamental in makingappropriate in-time decisions in shrimp farming aninput and risk loaded enterprise. Learning of newknow-hows aLnd do-hows ensure desired changes inthe shrimp farmers knowledge, technology, skillsand attitude. The modern communication mediumhas diversified streams, including researchinstitutions, government extension agencies, other

government organizations, input dealers, massmedia, etc.(Malik et ciJ., 2000). The role ofcommunication in affecting socioeconomic changecannot be over-emphasized- greater the number ofInformation sought- higher the contact with thecommunication sources and wider is the adoption.Three kinds of resources are essential for rapidaquacultural progress, viz. capable scientists at workon the problem of the people, farmers who haveconfidence that science can help them, and a bridgeof communication to link the duo. Singh and Sahay

( 1970) rightly pointed that, the investigator advancesknowledge, the Interpreter advances progress. It isfrequently asserted that farmers' rich experience andaccurate scientific knowledge enhance their capacityto manage shrimp farms efficiently. Knowledge onthe farmers' communication si)urces and theirinformation processing behaviour would help theextension system in devising proper communicationstrategies. With this background, this study was

conducted with the objectives, viz. i) to examine theexisting communication channels accessible to thefarmers, and (ii) to study the information processingbehaviour of the respondents.


The present study was carried out inRamanathapuram district of Tamil Nadu, whichranks second in area under shrimp culture in theState. A sample of 34 farmers was selected fromfive villages by means of proportionate randomsampling method. The data have been collectedthrough a well-structured interview schedule.Awareness and use of-communication channels andinformation processing behaviour of the farmerswere studied through the methodology devised byDeboral ( 1989) with slight modifications. Percentageanalysis was used in categorization andinterpretation of the data collected.


Profile of the respondents

The personal profile of the respondents is

presented in Table 1. It is seen from the data thatmost of the farmers belonged to middle age groupand two-thirds were educated at collegiate level. Theentrepreneurial urge of young age and high profitnature of this enterprise could have fascinated theeducated people. Most of the farmers had otheroccupations in addition to shrimp farming and afarming experience of 10 years and above The size

Communication behaviour 335

Table 1. Profile Of the respondents

Varilues Pe8pon8e (%) N= 34

Ag.YoungMlddle

OldEducational levelPrimaryMlddle

High School

Hr Sec

Collegiate

occupational 8tatu8Aquaculture + Agri

Aquaculture +businessAquaculture aloneFarm 8lzeUp to 2.00 ha

2.01-4.00 ha

Farming experienceUp to 5 years

6-10 years= 10 years

Social partlclpationLow

Medium

High

Bcono mlc motivationLow

Medlum

High

Rlsl OrientationLow

Medium

High

3(8.82)

29(85.29)

2(5.88)

3(8.82)

12(35.29)

19(55.88)

7(20.58)

9(26.47)

18(52.94)

26(76.47)

8 (23.52)

5(14.70)

16(47.05)

13(38.23)

4( 11.76)

25(73.52)

5(14.70)

2(5.88)

32(94.11)

3(8.82)

31 (91.17)

of the farm holdings ranged from 1.0 ha -4 ha. Theyhad medium level of social participation. They. hadhigh level of economic motivation and riskorientation. The respondents adopted improvedextensive shrimp farming system with a stockingdensity of 4-6 post-larvae (PL) per square metre.

Communication channels used

F`armers communicate with multiple sources ofinformation tc> assess and enrich their knowledgebase. Communication sources through which thefarmers get information abo.ut production practicesof shrimp culture have been classified into threecategories as personal cosmopolite, personal localiteand impersonal cosmopolite channels (Tables 2 & 3).

Data indicate that personal-localite channels, viz.feed dealers (100°/o) and fellow farmers (85%) werethe primary communication channels used forreceiving information regarding production practicesof shrimp culture. They were the source ofinformation for all the technical matters viz.

purchase of quality hatchery seeds, stocking of PCRtested seeds, fertilizer application, feeds and feeding,soil and water quality management, discharge ofwater, and disease management aspects. The feeddealers visited ponds regularly and at times offarmer`s request offered required technicalassistance. However, the farmers felt that theinformation provided them are mainly to markettheir products not for helping the farmers. Theirsupply of inputs on credit, easy and timelyaccessibility outweighed their intentions andcompetence. Absence of an effective fisheriesextension network with Department of Fisheries gavethem the monopoly. Many farmers had employedfull time technicians and unskilled permanentlabourers to manage routine farm operations asreported by Kumaran et al. (2003). The shrimpfarmers association established inRamanathapuram district is active only duringadverse times like disease outbreak, water scarcity,etc. However, fellow farmers were kept informedabout date of stocking, drainage discharge intocanals and creeks. This was because of theirprevious negative experiences.

®able 2. Cornln:uTrioedon char\nels Of shT\::mp fa]Trters

Communlcatlon chauncl. Re8ponee (%|H=34

Per8oml-coemopollte channelSFisheries college and ResearchInstitute, Thoothukudi

Scientists of CMFRI, Mandapam

Officials of Department of Fisheries

Personal-locallte channelsProgressive farmers

Friends /relatives/ Neighbours

Feed consultants

lmpe[Bozial-co8mopolite channels

Radio

Television

Newspapers

Aquacultural magazinesAquacultural exhibitions

8 (23.52)

10 (29.41)

5 (14.70)

11 (32.35)

29 (85.29)

34 (100.00)

2 ( 5.88)

2 ( 5.88)

21 ( 61.76)

4 ( 11.76)

2 ( 5.88)

Multiple responses (Numbers in parentheses indicate percentage)

336 D. D. Vimala et a/.

Table 3. Approach of communication charmels for slmmp farming practices

SL. Shrimp hrming practices Per8oBal -o8mopolite Personal -loculite Impersonal-cosmopolitero N=34 (%) N=34 (%) N=34 (%)

I Purchase ofhatchcry seeds

2 Stocking ofpcR tested seeds

3 Fertilizer application

4 Fecdsandfeeding

5 Water management practices

6 Soil management practices

7 Discharge of water

8 Disease diagnosis and management

9 Marketing

10 Hiring labourers

11 License and subsidies

12 Application of probiotics

32 94.11

4 11.76

94. I I

94.11

47.05

loo.00

85.29

11.76

100.00

94.11

79.41

50.00

91.17

1294

1 2.94

I 2.94

Multiple responses (Numbers in parentheses indicate percentage to total)

Impersonal cosmopolite channels like massmedia (Radio, TV and print), CMFRI, Mandapam andFisheries College, Thoothukudi through farm

publications were the second importantcommunication sources (Table 2). However, thefarmers were of the view that their frequency ofcontact was rare.

The personalngosmopolite channels ranked thethird important communication source (Table 2). Itwas reported that although shrimp farmers wereaware of the State extension agencies, the latterseldom visited the farmers. However, almost allshrimp farmers relied on the State FisheriesDepartment for obtaining license and subsidies.Inadequate extension staff, orientation and heavy

populist works thrusted on them carried awaytheir time.

Information processing behaviour of respondents

The information processing behaviour ofrespondents was studied under three headings,viz. information evaluation, information storageand information transfer. F`rom Table 4 it is seenthat majority (44%) of respondents assessed theinformation from fellow farmers (21%) and hardlythree 3 percent accepted without any evaluation.Most of the respondents (85%) stored theinformation by maintaining classified note booksand memorizing (35%). The received informationwas shared with fellow farmers in farmersmeetings (26%).

Table 4. Informatton processing Tnetlrocls

IrformatioD processing me thods Response(%) N= 34

Information Emluationa. Disoussion with offroials in the State

Department in Aquaculture

b. Judging in the light of climatic condition

c. LJudging in the light of socio-economiccondition

d. Discussion with other famers

e. Acceptance without reservation

i. Weighing in the light of past experience

Information Storage

a. By maintaining classified note books

b. By memorizmg

c. By conveymg to family members andasking them to remember

lzifo[matio a transfer

a. Giving radio/TV talk

b. Writing in newspapers

c. Speaking in local meetings

d. Conveymg to other members atfan or at home

e. By demonstration

5(14.70)

2( 5.88)

15(44.11)

I( 2.94)

7 (20.58)

29 ( 85.29)

12 (35.29)

4 (1176)

9 ( 26 47)

I. Lending aquacultural magaizinesto others 2 ( 5.88)

Multiple responses (Numbers in parentheses Indicate

percentage to total)

Communication behaviour

Implications of the study

• The study showed that it was the high time thatformal fisheries extension networking system hasto be systematically evolved and strengthened withadequate qualified personnel recruitment,capacity building in extension basics, approachesa.nd methodologies with sufricient budgetary andother logistics support. This would clip themonopoly of the input dealers.

• The effectiveness of mass media-facilitatedextension has been proved in agriculturalsciences. However, its utilization in fisherieswas inadequate. Hence, it should be optimallyexploited for risheries extension.

• Promotion and facilitation of farmers fora at rieldlevel ensured effective information exchangeamong the fellow farmers and checkcommunication and timc lag.

i

337

REFERENCES

Kumaran, M., Kalaimani, N„ Ponnusamy, K.,Chandrasekaran, V.S. and Vimala, D. Deboral

(2003). A case of informal shrimp farmersassociatlon and its role in sustainable shrimpfarming in Tamil Nadu, India. Aqucicu!ture As[aVIII(2); 10-12.

Singh,I.8. and Sahay, B.N. (1970). CommtJn{catton

Behaviour and Social Change. BookhivePublishers and Booksellers, 26/ 18, East PatelNagar, New Delhi.

Singh Malik, Karwasra, D.P.S.N. aq;i Rat, K.N.

(2000). Sources of information on improved cropproduction technology and its valuation inHiLryanaL. Indian Journal of AgriculturalEconomt.es 55(3-4): 521-527.

I/. /riczt'cin Soc. C'ocisfaJ agric. Res„ 24(2), 338-340, 2006

Shrimp Seed - A Critical PrQ|)lem Faced by Shrimp Farmers -A Cross Sectional Analysis

D. DEB0RAL VIMALA', S. RAMACHANDRAN2, P. S. SWATHILEl{SHM13 and M. KUMARAN4

1&4 Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, Chennai -600 028, Tamll Nadu

2Anna Universityt Chennai -600 025, Tamil Nadu

and3Central Marine Fisheries Research lnstl.tute, Chennai -600 028, Tamil Nadu

Seed is a major input in shrimp farming and all the farmers and entrepreneurs depend onhatchery seeds. For expansion of brackishwator shrimp farming, a I.egular and steady supplyof quality shrimp seeds in large quantities at a given time for stocking is essential. Hatcheriesare the soui'ce for the supply of quality hatchery seeds and stocking wild seeds is banned.Presently, in Tamil Nadu there are 68 shiimp hatcheries with a production capacity of 3000million post-larvae. The survey was carried out in Nagapattinam and Thanjavur in two districtsof Tamil Nadu. A sample of 300 shrimp farmers was interviewed randomly for the study. Thispaper presents the problems pertaining to shrimp seed encounlerod by the farmers andsuggestions to overcome the same. The problems encountered by the farmers in both districtswore lack of assurance on quality seeds, non-existence of government agency for regulatingthe price of seeds, high cost of seeds, non.availability of seeds from research institutes,inadequate supply of hatchery seeds, mortality of seeds during transportation, mixed seedsand deceptive method of counting the soods. Suggestions glven by them to overcome theproblems were that the government research institutes should set up some more hatcheriesand virus free Nauplius should be supplied to the farmers, assurance about seed quality fi.omresearch institute and production of improved broodstock from government researchlaboratories. Since without a healthy bloodstock shrimp farmers cannot hope to get qiialityseed, PCR was suggested as a sensitive diagnostic tool for detecting viral infection but due tovarious gaps in training this tool has not been used with consistent results.

(Edy ulorda: Sr`nmp seeds, Broodstock, Qualrty corttroL Dragnostic tool, Supply and role Of agencies)

Globally, shrimp farming has been a significantagro-based economic activity since the early 1970s.Shrimp farming in India has been undergoing rapidtechnological transformation and it has gainedextensive popularity. Seed is a major input in shrimpfarming and all the farmers and entrepreneursdepend on hatchery seeds For expansion ofbrackishwater shrimp farmlng, a regular and steadysupply of quality shrimp seeds in large quantitiesat a given time for stocking is essential. To meetthis requirement, to the extent possible, shrimpseeds are produced in the hatcheries and suppliedto the farms. Hatcheries are the source for thesupply of quality hatchery seeds and stocking wildseeds is banned. Presently, in Tamil Nadu there are68 shrimp hatcheries with a production capacity of3000 million post-larvae. Though about 55 speciesof shrlmp are available in India, only 11 of them areconsidered suitable for culture. Among 11 speciesJ'enaeus morloc!on ls widely cultured in the studyarea. This paper presents the problems encounteredby the farmers pertalning to shrimp seed andsuggestions to overcome the same.


The investigation was carried out inNagapattinam and Thanjavur in the two districts ofTamil Nadu. The brackishwater area available areain Nagapattinam, Thiruvarur and Thanjavurdistricts is 31,400 ha and the potential area readilyavailable is 6292 ha. Total area under culture inNagapattinam district is 1294.18 with water spreadarea of 989.93 as against 198.44 ha in Thanjavurdistrict with water spread area of 139.69 ha (Anon,2003). There were only 4 hatcheries functioning inand around Nagapattinam district and there wereno hatcheries in Thanjavur. So, the farmers in boththe districts totally depended on the hatcheries inand around Chennai. A sample of 300 shrimpfamers was interviewed randomly for the study. Therespondents were asked open-ended question toelicit important problems faced by them They werealso asked to suggest measures which in theiro|)inion would help solving the problems faced.


From Table 1 1:t could be observed that lack ofassurance of quality seeds was reported by 80.67

Shrimp seeds 339

percent of respondents in Thanjavur and 62.67percent in Nagapattinam district. Many shrimpfarmers in the study area reported frequent outbreakof viral diseases, which necessitated them to checkthe quality of seeds. Farmers normally selectedhealthy PL's based on physical appearance. But for

quality assurance in recent years, modernbiotechnological method like Polymerase ChainReaction (PCR) is preferred which could detect the

presence of small viruses. So they subjected theseeds to PCR tests. Farmers stated that the cost forchecking the quality of seeds was high. While thefarmers preferred PCR tests, the manipulation ofseeds from some of the hatcheries was inevitableand they said the technical workers were mainlyresponsible for this malpractice.

Secondly non-existence of Government agenciesfor regulating the price of seeds was reported by48.00 percent of the respondents in Nagapattinamand 42.66 percent in Thanjavur. The hatchery seedswere sold at exorbitant prices. So far the Governmentagencies have not taken keen steps to regulate theprice and make the hatchery authorities sell theseeds at reasonable cost,

The third major problem was high cost of seedsencountered by 45.33 percent of the -respondentsin \'agapattinam and 32.00 percent in Thanjavurdistrict. It resulted in skyrocketing of prices andblack marketing. There was n® regulation ovcT cost

and supply. The farmers requested the governmentagency to cc)me forward and take interest in theirwelfare by regulating the prices of shrimp seeds atreasonable cost for the benefit of the farmingcommunity. Due to the scarcity of hatchery seeds,the wild seeds were also sold at exorbitant prices.Some of the respondents did not perceive the highcost of seeds as a problem because they wereconvinced that the high cost of seeds wascompensated by high returns from shrimp farming.

Another seed oriented problem identified in thestudy area was non-availability of seeds fromresearch institute as reported by 46.67 percent ofthe total respondents. They felt that promotionalagencies should make sincere attempt to producehatchery seeds for the farming community.Inadequate supply of hatchery produced seeds atappropriate time was a prot)len perceived by 26.00

percent of respondents in Nagapattinam and about19.33 percent in Thanjavur. Some of therespondents informed that the same problem wasvery severe during the year 1994. It was alsoreported by some that the price of the wild seedshad gone up to Rs 200-250 per 1000 during 1993and to about Rs 500-750 per 1000 numbers during1994. Inspite of the problem of inadequate supplyof hatchery seeds, they had to forgo the cultureand were not able to take up the culture at apartieulaT tine.

Table 1. Problems perla:ining to shrimp seed

Types or problems Hagapattlnam Thanjavur Totaln=150 a=150 a=300*

Lack of assiirance on quality seeds 94 121 215

(62.67) (80.67) (7167)

Non-existcnce of government agency for regulating the prlce or seeds 72 64 136

(48.00) (42.67) (45 33)

High cost of seeds 68 48 116

(45.33) (32.00) (38.67)

Non-availability of seeds from research institutes 65 75 140

(43.33) (50.00) (46.67)

Inadequate supply of hatcher}' seeds 39 29 68

(26.00) (19 33) (22.67)

Mortality of seeds during transportation 25 32 57

(16.67) (21.33) (19.00)

Mixed seeds 17 19 36

( 11.33) (12.67) (12.00)

Deceptive method of counting the seeds 11 5 16

(7 . 33) (3.33) (5.33)

I Mu[tiple responses (Figures in parentheses mdicate percentage to total)

340 D D, Vimala et a/.

Table 2. Suggestions pertaining to slinmp seed

List of suggestions Nagapattinam Thanjavur Totaln=150 n=150 N=300*

Government research institutes should set up some 90 117 207more hatcheries and virus free Nauplius should be (60.00) (78.00) (69.00)supplied to the private hatcheries

58 72 130Assurance about seed quality from research Institute

(38-67) (48.00) (43.33)

Production of Improved broodstock from governmentS4 71 125research laboratories

(36.00) (47.33) (41.67)

I Multiple responses ( Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total)

About 16.67 percent of respondents fromNagapattinam and 21.33 percent from Thanjavurreported that the seed transportation fromhatcheries to several farming areas was timeconsuming and stressful. Prolonged transportationof seed often packed in poor quality cardboard boxescaused stress rendering them weak and susceptibleto disease by the time they arrived at the farmingsite for stocking.

Some 14.00 percent of the respondents inNagapattinam and 12.67 percent in Thanjavurreported that certain hatcheries had supphed seedsof mixed ages. Out of the total respondents onlyabout 5.33 percent of the respondents encounteredthe deceptive method of counting the seeds as oneof the problem. As there was heavy demand forshrimp seeds during 1994, some of the hatcherieswere reported to indulge in the malpractice. Thefarmers could not insist on proper counting of seedsbecause of heavy demand for shrimp seeds. Similarfindings such as shortage of quality seeds werereported by Gopinathan and Deboral ( 1995), high costof seeds by Sakthivel (1997) and Lekshmi (2004),Inadequate supply of seeds by Anon. (1992), Rao (1997)and deceptive method of counting the seeds by Chand( 1992). The suggestions given by the respondents whofaced this problem are discussed below and the pooleddata are presented in Table 2.

About 78. 00 percent of respondents in Thanjavurand 60.00 percent in Nagapattinam suggested thatthe shortage of seed should be overcome and thatmodemized/ improved seed production shc)uld betaken up in the private sector. Further, to the supplyof quality seed, a directory of seed producers/suppliers/ rearers has to be prepared at the districtlevel by the Brackishwater Fish Farmers DevelopmentAgency and Marine Products Export DevelopmentAuthority and supplied to the farmers.

Farmer's experiences have shown that stockswhose samples give negative results in PCR testsometimes turn out to be WSSV positive. If governmentPCR is made to function properly, more number offarmers will be benefitcd by viral free shrimps.

Thus setting up of accrediting bodies withquality control labels like Agmark as in agriculturenay be followed for aquacultural inputs (Lekshmi,2004). Attempts should be made to set upgovemmcnt shrimp hatcheries of required capacityto meet the seed requirements of the farmers of boththe districts. For this, the project cost for suchhatchery may be high, a part of which may berinanced by the farmers, entrepreneurs, seafoodprocessors/exporters.

REFERENCES

Anon. (1992). Indian fishery statistics at a glance.Seofood Export Journal 24.. 3\-32.

Anon. (2003). AuqacuJttJre AufhorI.ty Iven/s, pp. 14-16June 2003.

Chand, B.K. (1992) Shrimp farming in Orissa: Past,

present and future. F{sh{rlg Chimes 12(8):35-38.

Gopinathan, K. and Deboral Vimala, D. (1995).Transfer of technology and extension systemsin shrimp farming. Proceedings NationalWorkshop Transfer of Technologg forStisfat.nabJe Shri.mp Fcirm].ng, pp. 142-145.

Lekshmi Swathi (2004). In Computer St`mt/Zaf{onModeling for Prediction of Dijf us\on and DecisionSupport in Shrmp Farming.

Rao, G.R.M. (1997). Coastal Aquaculture in India.Proceedings Workshop Eni/t.ronmertf JrripacfAssessment of Aquaculture Enterpnses , pp. 32-38, held at Chennai.

Sakthivel, M. (1995). Indian aqua and marine tradefair 94. F].sh]'ng C`himes 10.68 p.

J /rtdian Soc C`oas{aJ agri-c. I?es., 24(2), 341-343, 2006

The Impact of TAR/IVLP in a Coastal Village ofSundarbans in West Bengal

A. a. MANDAL, C. KARPAGAM, a. K. BANDYOPADHYAY, A. R. BAL,S. K. DUTT, K. K. MAHANTA, and S. K. TRIPATHI

Central Soil Salinity Research InstituteRegional Research Station, Canning, P.O, Canning Town

Dist. 24-Parganas (South) -743 329, West Bengal

The technology assessment and refinement through [nstituto-Village Linkage Programme (TAR-IVLP) was launchod §lnce 1999 under trio NATP in the vlllago Dumkl ln the Sundarbans area ofWest Bengal by CSSRl, Canning. The village Dunk.I is highly constrained economically andphysically. The area is mainly agriculture based with more than 95% people dopondlng directlyon complex diverse ai`d risk (CDR) prone farming for the livelihood. The farmers are mainlysmall and marginal (43°/a) and a good number ale agricultural labourers (54%) with minorholdings. The project for development of the whole village was drawn taking into considerationthe biophysical and socioeconomic factors of the village. Thus sixtoon technologicalinterventions relatod to diverse enterprise, viz. agriculture, animal husbandry, poultry, duckory,goatery, mushroom, otc. were undertaken. Some training programmes w®Te arranged regularlyto Impart necessary know-how. Health camps were arranged for the domestic animals and birdsfor achieving good health and production. After 5 years of work in the villago (1999 to 2005) theeconomic gains achieved annually wore for small and marginal farming famHios 43°/a (havinga.2 to 0.4 ha of land): Rs.14307; for agricilltural labourers 54°/a (with minor holdings of 0.06 ha):F`s.4,467.00; and for well-to-do farming families 3°/o (with more than 0.40 ha land + business/S®rvic®). Incomes lrom cattlos, goats, sheep, poultry, ducks and mushroom, otc. were notconsid®rod ln the annual income shown above. All these practices could be managed by thehous®wive. te.ping the male members free to earn from outside.

(Hey u)ordb€ Technology assessmer\:1 8. re:finemerut, Income generation, M\nor holding, Small ormed"m holding, Wea&ordo jdrir.ers)

The Technology Assessment and Rerinemcntthrough Institution-Village-Linkage Programme(TAR/IVLP) for economy generation basic toagriculture and allied aspects at Dumki village inthe coastal Sundarbans was launched since 1999under the NATP (lcAR) by CSSRI, Regional ResearchStation, Canning.

The project site Dumki comprising two halnlets,Chhota and Bara Dumki is very constrainedeconomically and physically, being mainlyagriculture- based with more than 95% peopledepending directly on complex, diverse and risk-prone (CDR) small fammg for the livelihood. Theper capita holding being low, the small farmers andmarginal farmers having up to 0. 25 ha land comprise43% and the families with minor holding or noholding of own but owning some land (0.06 to 0.12ha) from the Govt by patta, form about 54°/a. Theremaining about 3% families with service or businessand some land are quite afnuent.

The entire area is monocropped with rain fed lowyielding (15-20 q ha-I) traditional rice varieties undervariable waterlogged situation in khan/ season.

lI^TEFtlALS AND METHODS

Artcr survey of the village on existingsociceconomic and biophysical factors the projectfor economy development for the whole village wasdesigned utilizing the skills and capabilities of thefamers through participation and decision making.

Considering the pros and cons of the varioustechnologies suitable for the coastal rural village ofDumki, 16 technological intervention related todiverse enterprises, viz. agriculture, animalhusbandry, poultry, duckery, goatery, piggery,mushroom cultivation, etc. were undertaken.Though the cultural practices were not unknown tothe farmers t)ut for imparting up-to-date knowledgesome training with the experts on the aspects werearranged before taking up the activities. A multi-disciplinary team of experts working in the ruralInstitutes dealing with economy generatingenterprises were formed to supervise and executethe interventions sincerely. Apart from practisingthe interventions directly for economic gain someinteraventions oriented to health issues of thedctmestic animals and birds were taken.

342 A .8. Mandal et a/.

Table 1. The mam mteruentions allotted to the farmers (1999-2005)

S¢aeod Interventlon8 Benenciarle8 Total No. ofPer year benericiaries

KharifRabiOthers Khar[/ rice- polyculture of fish in the 30 - 60 300

ponds paddy-cum-fish 30 -120 480

30 - 60 210

Salt tolerant HYV rice and vegetablesMushroomculture 30 150

30 - 60 240

30 180

20 120

Miscellaneous Animal health camps for vaccination, deworming Most of the birds andof animals, ducks and poultry birds animals treated annually

To assess the prevailing agricultural andsocioeconomic conditions of the area and the

problems faced by the farmers, Participatory RuralAppraisal techniques (PRA) were followed. Basedupon PRA analysis various problems were identifiedand in consideration of those problems suitabletechnological interventions (16) of various diverseenterprises, viz. agriculture, animal husbandry,horticulture and fishery were decided to beintroduced in the project site. The technologicalinterventions followed/ practised in the village during1999 to 2005 are given in Table 1. Farm families inthe village were grouped into four well-definedcategories (Table 2) and the economic impact of thetechnological interventions in each one of thecategories was analyzed based upon the economicgain they received from the interventions (Table 3).

Miscellaneous Animal health camps forvaccination, deworming of animals, ducks andpoultry birds Most of the birds and animals treatedannually.

RESULTS AND DISCUSION

The area being monocropped with khari/paddygiving a poor yield of 15-20 q ha-I in general, theIntroduction of optimum dose of fertilizer has sbowna mean grain yield of 39 25 q ha-t, against farmersyield of 30 q ha-I. The net income was Rs. 14,565ha-I, which was more than farmers practice (973S/-)by 49.6%.

From the practice of paddy-cum-fish in lowlandsin khcm/ the net income received was Rs.40,924/-which was more than 3 times received from thefarmers practice (9735/-), i.e. 320% gain. Mandalef clz. pe004) reported the performance due toIntervention of paddy-cum-fish, a§ well as

polyculture of fish in the village which highlightedthe gains. The polyc`ulture of Indian major crops in

the farmers domestic ponds generated a net incomeof Rs. 96, 806/-ha against the farmers' practlce ofRs. 68, 272/-, i.e. a net gain of 41.80%.

The salt tolerant paddy and HYV of paddy inrcib!. gave a net income of Rs.10, 556/-and 8414/-

per ha, respectively against that of the farmers'getting Rs. 3182/-per ha, i.e. a gain of 232 and164%, respectively. Similarly, vegetables in robi (inthe paddy fields, after khan/ harvest) produced anet income of Rs. 39180 per ha against the farmers

practice of Rs. 22,967, i.e. a net gain of 710/o

The nushrcom culture using stl.av- u'as quitecntcrprising. A start in mall scale, say 3 units at atine and four tines 3 year could yield 24 kg, whichat a price of Rs.40/-per kg could give a net incomeof Rs. 960/-per year.

The women in the village are almost withoutearning beyond the household. The practices of theintervention have offered them enough job andsufficient earning scope. Health camps taking careof the animals and domestic birds have enhancedproduction of eggs, meat and milk, which improvedthe economy of the farm families.

Table 2. Wellbemg ranking Of the farm families(429) of Dumhi uillage (before TAR/ IVLP)

Clas.ee of ramilie3 No. of %offamilies faullles

Minor holdlzig

231124 538528.90Having 0.06 to 0.12 ha mostly

given by tlle Govt. as pciftaSmall and marginalHaving 0.2 to 0.4 ha of land

Having at least 0.4 ha of land 6014 13.993.26

Well-to-do

Having more than 0.4 haland + Business/ service

TAR/IVLP impact

Table 3. Annual income Of the jdrmersA Annual Income or the minor holding category (0.06 to 0.12 ha)

Se&8on InterventionB bet lnc®De qt.)KhaTifRablIncome Polyculture of flsh (0.03 ha) 3227

Vegetable Additronal in comeVegetable (0.03 ha) 1240

Mushroom 960ron cattle, goats, ship` Additional income5427

pigs, poultry, ducks, etc.Totd

8 Annual Income of small/maqpnal category (0.2 to 0.4 ha)

Season IDtcmotlon Net income (R8.)

KharifRabl`& Polyculture of rish (0.06 ha 6454Paddy-cum-fish (0.06 ha) 2728

kharl/paddy (0.12 ha) 1942

Some khan/ vegetables Additional

Salt tolerant /HVV 7042479Sumncr) paddy (0.06 ha)

Vegetable (0.06 ha)

Mushroom 960Total 15267

Mandal and Bandyopadhyay (2003) havehighlighted the technological practices Introducedto the farmers of the Dumki village and indicatedabout the gain. The economic status of the farmfamilies in the Dumki village was quite poor. About54% families possess minor holding or no holdingof own who have been given 0.06 to 0.12 ha of landby the Govt. as pQtta and about 29% families have0.02 to 0.5 ha of land, which do not suit for takingany big venture for production enhancement.

343

The results showed that the capability of thefarmers for Improving their income were quitesatisfactory.

They can further improve their economy byutilizing the land and ponds, etc. by practising theinterventions demonstrated in the village.

The farmers under minor holding category beingmainly the dally laboures are most vulnerable andtheir income remains at Rs. 5427/-per year whichdoes not Include the Income received from animals,ducks and poultry, etc.

Similarly, the small or marginal category offarmers considered to be middle class and their anmalincome was Rs.15267/-. They have cattle, goats, sheepand ducks and poultry, managed by themselves whichwill further add to the income above.

REFERENCES

Mandal, A.B. and Bandyopadhyay, B.K. (2003).Knshi Gabesharra Pratisthan 0 Chasider JouthaPTache sthay Sundarbans lfuimki Gramonnayan-7`AR//Vip (in Bengali) [Development of Dumkivillage of Sundarbans by Joint efforts of theResearch organizations and the farmers|, Aspecial publication in the occasion of theInternational Freshwater Year, 2003. 3p.

Mandal, A.B., Karpagam, C., Bandyopadhyay, B.K.,Bal, A.R, Dutt, S.K., Mahanta, K.K. andTripathi, S. (2004). Transfer of technology forri§hery production system in Sundarbans undercoastal agro-ecosystem. Journal Of Indian Societyof Coastal Agricultural Research 22(1&2|..341-342.

-\

Natural disasters vis-a-vis stal]ilityof coastal ecosystem

J. Indian Soc. Coastal agnc. Res., 24(2|, 345-350, 2006 Invited Paper

Impact of ¢rs##¢ow®. on Coastal Agro-ecosystems of Indiaand Strategies for Restoration

V. RAJAGOPAL

Director, Central Plantation Crops Research InstituteKasaragod, Kerala 671124

During January-February 2005, the Central plantation Crops Research lnstjtute, Kasaragod hadconducted a study on the impact of tsunam/. on coastal agro-ecosystems and strategies forrestoration in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Pondicherry and Andhra Pradosh. In fsunam/. affected areas,salinisation, waterlogging, soil erosion and siltation wore the major soil and water rolatodproblems. In Kerala, intrusion of soawator to a distance of about 500m caused sovoro damageto plants and animals. Arocanut, mango, jack, breadfruit, ficus, an/././/', tamarind, banana andpapaya wore completely dried. In Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, crops like palmyrah,groundnut, paddy, cashew, etc. have dried due to tsunam/'. In general, coconut palms withstoodthe impact of gushing water and high salinity to survive the natural calamity. However, yellowlngof outer whorls of leaves in older palms, button shedding, bunch buckling and uprooting ofseedlings were observed in some places. Plants like a;/anrAus (7-Aespes/.a popu/enoa), punna,pongamia, wild badam, etc. were tolerant to fsunam/. water and survived. Most of the poultry,duck and cows ln the fsunami. affected areas were perished.

A follow-up survey taken in Tamil Nadu and Kerala States during Soptembor-October 2005indicated that a remarkable I.ecovei.y was observed in the degree of salinjsatlon and affectedcoconut palms. In few areas of Cuddalore and Nagappatlnam distrlcts of Tamil Nadu, communityplanting of coconut was carried out in r®membranco of the decoasod pooplo.

(Hew u)ords: TsuncLrm, Coastal agro-ecosystem, Impact, Restoration)

7`suncim{, which struck the coastal areas ofIndonesia, Sri Lanka, India and few other countriesduring December 26th had led to the loss of severalthousands of lives and had destroyed the propertiesworth several million dollars. In India tsunam! hadhit the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry,Kerala and Andaman and Nicobar islands causingdeleterious effects on the coastal agro-ecosystems.In order to study the impact of fsttnami on coastalagro-ecosystem of these states with special referenceto palms and suggest suitable strategies forrestoration, a multidisciplinary team of scientistsfrom the Central Plantatlon Crops Research Institute

(CPCRI) visited the affected areas during the lastweek of January, 2005. A re-survey was undertakendunng October 2005 to assess the nature of impactand the degree of deleterious effects after the South-west monsoon. This paper highlights theobservations made during the surveys and suggestsstrategies for restoration of tst{namt' affected areas.

Impact of lsunam/.

Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry

So[7 cmd wczfer: The water distribution networkwas partially damaged in some locations andcompletely destro.ved elsewhere. This has caused

considerable difficulties for the people not only interms of drinking water, but also unsuitable foragricultural purposes.

Almost all of the bore or open wells availablewere salanized with salt water intrusion and a

process of decontaminating wells was requiredurgently for drinking water purposes. As onlyrainwater could flush out the aquifers, one had towait for the monsoon. All attempts.were to be madefor rainwater harvesting wherever possible.

In general, four types of probleins were observedon soil and water near the coasts of fstJnam{ affectedareas, viz. a) Salinisation, b) Waterlogging, c) Soilerosion, and d) Siltation.

In Mamallapuram even though {suriamt` waterfront spread up to 500m landward, the irrigationwells in 1.5 kin from seashore have become saline

(EC 11.5 dsm-I) due to seawater intrusion.

The details of analysis of soil samples collectedfrom tsunami affected areas are presented in Table 1.

Flooding with seawater during and after thetsunamt. has turned normal soil into salin€ soils. TheEC went up to 51.1 dsm-1 . The flooding of seawaterby the tsunami waves has caused a deposition of

346 V. Rajagopal

salts on the soils (salt encrustation). Open water bodieslike ponds and lakes have become saline. Severe soilerosion has occurred in the landward slopping soilsurfaces. In the extreme situations, entire root mat oftrees were exposed. Sediment siltation was c)bservedin the mouth of rivers This led to top soilcontamination and reduction of soil fertility.

Table 1. Analysts of soil samples from tsuna"af:fected areas of Tamil Nadu

I)istrict/Location I'H roe (ds in-I)Nagapattimm

7.5 51.I1. Naluvetahapatty Coast

2 Naluvetahapatty 8.7 25.2

3 Nochikuppam 7.2 11.7

4, Poompugar 7.58.7 5.3827.3

VlllupuramI ` Kanakachettikulam

2 Samiyar madam 8.7 27.3

3. Kottakuppam(after leaching) 7.0 0.93

4 Kottakuppam 7.87.57.26.84 7.2148.82719.87

KancheepuramI. ManallapuranPondlcherryI Kalapet ( water sample)

KaDyakumariI. Kolechel-Kottllpad

PJcirits.. In extreme situations, the entire root matwas exposed in coconut gardens. This led to a) rootdrying, b) reduction in absorption, c) drying ofpalms, and d) subsequent yield loss.

In general, coconut withstood salinity. However,in heavy soils yellowing of lower leaves and buttonshedding from yielding palms was noticed where noirrigation or no post-tsunam!. management wasfollowed. Coconut seedlings having yellow or orange

petiole suffered maximum where as green tallseedlings in the same location had less injury dueto salinity.

It was c)bserved that even about 50 in away fromthe sea, juvenile coconut palms (i.e. one to three

years of age) had tilted due to .tsunarm. as they havemore surface area (canopy) touching the fsLmam{Waves

However, adult palms did not tilt and theywithstood the impact of boats carried away bytstJnami waves. Among the tree species palmyrah

(Borrassus flabe!irer L.) was severely affected bysalinity and complete drying of foliage was noticed.Overflowing of tsttnam]. waves through cashewcanopy led to shedding of leaves and ultimate dryingcausing an economic loss to the extent of Rs.150-160 per tree.

The soil of {sttnaml. affected areas at Colechelin Kanyakumari district is coastal sandy loam. Inareas about 50 in away from the sea, coconut palmsshowed symptoms of drooping of leaves, drying ofouter whorl and uprooting. This led to subsequentyield reduction and economic loss to the extent ofRs.250 to 300 per palm per year and might havehad more adverse effects in long term. The detailsof damage occurred for coconut in different areas isgiven in Table 2.

Table 2. Detc.tis of coc.onut trees affected by tsunan\ in Kangakuman disinct, Tamtl Nadu

Details

Name of revenue village

Total5E!

iIa01 i! I€Ia, ini5J£LEC)Jii

i! iIIa, ii3tjihsh§=

%± iEaC=L'i

cdt'I0®a aaaI i3€a,5 aI?i!i ii:jii0± €iI

Total area cultivated (ha)areaaffected(ha)No.ofpalmsaffected 34220 6154 4408.82 53860 1410116 58320.8 91864.5 91618.4 50012 1483.2 2856.2 6695334.25

No.of farmers affected 3475 700 1544 10500 20356 3640 11287 3220 2100 525 1085 58432

Marginal 52 I 15 159 115 37 44 48 13 9 1414 507

Small 2 - 217 86 154 1451 36 755 518 312 309

8,8 3 1 15 2 - 21

Total 57 2 260 271 80 837

Source` Office of the Jt. Director (Agri ), Nagercoil, Tamil Nadu

Impact of tsunami 347

Table 3. Irxpact Of tsunani on lives and properties Of coastal agro-ecosystems in Ta"l Nadu and PonchcherTy

Dletrict affected Po|iulation affected Houses damaged Mo. of lltre8 loot NO. injuredCuddalore 99704 15200 617 198

Kanyaltumari 187650 31175 828 727Nagapattinam 196 184 39941 6065 1982Others 501026 39866 500 585Total 984564 126182 8010 3432

Source- Government of Tamil Nadu

Soot.oeconom].c Qspecis.. The overall impact offst{namt. in terms of loss of human lives, properties,etc. are presented in Table 3. More than 80% ofaffected families were from the fishermencommunity and they grew coconut as a componentin their homestead with minimum to moderate levelof management. It is interesting to observe that someof the fisherman maintain community coconutgarden in the seashore. In Naluvethapathy villageof Na.gapattanam district of Tamil Nadu, this was ata distance of 500 in from sea, fsuncimi entered up to2 kin into the land. However, the shelterbeltsestablished with casuarina, coconut and portia tree' (Thespest'a papu!rica) have saved the entire village

from the tszf rLam{ waves. The marimum level ofdamage for coconut was observed to be less thanone percent. After tsttnami', till relief measuresreached, the people depended on coconut fordrinking water and food.

Kerala

SoiJ and toafer.. The coastal areas of the regionaffected by the tsunam] present highly diversifiedhuman activities like multispecies cropping system,wetlands for prawn/crab culture, rope making fromcoconut fibre to mangrove and coastal strips used

primarily for rishing. Coconut is the predominant cropcultivated in the coastal belt affected by {st/ncim!.

rsttnam[ affected areas, in general, are a narrowstrip of land between sea and back water. Soil alongthe affected areas of Kerala coast is littoral sand.This led to severe erosion of topsoil to a depth ofabout 30 cm exposing roots of coconut palms in someareas, whereas deposition of soil was noticed incertain other areas.

Exposed roots were showing symrtoms ofdrying. This adversely affected absorption of waterand nutrients leading to yield loss. In those areaswhere soil erosion was not observed, a plant species,viz. Jpomea bi.Joba was present. It was informed thatwater from sea was deep brown in colour with foulsmell and stagnated for two hours upto three days.

In certain areas, the tsuncimi. seawater got mixedup with backwater and intruded into the adjoiningareaLs. Water collected from inundated aLrea (bothfrom open and bore well) showed very high salinity(up to 6195 ppm). The pH ranged from 6.55 to 8.82.The details are given in Table 4. In some areas, thereceipt of a few summer showers has helped to reducethe high concentration of salt accumulated in Soil andthereby helping the crops from persistent injury.

Table 4. Analysis Of soils in tsunawi affectedareas of KeTala

I)I.trict/Location pH EX3e (d8 D.1i

Kollan

7.80 17.91I. ^chhcklral Ward ][1

2. Alappad War.dv 5.76 18.44

3. Azhcekkal Ward VIII 7.57 16.20

4. Azheekkal Ward Ill 7.987.55 18.3317.98

Alap|)urha 1.1. Valiyazheekkal Ward V

2.do 7.95 12.38

3.do 7.99 17.83

4. Pattanckkad 8.36 18.27

5. do (coconut basin) 7.98 17.98

6. Devikulangara (coconut basin) 7.987.14 18.3318.47

ErzLakulam

I. Edavanakkd

P!anfs and cml'ma!s.. Intrusion of seawater to adistance of about 500 in caused severe damage toplants a.nd animals. The details on damage to cropscollected for different districts are given in AnnexurcTable 5-7. Arecanut, mango, arfocarpusheteropftyJztts (Jack), Arfocaxptts I.usrsa (Breadfruit),{ieus, Artocarpus hirsuta |anjiliD, tamarindus indica(Tamarind), banana and papaya were completelydried. Coconut pa.Ims withstood the impact of

gushing water and high salinity to survive thenatural calamity. However, yellowing of outer whorlsof leaves in older palms, button shedding, bunchbuckling and uprooting of seedlings were observed

348 V. Rajagopal

inble 5. Details Of arec. c.nd crops affected by ts;"nawi in Kollam disinct, Kerala

Detall8Nai"e ot panchayat

TotalAlappad KArun&-8apally Clapl,ana KSPuram 8aml-Iulangara P,DJnaoa

Area affected (ha) 735 5 5 12300 5 7 769Coconut-bearing mos.) 1000 - 40 30 8 I,078Do-non-bearing (mos.) 35000 - - 15502000 14400 36,564Do-seedlings (mos,) 5000 - 150 • 5,450

Banana-ylelding (nos.) 15000 1000 22000 1500 41,900

Do-young plants (nos.) 20000 15002 3000 1000 5000 600 31, loo

Arecanut (mos.) 10000 6000 1500 1000 - 18,500

Vegetables (ha) 5150 3 - 3 13

Pepper (nos.) - 1500 200 I,700

Tapioca (ha) -250

- 5.5 5.5

Other tuber crops (ha) 150

Timber trees (mos.) 1700 I,950Mango tree (mos.) 15000560 150 15,150

Paddy-salt water affected (ha) 3 - 3

Area affected by top sollerosion(ha) - - - 560

Table 6. Details of area cnd crops affected by tsunarhi in Alappuzha disinct, Kerala

Details N.ne ot panchagatTotal

drattuf.urha I)evilulangara mndalloor PattanaHad Kuthi-yatJiodcArea affected (ha) 122.13 39.63 4.84 5 sO 221.6

Coconut-bearing (nos.) 523 15 2 165 - 705

Do-non-bearing (mos.) 1343 53 9 50 36 I,491

Do-seedlings (mos.) 7045 444 87 3302 - 1.0878

Banana-yielding (mos.) 5901 610 27 5110 500 I,2148

Do- young plants (mos.) 12936 2890 151 15437 800 32,214

Arecanut (mos.) 2926 1234 - 2150 - 6,310

Vegetables (ha) 1.25 0.6 - - 2 2.85

Pepper (mos.) 782.8 681.35 - - 1463.35

Tapioca (ha) - -Other tuber crops (ha) - -Cashew (mos.) 343 68 I 91 503

Nutmeg (nos.) 3 3

in some places. Tilting of young coconut seedlingswas also noticed in Some places. Plants likeThespesiapopul:nea®ooua:rae:u/seelauthy),Calopkylhaminophyllum {purma), Pongamia glabra, Terminaliacatappa (wild badam), Casuarira equisitifolia etc. weretolerant to fsunam!. water and survived. Most of the

poultry, duck and cows were perished.

Socioeconomi'c czspects.. In Kollam andAlappuzha districts, arecanut was one among thecrops, which .was severely affected due to salinity,causing an average damage of Rs.loo-150 per palm

per year. The development departments wererequired to take corrective measures throughappropriate schemes for saving the affected palmsand to compensate the loss incurred to the farmers.Similarly, the State Department of AnimalHusbandry should have implemented properschemes for restoring the livestock based activitiesin the affected villages.

F`isheries and agriculture in coasLal areas havebeen severely hit by the tot/riQmi. waves. Almost theentire rishermen folk in the affected areas have lost

Impact of tsLlnaml' 349

Table i. Details of c.Tea and crops af:fected trytsuniL:rn:i in Errrakulam district, Kerala

betLn,Coconut bearing (mos.)

Do non-bearing (nos.)

Do-seedlings (mos,)

Arecanut-bearing (nos:)

Do-young plants (mos.)

Banana-yielding (nos.)

Do-young plants (mos.)

Vegetables (ha)

Tapioca (mos.)

Pepper (nos.)

Nutmeg (mos.)

Cashew (mos.)

Cocoa (nos.)

63

200

Ilo

2,500

2,000

2,500

2,500

I acre

25 cents

200

32

Table 8. Analysis Of soils in tsunarhi affectedareas of Aridhra Pradesh

their rishing boats, nets and other gadgets for fishingetc. Relief efforts must ensunc that local famcrs andrishermen folk hit by the tstlna/riz. receive au sorts ofassistance needed to meet their food needs and restartfarming and rishing at the earliest possible time.

Andhra Pradesh

So!'J and toafer.. In tst/riami. affected areas inAndhra Pradesh, it was noticed that though theseawater entered 0.5 to i kin inside the coast line,it had minimum impact in those areas wherecasuarina plantations were present as compared tohigher level damage observed in other areas. In thoseareas near the back waters, the impact of tsttnam].was such that the bunc!s were cut and soil erosionhastened the coconut uprooting on the bt/nd areas.The local people reported increase in the levels ofbackwater as compared to pre-tstlnou. levels. Theraised levels were existent till date. In OdelarevAvillage located in the mouth of the river Godavari inthe East Godavari district, sedimentation of silt wasobserved. The details of analysis of soil samples fromdifferent areas are presented in Table 8.

f}iants and anindrs.. The coconut plantations onthecoasthavestartedshowingyeuowingandscorchingof leaves in lower and middle whorls. The seedlings ofcoconut showed symptoms of leaf scorching anddrying. Coconuts on the hinds of backwater coastswere uprooted due to soil erosion caused by tst{mamt.waters. More than 50% of the canopy in palmyrah

palms has dried and palmyrah seedlings, cashew nuttrees and jamun completely dried up due to seawaterstagnation for seven days. Goats and poultry birdswere lost at Chinnadainavari Lanka.

I)letrlct/I®catlon pH Ece (dsm.1)

West Godavarl

6.21 15.80I. Odela

2. P. Rao garden area 6.34 2.60

3. do (coconut basin) 5.89 4.24

4. Odela 6.90 1.23

5. Garden 20m away 6.58 3.406. P. Rao garden 7.00 I.45

7. do - Unaffected area 6,516.57 0.9014.3

Ea8t GodavariI. Chinnalanka unaffected2. do -500m away 6.99 16.85

3. do - I kin away 6.79 18.73

4. do - loom away (A) 7.70 16.94

5. do -loom away (8) 7.33 17.43

Sociaeconoml.c aspects.. People in the affectedareas were: I) those depending on rishing and watertransport (ferrying), 2) farmers whose plantationsor homesteads were on the sea coast, and 3) thosedepending on fishing and salt making. Farmersincurred a loss of about Rs. 500 per annum per cashewplant at Odalarevu due to complete drying of the trees.Each family engaged in s?lt making might haveincurred loss of around Rs.25,000/-due to damage ofsalt making plots at Chinnadainavari Lanka.

Sfrafeg{.es /or restorofi.orl.. There is an urgentneed for rehabilitation of agriculture and fisheriesin the tsttnamf affected areas. Short term (<2 years),medium term (2-5 years) and long term (>5 years)measures were to be adopted for restoration.Immediate needs in the agrieultural sector includesupply of planting materials and other inputs, tools,small livestock and assistance in rehabilitating smallscale infrastructure Such as irrigation schemes,animal shelters, storage facilities and retail markets.It also required some consistent interventions to helpfarmers cleaning up agriculture rields to get rid ofsalt and sediments and restore fertility.

Re-survey details

A follow-up survey taken in Tamil Nadu and KeralaStates during September-October 2005 indicated thata remarkable recovery was observed in the degree ofsalinisation and affected coconut palms. Providingirrigation once in three days and manuring hadeffectively controlled the post-tot/nami. effect on coconu tat Kalapa'tfu in Pondicherry. It was further inferredthat coconut seedlings having yellow petiole affectedmaximum whereas those with green petioles in samelocation had less injury due to salinity.

350 V. Rajagopal

In few areas of Cuddalore a.nd Nagappatinamdistrict of Tamil Nadu, community planting ofcoconut was carried out in remembrance of thedeceased people. The people of Kameswaram villagestated that coconut plantation along the sea coastsaved their lives and properties from tot/nami.

Among the tree species, palmyrah was affectedseverely by salinity. Palmyrah palms with 75 % andmore of dried leaves (during February 2005) werefound dead during the re-survey.

In Kerala at many places soil was applied in thebasins of coconut palms, where root system was exposeddue to erosion and in some places mounds were takenas a practice followed in sandy soil areas of Onattukara

region. The fallen trees were removed and the leaned

palms were straightened by proper supporting.

CONCLUSION

Tsunam! affected coastal zones fall within adistance of 0.5 to 1.5 kin and the level of damagediffered from place to place, plantation to plantation,crop to crop. Arecanut, palmyrah, cashew nut andmango were the most sensitive plants as completedrying was noticed. Coconut was found to berelatively tolerant and plants such as casuc!ri'na,mangroves and 7`hespesfa popt/!nea were not affecteddue to seawater intrusion. Various short, mediumand long term strategies are required to restore thetsunami destroyed ecosystem of coastal India.

i/. /rlczI-an Soc. Coasfal agr!c. I?es., 24(2), 351-355, 2006

i.Invited Paper

Crop Rehabilitation and Management forSupercyclone Hit Coastal Areas of Orissa

D. P. SINHABABU, a. N. SINGH, 8. K. MAITY', N. SARANG12, H. N. VERMA3,H. PANDEy`, a. K. PANDAS, G. NAIK°, S.1{. NASKAR7 and G. SATISH KUIVIAR8

Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack -753 006, Orjssa, India

The supercyclone of October,1999 ravaged all the eight coastal districts of Orissa resulting inalmost complete damage of agro-ecosystem, besides immense loss of infrastructure and humanlives. In order to reconstruct and improve the cyclone damaged farmlng sectors, amultidiscjplinary and multi-institutional NATP project was taken up for four years in the worstaffected 41 villages/hamlets covering 2,800 farm families of mostly marginal and small categoriesin two coastal districts of Orissa. Improved technologies on rice and rice based cropsproduction, fruit and vegetable crops, tuber crops, plantation crops, agro-forestry, aquaculture,poultry farming, integrated farming system, short term cash crops and other avocations, waterresource development and management, family nutrition and women empowerment wereintroduced and popularized thi.ough men and women farmers' participatory 20,500demonstrations and on-farm trials in adclition to 198 on-station and on-farm training and fielddays. The result revealed that introduction of improv®d technologies increased productivity offield crops by 20-150°/a including moi.e than 100®/. increase in the major crop, rice I)ocause ofIT`ostly low soil salinity (EC„ 0.2-1.6 dsm-') present during crop growth in the wet seasonbecause of high rainfall (around 1500 mm). Rice variety Annapurna, hybrid sunflow®r (var. KBSH-1, MSFH-17) and guava variety Sardar were found promising in saline condition. Improved cropmanagement with lNM, IPM and mechanization increased rice yleld I)y 10-34°/a, substantiallyreduced pesticide use and improved efficiency of farm operations. The farm income was gi.eatlyraised with the technologies of composite fish culture, backyard poultry farming, mushroomcultivation and lice-fish diversified farming system. Family nutrition was improved throughnutritional kitchen gardens. Development and management of farmers' participatory waterresources supported crop production with 250% higher cropping intensity. The project hadlarge impact, as it resulted in 10 to 100% adoption of improved varieties along with recommendedmanagement practice in the case of field crops, including 48% in wet season rain fed rice. Theaverage annual family income increased by Rs. 6,754 (Rs 950 . 42,000) and employment by 34man days (4-235 man days). Development of a 7 kin long shelter belt plantation in the epicenterof the cyclone and large scale restructuring of the fruit trees, plantation crops and agro-forestrywill help in protection of the ocosystom against cyclone.

(Key words: Supereyclone in_9msa, E|:feat orL crops , Agro-forestry. Aquaculture a poultry, Integratedf armmg system, Water resource managem.ent, Family nutrttior`, Won-en err;pou)e;ment)

The coastal agroecosystem in Orissa spread overabout 1,7 million ha of field crops areaL is highlyfragile due to several abiotic and biotic stresseswhich often cause poor productivity (around I.3 tha-I for rice). The supercyclone of October, 1999with a wind speed of 250 to 300 kin h-I associatedwith high (400 mm) rainfall ravaged all elght coastaldistricts resulting in almost complete damage of fieldcrops in I.7 in ha area, 90 million plants/trees, 2.2million livestocks, besides loss of 10,000 humanlives and a. large number of houses and otherinfrastructures, leading to total monetary loss ofabout 6,000 crores (Sarkar, 2000). With the aim ofrestructuring and improving the cyclone-damaged

agroecosystem as well as strengthening theeconomic status of the cyclone hit farm families, amulti-institutional and multidisciplinary project wastaken up under National Agricultural TechnologyProject (NATP) for about four years in some worstcyclone affected coastal areas of Orissa.


A NATP project on "Management of coastal agro-ecosystem affected by supercyclone in Orissa" wastaken up during the period 2001-05 in superc`ycloneaffected 41 villages/ hamlets under five pcincJicigrafsin Ersama (cyclone epicentre) and Astarang blocksof Jagatsinghpur and Puri districts of Orissa. The

]Orlssa Universit.v of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, 2Central Institute of'Water Technology Centre for Eastern Region, Bh-ubanc8war,4National Research Centre for Women in Agriculture, Bhubaneswar,5Regional Research Station for CARI, Bhubaneswar,6Central Horticultural Experimental Station of IIHR, Bhubaneswar,7Regional

Centre of CTCRI, Bhubancswar and Bout Reach Centre of NRCG, Bhubaneswar

Freshwater Aquaculture, Bhubaneswar,

352 D. P. Sinhababu et a/.

project covered 2,800 farm families. Improvedtechnologies on rice and rice based crop production,fruit and vegetable crops, tuber crops, plantationcrops, agro-forestry, aquaculture, poultry farming,rice-fish diversified farming system, short term cashcrops and avocations (mushroom, apiculture, betelvine) , water resource development and management,family nutrition and women empowerment wereintroduced and popularized in the project areas.Benchmark survey in the beginning and impactevaluation at the end of the project were conductedusing standard procedures. In order to increase theproductivity of major field crops, quality seeds of60 tons of fourteen improved rice varieties, 89tonnes of potato tubers of four improved varietiessuch as, Kufri chandramukhi, K. Sinduri, K. Ashoka,and K. Lalima, 22.5 tons stalks of sugar cane (cv.CO-7805), 16.7 tonnes seed and 16 lakh plantingmaterials of improved varieties of vegetables andtuber crops were distributed to the farm families.For rejuvenation of the damaged fruit plants, about14,000 saplings of improved varieties of differentfruit crops (mango, guava, papaya, and banana) wereplanted in the backyards and in fields. Forrestructuring the lost plantation, 24,000 seedlingof different plantation crops (hybrid cashewnut,coconut var. Elite Sakhigopal, arecanut var.Mangala) and 87,832 agro-forestry saplings ofmalr\ly Acach mangium, A. Our.culiformes Casuarinaequ\setifoha, Eucalyptus hybrid and Pongcrmiap]'7iriata (fuel and oil source) were planted inhomestead areas, field buncis, community lands andin river bund near the epicentre of cyclone, involvingalmost all the farmers. To increase quality irrigationresources, 20 sub-surface water harvestingstructures, especifically in saline areas, and 10shallow tube wells were developed and managed with20 irrigation pumps on farmers' participatory basis.Composite fish culture was introduced in 11 hawater area using six fresh water carp species (Ca{!acatla, Lebeo rohita, Cirrhinus mrigala, Cyprinuscarpio, Hypopthal"chthys molltnx a,r\dC`fenaphcingngodo7i ]c!e!!a) and fresh water giant

prawn (Macrobrochtum rosenbergI.i) . A self-recruitingfish, viz. Punt[.us gonionottJs was introduced forsustainable aLquaculture. Improved backyard poultryfarming was Introduced by providing 16,400 chicksof coloured dual purpose birds of mainly CARIDevendra, Vanraja and Grampriya breeds and 3,150ducklings of Khaki Campbell breed to 2,300 small,marginal farmers and landless labourers. Total 132nutritional kitchen gardens of 100 m2 area each weredeveloped, involving maLinly the women farmers.

Total 3000 in-house mushroom production unitswere created, involving 52 women Self Help Groups

(SHGs) and 40 beehives were Installed in backyardsand in crop fields. Improved betel vine orchards of60 units were developed. On-farm research wasconducted for identifying salt tolerant field cropsand on integrated crop management through lNM,IPM and mechanization. The farmers includingwomen farmers were trained on the improvedtechnologies through 198 trainings and field days,20,500 demonstrations and on-farm trials, besides67 technical bulletins and leaflets published mostlyin local language.


The benchmark survey of the project sitesrevealed that around 92% of the houses, 90% ofthe plantation crops, 82% of animals, 98% of birdsand 13% of human population were lost due tosupercyclone, besides complete damage of fieldcrops. The damage was more in Brsama site (epi-centre) as compared to Astarang site. Around 85%of the farm families in these areas belonged tomarginal and small categories and 12% werelandlcss labourers. The need cif maximum (75%)farln families was for animal components, followedby seeds and planting materials of various crops(65%), fertilizers (32%) and irngation facilities (32%).The average annual rainfall in the target area wasaround 1500 mm, of which more than 80% wasreceived during south-west monsoon (June-October). The inherent problems of the target areaswere complex and diverse. Rice ecology wasdominant, since rice is the main food crop in coastalOrissa. The target agro-ecosystem was mostly (85°/o)rain fed and largely inflicted with a number of abioticstresses such as drought, flood, submergence, soilsalinity and acidity. The soils were mostly acidic (pH3.5-6.7) with varying degree of salinity. The soilsalinity levels remained low during wet seasonbecause of sufricient washings due to high rainfall,

¥sh#::|`nfi::ydbwu:::ruEc(%V::3gfds:i_P)Cd`u2r,:g5-dLJseason, with comparatively higher levels in Ersamasite. The major insect pests were stemborer,caseworm and plant hopper for rice, shoot andfruitborer, thrips and cutworm for vegetable crops,and caterpillar and eriophyid mites for coconut. Theimportant diseases were bacterial leaf blight, falsesmut and tungro for rice, blight and collar rot forpotato, bacterial and phomopsis wilt, mosaic virus,anthracnose for vegetable crops, and ring spotdisease, foot rot, panama wilt, Sigatoka, bacterialcanker and die back for fruit crops. These problems

Supercyclone hit coastal Orissa 353

compelled the farmers to grow mostly a monocropof traditional rice varieties, besides local varietiesof pulses, vegetables and fruit crops in limited areas.The poultry and livestock breeds were largelytraditional. Conventional fish culture was prevalentmainly in personal pc>nds. Based on the physical,biological and sc)cioeconomic conditions in the targetareas and considering the farmers' needs, suitabletechnological interventions were taken up.

Among the introduced rice varieties, Gayatriperformed best (average grain yield 4.7 t ha-I),followed by Savitri and Kanchan (4.5 t ha-I) inrain fed lowlands under low soil salinity (EC, 2 0.2-1.6 dsm-I). In relatively saline (EC, 2, 0.5-3 dsm-1)and waterlogged (water depth up to 60 cm) areas,salt tolerant rice variety Lunishree produced goodgrain yield (3.9 t ha-1). Early maturing (90 days) ricevariety Vandana Introduced in the upland andmedium lands performed very well (grain yield 4.1 tha-I) and was accepted by the farmers because ofIts harvest before the normal cyclone period. Duringpost-cyclone period (dry season), rice varietyKhandagiri was widely adopted followed by Naveenwhich produced comparable grain yield (5.0 t ha-I)under early planting (by the 2nd week of January).Rlce variety Annapurna was found promising (grainyield 3-4 t ha-I) for growing in saline soils (EC 3-8dsm-I), while CSR 4 and Canning 7 rice varletieswere found suitable in relatively less sa.line areas

(BC 2-5 dsm-I) during dry season. Integratednutrient management (INM) in rice crop resulted in21-34% higher grain yield with dhaincha (S.aculea{a) for green manuring during wet season.AzoZJa dual cropping with rice increased grain yieldby about 10% and 20 % in the wet and dry season,respectively, besides a saving of 30 kg N ha-I in theform of chemical fertilizer. Trials on integrated pestmanagement (IPM) in rice crop, Including use of llghtand pheromone traps, reduced the incidence ofinsect pests (stemborer) up to 50%, besidescontrolling diseases like rice tungro and false smut.Yadav (2004) reported 15-18% Increase in rice grain

yield in the case of conjunctive use of Inorganic andorganlc fertillzer including green leaf manuring andemphasized the need of INM and IPM in coastal agro-ecosystem. Introduction of mechanization in ricefarming Increased the efficiency of field operationsby three to flfteen times. Introduction of Improvedvarieties along with management technologiesincreased the rice productivity by around 120°/a inthe project areas (Fig.1). Singh ef aJ. (2001) alsoreported higher productivity of rice with improvedvarieties in cyclone prone coastal Orissa.

Rice varieties

Flg.1. Increase ln rice productivity ln the project areasdue to adoption of improved varieties and

management technologies

I Befre proi-eel I AIer prciect

Fig. 2. Increase in farm income of different categoriesof farmers in project villages due toimplementation of various activities

The rice based cropping system in the projectareas was improved with the introduction andadoption of hybrid sunflower (particularly, var.MSFH-17) in medium land and shallow lowland ricefallow. The crop produced high average yield of 2.1t ha-i, and served as a source of edible oil. Sunflower(var. KBSH-1 and MSFH-17) crop was also foundsuitable for growing in saline soils (EC I 2 4-8 dsm-I).Improved variety of greengram (PDM 54) yielded 1 1of grain per ha in shallow lowland rice fallow High

yielding potato varieties, Kufri Chandramukhi andK. Sinduri were accepted by the farmers in rice fallowand homestead lands because of hlgher productivity(tuber yield 20-25t ha-1), good taste and keepingquality. Around 200 farmers were motivated for seedproduction aLnd proper storage of 15 tons seedtubers for the first time to support potato farmingin the following season. Sesamum (var. Uma)recorded average yield of 0.75 t ha-1 in the residualfertility of potato crop Among the six Improved

groundnut varieties tried after wet season rice cropand in home stead lands, Smruti performed the best

354 D. P. Sinhababu e! a/.

(pod yield,1.7 t ha-I) and produced around 100°/ahigher yield over the popular variety AK 12 -24. Earlysowing (first week of December) Increased the pod

yield by 30°/o to 100% as compared to sowing in themonth of January. Improved sugarcane cultivationyielded on an average 63 t ha-I and was accepted asa contingent food crop for cyclone.

Among the various improved varieties of fruitcrops introduced in the project areas, guava varietySardar was found promising (yield lokg per year)for saline areas. Mango variety Amrapali recordedmaximum survival of 64% (average survival of mangoplants, 58°/o). Total 8 acres of mango orchards wereestabllshed in project villages and the mean plantheight and canopy spread after three years ofplanting were 1.47m and 1.46m, respectively.Among the different Improved papaya varietiesIntroduced, Pusa Dwarf prc>duced the highest yieldof 13 kg and 11.5kg per plant in the rirst and second

year of age, respectively. Tissue-cultured Robustavariety of banana recorded high yield of 12 to 19 kgbunch per plant. Adoption of improved varieties ofvarious vegetable crops (tomato, brinjal, bottlegourd,okra, French bean, Amaranthus) increasedproductivity by 1.4-6.6 t ha-I over the traditionalvarieties. Raising of community nurseries for fruitand vegetable crops involving men and women SHGsof eight villages was successful and this activftywould help in sustenance and further adoption ofImproved fruits and vegetables crops cultivation inthe project sites and adjoining areas.

Adoption of improved tuber crop cultivation

produced 125-140kg of sweet potato, 32-40 kg ofcolc>casia, 52-55 kg of yam, 55-60 kg of elephantfootyam, 45-50kg of yam bean, 250-300 kg of cassavaper family. Among the five improved sweet potatoverities Introduced, SaLmrat outyielded (30 t ha-I) othervarieties. The increase in area of improved varieties ofvarious tuber crops, (cassava, sweet potato, greater

yam , Elephant footyam, colocasia, yam bean) rangedfrom 10 to 100% in Astarang site and 6 to 100% inErsama site with 26% higher adoption in the Astarangarea, because of less soil salinity in case of the latter.Among these crops, yam bean followed by elephantrootyam and cctlocasia (in Astarang site) had highestadoptlon in both the sites because of higher benefit-cost ratio The benefit-cost ratio in these crops rangedin between 1.2 to 3.

Among the plantation crops, coconut plantsregistered the highest survival (80°/o) followed by hybridcashewnut and arecanut. Large scale agro-forestryplantation in homestead lands and field bundsrecorded good survival and growth of the trees. Among

the trees, E. trybn.d and A. mcingi.urn attamed maximumheight (4.68 -4.7m) and collar girth (18 3 -23.2 cm)after two years fouowed by C'. equ!setr/ojicz.

Rice-fish diver§ified farming system withintegration of various components (rice, pulses, oilseeds, horticultural crops, agro-forestry, rish, prawn,birds, etc.) was introduced in 8 rain fed waterloggedlowland farms ( 1.1 -2 .0 acres each) for Improving thetotal farm productivity and income. This technologynot only increased the net income by around fifteentimes (Rs 44,500 per ha) over the traditional practiceof rice cultivation but also helped in considerableadditional employment generation (Ilo man days).The Income is comparable with the reports underon-station rice- fish diversified farming technologyfor rain fed lowland areas (Sinhababu, 2001).

Creation of water resources (subsurface waterharvesting structures and shallow tubewells) andtheir management with farmers' participatoryapproach increased the cropping intensity by about250% due to Increase in area of quality irrigationby around five times. Water productivity in thosestructures ranged from Rs 9 to Rs 48 m`3 due tohigher crop|)ing intensity and fish culture. Thisintervention increased farm income with a higherbenefit-cost ratio of 1 . 4 to 2 . 3 . A survey conducted fromthese groups revealed that farmers generated their ownfunds for the maintenance of water resources.

The productivity of fish under composite fishculture was higher (5.0 t ha-I) in individual backyardponds as compared to Pclnchgaf ponds (3.0 t ha-I).Along with fish, fresh water export quality giantprawn also grew well (size 100g per year). A self-recruiting fish, PIJnfl.us gonl.onotus introduced withcarp culture was found to adapt well (size 1.0 kgper year) in the area. Introduction of participatoryfish seed rearlng in village nurseries supported

growth of fish culture. The fish productivity achievedin these project areas is comparable with thepotential yield level under growout carp culturetechnology for farmers (ICAR, 2005).

In the backyard poultry farming, the survivalof chicks and ducklings was 78°/o and 900/o,respectively. The poultry birds attained an averageweight of about I.5 kg in 8-10 weeks and 2.5 -6. 5kg after 24 -26 weeks, which was two to three timeshigher than the native birds raised on free rangescavenging. The layer birds laid 180-200 eggs in a year.The beneficiaries earned a net orofit of about Rs 350per bird. Panda €£ aJ. (2004) als6 reported higher bodyweight and profit gain in the case of on-farm extensivefarming as compared to on-station intensive farmingof poultry birds. Ducks attained a body weight of I.0kg in 8 weeks and laid 13 eggs per month.

Supercyclone hit coastal Orissa 355

A survey on the nutritional status of 120 farmfamilies at the start of the project revealed that morethan 500/a of women had their Body Mass Index (BMI)values less than the desired level (>18.5), whichIndicates poor nutritional status among the women.Malnutrition was also found prevalent amongchildren of the age group in between 1 to 15 years,as indicated by their anthropometric measurements,general appearance, and deficiency symptoms ofvitamin A, C and protein. Children were also foundsuffering from the diseases like angular stomatitisand oedema. In order to improve the nutrition offarm families, seasonal vegetables and fruit cropswere grown throughout the year in the nutritionalgardens with a production level of 43 kg loom-2 ineach season. These gardens brought diversificationin vegetable cultivation in backyards, resulting in30-500/o Increase in the productivity of vegetables.This activity increased access of smau farm families,especially women to more varieties and quantity ofvegetable crops. Skill development of women farmersin preparation of low-cost nutritious recipes (Posfl.kKhichri, Namkeen Dalia, Basan Palak, Crilla, Sweetpotato Kheer and Guzab i/amcin) helped them to getcomparatively balanced diet to their families.Besides, training of farm women on value additionof pulses (Bad] making), fruit crops dam, pickle)helped in income generation.

Demonstration and adoption of strawmushroom and oyster mushroom production unitsby 52 women self help groups (SHGs) was highlybenericial with an yield of 0.8-I.2 kg mushroom andincome or Rs. 750-1,000 per bed within a shortperiod of 15-25 days. Introduction of beehives andrejuvenation of betelvine orchards also generatedhigh annual Income of Rs 550 per hive and up toRs. 40,000 per orchard per year, respectively.

A 7 kin long shelter bed plantation was donewith quick growing species, viz. C. eqtJ]sefl/oJ!.a, A.mclngtum, E. trybn.d and P. p!.nnafci at the epicenterof super-cyclone for protection from cyclonic windand tidal waves. Among the trees, E. trybnci attainedthe maximum height (4.7m) after two years followedby A. mangtttm (4.2m) and C. eqt(!set{roJ]a (4.I in).While, A. mang!um accumulated the highest collargirth of 19.0 cm after two years, followed by E. trybn.c!(16.2 cm) and C eqtti.sef!/oJi.ci (12.8 cm).

CONCLUSION

The impact of the project was large. Introductionand popularization of the improved crop productiontechnologies increased the productivity of rield cropsin the range of 20-150°/o. The coverage or high

yielding rain fed rice varieties Increased to 48°/o in

wet season due to substitution of local cultivars by36%, while that of dry season rice enhanced by morethan 100%. Adoption level in the case of other rieldcrops ranged in between 10~100%. Creation of qualitywater resources supported higher cropping intensityin the project sites which were mostly rainfed. Adoptionof improved tuber crop cultivation and nutritionalkitchen gardens increased honsehold food security.Introduction and popularization of other incomegenerating enterprises, like backyard poultry and duckfarming, fish culture, betelvine orchard, vegetables,mushroom cultivation, rice-fish farming greatlyincreased the farm income and opportunities foremployment of farmers and landless labourers. Dueto adoption of these enterprises, the average farmincome increased by Rs 6,750 per family, includingRs 4,930 and Rs 5,920 for margmal and small farmers,respectively (Fig.2). The employment of the familiesalso went up by 34 mandays on an average with amaximum of 235 mandays. Restructuring of theeyclone devastated plantation in the project sites bylargescaleplantingofagroforestryandperennialfruitcrops and creation of shelter belt plantat]on at theepicentre of the supercyclone will provide protectionto the agroeco§ystem, besides supplying fruits, fueland fibre wood.

REFERENCES

ICAR_ |2005|. Aquaculture Technologies fior Farmers,Indian Council of Agricultural Research, NewDelhi. 104p.

Panda, B.K., Padhi, M.K. and Sahoo, S.K. (2004).Comparative growth and performance studiesor exotic birds in the intensive and extensivesystem of rearing at Orissa state. Jndt.an Jouma!o/Pot/Jtru Sc].ertce 39(3): 258-288.

Sarkar, H.S. (2000). The supercyclone of 1999 andits aftermath. In Ort.ssa I?eui.ew, Oct 2000, pp.4-12, Govt. of Orissa, India.

Singh, a., Sinhababu, D.P., Venugopalan, M., SahaSanjoy, Rayudu, B.T. and Ghosh, A. (2001).Household food security by improving rice basedfarming system in cyclone prone coastal belt ofor\ssa. Journal of Indian Society of CoastalAgnct/!trraJ I?esecirch 19(1&2): 323-332.

Sinhababu, D.P. (2001). Rt.ce-fl.sJi Farml.ng/or Rat.n/edLo"lands Areas, CRRI Technology Bulletin 8,Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Orissa.

Yadav , J.S.P.(2004). Coastal Agricultural Research- Present Status and Future Perspective withSpecial Reference to Value Addition. .Jot/mar o/Indian Society of Coastal Agrieultural Researcjh22(1&2): 1-8.

J. Jnc!{an Sac. Coasfa! cignc. Res„ 24(2), 356-358, 2006

Supercyclone -A Natural DisasterASHWANI KUMAR and N. SAHOO

Water Technology Centre for Eastern RegionChandrasekharpur, Bhubaneswar -751 023, Orissa

Orissa, situated in eastern coast of India has been recurrently suffering from floods, faminesand cyclon®S. The greatest calamity that rias affoctod the people of Orlssa coast wassup®rcyclono which has occurred on 29.30th October 1999. The wind velocity was 270 kin to300 kin h-I which remained stationary for more than 24 hours at Paradip. Ivlaxlmum of 42.6 cmrainfall vvas received during two days. In total 9885 persons were killod and the total loss wasaround Rs. 3000 croros. The Sugges(ed romodial m®asuros w®ro both hardware and software.The hardware solutlons wore Saf® Sholt®r, foreshore road, one-way sluice gate, communitygrain bank and community drlnklng water system. The software solutlons wore coastalplantatlon, kitchen yard plantation for food securlty and growlng sallno resistant paddy variety.These should bo the vital physical aspects nocossary for planning to redilce the cyclone andflood havoc ln Orissa's coastal plains in future.

(Key u)ordts: Supercyclor.e, Wind uelocty, Safe shelter, Food seourTrty)

Ori§sa, situated in eastern coast of India hasbeen recurrently suffering from floods, famines andcyclones. The memory of great famine of 1865-66

(Ivaank Durut.ktryci), floods of 1955 (Da!ei' ghat| andcyclone of 1999 (supercyclone) still remain in thememory of the people. Ih this famine about a quarterof Orissa's population perished. Similar situationoccurred in 1955 flood though casuality was morein coastal Orissa. Again the supercyclone thatdevastated coastal Orissa on 29-30th October 1999has once again opened the laceraLted wounds of the

people, virtually crippled Orissa's economy, anddestroyed its ecosystem.

Supercyclone: Origin and development

The supercyclone first originated like any othertropical cyclone as a depression over North AndamanIslands at about 12°0 N to 13°30' N latitude and95°0'E longitude and centered at about 350 kin tothe NE of Port Blair. It intensified further due toupper air disturbances and moved north-westernwards, and centered at around 140°3' to 94°0' E longitudes. Then it moved further NW and tookthe shape of a cyclone and centered at about 800kin to the SE of Paradeep. After that it intensifiedfurther and became a supercyclone when it movedin a N-W direction and centered at about 25 kin tothe South East of Paradeep at 19°54'-20°5' N and86°35' E longitude. The landfall at Paradeep was on29-30th October and remained stationery there formore than 24 hours during which wind velocityreached a maximum 270 kin to 300 kin per hour.This was unprecedented.

The result was devastating. Tidal wave of 2storied buildings high rushed coastwards (5-7 in)into the Mahanadi delta and affected Jagatsinghpur,Kendrapada, Puri, Khurda and Cuttack districts. It

partially damaged Keonjhar, Dhenkanal andNayagarh district in the Mahanadi-Baitarani basins.This supercyclone caused terrible havoc inBhubaneswar, the capita.I city-and Cuttack thecommercial capital of Orissa. The first cyclonewarning was sounded by the MDI on the 26thOctober for which at)out i,50,000 people howevercould be shifted to safer places.

Cyclonic rainfall

Cyclonic rainfall started from 29th October andceased on lst November 1999. On 29th Octobermaximum rainfall was recc>rded at Akhuapada

(12cm) followed by KujaLng (6.5 cm). Rain became.heavier on 30th when maximum of 42.6 cm wasreceived at Bhubaneswar followed by Anandpur(39.6 cm). On 31st Octctber, heavier shower wasrecorded at Hadhgad (46.8 cm) followed by Bhadrak

(44.6 cm). On lst November 1999 rainfall becameless and a maximum of 13.97 cm was recorded atSuneidam followed by Akhuapada (9 cm). In all thesefour days the maximum rainfall was recorded atAkhuapada (95.5 cm) followed by Bhadrak (86.7 cm),Sunei Dam (78.42 cm), and Anandpur (72.38 cm),Astarang (60.0 cm) and Ersama (55.7 cm).

Cyclonic Damage

The supercyclone affected 97 Blocks in 12coastal districts including city of Bhubaneswar andCuttack and 28 other coastal towns. In these coastal

Supercyclone a natural disaster 357

districts i.30 crore people were affected. The cycloneaffected districts were Khurda, Puri, Cuttack,Jagatsinghpur, Kendrapada, Dhenkanal andNayagarh which were agriculturally very rich.Jajpur, Bhadrak, Keonjhr, Balasore and Mayurbhanjwere affected by high floods and cyclone. In total9,885 persons were killed, 40 were missing and 2507were injured. Out of this in Jagatsinghpur districtalone 8,119 people died due to cyclone. It also killed3,15,886 cows and buffaloes, 3,16,372 minoranimals (Goat, sheep, pigs), and I,883,468 poultry.It damaged I,650,086 habitats. The cyclones causedheavy damage to standing crops as 13 lakh hectareof khan/paddy, 2.5 lakh hectare of other crops, and1.76 lakh ha of vegetable and fruit crops weredamaged. The total agricultural loss was estimatedto be Rs. 1733 crore. Electricity connections weredamaged in 19,062 villages. In cyclones, 3Universities, 19 Govt. colleges 81 Private colleges,3425 High schools, 14901 Primary school weredestroyed. In addition to the devastation the netresult was that the entire education systemcollapsed and the total loss has been estimated atRs.1024.21 crore. It washed away 1.2000 kin of ruralroads, damaged 1474 bridges and 7020 Govt.buildings of RD department. During the cyclone25,889 fishing families, two rishing ports (Dhamaraand Chandbali) 19 rishing jeffl.es were damaged. Thesupercyclone damaged 9085 fishing boats and22,143 fishing nets in the Orissa coasts and in theriver estuaries. The floods caused 2005 breaches tothe embankments, 8674 cracks in the canalembankment and damaged 454 buildings of WaterResource department. It also caused damages to 422minor irrigation projects. Besides, 5636 lift irrigation

points became defunct. This killer cyclone has alsoravaged the world's largest botanical garden (RPRC)located on the outskirts of Bhubaneswar. The losswas estimated to be Rs 20 crore.

Submerged areas

Submerged areas due to floods and tides havebeen estimated from satellite Imagery of October 28October and 2 November. These areas remainedsubmerged for next 2 weeks up to 14th November.By comparing satellite imagery of every third day,ORSAC released the submergence data. In all, fivecoastal districts were very badly affected while sixadjoining districts were partially affected where3,20,225 ha of dry land remained submerged from29th October till 15th November. The percentage ofsubmergence of dry land in worst affected districtswere Kendrapara (48.3%), Bhadrak (41.9%),

Jagatsinghpur (26.81%), and Jajpur (25.87%). Otheraffected districts included Balasore, Kendrapara,Dhenkanal, Khurda and Mayarbhanj. In all thesedistricts 60 blocks were affected and 320,225 hawere submerged.

Pisciculture

The supercyclone has killed the prospect of

pisciculture in the coastal -plains of Orissa veryseverely. The 13 coastal distncts normally supply 700/oof total fish production of the State. Due tosupereyclonc about loo,000 rishemen families lostalmost everything and 25cOO fish cultivation pond havebeen completely destroyed. Orissa nomally producesfish worth Rs. 700.00 crores annually and it wasgrowing rapidly which has been seriously affected.

Remedial measure

The present supercyclone became verydisastrous since the protective cover of the tidalforests known as "Little Sunderban" in the estuariesof Mahanadi, Brahmani, Baitarani and Devi riverswere deforested by human interference. Themangrove forest shrunk drastically by setting up ofthe Paradeep port complex and accompaniedindustrial complex in addition to illegal felling bythe unauthorized settlers. The result was total lossof the dense mangrove forest. Hence both hardwareand software measures have been suggested.

Hardware solutions

(a) Foreshore roadlt'would be worthwhile to construct a foreshore

road from Palur on N.H.5 in the Ganjam coast uptoJaleswar on N.H.5 in the N.E. via Brahmagiri, Purl,Konark, Astarang, Paradeep, Rajnagar, Raigarh,Ghanteswar, and it will follow the old high level canalembankment upto Bhograi and then upto Jaleswaron N.H.5. This will facilitate tourism industry beinga longest marine drive road. The proposed roadshould be 7 in high.

(b) One-way sluice gateThere should be sluice gates on all river

crossings which could be closed at the time ofcyclonic tidal waves to prevent salt water intrusionto the rich agricultural land and could be opened atother times to drain out the flood water.Construction of a foreshore road will not be enoughwithout sluice gates.

(c) Safe shelterThe disaster shelter building should be

constructed in every coastal village. The buildings

358 A. Kumar & N. Sahoo

must be of cement and concrete on specially raisedmounds. Specially all primary school buildings mustbe designed in this fashion so that villagers can takeshelter Inside at the time of emergency. The proposedreconstruction of the rural houses should also becyclone/flood resistant by using modem technology.

(d) Community grain bank

Some of the public building like school, clubs,etc. are to be converted into three storied buildingwith the third floor being used for grain storage.

(e) Community drinking water facility

Each village should have a hand pump in secondfloor of the shelter house fitting to the drinking watertubewell in the ground so that during disaster puredrinking water could be available.

Software solutions

(a) Coastal plantationCoastal plantations of cashew and Cczsttrtr.a

equlsi'/o/ia plantation have been illegally cuteliminating the green cover and barrier for wind astide breaker. Whatever remained thereafter wascompletely lost due to the cyclones. The urgent taskbefore the government is to now plant cashew,casurina plants all along the Orissa coast starting

from Palur in the S.W. up to LJaleswar at the N.E. ina three-four kilometer wide stretch on the sanddunes. In addition in the estuaries of the rivermouths the tidal forests has to be restored byplanting suitable mangrove trees. This forest willprotect the fury of cyclones and rush of tides. Thusnature is to be restored to its pre-cyclonic condition.These trees will take about 5-10 years to grow.

(b) Kitchen yard plantation for food securityFor food security, every family should have

tuber crops like sweet potato in the kitchen garden.Coconut plantation can also be taken. Sugarcane isalso another good crop which has survived duringcyclone disaster and has become first energy cropto the affected persons. This should also be takeninto the kitchen garden.

(c) Growing saline resistant paddyCoastal areas (0-10 kin from sea) Should be

cultivated with saline resistant high yielding varietyof paddy like Lunishree, Sonamani, etc. Instead oflocal paddy. In the event of cyclone and saline waterintrusion the crop damage will be minimal.

These are some of the vital physical aspects of

planning to reduce the cyclone and flood havoc inOrissa's coastal plains in future.

J Jrtdian Soc C`oastaJ agric. I?es., 24(2), 359-363, 2006

Integrated Management of Water Resourcesin Post-cyclone Situation

N. SAHOO and S. K. JENA

Water Technology Centre for Eastern RegionBhubaneswar -751 023, Orissa

This study was undertaken in sup®rcyclone ravaged area of Ersama and Astarang with objectivesof studying the performance of microwator resource development through shallow tubewellsand small subsurface water harvesting structures on particlpatory basis. Participation of the{armers by paying a portion of the cost of construction of water resources has provided them akind of ownership rights. The irrigated area inci.eased about five times resulting into increasedcropping intensity. The positive impact was realized through the increase of the productivityand income. It was also inferred that location specific microwater resource development is thereal answer for increasing irrigated area and productivity in coastal waterlogged area. Thefarmers' paying capacity must be increased from the system to make it more sustainable.Participation of farmers by paying 40% of the cost of construction of water resources givesthem the ownership rights and they do not consider this as one ol the government donations orwork. That is why in the second year more number of farmers came forward (15 numbers) evento pay upto 67% of the cost of the subsurface water harvesting structure. Similar was the caseof construction of very shallow tubowell at Astarang.

(Key words: Shallow tubeu)ell, Small subsurface u)ater harvest.ng structure, People's partic\pation,supercyclorLe)

The last supercyclone in Orissa on 29th October1999 caused considerable loss not only in humanbeing but also in agriculture, environment as wellas in economic fronts which require considerableattention to realise the resources and the productionsystems. Seawater at 10 in height had entered tothe inland causing devastation of standing crop infields. In view of above, it is essential to develop acomprehensive land and water management policy,which can contribute a quantum jump inagricultural productivity to bring the population orthis area out of perpetual poverty. So this study wasundertaken with objectives of evaluating the

performance of microwater resource developmentthrough shallow tubewells and small subsurfacewater harvesting structures on participatory basis.


Location of the study area

Five villages, viz. Saraba, Bad Bellary, Ambiki,Baghadihi, and Kankan which were` worst affectedby last supercyclone of 1999 were selected in thisstudy and are situated in Ersama block ofJagatsinghpur district in Orissa State. Anothercluster of 5 villages (Hiradeipur, Gudubani, Sundar,Manduki and Chakrapada) which were also affectedby the supercyclone in Astarang block of Puri districtwere identified for this study. These clusters ofvillages are situated within a radius of 4 kin and

within 5 kin from the sea coast. Khulo river is passingin this location but there was no lift irrigation pointnor wells used for agricultural purpose.

The major land situations such as mediumlands and lowlands are present in the study area.Rice is the main crop grown in these villages. Othercrops are also grown according to their seasonalsuitability. Temperature is moderate and humidityis high. Rain mostly starts from mid-June whichreach its peak in August and September and end in3rd week of October. In general, the land holdingsof the farmers of these villagers are marginal to small

(less than 2 ha). The villagers obtain their livelihoodfrom agriculture, agro-based enterprises, service andbusiness. Total number of families in these fivevillages at each site was around 680. Around 90%houses, 80-900/o crops, domestic enterprises andlivelihood severely affected due to recent cyclone.The description of both the study area is presentedthrough Tables 1 and 2.

To alleviate the problems related to agriculture,different interventions, such as introduction of liftirrigation through small pumps, construction ofsmall subsurface water harvesting structures

(SSWHS), construction of tubewells, rainwaterharvesting technology, soil amendments and rice-fish farming system were introduced and studiedfor a period of three years.

360 N. Sahoo & S. K. Jana

Table 1. Description of study area in Ersarna block of Jagatsinghpur disinct

Parameter Homestead Rainfcd lowhnd Irrigated

Shallow MeditLD deep Deep vater(0-30 cm) (0-50 cn) (> 50 cD)

Topography Flat Flat with bundeda\ndun-burrdedRedalluvial,sandyloamShallow-medium Slight undulated Depression Flat

Soll typeSoilreactionWatertable Red alluvialShallow-medium Sandy loan,clayloanShallow ClayeySalineShallow A]luvlalMedlum

Water source Open well,tubewells Raln Rain Raln River, Canal,MIPs,LIPs

Hydrology Backyard ponds Water stagnation Water stagnation Water stagnation Lift irrigatlon,upto 30 cm upto 50 cm upto 50-loo cm ponds, river,

during durln8 durlng canal, etc.rainy season rainy season rainy season

Table 2. Descriptlon of study area in Astarang block of Pun clistnct

Parameter Homestead RaizLfed lowland Irrigated

Shallow Medium dccp Deep Water

(0-30 cml (0-50 cm) (> 50 cm)

Topography Flat Shght Undulated Depression Flat

undulated hut bundedSoil typeSoilreactionWatertableWatersource Sandy loan Sandy loam I.oar to clay loam Clay loanSalineShallow AlluvlalShallow

Shallow Shallow Shallow(4-8 in) (4-8 in) (4-8m) (4-8m) (4-8m)

Tubewells andopenwellsNO§tandln8 Raln Ram Raln Canal, MIPs,LIPs,TubewellsLiftirrigatlon,

Hydrology Standing water Standmg water Standing waterwater upto 30 cm during upto 50 cm during than 50 cm during ponds, borewells,

rainy season ralny season more rainy season tubewells, river,canaletc.

Water resource development through SSWHS atErsama site

Construction of tubewell at this site was notfeasible due to salinity in groundwater. Success ofbig ponds needs integrated farming system in whichfish, poultry and horticultural crops on the pondburic! should be added in a big way (Samra ef a!.,2003). Construction of small subsurface waterharvesting structures (SSWHS) on participatorybasis was the best option available for poor farmers.Keeping this in mind Water Technology Centre forEastern Region, Bhubaneswar developed a designfor SSWHS (excavated tank). In this system smallsubsurface water harvesting structure (excavatedtank) wa.s constructed with an inlet at a depth of 3-4 in or less to harvest surface water in rainy seasonand to harvest subsurface seepage wa.ter in rab].season after each pumping session.

Water resource development through shallow tubewell at Astarang site

Very shallow tubewell with depth varying from8 in to 17 in depending on the site condition wereconstructed for Creating microwater resources. Fourshallow tubewells were constructed for different

groups of farmers on participatory basis in the lstyear of study (Sahoo ef aJ., 2004). The cost of onetubewell was Rs. 2476 only. The tubewells were of7.5 cm diameter and dug upto 13 in depth. In orderto make the programme sustainable, the group wasmobilized to purchase kerosene c>perated 2 hp pumpto be fitted to shallow tube well. Agreement wasmade with the user groupto share water among allthe group members and to non-members on

payment basis so that the maintenance could bedone with fund generated by the group. In the 2nd

Microwater resource development 361

I-year, another four water user groups came forwardto construct shallow tubewell with the sameconditions. In the 3rd year even with 50% of the

project support, two groups constructed similarshallow tubewell (project support was Rs.1250 only).


Performance of the SSWHS System

These structures provided water for raisingpaddy nursery in LJune and Irrigated additional areaduring rabi as well as summer. It could also be usedfor aquaculture and water loving crops silch as waterchestnut. This system was proved to be very effectivein providing assured irrigation. As the resource

position of the farmers of the region was poor, theycould not construct it on their own nor could

government fully subsidize the programme. Hencea participatory approach with involvement of thefarmers group was felt to bring out sustainable waterresources development. In the first year the group

paid 40 % of the project cost and in total sevengroups were formed, whereas in the second year thesubsidy was reduced from 60 % to 33 % and still 13user groups were formed and went for the SSWHS,which reflected Interest in the approach.

In the first year Itself i.n June (khan/2001) 8.8ha paddy nursery was saved from early drought.The rotation was prepared for both khan/and rab].crops and accordingly farmers had taken the crops.The economics of the system are presented in theTables 3 and 4.

While analyzing the performance of SSWHS, inthe first cluster where groups had paid 40 °/o of thecost, fish income per cubic meter varied from Rs.3.21 to Rs.10.28 with an average of Rs. 7.36.Whereas, total income varied from Rs.17.01 to Rs.47.19 with an average of Rs. 30.37 per cubic meter.Cropping intensity varied from 150% to 245%depending on the capability of the group. Similarlybenerit-cost (B:C) ratio also varied from 1.42 to 1.95.

Table 3. Performance of SSWHS uiith 60:40 partwipatory basis

Name of the Fish Total Total B:C Ratio Water Crop intensityGroup income /m3 Income/n3 Iticome/cost ofconstructionRs. productivity(R8/m3) (%)

Group-I 8.60 47.19 3.42 I.95 3 I. 59 245

Group-II 878 31.19 3,01 I.94 20.87 215

Group-Ill 10.28 32.78 1.96 I.55 20.49 150

Group-'V 3.21 2654 1.96 189 17.71 186

Group-V 6.38 23.76 2.49 I.74 15.34 155

Group-Vl 854 34.17 2.53 I.42 20.37 173

Group-V[l 573 17.01 I.29 I.69 11.02 234

Table 4. Performance of SSWHS u)ith 33: 67 partictpatory basis

Name of Cost of F`ish Total Total income/ Water B:C Crol,the Group irrigation income income cost of productivity Ratio intensity

/ha /m3 /m3 construction R8. /mo (%)Group-I 7767 9.18 46.98 3.26 31. 34 1.93 192

Group-lI 8043 8.70 44.63 3.36 30.03 I.98 210

Group-Ill 10368 901 40,26 2.76 29.55 2.61 184

Group-IV 3150 1246 80.43 5.65 53,70 I.93 270Group-V 7874 738 34.04 2.60 21.72 I.69 254Group-Vl 13976 8.48 24.59 1,96 17.30 222 185

Group-V[l 14661 9.37 2759 184 15.41 I.20 192

Group-VIII 3816 10.69 62.59 4.94 43.76 2.26 224Group-IX 13038 8.93 2638 1.66 15.54 I.35 173

Group-X 13530 7,78 26.44 2,04 15.90 I.44 181

Group-XI 1S438 7,01 25.40 1.40 13.09 1.01 161

Group-Xl! 12823 666 24.33 I.74 14.90 I.49 160

Group-XIII 10298 576 15.85 1.12 9.00 1.21 145

362 N. Sahoo & S. K. Jana

Incase of water productivity, the variation was due tohigher productivity in fish. Average water productivityfrom the system was Rs 19.57 per cubic meter.

In the second cluster where farmers paid 67 °/oof the project cost, the fish Income went uptoRsl2.46 per cubic meter of water. This was around20% higher than that in the first cluster. On anaverage fish income per cubic meter capacity 'insecond cluster increased by 16.44% more than_inthe first cluster. This might be due to more

participation in the project by paying more than inthe first cluster. Similar trend was also seen in caseof total income, water productivity and croppingintensity. Average water productivity in secondcluster was Rs. 23.94m-3 which was 22.330/a morethan the rirst cluster. B:C ratio also varied from I.01to as high as 2.61. This might be due to more interestin fish cultivation than in *hari/ and 'rabt` cropping.Average total income also was 21.43% nor. thanthat in the rirst cluster. Ratio of total income to costof construction varied from 1.12 to 5.65 whereas inthe first cluster it varied from 1.29 to 3.42. Croppingintensity in both the system remained more or lesssame,'i.e. only 12.50/o higher in case of secondcluster. Cost per ha of irrigation came to Rs.11752ha-I in case of rirst cluster, whereas in second clusterit was Rs.10367 ha-I. The lower cost of irrigation inthe second case was only due to their moreparticipation, i.e. by paying 67% cost of the project.This has happened because they have irrigated morearea with higher water use efriciency and low losses.

Performance of very shallow tubewell

The utility of shallow tubewells constructed atAstarang site was presented in Table 5. It wasevident that benefit-cost ratio varied from 0.74 toI.42 with an average of 1.04. Similarly, croppingintensity varied from 107%,`to 154% with an averageof 132.7%. Water productivity was found to be veryhigh in Ersama in subsurface water harvestingstructure due to fish component. However, inAstarang it was low as water was used for crop only.It varied from Rs. 4.03m-3 to Rs. 5.55m-3 with anaverage of Rs. 4.84m 3 with an assumption thattubewell was working for 50°/o of days during rab].and summer with 8 hours of pumping per session.

Participation of the farmers by paying a portionof the cost of water resources developed has providedthem a kind of ownership rights. The group offarmers cultivated different crops by Irrigating themfrom the water rest)urces created by them. Theirrigated area increased about five times resultinginto increased cropping intensity. The positiveimpact was realized through the Increase of the

productivity and income. It gives a new insight forfurther research and extension work to empower theweaker, socially and economically poor, small andmarginal farmers to create their own assets byforming groups and to enhance the productivity ofthe complex, diverse risk prone farming system. Itwas also inferred that location specific microwaterresource development is the real answer forincreasing irrigated area and productivity in coastal

Table 5. A brief account Of Very shalloiu {ubewells created at Astorang site during 2001 -04

name of the drcaIncome (R8.)

Cost ®f Benerlt B:C CroI,. Watertubewell .ater iri8ated 'ha) I,roduc- 'Rs.) Ratio I,in8 produc-user grotLp vith

E`L

t`a;

tion Intel- tivityno. of

®ElE!

a,:!E'R8.) City (R8./m3)

partici|iants E a El i i! i (%1 (rabl +* a 5! * a: CO sunme,I

Chakradhapur (6) 3.0 I.0 0.5 42,000 60,000 20,000 I,22,000 50150 71850 I.42 150 5.24

AdikandapurSasan-I(8)AdlkandapurSasan-lI(16)Manduki(8) 2.0 I.0 03 27,500 56,175 10,350 94,025 41050 52,975 128 Ilo 4.35

2.0 I.2 0.7 31,500 61,200 22,37S 1,15,075 56321 58,754 104 130 547

1.8 0.8 0.6 23,475 46,310 21.371 9 I , I 56 52135 39,021 0.74 107 4.43

Patalda-I(7) 2.5 I.0 0.6 35,130 52,375 21,375 I,08.880 54370 54,510 0.99 137 4.83

Patalda-II(8) 3.0 0.9 0.7 40,050 54,010 22,Ilo 1,16,170 57890 58,280 1.002 154 4,98

Baridi-I(8) 2.8 0.7 0.5 35,728 42,130 19,371 97,229 47316 49,913 1.04 133 4.03

Baridi-Il(8) 2.4 1.0 06 34,130 56,130 20,380 1,10,640 55376 55,264 0.99 133 5.01

Hiradeipur (6) 2.6 0.8 08 35,314 46,375 23,109 I,04,798 54375 50,423 092 140 455

Timore (7) 2.0 I.I 09 31,781 60,430 24,340 1,16,551 58375 58,176 099 133 5,55

Microwater resource development

waterlogged area. Integrated farming systemapproach for each microwatcr resource proved tobe more economical.

REFERENCES

Sahoo, N., James, B.K„ Verma, H.N., Ghosh. S., RoyChowdhury, S., Panda, D., Singh, R,, Srivastava,R.C, and Tripathi, V.K. (2004). In Cornprehems{ueParfucipatory Water Resources Deuelopii\eat and

363

Management in Coastal Agrongco System of OnssaAj;7ected bg Supercgrclorie, WTCER Publication 20,WTCER, Bhubaneswar, Onssa.

Samra, J.S., Sahoo, N., Roy Chowdhury, S., MohantyRajeev K., Jena, S.K. and Verma, H.N. (2003). InSustalnable Integrated Farmmg System forWaterlogged Areas of Eastern lndia` WTCBRResearch Bulletin 14, WTCER, Bhubaneswar,Orissa.

J. indian Soc. Coastal agnc. Res., 24(2), 364-366, 2006

Natural Disaster: Plan for MitigationA. K. BANDYOPADHYAY

P.O & Vill. Adcconagar, Dist. HooghlyPin -712121, West Bengal

This paper discussed details of the steps taken by Government of India to mitigate naturaldisasters in the coastal area. The Tenth Five Year Plan document has a detailed chapter ondisaster management. The Terms of Referonco of the Twolfth Finance Commlssion is changedand mandated to look at the requirements for mitigation and prevention also. Ministry of HomeAffairs has initiated National Disaster Risk Managomont Programme in 169 districts of 17 multi-hazard prone States and assistance is being provided to States to draw up disaster managementplans at the Sate, District, Block/ra/uka and Village levels. National Cyclone Mitigation Projectllas been drawn up in consultation with cyclone prone States. Hospital preparedness is crucialto any disaster system. In consultation with Medical Council of India, t`^/o committees rlavebeen constituted for prepara(Ion of currlculum for introduction of emergency ti®alth manag®montin MBBS curriculum and preparation of in-s®rvic® training of ho8pital manag®r8 andprofessionals. Disaster Managomont as a subject ln soclal Sciences has been introduced in theschool curriculum for class Vlll and lx by CBSE and the State Governments have been advisedto take slmilar stops. Slnco flood, cyclone, etc. are major problems the farmers are facingevery year in coastal area, they must adopt some measures to wlthstand the problems. ISCARmay have a full seminar to find out possible location specific ways and means to withstandsuch problems.

(Key words: Disaster managemerit, Flood, Cyclone, Plan,s for r"ttgatlon, Awareness)

The Yc)kohama message of May 1994 stressedthat disaster prevention, mitigation, preparednessand relief are four elements which nations shouldincorporate in their development plans and ensureefficient follow-up measures at the community,subregional, regional, national and internationallevels. Disaster prevention, mitigation and

preparedness are better than disaster response asthey contribute to lasting improvement in safety.The Government of India has adopted mitigation and

prevention as essential components of theirdevelopment strategy. The Tenth Five Year Plandocument has a detailed chapter on DisasterManagement. Each State is supposed to prepare a

plan scheme for disaster mitigation in accordancewith the approach outlined in the plan. In brief,mitigation is being institutionalized intodevelopmental planning. The Government of Indiahas issued guidelines that where there is a shelf ofprojects, projects addressing mitigation will be givena priority. It has also been mandated that eachproject in a hazard prone area will have disasterprevention/mitigation as a term of reference andthe project document has to reflect as to how the

project addresses that term of reference. The Termsof Reference of the Twelfth F`inance Commission havebeen chainged and the Finance Commission has beenmandated to look at the requirements for mitigation

and prevention apart from its existing mandate oflooking at relief and reha.bilitation. Natural disastersmay be flood, cyclone, tst/namt, earthquake,landslide and drought. In the coastal ecosystem,flood and cyclone are very common, and accordingly,future plans will be discussed on them only. 7'suricim]`will be discussed in a separate paper.

Flood

Measures for flood mitigation were taken from1950 onwards. As against the total of 40 millionhectare prone to floods, area of about 15 millionhectares has been protected by construction ofembankments. A number of dams and barrages havebeen constnicted. The State Governments have beenassisted to take up mitigation programs likeconstruction of raised platforms, etc. Embankmentshave also given rise to problems of drainage withheavy rainfall leading to waterlogging in areasoutside the embankment. To evolve both short termand long term strategy for flood management/erosion control, Government of India has recentlyconstituted a Central Task Force under theChairmanship of Chairman, Central WaterCommission. The Task F`orce will examine cause ofthe problem of recurring floods and erosion in Statesand regions prone to flood and erosion; and suggestshort term and long term measures.

Disaster management plans 365

Flood preparedness and response

ln order to respond effectively to floods, Ministryof Home Affaires has initiated National Disaster RiskManagement Program in all the flood-prone States.Assistance is being provided to the States to drawup disaster management plans at the State, District,Block/rctwca and Village levels. Awareness

generation campaigns have been initiated tosensitize all the stakeholders on the need for flood

preparedness and mitigation measures. Electedrepresentatives a.nd officials are being trained inflood disaster management under the programme.Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam and UttarPradesh are among the 17 multi-hazard prone Stateswhere this program is being implemented withUNDP, USAID and European Commission.

Cyclone

National cyclone mitigation project

A project for Cyclone Mitigation (estimated costRs.10500 million) has been drawn up in consultationwith the cyclone prone States. This project envisagesconstruction of cyclone shelters, coastal shelterbeltplantation an areas, which are prone to stormsurges, strengthening of warning systems, tra.iningand education, etc. This project has also been givenin-principle clearance by the Planning Commission.

Hospital preparedness and emergency healthmanagement in medical education

Hospital preparedness is crucial to any disastersystem. Each hospital should have an emergencypreparedness plan to deal with mass casualtyIncidents and the hospital administration/doctortrained for this emergency. The curriculum formedical doctors does not include hospital

preparedness for emergencies. Therefore capacitybuilding through in-service training of the currenthealth managers and medical personnel in hospitalpreparedness for emergencies or mass casualtyincident management i§ essential. At the same time,the future health managers must acquire these skillssystematically through the inclusion of healthemergency managemehi in the undergraduate andpostgraduate medical curricula. In consultation withMedical Council of India (MCI), two committees havebeen constituted for preparation of curriculum forintroduction of emergency health management inMBBS curriculum, and preparation of in-servicetraining of Hospital managers and professionals.Rajeev Gandhi University of Health Sciences,Karnataka has been identified as the lead nationalresource institution for the purpose.

Disaster risk management program

A Disaster Risk Management Program has beentaken up in 169 districts in 17 multi-hazard proneStates with the assistance from UNDP, USAID andEuropean Union. Under this project, the States arebeing assisted to draw up State, district and Blocklevel disaster management plans; and villagedisaster management plans are being developed inconjunction with the Panchayati Raj Institutions anddisaster management teams consisting of villagevolunteers who are being trained in various

preparedness and response functions such as searchand rescue, first aid, relief coordination, sheltermanagement, etc. Equipment needs for district andState Emergency Operation Centers have beenidentified by the State nodal agencies andequipments, are being provided to these EOCs.

Disaster Management Teams have beenconstituted in villages and are being impartedtraining in basic functions of first aid, rescue,evacuation and related issues. The thrust of theprogramme is to build-up capabilities of thecommunity since the community is invariably thefirst responder. During the recent past, it has beenexperienced that the capacity building of thecommunity has been very helpful even in normalsituations when isolated instances of drowning,burns, etc. take place. With the creation ofawareness generation on disaLster mitigation, thecommunity will be able to function as a well-knitunit in case of any emergency.

Awareness generationRecognizing that awareness about

vulnerabilities is s].rie qua nan for inducing a mindsetfor disaster prevention, mitigation andpreparedness, the Government has initiated anation-wide awareness generation campaign as partof its overall disaster risk management strategy. Inorder to device an effective and holistic campaign, asteering committee for mass media campaign hasbeen constituted at the national level with duerepresentation of experts from diverse streams ofcommunication.

Disaster awareness in school curriculum

Disaster management as a subject in socialsciences has been introduced in the schoolcurriculum for class VIII & IX. The Central Board ofSecondary Education (CBSE), which has Introducedthe curriculum, runs a very large number of schoolsthroughout the country and the course curriculumis invariably followed by the State Boards of



ln order to respond effectively to floods, Ministryof Home Affaires has initiated National Disaster RiskManagement Program in all the flood-prone States.Assistance is being provided to the States to drawup disaster management plans at the State, District,Block/Tc{Juka and Village levels. Awareness

generation campaigns have been initiated tosensitize all the stakeholders on the need for flood

preparedness and mitigation measures. Electedrepresentatives and officials are being trained inflood disaster management under the programme.Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam and UttarPradesh are among the 17 multi-hazard prone Stateswhere this program is being implemented withUNDP, USAID and European Commission.

Cyclone


A project for Cyclone Mitigation (estimated costRs.10500 million) has been drawn up in consultationwith the cyclone prone States. This project envisagesconstruction of cyclone shelters, coastal shelterbeltplantation an areas, which are prone to stormsurges, strengthening of warning sy§tem§, trainingand education, etc. This project has also been givenin-principle clearance by the Planning Commi§sion.


Hospital preparedness is crucial to any disastersystem. Each hospital should have an emergencypreparedness plan to deal with mass casualtyincidents and the hospital administration/doctortrained for this emergency. The curriculum formedical doctors does not include hospital

preparedness for emergencies. Therefore capacitybuilding through in-service training of the currenthealth managers and medical personnel in hospitalpreparedness for emergencies or mass casualtyincident management is essential. At the same time,the future health quanagers must acquire these skillssystematically through the inclusion of healthemergency managemeha in the undergraduate andpostgraduate medical curricula. In consultation withMedical Council of India (MCI), two committees havebeen constituted for preparation of curriculum forIntroduction of emergency health management inMBBS curriculum, and preparation of in-servicetraining of Hospital managers and professionals.Rajeev Gandhi University of Health Sciences,Karnataka has been identified as the lead nationalresource institution for the purpose.




Disaster Management Teams have beenconstituted in villages and are being impartedtraining in basic functions of first aid, rescue,evacuation and related issues. The thrust of theprogramme is to build-up capabilities of thecommunity since the community is invariably thefirst responder. During the recent past, it has beenexperienced that the capacity building of thecommunity has been very helpful even in normalsituations when isolated instances of drowning,burns, etc. take place. With the creation ofawareness generation on disa.ster mitigation, thecommunity will be able to function as a well-knitunit in case of any emergency.

Awareness generation

Recognizing that awareness aboutvulnerabilities is st.ne qua non for inducing a mindsetfor disaster prevention, mitigation andpreparedness, the Government has initiated anation-wide awareness generation campaign as partof its overall disaster risk management strategy. Inorder to device an effective and holistic campaign, asteering committee for mass media campaign hasbeen constituted at the national level with duerepresentation of experts from diverse streams ofcommunication.


Disaster management as a subject in socialsciences has been Introduced in the schoolcurriculum for class VIIl & IX. The Central Board ofSecondary Education (CBSE), which has introducedthe curriculum, runs a very large number of schoolsthroughout the country and the course curriculumis invariably followed by the State Boards of



ln order to respond effectively to floods, Ministryof Home Affaires has initiated National Disaster RiskManagement Program in all the flctod-prone States.Assistance is being provided to the States to drawup disaster management plans at the State, District,Block/TciJtJka and Village levels. Awareness

generation campaigns have been Initiated tosensitize all the stakeholders on the need for flood

preparedness and mitigation measures. Electedrepresentatives and officials are being trained inflood disaster management under the programme.Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam and UttarPradesh are among the 17 multi-hazard prone Stateswhere this program is being implemented withUNDP, USAID and European Commission.

Cyclone


A project for Cyclone Mitigation (estimated costRs.10500 million) has been drawn up in consultationwith the cyclone prone States. This project envisagesconstruction of cyclone shelters, coastal shelterbeltplantation an areas, which are prone to stormsurges, strengthening of warning systems, trainingand education, etc. This project has also been givenin-principle clearance by the Planning Commission.


Hospital preparedness is crucial to any disastersystem. Each hospital should have an emergencypreparedness plan to deal with mass casualtyincidents and the hospital administration/doctortrained for this emergency. The curriculum formedical doctors does not include hospital

preparedness for emergencies. Therefore capacitybuilding through in-service training of the currenthealth managers and medical personnel in hospitalpreparedness for emergencies or maiss casualtyincident management is essential. At the same time,the future health pranagers must acquire these skillssystematically through the inclusion of healthemergency managemein in the undergraduate andpostgraduate medical curricula. In consultation withMedical Council of India (MCI), two committees havebeen constituted for preparation of curriculum forintroduction of emergency health manaLgement inMBBS curriculum, and preparation of in-servicetraining of Hospital managers and professionals.Rajeev Gandhi University of Health Sciences,Karnataka has been identified as the lead nationalresource institution for the purpose.




Disaster Management Teams have beenconstituted in villages and are being impartedtraining in basic functions of first aid, rescue,evacuation and related issues. The thrust of theprogramme is to build-up capabilities of thecommunity since the community is invariably thefirst responder. During the recent past, it has beenexperienced that the capacity building of thecommunity has been very helpful even in normal§ituaitions when isolated Instances of drowning,burns, etc. take place. With the creation ofawareness generation on disaster mitigation, thecommunity will be able to function as a well-knitunit in case of any emergency.

Awareness generationRecognizing that awareness about

vulnerabilities is sine qua rion for inducing a mindsetfor disaster prevention, mitigation and

preparedness, the Government has initiated anation-wide awareness generation campaign as partof its overall disaster risk management strategy. Inorder to device an effective and holistic campaign, asteering committee for mass media campaign hasbeen constituted at the national level with duerepresentation of experts from diverse streams ofcommunication.


Disaster management as a subject in socialsciences has been Introduced in the schoolcurriculum for class VIII & IX. The Central Board ofSecondary Education (CBSE), which has introducedthe curriculum, runs a very large number of schoolsthroughout the country and the course curriculumis invariably followed by the State Boards of

366 A, K Bandopadhyay

Secondary Education. Teachers are being trainedto teach disaster management syllabus for Class Xand will be introduced in the course curriculumsoon. The State Governments have been advised totake similar steps u!`s-d-L/{s their school boards.

Information, education and communication

ln order to assist the Sate Governments incapacity and awareness generation activities and tolean from past experiences Including sharing of best

practices, the Ministry of Home Affairs hascompiled/1.`repared a set of resource materialsdeveloped by various organizations/institutions tobe repllcated and disseminated by StateGovernments based on their vulnerabilities aftertranslating it into the local languages. Thevoluminous material, which runs into about 10000

pages, has been divided into 4 broad sections in 7volumes. These sections cover planning to cope withdisasters; education and training; constructiontoolkit; and information, education andcommunication too]kit including multi-mediaresc)urces on disaster mitigation and preparedness.Material and Strategies used by various States andInternational organizations, Including tips ondifferent hazards, have been incorporated along withmultimedia CDs on disasters. The material has beendisseminated to all the State Governments/UTAdministrations with the request to have therelevant material, based on the vulnerability of eachdistrict, culled out, translated into local la.nguagesand disseminated widely down to the village level.

All the above mentioned statements clearlyshowed the plans a.nd programme of the Govt. orIndia. Government identified Department ofAgriculture and Cooperation (DAC) in the AgricultureMinistry as NODAL Department for all mattersconcerning natural calamities relief at the Center.

DAC has set up a Control Room with full complementof staff for round the clock functioning with a NightDuty Cell where charter of duties of the Duty Officerclearly indicates control room responsibilities, detailsof actions to be taken on receiving rirst information,etc. In addition to National Crisis ManagementCommittee \NCMC), Crisis Management Group (CMG),action to be taken after first warning, after secondwarning, and post-disaster measures, etc. are alsoidentified.

Role of lscAR

Since ISCAR is primarily a Society ofAgricultural (including forestry, fishery and animalscience) scientists, we can collect and collateinformation on mode of action of disasters onfarming systems, including forestry, the intensityof damage of these systems, and what are themeasures already developed by SAU, State,Departments, ICAR institutes as well as by the farmersthemselves. Importance may be given on theexperience of coastal farmers under such situation andwhat are the traditional ideas available.

Since hood, cyclone, etc. are major problemsthe farmers are facing every year, they must adoptsome measures to withstand the problems. ISCARmay have a full seminar to find out possible locationspecific ways and means to mitigate such problems.A number of scientists may be identified from theentire coastal area who will collect information onthe technologies developed on these problems andalso the measures adopted by different farmers tosustain their livelihoc)d during post-disaster perlod.They may give special thrust to generate short termand long term technologies to help the farmers.ISCAR may discuss on these technologies andmeasures and recommend location specific actionsto be taLken by the farmers. ISCAR may take timebound steps to generate such recommendations.

L/ Jricziati Soc Coas!aJ czgric I?es„ 24(2), 367-369, 2006

+

Recent Floods in Konkan and Ecological Disasters: A Case StudyS. a. KADREKAR and C. V. BHAMBURE

Dr 8. S. Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli (M.S )

The Konkan region is a narrow strip about 750 kin in longth and width ranging between 40-65kin lying on the western side of the State. It is sandwitched between Sahyandri ranges on theeast and Arabian sea on the west. The region has 6 rovonue districts, viz. Thane, Groator Mumbai,suburl)an Mumbai, Raigad, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg. The topography is very rugged andundulating. The region receives about 95% of its total rainlall ranging betwoon 3000 to 4500mm from soiith-west monsoon. The parent material underlying the soil is basalt but in theextreme south it is a mixed material like granite, gneises, scliists, etc. Due to the high rainfalland humidity, the soils in Sindhudurg, Ratnagiri and south portion of Raigad districts are lateriticwhile in the rest of Raigad district and Thane district those are medium in depth and black incolour. Out of the total geographical area of Konkan, 57 percent (17725 km2) lies in runotf zone,29 percent (8524 kmz) in recharge zone and only 14 percent (4038 km2) in storage zone. Thepaper describes experiences due to recent floods in those soils.

(Key words: Flood droui\age in Konk.an., Ctimatic and soils characterls{ics, Drainage, Predictron,Master plan)

The paper reviews the factors responsible forthe recent floods in 2005 and the damages causedthereof, in Konkan region of Maharashtra. It wasestimated that about 8-14 t of soils was lost perhectare from the areas having the protected sloppyland, and hundreds and thousands of tons of thefertilie layer of soil were lost, besides colossal lossof wealth and properties. A method of prediction offlood has also been suggested. The paper alsosuggests separately, for cities/towns and ruralareas, some master plan, besides contingency plans,for protection of these lands against such floods.

Rainfall characteristics

ln order to study the rainfall pattern and thefrequency of heavy rains > 500 mm in a week, datarecorded (Table I) at the meteorological observatory,College Agriculture, Dapoli from 1972 to 2005 wasused. The data revealed that monsoon commencesusually in the first week of June and continues uptoend of September. In the first week of July rainfallsllghtly decreases later on Increases and continuestill second week of August. The annual rainfallranges from 2130.7 mm to 4921.9 mm. Themaximum frequency of torrential rainfall above 500mm per week occurs in late June and late July. Thefrequency was greater during June (6 to 7) than inthe month of July (4) (Fig. 1). Such events of veryheavy rains above 500 mm per week did not occurin the beginning of June (22nd meteorological week)or after September (36th meteorological week) duringthe period under study. Similarly, occurrence ofheavy rains of this magnitude was very rare in the

beginning of July as well as late August. Based on theanalysis of rainfall for 34 years, it could be concludedthat the second fortnight of June and July werevulnerable for flooding situations due to torrential rainsespecially along river banks and lowlying areas leadingto devastation of crop and property.

22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 cO 31 32 33 34 es as 37 ee 39 40 41

-June- -July--August--Sept-Seedling Transplanting Tillering Flowering

Met Week

Fig.1. Frequency distribution of rainfall (>500mm)during monsoon (1972-2005)

Drainage pattern

Soil physical characteristics and land features,individually or in combination, have great influenceon the natural drainability of the area. Light soils ofRatnagiri and Sindhudurg districts have good intakeand internal water transmission characteristics. Thoseare naturally well drained. The highly undulatingtopography coupled with high rainfall result in the

368 S a Kadrekar & C. V. Bhambure

formation of network of streams which favournatural drainage from the area Rice being theImportant crop of this region, can toleratewaterlogging for 2 to 3 days Hence the problem offlooding in Konkan region even for 2 to 3 days goesunnoticed However, this flooding ultimately scoursthe fertile top layer c)f soil from the runoff andrecharge zone and deposit it in the lower storagezone and in the rivers.

Prediction of flooding

The question arises whether heavy moods inKonkan can be predicted? With the commencementof monsoon, water table in the soil profile startsrising slowly reaching almost upto 1 in below soilsurface by the end of June, when the possibility oftorrentlal showers is very high. Undulatingtopography of the region and high perc.olative soilstrata partlcularly ln Ratnagiri and Sindhudurgdistricts coupled with heavy surface as well assubsurface flow often contribute to peak flow on thesurface and in the lowlying streams and rivers,resulting into floods. The peak rate of flow for theKonkan soil type can be worked out by rationalformula (C.E. Ramser) as under :

(CIA)_,360

where,

Q = peak rate of runoff (Cubic meters per second)I = intensity of rainfall (mm h-I)

A = watershed area, haC = runoff coefficient (dlmenslonless)

(values of C for different soil texture, slope andvegetation are given in Table 2)

As per the above rational formula and underabove situation the entire rainfall goes as runoff,e.g. when the catchment area of 10,000 ha receivesrain of 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 mm in a day the

peak runoff is equal to 115.74 m3 s-I, 231. 48 m3 s-I347.22 m3 s-1, 462.96 m3 s-1 and 578.78 m3 s-I

respectively This shows that intensity of 200 mm d-in addition to base flow after saturation createsflooding conditions in the lowlying areas. Thissituation worsens during high tide period.Considering these peak flow rates and weeks oftorrential rains (> 500 mm week), it appears thatflood situation in the Konkan region is very common

particularly during the period of late June and lateJuly months, inspite of highly percolative sloppyterrain. In recent years, the Hood situation isbecoming more common due tc) heavy silting of

rivers, soil disturbance, deforestation. etc However,it is of great concern since it causes heavy croplosses, takes heavy toll of life, property and seriouslyaffects communication.

Case studies

ln the first fortnight of June 2005 there were norains not only in Konkan but throughout MaharashtraState. As a resul-t the sowing of jfhan/ crops wasdelayed. Later on-, there were two spells of heavyrainfall, rirst between 25th to 27th meteorological weekand later, from 29th to 33rd meteorological week. Asa result, in Konkan, the transplating of rice wasdelayed. The 30th and 31st meteorological weeks werethe wettest periods which received 623.7 (22-28 July)and 513.8 mm (29th July -4th August)

a/ Mttmbai. c}nd suburban area: A record rainfall of944 mm was received within 18 hrs of 26th and27th July. The exceptional rainfall coincidedwith high tide, and as a result large area inMumbai and Thane urban area were undermassive innundation. In Mumbai suburban areawater reached a level of 8-10 ft high. Bandra -Andheri highway was like sea and ground floorsaLnd Jh:uggis| zopadpattis were under wa:tor.

b/ rhone D].sfrict: All urban areas like Kalyan,Dombivli, Ambemath, Ulhasnagar, Bhivandi andBadalapur were under water. All rivers and nalczswere overflowing and there were may breaches tothe bridges as a result communication wasdisturbed.

c/ J?aigad anc! I?atnczgi'n cz]sfri'ct : 13oth Raigad andRatnagiri districts had large areas undersubmergence. The towns which were severlyaffected were Panvel, Roha, Mahad, Mangaonfrom Raigad district and Khed, Chiplun,Sangmeshwar, Someshwar, Rajapur fromRatnagiri district. The heavy rainfall in thesetwo districts also triggered landslides anddeaths on large scale.

It has been one of the worst disasters in theseareas in terms of human lives lc)st. Due to floodingrice Crop in the coastal saline belt suffered loss dueto continuous submergence. Near the banks of riversin Mahad, Khed, Chiplun, Sangmeshwar fehas].Js theentire crop of rice suffered due to silting. The worstaffected area was Mumbai where more than 15,321cattles lost their lives, followed by Ratnagiri (3983),Raigad (2783) and Thane (1285).

It was estimated that about 8-14 t of soils waslost per hectare from unprotected sloppy land.Hundreds and thousands of tons of the fertile layerof soil were lost.

Flood in Konkan region 369

The damage due to such floods could beminimized ir not completely climmated. There shouldbe overall master plan for the State and the regionbesides contingency plan for each district involvingsteps required to be taken before onset of monsoon.

A) In cities and towns:

Concerned departments in cities like Mumbai,should have.

• Development of each river valley on integratedwatershed management principles whichinclude planting broad leaf forest trees andgrass on more than 30°/a slopes with continuouscounter trenching (CCT), planting rain fedhorticultural crops like mango, cashew, Kokam,Jambht/J, etc. between 10% to 30% slope withCCT, and annual food crops with proper bunc!{'ngpractices, terracing, etc. upto 10% slope.

• Premonsoon inspection of railway tracks, .drains, rivers by respective department.

• Regular clearance of drains from silt, weeds.Restoring natural drainage blocked by roads, .railway tracks.

• Regular maintenance of embankments of rivers,canals,

• Clearing storm water and sewerage drains.

8) In rural area :

ln rural area of Konkan following actions needto be taken.

The soil conservation practices like CCT, ricilzatrainig, nczJZcz bt/nc!['ng, farm ponds need to beconstructed on large scale.Due to continuous silting for last several yearsthe river beds have become shallow. Dredgingto be done for removal of silt/sand to increaseefficiency of water flow.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks are due to Dr. M. S. Mane, Agril. Engineer,Dr. 8. S. Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli for thehelp rendered in preparation of manuscript.

J. Indian Soc. Coastal agnc. Res., 24(21, 370-374, 2006

Impact Assessment and Rehabilitation Strategies for rsz¢#4ow!.Affected Agricultural Lands of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

R. RAJA, S. GHOSHAL CHAUDHURI, T. P. SWARNAIvl, N. RAVISANKAR,V. JAYAKUIVIAR and SUDIPTA DAS

Central Agricultural Research InstitutePort Blair -744101, A&N Islands

Soawater ingression due to 7.sunam/ waves has led to diffor®nt situations affecting cultivationof the agricultural lands of A & N Islands, y/.z., (1) seawater intruded to the cultivated landduring fsunam/' and receded completely, (2) seawater intruded during high tide and recededduring low tide, and (3) coastal areas had incroaslng depth of impounded s®awater with hightide. So, tlle farmers of A a N Islands faced situations whore tlloy lost their farmland completelyand or dealt with twin pi.oblems of soil salinity and Sodicity, thus seriously hampering cropproduction. Soil samples were corlectod at periodical intervals in order to assess the changesoccurring in soil physicochemical properties and to formulate rehabilitation Strategies. Theanalytlcal results revealed that immediately after fsunam/., the surface soil (a-15 cm) becamesaline sodic because of accumulation of soluble salts that increased soll EC and ESPimmediately. Whereas, the subsurface soil (15-30 cm) turned saline because of increased ECalone. However, after onset of monsoon, the salts were leached down to the lower layers, andbotl` surface and subsurfaco soils became saline sodic because of increased level of ESP andexchangeable Na though the EC values decreasod.

(Keg words: I suniI" affected sotls, Charactenzation, Rehabilitatton)

The massive earthquake of 9.2 magnitude onthe Richter scale which hit Indonesia (of the westcoast of the Northern Sumatra) on the morning of26th December 2004 was the biggest in 40 yeal.s.This triggered massive ist/naml. waves, which createdhavoc and excessive devastation in terms of humanlives and loss of infrastructures in coastal areas ofAndaman and Nicobar Islands. The coastal areas ofthese Islands affected by the tst/riami. present haddiversified cultivation practices from inland freshwater rice-based systems to mangroves and coastalstrips used primarily for fishing. Seawater ingressiondue to fsunami waves led to the completesubmergence of adjoining agricultural fields andother plantations and resulted not only in crop lossbut also drastically changed the soil properties andrendered the soils salt affected. After fst/naml., threedifferent situations arose, viz., (1) seawater onlyintruded during tsunami and receded completely,(2) seawater intruded during high tide and recededduring low tide, and (3) coastal areas had increasingdepth of Impounded seawater with high tide. So,the farmers of A & N Islands lost their farmlandcompletely and or dealt with twin problems of soilsalinity and sodicity. In saline soils, crop growth washampered by salt accumulated in the root zone.Survey was undertaken at periodical intervals inorder to assess the changes occurring in soil

physicochemical properties, ut.z., pH, electricalconductivity (EC), sodium absorption ratio (SAR),exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP),exchangeable cations (Na+, K+, Ca" and Mg++),anions (C03-, HC03- and Cl`) and organic carboncontent, and to formulate rehabilitation strategies.


Soil samples were collected at periodicalintervals in the fsttriami affected areas of SouthAndaman, LJl.z. Lalpahar, Craikabad, Mitha Khariand Guptapara from surface layer (0-15 cm) andsubsurface layer (15-30 cm) in ten selected spotsby making a transect walk across the slope undereach of three different situations as discussed latter.The soil samples were air dried, powdered withwooden mallet and sieved through a 2 mm sieve.The sieved samples (< 2 mm) were analyzed fordifferent physicochemical properties, uiz. pH and EC,soluble sodium and potassium by using flamephotometer, soluble calcium and magnesium byusing atomic absorption spectrophotometer, organiccarbon using standard methods (Page ef al., 1982)and soluble anions, i.e. C03-, HC03-and Cl-(USSLStaff, 1954). Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) andexchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) were derived

(USSL Staff, 1954). The results were discussed hereunder.

Rehabilitation of Csunami affected soils in Andamans 371


The tsunam!. affected agricultural lands fromwhere the samples were collected falls under Schoolline series (Guptapara/, Tushnabad series (MithaKhari) and Dhanikhari series (Lalpahar andCraikabad/ o/A & IV JSJands, and the pre-tsttnam!.

physicochemical characteristics of the same soil seriesare reproduced by Ganeshamurthy et aJ. (2002).

Pre-tsunam/. Soil physicochemical characteristics

School lino series

The soils were Tropofluvents formed fromalluvial deposits and having topography of gentlesloping to nearly level flat plains. The soils weremainly used for cultivating rice, coconut and arecanut. The texture was sandy clay loam in nature withmedium organic carbon content (O.55°/o) in the upper25 cm. The soil reaction was acidic and the soilelectrical conductivity (EC) was 0.32 and 0.04 dsm-] at 0-15 and 15-30 cm depth, respectively, i.e. non-

saline in nature. Exchangeable Ca + Mg content wasI.8 me loo per g soil at 0-12 cm depth whichincreased to 3.3 me per loo g soil at 55 cm depth.The exchangeable aluminum was very low (< 1%)and the available soil moisture was high (15.8%).

Dhanikhari 8eri®§

The soils were Fluventic Sulfaquents with salinephase formed from alluvium from surrounding hillsaind marine deposits. The topography was flat andthe soils were used for rice cultivation and shrimpfarming. The soil texture was clay loam in naturewith very high organic carbon content (4 %) in the

upper 25 cm. The soil reaction was highly acidicand the soil electrical conductivity (EC) was 4.8 and5 dsm-I a.t 0-15 and 15-30 cm depth, respectively,i.e. moderately saline in nature. Exchangeable Ca +Mg content was 2.7 me per loo g soil at 0-12 cmdepth which increased to 3.9 me per loo g soil at24 cm depth and decreased further to 2.1 me per100 g soil at 105 cm. The exchangeable aluminumwas high and the available soil moisture was alsohigh (19 %).

Tu§hnabad series

The soils were Umbric Fluventic haplaqueptsformed from shales. The topography was slight tomoderately sloping and the soils were used forcultivation of coconuts, aLrecanuts, spices, banana,

papaya and vegetables. The soil texture was of clayloam in nature with high organic carbon content ( 1. 5%) in the upper 25 cm. The soil reaction was acidicand the soil electrical conductivity (EC) was 0.02 and0.05 dsm-I at 0-15 and 15-30 cm depth, respectively,i.e. non-saline in nature. Exchangeable Ca + Mgcontent was 14.5 me per 100 g soil at 0-23 cm depthwhich increased to 16.4 me per loo g soil at 88 cmdepth. The exchangeable aluminum was low (< 1%) andthe available soil moisture was high (19 %).

Soil physicochemical characteristics immediatelyalter tsunami

The analytical results of the soil samples ofabove said soil series collected immediately aftertsunami. and six months after tst/namt' has been givenin Tables 1, 2 and 3. Under Situation 1, the pH of

Table 1. Soil pH, EC and ESP of tsunami affected agncultural lands of A 86 N Isidnds

Location Sltua-tlol Soil pH (1: 2 8oil: water| ee (dam-I) ESP

'0-15 cml (15-30 cm) (O-15cn) (15-30cm) (O-15cm) (15-30cm)ST, ST2 ST1 8T2 ST1 8T2 STl ST2 STl ST2 ST, ST2

Lalpad I11Ill 6.5 5.9 6.7 6.i 11.9 4.8 5.4 4.1 2J .2' 26.5 12.9 19.9

Crikadabad 7.6 6.6 7.6 5.5 13.7 4.0 4.5 5.3 17.4 30.6 3.4 276

MithakaLri 5.9 6.8 6.1 6.5 16.6 10,4 8.8 7.2 8.7 41.3 4,6 38.2

Guptapara 4.7 5.5 5.6 5.7 3.9 0.4 I.I i.0 5.1 5.8 1.1 133

Lalpad 7.0 6.6 6.4 6.5 20.8 12.1 11.7 9.2 24.8 40.3 11.4 29.3

Crikadabad 7.5 6.4 7.5 4.8 20.3 4.2 8.2 5.1 25.3 25.2 7.0 25.3

Mithakari 5.8 6.3 5.6 5.8 23.2 11.2 14.5 10.3 18.7 16.2 13.5 19.4

Guptapara 4.8 5.0 5.1 5.1 12.6 I.2 4.2 1.4 17.3 14.4 6.8 14.7

Crikadabad 7.6 5.8 7.6 6.0 13.2 4.1 4.I 4.2 15.4 311 3.0 18.7

Mithal(aTl 4.8 6.I 4.0 6.2 14.6 7.7 7.9 56 20.6 25.7 9.2 282

Guptapara 4.7 5.I 4.7 5.2 11.0 2.2 5.3 26 186 14.i 7.8 14.5

ST, : Sampllng Time 1 (Soil samples collected Immediately aftertsuriami|

ST2' Sampling Time 2 (Soil samples collected six months aftertsunami|

R. Raja ef a/.

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Rehabilitation of fsunomi affected soils in Andamans 373

1surface soil (0-15 cm) varied between 4.7 and 7.6and EC varied between 3.9 and 16.6 dsm-t, whichindicated thaLt there were lot of changes in hydrogenion concentration and soluble salt content in thesame soil series between pre-{surtami. and post-tstJnam[. conditions. The results from surface soilsampling under Situation 1 also revealed that onthe basis of SAR and ESP, the same soil series underdifferent locations became saline to saline-sodicexcept in Guptapara which indicated that the impactof tsunam{. was negligible. But the subsurface soil

(15-30 cm) of same soil series in the same locationwas hawing lesser amount of soluble salts. These trendsclearly showed that where seawater intruded onlyduring tsunar". and receded completely thereaftercould not affect the subsurface soil (15-30 cm).

Under Situations 2 and 3, the results revealedthaLt irrespective of soil series and initial salinitylevel, the surface soil (0-15 cm) became saline-sodicwith EC ranging from 11 to 23.2 dsm-I and ESPranging from 15.4 to 25.3. The increased level ofsoluble salt concentration in the subsurface resultedin soil salinity where the BC ranged from 4.1 to 14.5dsm-I. The reason for the surface soil becomingsaline sodic may be attributed to the large volumeof sodium and other soluble salts left on the surfacesoil due to frequent Intrusion or permanentstagnation of seawater in the field. In case ofsubsurface soil, the increased level of salinity maybe due to the percolation of soluble salts downwardfrom the surface soil.

Soil physicochemical characteristics six monthsafter tsunami.

The analytical results revealed that six monthsafter tsuriczm{., irrespective of soil series andsituations except in Guptapara, there has beenappreciable increase in soil ESP and exchangeableNa levels with corresponding decrease in soilexchangeable Ca + Mg levels, especially in thesubsurface soils. This turned the subsurface soilsfrom saline to saline sodic soils, while the surfaceSoils remained saline sodic. This was because, afteronset of monsoon there had been heavy rainfallmeasuring 2000 mm up to the sampling period whichmight resulted in salts leaching down to the lowerlayers. Hence, both surface and subsurface soilsbecame saline sodic because of increased level of ESPand exchangeable Na though the EC values decreased.

Though enough information on C03-, HC03-andCl-were not available for the pre-tsunami` conditionfor the said soil series, the analytical results of post-

tsuriam!' soil samples reveailed that there has beenappreciable involvement of bicarbonate and chlorideanions in surface and subsurface soils. It has alsobeen observed thaLt immediately after tstJnQmi., thechloride content of surface soil increased rangingfrom 4.4 to 40.8 me per loo g of soil. However, afteravailing high rainfall the chloride content decreasedin the surface soils while the same increased in thesubsurface soils.

Rehabilitation strategies

ln Andamans, the agricultural lands underSituation 1 can easily be reclaimed considering thefactors like higher annual rainfall (3500 mm), whichcan be effectively used for leaching out theaccumulated salts and possibility of relatively betterdrainage. However, the areas under Situation 2require construction of raised embankments alongwith sluice gates, which will regulate the ingress ofseawater in these areas. It will restrict the entry ofseawater into the field during high tide and will allowthe drainage of rainwater from the field during lowtide. In case of Situation 3, it has been envisagedthat brackish water aquaculture would be analternative livelihood pattern for the agriculturallands affected by tsuriami..

Besides these, a set of agronomic management

practices as enlisted below can also be followed foreffective rehabilitation of salt affected soils.

• Selection and raising of salt tolerant crops likerice, sugarcane, sorghum, watermelon, castor,forage crops like karnal grass (Di.pjachrie/iisca)and para grass (Brachfaria mt/tica) and greenmanure crop like Sesban{a ectJJ€clta.

• Selection of suitable crop rotation like rice-watermelon, rice-maize, rice-sorghum, rice-vegetables, rice-sugar beet and rice-forage crops

• Adoption of broad bed and furrowsystem of landmanipulation in the affected areas to cope upwith the problem of salinity and for increased

profit• Application of higher dose of farmyard manure

and its incorporation in the field to improve the

physical condition of the soil as well as thedrainage

• Adoption of 250/o higher seed rate than therecommended seed rate

• In case of rice, transplanting of aged seedlingand increased number of seedlings (4-6) per hill

• Sowing the seeds in the furrows or at 2/3rdheight from the top of the ridge

374 R. F{aja ef a/.

For wide spaced crops like vegetables, adoptionof pit system of planting by replacing the saltaffected soil with mixture of normal soil andfarmyard manure

• Adoption offrequent light Irrigation

• Adoptlon of drip lrrigation or pitcher Irrigationfor high value crops

• Application of higher dose of NPK than therecommended dose

• In case of rice, application ofznso4@ 25 kg ha-Ias basal dose

• Planting of trees/shrubs with higherevapotranspiration requirement, viz. Ettca!grpfttssp. and Accic{.a Curl.ct/Jt/ormi`s to act as a bio-

pump in waterlogged areas• Use of auger hole technique for planting tree

species in salt affected areas

CONCLUSION

It may be concluded that intrusion of 7.sunam].-induced seawater ln the agricultural lands of coastal

areas in Andaman and Nicobar Islands has renderedthe soils unfit for cultivation as such Since, the

quantum of sodium and other soluble salts left onthe soil by fst/ncim{ waves vary among differentsituations, different set of reclamation strategiesshould be employed for rehabilitation of these areas.

REFERENCES

Ganeshmurthy, A.N., Dinesh, R., Ravisankar, N., NairAnil and Ahlawat, S.P.S. (2002). Lcznd resourcesof Andaman and Ntcobar Islands, CentralAgricultural Research Institute, Port Blair.

Page, A.L., Miller, R.H. and Keeney, D. R (eds.)

(1982). Methods o/ So!j AnaJgsts, Part 11,Chermcal and Mierobiological Properties, ASA,SSSA, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.

Somani, L.L. (1991). Crop Prodrcti.on tu!fh SaJ!neWater, Agro Botanical, Vyas Nagar, India.

USSL Staff (1954). Diagnosl's cmc! Jmprouemenf o/Sa/{rte cnd A/kaJt' Sol.is, USDA Hand Book No.60. 147p.

J. Indian Soc` Cocistal agnc. Res., 24|2|, 375-377, 2006

Impact of rs##¢ffl!. on Soil Quality and ReclamationStrategies in the U.T. of Pondicherry

A.BASKAR, U.BAGAVATHI AMMAL, R.SANKAR, G. VEMBU and K.VALLIAMIVIAL

Department of Soil Science & Agricultural ChemistryPandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture & Research Institute

Karaikal -609 603, U.T. Pondicherry

An investigation was carried out in the tsunam/ affected areas of the union Territory ofPondicherry to characterize the soils for developing site specific reclamatlon. Accordingly, atotal number of 2762 soil samples were collected and analysed for EC, pH and gypsumrequirement. The EC of tlle soils of Pondicherry ranged from 0.37 .110.38 ds in-t and that of thepH from 7.03 to 10.16. The gypsum requirement was found to be highly varying from 0.0 to29.58 t ha-1. In case of Karaikal region. the EC was found to range from 0.03 to 202.9 ds in-1 andthe pH from 5.41 to 9.37. Tlie gypsum requirement was found to vary from 0.0 to 16.51 t ha.I.The results from the whole of U.T. ol Pondicherry showed that around 26.21% of the tsunam/.affected soils were saline in nature, 30.59% sodic, 38.38®/a saljne-sodic, while 4.82°/a were normal.

(Key ulords: Tsuna\m\ affected so\ls, Charactenzation, Reclamation)

The tsuricim{ differs from tidal wave in that thelatter has got very low order energy since it originatesdue to gravitational forces (Ramakrishnan ef a!„2005), The recent hit tsunaml on 26th December,2004 has resulted in major damage both in terms oflives and properties and as such contaminated thesoils by seawater flooding. The U.T. of Pondicherrylies on the east coast which has also been affected bythe tsunami waves. Hence, an attempt was made tocharacterise the soils which were affected by fsurlam{and to develop site speciric recommendations to restorethe productivity of the soils.


Immediately after the fsunam{ a preliminarysurvey was conducted to assess the actual Impactunder field conditions. It was seen that there weremajor differences in the impact of tsunamt. onagricultural lands due to the differences in soiltexture, period of inundation, depth of standingwater, distance from the sea, and the slope of thelands Hence, it was decided to collect field to fieldsoil samples to arrive at site specificrecommendations. Accordingly, soil samples werecollected from both Pondicherry and Karaikal regions

(total 2762). The collected soil samples were air dried,sieved through 2mm sieve and analysed for EC, pH

(Jackson,1973) and gypsum requirement(Schoonover, 1952). For determining the Ece(Electrical conductivity of the saturation pasteextract) regression equations developed between Ece

(USDA, 1954) and EC 2.5.


The results of the analyses in the affected areasof the U.T. of Pondicherry had revealed that therewere wide variations in the EC, pH and gypsumrequirement. It was seen that in Pondicherry, theminimum Bce recorded was 0.37 ds in-i, themaximum was 110.38 ds in-I, the pH ranged from7.03 to 10.16, and the gypsum requirement from nilto 29.58 t ha-t . In Karaikal region the range was 0.03to 202.9 ds in-1, 5.41 to 9.37 and 0 to 16.51 t ha-1,respectively for Ece, pll and gypsum requirement.

The detailed field to field soil analyses are

presented in Table 1. It was seen that the EC of soilsaffected in Pondicherry region ranged from 0.37 to110.38 ds in-1 and that of pH from 7.03 to 10.16.The gypsum requirement ranged from nil to 29.58 tha-1. In case of the Karaikal region, the EC wasminimum (0.03 ds ml) in the Pattinacherry villageand maximum (202.90 ds in-I) in Poovam village. Asregards pH it ranged from 5.41 to 9.37, and that ofthe gypsum requirement, from nil to 16.5 t ha-I.

Based on the results, the soils werecharacterized as saline, sodic and saline-sodic.The results thus obtained are presented in Table2, which revealed that in Pondicherry region16.54 % of the samples were saline, 28.68°/o sodic,43.01% saline-sodic and 11.76% normal. On thewhole in the U.T. of Pondicherry, 724 fields

(26.21%) were saline, 845 (30.59%) were sodic,1060 (38.380/a) were saline-sodic and 133 (4.82%)were normal (total 2762 fields).

376 A Baskar ef a/.

Table 1. Data on sotl analyses in the tsunam\ affected areas of U.T. of Pond.cherry

Village Ece (ds in.)) pH Gypsum requirement (t hall)Min Max Min Max MID Max

Pondicherry 0.37 Ilo.38 7.03 10.16 0 2958Poovam 1.20 202.9 5.87 8.34 0 11.7

Pattinacherry 0.03 42.62 6.24 9.37 0 8.94

Keezhakasakudi 0.60 37.57 6.17 9.07 0 7.57

Kottucherry 0.92 81.63 5.84 8.94 0 165

Thiruvettakudy 0.73 145.73 5.41 9.17 0 1651

Thalatheru 0.34 13.01 6.17 9.21 0 10.3

Neravy 0.98 69.70 6.75 8.84 0 826Koll Pathu 0.60 3.16 6.41 8.80 0 1.38

Pattinum(N) 0.80 43.64 6.28 8.99 0 1101

Patt,nun(S) 007 155.19 6.28 8.99 0 8.94

Pattlnum(M) 0.29 17.92 6.83 8.82 0 6.19

Vanjorc(F) 0.65 178.51 5.83 8.65 0 5.50

Vanjore(T) 0.15 94.94 6.35 8.57 0 4.82

Tc.ble 2. Classrflcatron of sotls in tsunarm affected areas in the U T of Pondicherry

Village Total8ampleB Saline Sodlc Saline-sodic NormalNo. % No. % No. % No. %

Pondichcrry 272 45 16.54 78 2868 117 43.01 32I 11.760.6

Poovam 94 27 28.7 55 58.5 12 12.8

Pattlnacherry 151 30 19.9 63 41.7 56 37.I

K€ezhal{asakudi 113 56 49.5 24 21.2 32 28.3 I 0.I

Kottucherry 455 87 19.I 130 28.6 221 48.6 17 3.7

Thiruvettakudy 516 200 38.8 73 14.1 231 44.8 12 2.3

Thalatheru 242 7 2.9 185 76.4 31 128 19 7.9

Neravy 174 7434 42.516.1 15 8.6 8471 48333.6 I 0.6

Koll Pathu 16 5 31.3 11 68.8Pattlnum(N) 211 102 48.34 3 1.4

Pattinum(S) 228 56 24.6 78 34.2 86 37.72 8 3.5

Patt]num(M) 115 19 16.5 14 12.17 59 51.30 23 20.0VanJore(F) 107 79 73.8 13 12.15 15 14.0 I I.0

Vanjore(T) 68 9 13.2 10 14.7 45 66.18 4 59Total 2762 724 26.21 845 30.59 1060 38.38 133 4.82

The results were communicated to the farmersalong with the reclamation strategies specific fortheir fields. The strategies included either leachingwith good quality water in case of saline soils orapplication of required quantities of gypsumcombined with leaching in case of sodic and saline-sodic soils, respectively. The farmers were advisedto dig trenches in their fields with due considerationto slope in their fields and raise bt/nd upto about 15to 30 cm. The farmers were also advised to puddlethe field using good quality water. The standing waterwas allowed to seep through the soil profile, get

collected in the trenches, and finally safelydisposed off through drainage channel wherever

possible. In case of sodic and saline-sodic soils,it was advised to apply the required quantities ofgypsum and then puddle the field uslng powertillers. The leaching was continued as in the caseof saline soil and the leachate was advised to bedisposed off. In places where drainage facility wasnot present the farmers were advised to puddlethe field, allow the standing water for 1-2 days,and then flush out the standing water throughsafe drainage disposal system.

Tsunami affected soils of Pondicherry 377

F`ollowing additional features of damages causeddue to 7'sttnamt` were also observed.

• The fieldswhich were Hooded with seawaterbutdrained within hours

• The fields which were flooded with seawaterbutdid not drain over periods resulting in infiltrationof seawater into the soil profile

• Fields which were eroded atthe top due to theimpact of sea waves

• Fields which were deposited with coarser sandparticles brought from the sand dunes on thecoast lines

• Fields which were deposited with the marinesediments comprising of finer particles, namelysilt and clay

• Fields which were deposited with sewage sludgeespecially near the river mouths

Extent and nature of damage due to fstJnamt.were different depending on the above featuresobserved in individual fields, and reclamationmeasures suggested accordingly.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors express their sense gratitude to theDepartment of Agriculture , Government of Pondicherryfor providing financial assistance in terms of aResearch project for a period of three years.

REFERENCES

Jackson, M.L` (1973). Soil Chem.cat Analysis,Prentice Hall of India (Pvt.) Limited, New Delhi.

Ramakrishnan, D., Ganesh, S.K., Raja, V.K.M.,Vinuchandran, R. and JayaraLm, A. (2005).Trails of the killer Tsttriam!.: a preliminaryassessment using satellite remote sensingtechnique. Ct/rrent Science 88: 709-711.

Schoonover, W.R. (1952). Exarriirtat]`o7i o/ Sot.Js /orA!kall., Extension Service, University ofCalifornia, Berkelay, California.

USDA (1954). D].agrios[.s orid JmproLJemerlt o/ Sa!t'necincz A!ha!]. Sot.is, Agricultural Hand Book.60,United States Department of Agriculture, Oxford& IBH publishing Co, New Delhi.

J. Indtan Soc, Coastal agrlc. Res., 24|2), 378-380, 2006

rs##¢owz. Effect on Coastal Soil and WaterV. PETHAPERUMAL, C. SOUCIKALA and V. N. VARMA

Agriculture Department, Pondicherry -605 009

During the last lsunam/. attack, heavy loss on human life, agricultural crops, soil and groundwaterresource degradation and the ecological changes had occurred. In the soil, hyperacidity andsalinity were developed and in the groundwater, the seawater intrusion took place. Larger acidicand free C02 and acid P contents observed might be duo to the biogenic and hydrogenousorganics and phosphorite mineral ion dissolution in the sea sodimonts wliich wore the causativefactors. The relative increase in Cl, §0, ionic constituents contributed to salinity. In the

groundwater, sam.e abrupt water levels rise and high salinity values were noted due to seawaterintrusion. The agi.icultural crop damages were also heavy. The loss of human life and dwelling

places were reported and honco the planning for ecological security against such disaster wasneeded. After a gap of 9 months the acidlty decreased to normalcy biit the soil and groundwater salinity still persisted due to low potential monsoonic showers in these coastal areas.

(Key words.. Ts;unami, E):I;eat on soil & Tj)ater)

The world had observed the largest tsunamlhavoc in December, 2004. Over I.5 lakh of estimatedloss of life was occurred. The sea wavelengths werelarger enough for advancing the water currents intothe South Indian coastal areas. The pressurized seawater waves had possessed hyperacidity and salinityand higher energy flow to exhibit the bruitality onthe coastal life.

The paper discusses the effects of tsuncimi onsoil and water properties in Pondicherry and TamilNadu.


Soil samples (104 nos.) were collected from theaffected areas and analysed for pH, electricalconductivity, texture, available macronutrients and

Table 1. Tsunami affected coastal soils (Jan. 2005)

Village EC 'ds/ml IT I /ac P 1& ,c K I /acMinimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

Panitltoo 0.8 1.1 71 135 40 175 16 3011 samplesAriyaakup <1 1to3 Low Medium High Very High Low Medium

6 5 9 2 Nil 11 11 Nil

Min:0.9 Mar: 10.8Max:6.7 Min:42 Max: 132 Min:3.5 Max:80Max:55 Min.12 M ax : 1 8 0Max:32Max:159

69 saLmplesKalapeth < 1, (7) , Low:67Min:52 Med: 2Mar:130 Low,4, Low:50,I-3,(16), Med: 10, Med: 13'>3:(46) High:55 High:6

Min:0.12 Mm:7.9 Min: 14

12 samples <1 :(6) I-3:(2)''3:(4)Min:I.4 Low: 1 1 Med: 1 Med: I H18h: 11 Low : 1 2 Med:Nil

Thengatito Max: 12. 8 Min:66 Max: 117 Mln: I .25 Max:64 Min:35

12 samples lto3: (3) '3: ( 9) Low: 12 Nil Low I ;Med:2;High,9 Low;3;Med:6;H18h3

Tsunamj effect on soil & water

Table 2a. Water soluble extracts of tsunELmi affected soil scmples

379

Table 2b. Post-tsunam± soil samples analyses

water soluble nutrients for P, Cl, S04. Twenty-fivewater samples were collected in Pondicherry andTamilnadu areas where tsunami took place and theywere analysed for pH and EC values.


The results are presented Tables 1, 2(a,b), 3 & 4.

Effect of \sijnaml

The transported solute by fst/nam]. action whichmay possess turbulent flow had affected the soilmuch. The solutes contained the suspended anddissolved solids. They were likely to be originatedfrom the continental slope. Abrupt changes in theanalytical values were noted, particularly very low

pH, higher exchangeable P, low N and K values andalso high salinity. Water soluble nutrient values, likeCl, S04, P were also relatively higher than the normalvalues. The suspended and colloidal solids mighthave been the causative factor for the exchangeablereactions and these solids probably infiltrated andremained at the top layer sediments itself to abstainfrom affecting the ground water quality. The water

soluble salts had contacted the ground water layersby seawater intrusion and thus the salinity wasdeveloped.

The development of hyperacidity might havebeen due to the acidic C02 and higher acidic P. Theoxidation zones of the organic matter laid on thecontinental slope and ocean floor. The seabedcontained larger phosphorite hydrogenous sedimentsand nodules containing C and P especially in thecontinental slope. The driving force for the majorCarbon release from the ocean sediments was thedegradation of organic matter and the dissolution ofCac03. The route cause of the acidity initiation maynot be fully ascertained with the present data.

Posf-tsunami e/fecf

After 9 months the change of the total soilacidity to normal pH was due to the hot summarheatwave to emit C02 by degassing and also thishelped to decline P values. The soil and ground watersalinity was still persisting and the farmers wereexpecting the north-east monsoon arrival to leachdown the soil soluble salts. Immediately after

Table 3. Wc.tor quat{ty (BC umhos/ cTn) in VIllupuram distnet dunng tsunawi attack

I,ocation Well depth Water Quality Diet. frofn Water level(in) A. date EC B. date EC coast (in) (in)

Marakanam BlockK.Panikupam

50 7/04 310 30.12.04 250 0.2 2.9 to 3.30

Alapckkan 50 7/04 3050 1210 I 2.4 to 2.9

Ekyrkuppam 30 7/04 1010 1140 I 1.45tol.60

Nadukupan 56 7/04 670 1690 3 28.8 to 29.27

Kandadu 50 7/03 390 240 1.8 11,55 tol2.3

KilputupetVanurblockT.chitrambalam 50150 7/03 1240 1630 12.5 4.4 to 4.5745.3to47.57

7/04 1050 1300

Kozuveri 100 7/04 600 1800 2 21.0 to 23.5

Nesal 150 7/04 640 1900 I.8 31.1 to 37.75

KottckaraiBC 150 7/04 280 580 1.2 4.68 to 5.33

Note. Well nos 2,4,6,7,8,9 and 10 were affected t)ytsttnaml

380 V. Pethaperumal et a/.

Table 4. Water quality of cuddlore Tsunami affected areas

Locatlon EC(«mho8/cn) 1/05 Distance EC(ztmho8/cm) I/99 pH (1/OS)

G.upalaLvdi* 7280 2km 4000

7.I

Panchkupan 930 2km 300

Ayyampet* 1990 0.5 kin 2440

F'arangipetai* 3000 2km 1070

Killal 170 I.5 kin 1050

Pinnathur 3800 3km 2940

Cuddalore* 3650 2km 11002450

Periyakumati 1800 3kmParangipetai* 5200 2kmNo.1 to 5: Open Wells and No.6PondicherrycoastPanititooestuarywater* to 9: Tubewells of Cuddal4900 ore Sandstone0.5I aquifer) 1800

Vanbpet HP 1100 900 7.2

Utchimedu TW* 5900 1000 7.5

Nalavadu HP* 2200 I 600 7

Kalapeth HP 60' 900 0.2 300 6.2

Puthupet HP 45' 400 I.5 380 5.6

Puthupct BW 110' 400 I.2 390 5.9

Kazuveli TW 550' 300 2.5 300 7,4

Kalapeth BW 110' 500 I.5 490 7

P.Mudaliarchavady HP 65'* 2100 0.3 1000 58

Auroville 300 2 290 59

Bommayapalam BW 90'* 2300 0.4 600 6.5

C.Mudaliarchavady BW 70' 800 I 300 6.9

Thengaithittu HP 50'* 2800 0.5 900 6.8

Nos.15 to 18 a 20 lie ln Uplands; All lie in the coastal belt of Pondicherry region' Affected by tsunam!

tsuncimi, the estuary load due to backwater washeavy and the ground waters in these pockets werestill saline. Since Pondicherry coastal system waspartially covered with the sand dunes, elevatedbeaches, estuaries, uplands and good drainagesystem, it showed minor threats. But on the

contrary, the Karaikal coastal region was devoid ofsuch geomorphological structures and hence theseverity of the tstJnamt' attack was more.

A well planned strategy for future protectionagainst tsunami' is suggested.

J Jndicin Soc. C'oclsta/ Qgrtc. Res , 24(2), 381-385, 2006

Impact of rs#„4owg. on the Coastal Vegetation ofBoat Island, South Andaman

A. VENKATESH, C.B. PANDEY, N. KALA, N. RAVISANKAR, R.P. IVIEDHl and R.B. RAI

Central Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blalr -744101, A&N Islands

A preliminary and rapid survey was made to asses the impact of fsl/nan/. on the coastal forestvegetation in Boat Island. The seawater intruded up to 120-180 in landward during {si/nan; andrecodod permanently. The damage to the vegetation particularly to the seedlings of koralya andthe poles jungli latov was more noaror to the coast. The mature troos were not affoctod, Thesoil pH increased closor to the coast i.e. at a.20 in (8.8) distance and declined with distance tolowest to (6.7) at 160-180 in distance. Electrical conductivity also increased to 4.716 dsm-1 at 0-20 in and 0.347 dsm.i at 160-180 in dlstance.

(Key words;: Impact of tsunem\, Coastal vegetation, Change in soil properties)

Andaman and Nicobar Islands extend over 8,249km2 in the Bay of Bengal (Dutta et a!., 1985). These

group of Islands are endowed with forest cover ofabout 86%. Out of this recorded forest area (7,171sq. kin), about 40% are under reserve forest and 60%under protected forest. The littoral beach forestoccupies an area of 83.02 sq kin and mangrovesabout 739.51 sq kin.

The tsunami resulted due to an earthquake onthe sea floor of the Indian Ocean (3.29°N, 95.77°E)at 6.20 A.M. IST, with a magnitude M 9.3 on 26thDecember 2004. This caused major disturbance tothe coastal ecosystem of Andaman and NicobarIslands besides decease of many human lives andbuildings. The study on the effect of fsttncimt on thecoastal vegetation was scanty. Keeping these in view,a preliminary and rapid survey was made to assesthe impact of fsuric{m{ on the coastal forest vegetationand soil properties in Boat Island. This would givefirst hand Information on ecological management andrestoration of coastal belt.


BoaLt Island is a part of Mahatma Gandhi MarineNational Park in South Andaman, which wasestablished initially in the year 1983. The surveywas carried out in two sites (I) 11°32'24.2" N & 92°33'26.1"E facing NW direction and (11) 11°31'35.1"

N & 92° 33'21.4" E facing SW direction.

Six quadrates (20x20 in) were laid at site I at20 in interval up to 120 in. Similarly, nine quadrateswere laid at site 11 up to 180 in (distance upto whichthe seawater intruded) . This happened because afterthis limit uplands (hilly) start. In each quadrate thetotal number of live and dead trees, poles, shrubs

and seedlings were counted. Phytosociological studyof the trees, i.e. frequency, density and mportantvalue index (IVI) were computed following Misra

(1968). Importance value index was calculated bysumming up relative frequency and relative density.Soil samples were collected from each quadrate at 5

places in 3 different depths, viz. 0-10 cm,10-20 cmand 20-30 cm. The soils were air dried, sieved througha 2mm mesh. pH was detemined in 1 :2. 5 soil to watersuspension. Electrical conductivIty was determined inthe supernatant of i:5 soil-water mixtures.

RESULTS AND DISCuSSI0N

It was observed that the seawater intruded upto 120-180m towards landside during tsunamt. andreceded permanently. An elaborative list of speciescomposition and Its response to the tsuncimi. withrespect to the distance from the shore is given inTable I. About 29 species were noticed in the littoralforests of Boat Island, of which were 24 trees, 4climbers and one palm. The number of speciesincreased while moving towards landside and thedamage to the vegetation particularly seedlings ofkoraiya and the poles of jungli latov was more nearerto the coast, but the mature trees were not affected.This resulted in complete vanish of under storeyvegetation in Boat Island. It also observed that theroots of sea mohwa were exposed due to seawatercorrosion and subsequently it would fall down followingfrequent usurpation of seawater near the coast.

In site I, the density of Sfercu!{a "bz'g{nosa insapling stage (887.5 ha-I) was more followed by kadilotov (125 ha-1), Mamlfeara J[ttora!is (66.7 ha-I) andD{.pterocarptts spp. (41.7 ha-I). The higher frequencywas observered for kadi lotov (83%), followed by

382 A. Ventatesh ef a/.

Table 1. Specnes composttron and its status after tsunEi:rhi tn Boat lslarid, South Andc.man

O-20n rron €ea8horeManilhara littoTalis Sea mohwa big tree 141 039

0 iPandanus tectorous PandanusKadilatov Palmpole

Cheli tree 0 I

20-40m from seashore

Ficus callosa

Hibis ous teliaceus

Lannea. grandis

Manilhara littoralis

Mgristica ivy a

Pandanus tecto rius

Syzyginm clouif oorurn.

Bargath

Kappas

Nabbe

Sea mohwa

Junglija,phal

Pandanus

LJunglijamun

Kadi latov

Cheli

40-60m from sea.here

Atstohia. spp`

Bombax insigne

Guettarda speciosa

LannecL grandis

Manilkara ttttoralis

Mynstiea irya

Pandar[us tectorms

Pterocymbiumtinctonum

Syzygium clavif lorum

Sathian

Jungli didu

Sea coast teak

Nabbe

Sea mohwa

Jungli j alphal

Pandanus

Papitha

Jungli j anunKadi latov

Jungli kapok

60-80m from 8ea8hore

Alstohia spp.

Celtis phillfopensis

Lanr\ea grandis

Manilhara littoralis

Mgristica. irya

Pandanus tectonus

Plancheonellalongxpetiolatum

Pterocymbiumtinctortum

Tabenolemontana crispa

Sathian

Jungli despathi

Nabbe

Sea mohwa

•'unglijalphal

Pandanus

Lanba pathi

Papltha

Koraiya

Kadi latov

21

Contd

Impact of isunami in Andaman Boat Island 383

80-loom from seashoreCaryota rrulrsDaemonoops kurz\anusDiospgros cruTrLenaataManitlcara littoralisPans hia msLg "sPlancheone Ilo longipetiolatumSaccharurrL elliptieaTal)enaemontanacrrspaSterculia rub\gmos a

Mad, pathlSanga bethKala kenduSea mohwaRed dhupLamba pathiChoolKoraiyaLal chilkaKadi latovPathi beth

b,g treeclimberbig treebig treeb,g treebig treesmall treeshrubsapllngsmall treeclimber

100-120m from seashore

Bombax irLsigne

Calamus palustnsCeltis philtippensisDipte rocaspus spp.

M anilhara, littoralisMgnstica iryaSterculia rub.gmosaTabenaemontana cnspa

Jung.Ii diduMalai bethJungli ddspathiGurJan

(Chota pathi)Sea mohwaJun8ll Ja,PhalLal chilkaKoralyaDananCheliPathi bethKadi latovSabeth baelJungli beth

b,g treeclimberbig treebig tree

big treebig treesaplingshrubbig treetreecllmberseedlingclimberclimber

120-140m from seashoreAlstonia spp ` Sathian small tree 6 0Manilkara littoralis Sea mohwa b,8 tree 2 0Tabenaemontana cnspa Koralya seedling 88 5

Kadi latov small tree 6 0140-160m from Seashore

Atstonia spp. Sathian small tree 4 0Daemonoops kurzianus Sanga beth climber 9 0Mamlkara littoralis Sea mohwa big tree 5 0Ptmshia insignis Red dhup small tree I 0Sy zygourn clauif oorum iJungli j amun tree 10 0:`1,,....,,1`..,,.`.,.`,,,.,..`.r1`!``, Koraiya seedling 88 0

Daman tree 4 0Kadi latov small tree 2 0

160-180m from seashoreBlachia andamanicaDue monoops harzianusFicus lrspidaPterocymbram tmcto urnSyzygium claulfoorumTaberLaemontana cnspa

HakshiSanga bethGullarPapithaJungli j amunKoralyaDamanKndi latov

treeclimberbig treebig treetreeseedlingsmall treesmall tree

384 A` Ventatesh ef a/

Mgr[sftca ]rgc{ (66%) and Larmec{ grorldis (50%). Thelvl shows more for kadi lotov (22.1) followed byMtyr{stl.ccz irva (11.9) and Mcml.Jkarcl Ji'ftorcl!is ( 10.1).

Different trend was observed in site 11 due tolocationa.I factors. The density was more forrobenciemontcirta cn.spa seedlings ( 1111.1) , followedby Paric!cinus tecton`tts (416.7), AJstonia spp. andDaemonoops kurzianus (4L.6). Manilkara littoralismost frequently occurred (660/o) which was followedby Taberiaemonfana cn.spci and AJstonta spp.(550/o).The frequency of PandcznL(s {ecfortus (44%) stood inthe third place. Regarding the lvl, it was higher for7`abenaemonfczria cn.spa (75.5), followed by Pandant/stecto us, Marilhara itttora[is and Atstonid spp. |34.5,21.0 and 18.3, respectively) (Table 2).

The soil texture study revealed that the percentof sand was more (62.3-97.66 %) followed by silt (2.2-30.2%), clay (0.5-7.5%) and gravel (0-5.0%). The soil

pH increased tremendously in places nearer to thecoast, I.e. 0-20 in (8.8) and it gradually decreased to6.7 in 160-180m. This evidenced that even aftertsttnam]. the seawater hit the coastal area during fullmoon and new moon day. The electrical conductivityalso increased from 4.71 dsm-I to 0-20m and 0.34dsm-I in the far end, i.e.160-180 in (Table 3).

CONCLUSION

In order to safeguard the human life and protectthe agricultural fields form natural disasters, viz.tsunamt. it is essential to rebuild the damaged biowall

Table 2. Distnbution pattern of spectes

Sl. S|)ecie8nameno. Site I Site 11Density Frequctlcy rvI Density Frequency IVI

(no8./ha) (%) 'nos./ba) '%)

\ Alstohia spp.

8.3 33 5.7

72.2 55 18.3

2 Blaclun andamaniea3BombcLxiusngne 5.541.6 1122 3.28

4 Calamus palusins 4.2 16 2.7

5 Caryota Trutis 4.2 16 2.7

6 Celtis philtippensis 12.5 33 6

7 Cheli 8.3 33 8.7

8 Daemo noops ktJ rzranu s 12.5 16 3.3

9 Daman 4.2 16 2.7 16.62.8 2211 6.63

\0 Diospyros crumenaata 4.2 16 2.7

\ \ Dipterocaspus spp` 41.7 16 5.5

\ 2 F\cus callosaI3Ficuslispida 4.24.2 1616 2.72.7

\ 4 Guettanda speciosa 2.8 11 3

\ 5 Hibiscus teliaceus16Junglibeth 2.730.569.4416.7 11336644 310.22134.4

17 Kadi lotov 125 83 22.I

\8 Lanneagrandis 20.8 50 9.2

\9 Marrilhara littoralis 66.7 33 10.I

20 Myrrsticairya21Paridant.stectorius 258.3 6616 11.93

22 Panshiainsignrs 2.85.533.3 111122 33.27.5

23 Pathi beth 20.8 33 6.6

24 Plancheonella longipeho[atum 83 33 5.7

25 Pieroeymbiuntinctonum 16.6 33 6.3

26 Saccharwnelliptica 4.2 16 2.7

27 Steroulia rubiginosa 887.5 33 5.7

28 Syzygiun clauifoorum 20.8 33 6.6200

29 Tabenaemontana anspa 1111.1 55 755

Total 200

Impact of fsuncimi in Andaman Boat Island

Tabte 3. Changes in soil pH and Bce after tsunami in the coastal area

385

Distance fromtheseashore(in) Soil depth (cm|Mean0-10 10-20 20-30

pH Ece (dsm-I) pH Ece (dsm-I) pH Ece (dsm.1) pH Ece (dsm-`)0-20 8.7 4.68 8.8 5.19 8.9 4.28 8.8 4.716

20-40 8.4 7.61 9.I 5.49 8.6 5.24 8.7 6.113

40-60 85 6.03 7.8 5.9 7.5 5.51 7.9 5.81

60-80 7.9 8.73 7.6 4.13 7.4 3,21 7.6 5.32780-loo 7.7 6.67 7.6 1.867 7.5 1.388 7.6 3.308100-120 6.8 1.24 7.3 0.296 7.8 0.213 7.3 0.583120-140 7.I 0419 7.2 0.353 7.5 0.251 7.2 0 . 34 I140-160 6.9 0.437 6.7 0.248 6.S 0.415 6.7 0.426160-180 6.9 0.282 6.6 0.297 6.6 0.462 6.7 0.347

or create a new one. If the site is suitable formangroves, it can be encouraged for the same. Ifthe site is not suitable, bioshield calm be developedthrough planting of the following tree speciesPandanus tectorius, Pandanus andanensiumManilkara littoralis, Hibiscus teliaceus, Lanneagrandis, Mormda citnfoha, Syzygtum clautfoorum,Guettarda specrosa, Ponga"a pmnata, Calopkyllumtnopkyllun, Casuarina equisetif oho , Jatropha curcus,Glmcidta sepium, Bombax msigne, Mgristica irya,Pterocgmbium tmctorium, Bombax msigne, Blc.chiacmdama"ca, etc. The planting should be made in

mixed cropping pattern. In the residential area ofthe coastal belt jatrapha and gil.rtcidi.ci can beincluded for biofencing.

REFERENCES

Dutta, R., Tushar, R.S., Abbas Ahmed, R. and Rao,M.K.V. (1985). Plant used by Andamanarborigines in gathering rock bee honey.Economic Botany 39: 130-138.

Misra, R. (1968). Ecojoggr Workbook, Oxford and IBH

Publishing Company, Calcutta.

/. Jndiari Soc. CocistaJ cigric. Res„ 24(2), 386-390, 2006

Has rs##4on£. Affected the Quality of Seawater and Backwaters?• Case Studies in and around Chennai, Tamil Nadu

M. MURALIDHAR, 8. P GUPTA, R. SARASWATHY,ABEY VARAMPATH ABRAHAM and A. NAGAVEL

Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture75, Santhome High Road, R A Puram, Chennai -600 028, Tamil Nadu

The coastal districts on the oastorn coast of India, particularly Nagapattinam, Cuddalore andChennai were worst affectod duo to tsunamJ. durlng Doc®mbor 2004. Many hatchery facilities inthese regions were severely affoctod with damages to pump houses, fencing. otc. ®Spocially inKovalam, Marakanam and Pondlchorry belt. In antlclpatlon that fsunam/. tidal waves mlght havebrought some changes in the olemental composition of seawater, samples wore coll®ct®d fromdifferent places in and around Chennai (Kanchipuram District . Muttukadu sea and backwater,Mamallapuram, lvludaliarpet boat house; Thiruvallur Dlstrict -Pulicat backwater and soawater;Cuddaloro District -Thalanguda; Villlpuram District -Marakkanam; Pondicherry -Kurshikuppam) along the east coast imm®diat®ly after lsunam/. and were analysed for chemicalparam®tors, major ionic composition and heavy motal concentration. The cationic values inthose water samples were sllghtly lower than the values of normal seawator. Marakkanam inTamil Nadu and Kur§hikuppam in Pondichorry r®cordod hlghor concentrations of ar§onic. Thevaluos of some metals wore above the Criteria Continuous Concentration (CCC) values as perEf>A. While comparing the values of heavy metals at seashore of Muttukadu during Soptembor2002, Fobrliary 2003 and after lsunam/ during Doc®mber 2004 and January 2005, no sig,nificantvariation was notlcod.

(Key words: Tsuna\rni, Seawaler, Bac`kwater, Heavy metals)

The tsunamt. caused extensive damage insouthern regions of India and Andaman & NicobarIslands affecting a total of 2,260 kin of coastline.The waves were reported to be as high as 3-10 in insouthern India aind penetrated in the range of 300in to 3 kin inland. The coastal districts on the easterncoast of India, particularly Nagapattinam, Cuddailoreand Chennai were worst affected. The fisheries sectorin Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Andaman &Nicobar Islands has suffered major damages in ternsof lives, boats, gear and the Infrastructure such a§harbours and fish landing centers. According to NACA/FAO/ SEAFDEC/BOBP-loo report (Anon., 2004) manyhatchery facilities in Kovalam, Marakanam andPondicherry belt were severely affected with damagesto pump houses, fencing, etc. Aquafarms to an extentof 5753 ha were damaged in Tamil Nadu. Shnmp farmsat Cuddalore, Chidambaram, Sirkali, Tharangampadi,Vedaranyam, Nagapattinam and Velankanni wereseverely affected with collapsed blfnds and damage tothe equipment Including motors and pumps,

The increasing impairment of coastal water

quality resulting from the discharge of domestic,agricultural and Industrial wastes in coastal watershas affected the aquaculture profitability in certainareas (Federico Paez-Osuna ef CZZ., 1998). The fourestuaries in Northern Oregon, USA have buried peat

and sand lenses, evidence of seismic disturbancesand post-seismic fsunaml.s. At least six greatearthquakes were documented in the last 3,00-0years, originating in the Cascadia sut)duction zone(Darienzo ef ciJ.,1994).

The tswnarri}. flood can be expected to initiate as'eries of damage events, including fire and toxic/hazardous release (Preuss and Hebenstreit, 1990). Thezone of vulnerability and secondary hazards should beidentified for a complete risk management plan.Because the San Francisco Bay region is in a sei§micallyactrve area, the ponds were inundated as a result ofseismically induced seiche or fstJnami, causing a largedischarge of contaminants into the Napa River. Theresulting discharge would most likely result insubstantial impairment of water quality in the form ofa large and rapid increase in the concentrations ofsalinity, suspended sediment and other contaminants.Hazard evaluation and predictive toxicology play auseful and Important role for protection of aquatlcenvironment from pollutants such a.s heavy metals and

pesticides (Draggen, 1978 and Hamelink, 1980), Thenegative changes in the environment and biodiversityof source water bodies if any due to fsttriam[. may affectthe shrimp farming. In this direction, mom+oring the

quality of seawater and backwaters {` ,t`ceivingadequate attention in India.

Impact of tsunamj in sea and backwater 387

<,MATERIALS AND METHODS

ln anticipation that !suncim{ tidal waves mighthave brought some changes in the elementalcomposition of seawater which may lead to alterationin biodiversity of nora and fauna, composite watersamples were collected during 4 -9 January 2005from about 5 - 10 in off the shoreline and at 0.5 indepth in triplicate from different places in andaround Chennai (Kanchipuram District -Muttukadusea and backwater, Mamallapuram, Mudaliarpetboat house: Thiruvallur District - PulicaLt backwaterand seawater; Cuddalore District - Thalanguda;Villipuram District - Marakkanam; Pondicherry -Kurshikuppam) on the east coast. The water samplesfor heavy metals analysis were preserved byacidifying with nitric acid (Fig. 1).

In the experimental station of Central Instituteof Brackishwater aquaculture (CIBA) at Muttukadu,a clean and empty 20,000 litre capacity cistern keptfor drying got filled up by tszJnam{ tidal waves on 26December 2004. This water was considered as arepresentative sample of `tst/nam!. water'. Thecollected water samples were analysed in theEnvironmental laboratory of CIBA for chemical

parameters and major ionic concentrations, viz. pH ,salinity, nitrite-nitrogen (N02-N), total ammonia -

Fig.1. Study area map

nitrogen (TAN), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+),

calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) using thestandard methods (APHA, 1989). Most of the

parameters were analysed using spectrophotometer,flame photometer.

Water samples were also analysed for heavymetals, viz. lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), zinc (Zn),cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg) and arsenic (As). Thedetermination of heavy metals, such as cadmium,lead, chromium and zinc was carried out byextracting water with APDC/MIBK according to themethod described by APHA (1989) using heated

graphite atomiser on Atomic AbsorptionSpectrometer. Mercury was analysed by cold vapour

generation followed by flameless atomic absorptiontechnique using electro thermal atomizer. Arsenicas total was measured by electro thermal atomicabsorption spectrometry with graphite furnace.


Specialised analysis of recent satellite imageryof a tsunczm[ ravaged section of Porto Nova, India,near Sri Lanka has revealed a devastating impacton local water quality. Contaminated sedimentimpacted a large number of inland water bodies inthe area and was evident more than two kilometersoffshore in the Indian Ocean. The influence oftsunami on the average chemical composition andconcentration of major ions, heavy metals inseawater and backwaters are presented in Tables 1and 2.

Cllemical composition

The pH and salinity of seawater and backwaterranged from 7.23 to 8.18 and 30 to 35 ppt and 6.75to 7.32 and 26 to 32 ppt, respectively (Table 1), The

pH values in the present backwater samples wereslightly lower than the normal reported values(Joseph ef a/., 2002). The seven ions mainly Na+, K+,Ca2+ , Mg2+, Cl-, S042-and HC03- contribute to thesaline nature of water. TAN and nitrite- N values inthe study area varied from 0.072 to 0.180 ppm and0.001 to 0.076 ppm, respectively. The cationic valuesof Na, K, Ca and Mg in the water samples of theseworst affected areas of Tamil Nadu were slightly lowerthan in the normal seawater. However in all thesamples magnesium concentration was higher thanthe calcium and Ca/Mg ratio (0.270-0 305) was moreor less same as that of normal seawater (0.296). Highand low sodium concentrations of 10600 and 8200

ppm were observed in seawater at Mamallapuramand backwaters at Mudaliarpet. The normal level of

388 M Muralidhar e! a/.

Table 1. Sahmly, pH and ionit concentration (ppm) of ulater samples collectedfrom tsunam\ affected places in arid arourid Chennal

District Collection site pH Salinity N02-N TAN Na K Ca M8(ppt) (ppB1) (pl'm) (ppm) (ppD' (ppm) (ppm)

KanchipuranThiruvallurCuddalore rst{nami water (Muttukadu) 8.18 33 0.074 0.116 10500 350 320 1176

Muttukad seawater 7.98 32 0.076 0118 10500 360 332 1194

Muttukadu backwater 6.94 30 0.003 0.109 9000 350 280 1008

Mamallapuram seawater 7.10 35 0009 0.082 10600 340 376 1334Mudaliarpet boat house(backwater) 675 26 0.008 0072 8200 280 264 946

Pulicat (backwater) 7.32 32 0007 0.083 10000 350 320 1104

Pulicat (seawater) 7.39 32 0.001 0.076 9200 370 328 1075

Thalanguda (seawater) 7.33 31 0.017 0.180 10200 370 320 1080

VIllipuram Marakkanam (seawater) 7.23 31 0.005 0.079 10000 360 320 1080

Pondlcherry Kurshikuppam (seawatcr) 7.31 30 0.006 0102 10400 290 304 1065

Tabte 2. Cc)!\centration topb) of heaug metals in ujater samples collecteclfrdm tsnnawi aJ:fected places in and around Chennai

District Collectioa point Pb Cr Zn Cd H8 A8Kanchipuram Tsunam[ water (Muttukadu) I.00 5.12 13.12 I.45 011 BDL

Muttukad seawater 1.00 5.25 13.25 I.50 0.11 BDLM uttu kadu baclrmter BDL 8.25 5.35 6.65 15.33 BDL

Manallapurain s€awatcr 4.00 22.25 15.18 11.90 10,68 BDL

Mudaliarpet boat house (backwater) 3.5 5.50 3.15 3.38 6.56 BDLTh iruv allu r Pulicat (backwater) BDL 850 218 10.45 615 BDL

Pulicat (seawater) 575 775 290 1103 654 BDl`Cuddalore Thalanguda (seawater) BDL 8.25 1270 BDL 163 21, 75Vlllipuran Marakkanam (seawater) BDL 8.75 12,30 BDL 2.28 3825Pondicherry Kurshikuppam (seawater) BDL 8.00 12.90 BDL 201 47.75Criteria Maximum Concentration CMC) 210 1100 90 42 I,8 69Criteria Continuous Concentration (CCC) 8.I 50 81 9.3 NA 36

BDL - Below detectable level

NA - Not available

cations in seawater of 35 ppt are 10500, 380, 400and 1350 ppm for Na, K, Ca and Mg, respectively.The `tsttnam{' ujczrer' appeared to be more or lesssimilar to normal seawater though the values of Na,K, Ca and Mg were §lightly in lower range in case ofthe former.

Heavy metal concentration

ln Kanchipuram and Thiruvallur Districtsslightly higher value of cadmium in the range 10.45-11.90 ppb was observed. Criteria ContinuousConcentration (CCC- Highest concentration of a

pollutant to which aquatic life can be exposed for anextended period of time) and Criteria MaximumConcentration (CMC - Highest concentration of a

pollutant to which aquatic life can be exposed for ashort period) are used to assess the safe

concentration of heavy metals. Except for theMuttukadu seawater sample, the observed values formercury were higher than the normal value andpreviously recorded value of 0.3 ppb (Qasim andSengupta,1981) in most of the districts. The CMCvalue for mercury was 1.8 ppb but it is interestingto note that the concentration of mercury rangedfrom 6.50 tol5.33 ppb, 6.15 to 6.54 ppb, 2.28 ppband 2.01 ppb in the coastal areas of Kanchipuram,Thiruvallur, Villupuram and Pondicherryrespectively. Though below the CCC value, a rise inconcentration of cadmium when compared topreviously recorded values (Qasim and Sengupta,1981) was observed in samples fromMammallapuram, Muttukadu and Pulicat. The valuefor arsenic was high in Villupuram (38.2 ppb) andPondicherry (47.75 ppb) whereas at other places it

Impact of tsunomi in sea and backwater

Table 3. Heavy metal concentration (ppb) in Muttuhadu seaujater bofore and after tsunami

389

Period of collection Pb Cr Zn Cd H8 As

Dec,1999 NA BDL 16 0.17 BDL BDL

Sep, 2000 NA NA 19.5 0.17 0.1 NA

Feb, 2003 BDL NA 7.0 BDL BDL NA

Dec, 2004* loo 5.12 13.12 1.45 0.11 BDL

Jan. 2005 1 1)1) 5.25 13.25 1.5 0.11 BDL

Desired safe level NA I.00 loo 2 0.01 0.2

t- 7`sunclmi ``.ater

NA - Not available

BDL -Belo\`' detectable level

was in below detectable level. Areas where highervalues were recorded for heavy metals were probablydue to anthropogenic inputs in those places ratherthan Impact of tsunczmi.

The values of Pb, Cr, Zn, Cd, Hg and As werelower in the `tsuriczml water ' than those found in mostof the places mentioned elsewhere. The values ofthese heavy metals were very low when compared\\rith the CCC and CMC values of US EnvironmentalProtection Agency. The safe levels of zinc, cadmium,mercury and chromium are 100, 2, 0.01 and i.0 mgF1, respectively (MPEDA,1991).

Comparison of heavy metal concentra(ion inMuttukadu seawater before and after fsunam/.

The values of heavy metals in seawater atMuttukadu before and after fsttrtam!. were comparedsince 1999 (Table 3). No significant difference wasnoticed in the concentration of heavy metals in post-tsunami seawater except in cadmium (1.5 ppb) whichwàs 8 times more. However this value of cadmiumwas much below the prescribed value for CCC

(9.3 ppbL

The mean values of zinc and mercury inseawater at Muttukadu during 1999 (Muralldhar efal., 2003) were belou. the Environmental ProtectionAgency`s (EPA) safe limits (MPEDA,1991) and WHO`s

standards (Qasim and Sengupta, 1981). Perhaps,thls could be due to alkaline nature of waters withhigh concentration of bicarbonates and totalhardness. Calcium and magnesium could reduce thetoxicity' of metals because of their competition forsites with cationic speciation form of heavy metals

(Rai ef aJ.,1981).

From the results of the Investigations it can bebroadly concluded that the tsunami of December 26,2004 has not brought about any significant changesin the quality of the coastal waters in general.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Dr. M. Natarajan, Dr. Amba Sankar and Dr. M.Kumaran who have helped in the collection ofsamples are thankfully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

American Public Health Association ( 1989) , Stanc!ardMethods for the Examination of Water and WasteWater, 17th Edn, American Public HealthAssociation, Washington, D.C.

Anon. (2004). ftp://ftp.fao.org/FI/DOCUMENT/tsunamis_05/lan_07_2005 NACA/FAO/SEAFDEC/BOBP-IGO. Report Updcitc on theSituation of the Tsunami Affected Areas.

Darienzo Mark, E„ Peterson Curt and CloughCharles (1994). Stratigraphic evidence for greatsubduction-zone earthquakes at four estuariesin Northern Oregon, USA. I/ournaJ o/ Còas{alResearch 10(4): 850-876.

Draggen, S. ( 1978) . TSCA: The US attempt to controltoxic chemicals in the environment. Amb]ò7: 260.

Fedcrico Paez-Osuna, Saul, R. , Guerrero-Galvan andRuiz-Fernandez Ana, C. (1998). Theenvironmental effect impact of shrimpaquaculture and the coastal pollution in Mexico.Marme Pollution Bulletin 36|L|.. 65-7 5 .

Hamelink, LJ. (1980). Bio-availability of chemicals inaquatic environments in biotransformation andfate of chemicals in the environment. Amcr[`canSoc].efy o/ Ml.crc)b{'o!ogg, A.W. Maki, K. L. Dickson

& LJ. Calrns LJr.(eds.), Washington, D.C. 56p.

Joseph, K.O., Muralidhar, M.,.Gupta, B.P. andKrishnani, K.K. (2002). Characterisation ofIntake, pond and outlet water of creek andseawater based shrimp farms in Ncllore districtof Andhra Pradesh. Aquacu!trire 3(1): 51-59.

390 M` Muralidhar ef a/.

MPEDA (1991). Aquaculturc. Drops/or Farmers IV

(11&12), 2.

Muralidhar, M„ Gupta, B.P., Krishnani, K.K. andNagavel, A. (2003). Heavy metal and pesticidelevels in shrimp culture areas of Nellore (AndhraPradesh) and Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu).AquacL(JftJre 4(2): 153-159.

Preuss, Dr.J. and Hebenstreit, G.T. (1990). JnfegratedHazard Arssessmenl for a Coastal CoiTmunity,

Grays Harbor, Wash[.rigfon, Urban RegionalResearch, Seattle, Washington, USA. 36p.

Qasim, S.Z. and Sengupta, R. (1981). WaterPollution and ManageTnent Reuiews, C.KVarshney (ed.), South Asian Publishers Pvt.Ltd Delhi.139p.

Rai, L.O„ Gaur, J.P. and Kumar, H.D. (1981).Phycology and heavy metal pollution. Bt.oJog!.ccilReLJ[`eto 56 : 99-151.

/. Jndian Sac, CoasfaJ agri.c. j3es„ 24(2), 391-392, 2006

Impact of rs##4ow!. on the Ground WaterQuality in Pondicherry Region

A. BASKAR, U. BAGAVATHI AMMAL, R. SANKAR, L. ARUNA, D. JAYANTHl,M. BALACHANDER and K. COUMARAVEL

Department of Soil Science & Agricultural ChemistryPandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture & Research Institute

Karaikal -609 603, u.T. of Pondicherry

To inv®§tigate the Impact of tsunam/ on the ground waters of Pondlcherry, a stucly has boonconduct.a after the incident ln Pondichorry. The analytical results of 203 water samples colloctodbefore (st/nan/ were compared with the samples analysed after the incident for studying itsImpact on ground waters of Pondicherry. The results had shown that there wore no markedvariations in the pH, EC or on tlleir ionic composition between pro-lsunam/. and post-Isunamjsamples. Similarly the quality indices liko soluble sodium porcontage (SSP), residual sodiumcarbonato (RSC), Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), potential salinity (PS), Purl's salt index (Psl),and permeability index (Pl) did not show marked variations between the two 8tagos.

(Key words: Tsunalhi, Ground ujater quality)

The impact of tsttriczml on the soil quality hasbeen found to be in terms of loss of productivity inthe agricultural lands. It was also opined by a groupof people including the farmers that the tst{nam{ hadalso deteriorated the ground water quality byunderground seawater intrusion. In Pondicherryregion the main source of imgation i§ ground waterwhich was found to be intruded with seawater. Todelineate the areas which were prone to seawaterintrusion, a research project was sponsored by theGovernment of Pondicherry and it has been inoperation at Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College ofAgriculture and Research Institute, Karaikal fromJune 2003 to till date. To investigate the impact of

Table 1. EC, pH and iorne composition

isunami on ground water quality, a study has beenconducted after the tst/nam]. in the Pondicherryregion which is presented in this paper.

IVIATERIALS AND IVIETHODS

Water samples in 203 borewells distributed in101 villages of Pondicherry region were sampled atbimonthly intervals starting from June 2003 toOctober, 2004 and amlyscd for the various ioniccompositions. The determinations of ions were doneby adopting the methods following Tandon (1993)for S04 using turbidimetry and rest as per methodsdescribed by USSL Staff (1954) (Table 1).

{crrolto±) L-1 } bofore and after tsuna:"(average Of 203 u)elts taken at bimonthlg interuals)

Characters Before ts«nam{ After tsqnaml

HID Max Mean Min Max Mean

pH 6.26 8.24 7.54 6.21 8.56 7,29

EC (ds in-1) 0.28 6.62 I.36 0.26 7.90 1.33

ca2+ 1.70 27.60 4.47 I.00 13.60 4.35

Mg2+ 0.33 23.27 2.71 0.00 23.00 3.20

Nat 0.96 2522 6.74 0.09 38.35 6.95

K` 0.008 1.167 0.091 0.021 2.064 0.157

COO- 0.00 2.30 0.99 0.00 3.40 I.12

HC03- I.03 9.30 5.78 I.20 10.20 5.90

Cl I.77 57.30 6.15 I.60 64.20 6.08

sol- 0.03 14.65 1.86 0.00 13.88 I.40

392 A Baskar ef a/.

Tab.e 2. Quahty tndices before and after tsunani (c.uerage Of 203 uiells taken at brmonthlg tnteruats)

Characters Before tstinLam! After tsonam!Min Max Mean Min Max Mean

Puri's Salt Index (PSI) -30.60 2.91 -17.45 -27.77 4.95 -16.47

Potential Salinity (PS) 0.35 54.78 5.22 1.69 69.11 678Permeability Index (PI) 31.94 129.71 92.95 32.75 135.30 89.64SSP 11,78 7820 45.95 1,58 88.36 44.54RSC -44.30 5.37 -0.41 -30.00 7.10 -0.54

SAR 0.52 13.38 3.60 0,05 17.60 3.61

Cl ratio 0.25 10.47 0.99 027 9.73 0.94

The quality indices of irrigation water were alsocomputed from the ionic composition as per RSC

(Eatson,1935), SAR and SSP (USSL Staff,1954), Cl-/C03 + HC03 (Todd, February, 2005) as per thefollowmg references (Table 2). A fresh sampling wasdone in the same 203 wells during Feb, 2005 (aftertstJnam].) and analysed for their ionic compositions.


The results of the water sample analyses fortheir ionic compositions before and after fstJnczrm. is

given in Table I. The results have clearly revealedthat there were only marginal influences in BC, pHand ionic compositions.

As regards quality Indices of irrigation waterbefore and after tsz/namt' (Table 2), though there werewide variations between the minimum andmaximum values, the mean values suggest onlymarginal differences due to Csuricimi. The above trendof results had suggested that the tsunaml. had verylittle impact on the ground water qualit.v in thereglon, The C1- to C03- + HC03- ratio whlch wastaken as an Index of seawater intrusion ".as alsofound to decline marginally from 0.99 to 0.94.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to express their gratefulness toPAJANCOA (Karaikal) Society for providing thefinancial assistance for the conduct of the above study.

REFERENCES

Doneen, L.D. (1963). Water Ot{ai{{gr /or Jmgcif[on,

Agricultural Department, University ofCaliforniau Davis. 48p.

Baton, F.M. (1935). 'Boron t.n So]Js and /m`gcit]orlWaters and Its Effect on Plants uiith ParttculaTReference to the Sam Joaquin Valley Of California,USDA Technical Bulletin 448.

Tandon, H.L.S. (1993). In Methods o/Ancllys['s o/

5:t]',S]'z:'ta[:t:'Wafeer;;afnodpFmearf:`:??,rstpopns8u3,-t[a[n°;Organisation, New Delhi.

Todd, D.K. (1995). Grounci Wafer HgdroJogg, JohnWilley and Sons. 516p.

USSL Staff (1954). D!.agnosis arid JmproL/emer[f o/Sfzlt'ne and A7ha7z. Sol-Zs, USDA Hand Book 60.147p.

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