I.4 LOGIC 2017-REV1.pdfP1 says Tanya is older than Eric. P2 says Cliff is older than Tanya. When P1...
Transcript of I.4 LOGIC 2017-REV1.pdfP1 says Tanya is older than Eric. P2 says Cliff is older than Tanya. When P1...
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Department of CSE1
I.4
LOGIC
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Boolean Logic
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Expressions
• An expression is simply one or more variables and/or constants
joined by
• operators
• An expression is evaluated and produces a result
• The result of all arithmetic expressions are either integers or
reals
• An expression can also yield a result that is either true or
false- BOOLEAN
• Such an expression is called a relational expression
• The result reflects how something "relates to” something else.
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"Is the value of x greater than the value of y?"
• Note that the preceding poses a question.
• Relational expressions are usually intended to answer
yes/no, or true/false, questions.
• Obviously, boolean values and boolean variables play an
important role in relational expressions.
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Operators
To build relational expressions, two types of operators are used,
relational operators and logical operators
Relational operators
Logical operators
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Examples
Expression Value of expression
3 < 4 True
7.6 <= 9 True
4 == 7 False
8.3 != 2.1 True
6 Department of CSE
Initial values Expression Value of expression
a = 3
b=4
c=5
d=6
a ==b
c< d
(a==b) && (c<d)
(a==b) && (c<d)
result = (a==b) && (c<d)
!result
False
True
False
True
False
true
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Truth assignment: True or False
Let,
(a < b || (a >= b && c == d)) be statement 1
(a < b || c == d) be statement 2
In the statements 1 and 2: a < b , c == d, a >= b
are conditions to be checked forTRUE or FALSE
to determine the truth value of the entire expression
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Logical expression
(a < b || (a >= b && c == d))……………statement 1
(a < b || c == d) …………….. statement 2
# A. Let, a is less than b be True
• We inspect the first of the two conditions (a < b) to see if
it is true
• It is true in both statements 1 and 2
• TRUE is returned by both the statements
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# B. Let, a is less than b be FALSE
In statement 1 :
We inspect the second of the two conditions
(a >= b && c == d) to see if it is true
• We are asking whether both a >= b AND
c == d are true
• If a < b is false, then a >= b is of course true
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Therefore whether true or false is returned entirely depends on
the condition : c == d
• If c == d is true then true is returned
[ as a < b is false, a >= b is true ]
the statement 1 returns true
• If c == d is false and false is returned
[ as a < b is false, a >= b is true ]
the statement 1 returns false
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In statement 2 :
We inspect the second of the two conditions c == d
• If c == d is true then true is returned
a < b is false,
the statement 2 returns true
• If c == d is false and false is returned
as a < b is false,
the statement 2 returns false
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Proposition
Any statement that can have one of the truth values,
TRUE or FALSE is called a Proposition
• The sentence "2+2 = 4" is a statement, since it
happens to be a true statement, its truth value is T
• The sentence "1 = 0" is also a statement, but its
truth value is F
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• "It will rain tomorrow" is a proposition.
For its truth value we shall have to wait for
tomorrow.
• "Solve the following equation for x" is not a
statement
It cannot be assigned any truth value whatsoever.
It is an imperative, or command, rather than a
declarative sentence.
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• "The number 5" is not a proposition
It is not even a complete sentence
• "There is no planet called Mars“ is a proposition
with truth value F
• "Ode to Spring" is not a proposition
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Propositional logic
• Propositional logic is a mathematical model that allows
us to reason about the truth or falsehood of logical
expressions.
• Propositional logic is a useful tool for reasoning….
• Law of the excluded middle
States that there are only two truth values in a logical system
( TRUE , FALSE)
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Department of CSE16
Which of the following statements are
propositions? If the statement is a proposition,
provide truth value.
1. The sum of any two prime numbers is even.
2. Come to class!
3. The moon is made of green cheese.
4. Is it raining?
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Department of CSE17
Solution:-
1. The sum of any two prime numbers is even.
Proposition. Truth value if False (Eg:- 2+3=5,
which is not even)
2. Come to class! Not a proposition
3. The moon is made of green cheese.
Proposition. Truth value if False
4. Is it raining? Not a proposition
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Propositional variable
• Notice that, our reasoning about the two statements 1 and 2
in the previous eg. did not depend on what a < b actually
means
• All we needed to know was that the conditions a < b and a
>= b are complementary, that is, when one is TRUE the
other is FALSE and vice versa
• We may therefore, replace a statement by a single
symbol known as Propositional variable, since they
can stand for any proposition.
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Example
• a > b is a simple proposition
It can be represented by a propositional variable p
• c==d is a simple proposition
It can be represented by a propositional variable q
Now,
• The propositional variable p has truth assignment TRUE or
FALSE depending on whether a is less than b isTRUE
• Similarly, the propositional variable q has truth assignment
TRUE or FALSE depending on whether c is equal to d is
TRUE
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Examples
1. “the moon is round” is a statement
p: "the moon is round”
the propositional variable p, expresses the above statement
2. “I am a mammal”
q: “I am a mammal”
the propositional variable q, expresses the above statement
3. “I am not a mammal” is the negation of q
It is represented by NOT q
~q and !q all mean the same
20 Department of CSE
q ~q
T F
F T
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Department of CSE21
P1:Tanya is older than Eric.
P2:Cliff is older than Tanya.
P3:Eric is older than Cliff.
If the first two propositions are true, what is the
truth value of the third proposition? Why?
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Department of CSE22
Solution
P1 says Tanya is older than Eric.
P2 says Cliff is older than Tanya.
When P1 and P2 are true, we can come to the
conclusion that Cliff is older than Eric.
But P3 says otherwise.
Hence truth value of P3 should be FALSE
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Compound proposition
• A compound proposition is formed by combining simple
propositions with logical connectives, also known as
logical operators.
• Basic logical connectives: AND, OR, NOT.
Figure: Notation and meaning of logical connectives
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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Logical expressions
In these expressions, p, q, and r are
propositional variables:
• NOT p
• p AND (q OR r)
• (q AND p) OR (NOT p)
Propositional variables , logical operators and the logical
constants (TRUE and FALSE) form logical expressions
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Let , E be a logical expression and F be another logical
expression
1. E AND F is a logical expression.
The value of this expression is TRUE if both E and F
are TRUE and FALSE otherwise.
2. E OR F is a logical expression.
The value of this expression is TRUE if either E or F
or both are TRUE, and the value is FALSE if both E
and F are FALSE
3. NOT E is a logical expression.
The value of this expression is TRUE if E is FALSE
and FALSE if E is TRUE
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Let, p denote a < b
Then NOT p denotes a >= b
Let, q denote c==d
• Now consider the expression :
(a < b || (a >= b && c == d))
This expression can be written as: p OR( (NOT p) AND q)
• Similarly, the expression (a < b || c == d) can be written as
(p OR q)
We have shown previously that both are equivalent, therefore we
write: p OR( (NOT p) AND q) ≡ (p OR q)
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• Symbolic logic is a modern extension of Aristotelian
logic where symbols are represent statements of truth.
• Boolean logic is a symbolic logic system that was created
by a mathematician named George Boole around 1850.
• Logical expressions are used to express logical
thought.
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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Example #1
“I will take an umbrella with me if it is raining or the weather
forecast is bad”
• The above statement tells us that,
If Raining or BadWeather Forecast, take umbrella
• The OR logical connective denotes disjunction and can be used
here
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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30 Department of CSE
Let, p be the proposition Raining
q be the proposition Bad forecast
r be the proposition take umbrella
We have,
the compound proposition, p OR qthe proposition r ( which is p OR q ) takes the truth
valueTRUE or FALSE as follows:
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Logical disjunction yields a value of FALSE only
when both of the inputs are FALSE
This result is intuitive since it closely follows the
way we informally use the term and when speaking
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Example #2
“Take an umbrella if it is hot and sunny”
• The above statement tells us that,
If Hot and Sunny, take umbrella
• The AND logical connective denotes conjunction and
can be used here
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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We have,
P = “It is hot.
Q = “It is sunny”
U= “Take umbrella”
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
U is P AND Q
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Department of CSE,Coimbatore
Logical conjunction yields a value of
TRUE only when both of the inputs are
TRUE
This result is intuitive since it closely
follows the way we informally use the
term and when speaking.
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Arity of operators
• An operator is something like a machine that accepts inputs,
processes those values, and produces a single output value
• The arity of an operator is the number of inputs into the
operator
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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Department of CSE36
p: "This galaxy will ultimately wind up in a
black hole"
q: "2+2 = 4
1. What does p && q say?
2. What does p AND (~q) say?
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Department of CSE37
Solution
1. a.This galaxy will ultimately disappear into a black hole and
2+2=4
1. b.The more astonishing statement: "Not only will this galaxy
ultimately disappear into a black hole, but 2+2 = 4!"
2. a. This galaxy will ultimately disappear into a black hole and
2+2 is not equal to 4
2. b. "Contrary to your hopes and aspirations, this galaxy is
doomed to eventually disappear into a black hole; moreover, two
plus two is decidedly different from four!"
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Department of CSE38
p is the statement "This topic is boring”
q is the statement "Logic is a boring subject,"
Express the statement "This topic is definitely
not boring even though logic is a boring
subject" in logical form.
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Department of CSE39
Solution
• The first clause is the negation of p, so is ~p.
• The second clause is simply stating the (false) claim that
logic is a boring subject, and thus amounts to q.
• The phrase "even though" is a colorful way of saying that
both clauses are true, and so the whole statement is just
(~p) AND q.
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Department of CSE40
Let p: "This topic is boring,"
q: "This whole web site is boring“
r: "Life is boring."
Express the statement "Not only is this topic boring, but
this whole web site is boring, and in fact life is boring (so
there!)" in logical form.
• The statement is asserting that all three statements p, q and r are
true.
• (Note that "but" is simply an emphatic form of "and.")
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Department of CSE41
• Now we can combine them all in two steps:
• Firstly, we can combine p and q to get p AND q, meaning "This
topic is boring and this web site is boring.“
• We can then conjoin this with r to get: (p AND q) AND r.
• This says: "This topic is boring, this web site is boring and life is
boring."
• On the other hand, we could equally well have done it the other way
around:
• conjoining q and r gives "This web site is boring and life is boring."
• We then conjoin p to get p AND (q AND r), which again says:
"This topic is boring, this web site is boring and life is boring.”
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Department of CSE42
• p: "55 is divisible by 5,“
• q: "676 is divisible by 11”
• r: "55 is divisible by 11.“
• Express the following statements in symbolic form:
(a) "Either 55 is not divisible by 11 or 676 is not divisible by 11."
(b) "Either 55 is divisible by either 5 or 11, or 676 is divisible by 11."
Solution
(a) This is the disjunction of the negations of r and q, and is thus (~r) OR(~q).
(b)This is the disjunction of all three statements, and is thus (p OR r) OR q
(a) is true because ~q is true.
(b) is true because p is true. Notice that r is also true.
If at least one of p, q, or r is true, the whole statement will be true.
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Department of CSE43
• Write each sentence in symbols, assigning propositional
variables to statements as follows:
P: It is hot.
Q: It is sunny.
1. It is neither hot nor sunny.
2. It is not hot but it is sunny.
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Department of CSE44
• Given that
P: It is hot.
Q: It is sunny.
Negation of P and Q will be as follows
It is not hot - ~P
It is not sunny - ~Q
1. It is neither hot nor sunny.
It can be re-written as ‘It is not hot and It is not sunny’
Hence the statement can be represented as ~P AND ~Q
2. It is not hot but it is sunny.
It can be re-written as ‘It is not hot and It is sunny’
Hence the statement can be represented as ~P AND Q
Solution
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Well formed proposition
• These rules guarantee that the proposition has meaning and is not
merely a jumble of nonsense.
• The grammatical rules for writing a well-formed proposition are
listed next.
• Rule 1—Each of the following is a simple proposition.
a. Any single letter.
b. True.
c. False.
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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Well formed proposition contd---
• Rule 2—Let a box (□) stand for a proposition (either simple or
compound). Assuming that each box is some proposition, then each
of the following are also propositions.
a. □ and □
b. □ or □
c. □ implies □
d. □ ≡ □
e. not □
f. (□)
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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Example
Show that “P and not (Q or R)” is well formed
Apply the rules to P and not (Q or R)
→ □ and not (□ or □) replace simple proposition in Rule 1
→ □ and not (□) replace by Rule 2b
→ □ and not □ replace by Rule 2f
→ □ and □ replace by Rule 2e
→ □ replace by Rule 2a
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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Example
Consider reduction of P not Q
→ □ not □ replace simple proposition in Rule 1
→ □ □ replace by Rule 2e
STUCK !!!!!
• Consider “P not Q” to be something like “I am hungry I am not cold.” is
nonsensical or does not obey grammar rules.
• This needs a connective or period or semicolon between the two
proposition.
• Corrected sentence: “I am hungry and I am not cold.”
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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Evaluation of propositions• Logical expressions can be evaluated to find its truth value
• We have to construct the truth table for the expression and then evaluate its expression
• Truth tables of expressions p and q, p or q , not p
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
p q p and q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
p q p or q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
p ~ p
T F
F T
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To construct a truth table for some proposition
1. Make a list of each logical variable (abbreviation) that appears in
the proposition. If one variable occurs more than once in the
proposition it should be included only once in your list.
2. Place a column in the truth table for every variable in your list.
The column heading should be the variable itself.
3. For the heading of the last column you should write the entire
proposition.
4. If there are N variables in your list, you must create 2N rows. Each
row represents a unique combination of values for the N variables.
5. For each row, determine the value of the proposition and place
that value in the last column.
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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Examples
p q p and q ~(p and q)
T T T F
T F F T
F T F T
F F F T
51 Department of CSE
1. Construct the truth table for ~(p AND q)
2. Construct the truth table for p OR (p AND q)
p q p AND q p OR (p AND q)
T T T T
T F F T
F T F F
F F F F
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Department of CSE52
Construct Truth Table for the proposition : ~p AND (p OR q)
Solution
p q ~p p AND q ~p AND (p OR q)
T T F T F
T F F T F
F T T T T
F F T F F
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Department of CSE53
Construct the truth table for~(p AND q)AND (~r).
p q r p and q ~(p and q) ~r ~(Pand q)and (~r)
T T T T F F F
T T F T F T F
T F T F T F F
T F F F T T T
F T T F T F F
F T F F T T T
F F T F T F F
F F F F T T T
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Order of precedence
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Computing truth Table of expressions
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Example P and not (Q or R)
1. The logical variables P, Q, and R are the only variables that occurand so our list contains only those three variables
2. We now construct a truth table that has one column for each of thesevariables
3. The final column corresponds to the whole proposition
• In order to determine the final column values includetemporary columns for each of the logical operators toevaluate the value of the whole proposition
• These subparts should be arranged according to the order inwhich the operator will be evaluated
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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• We now construct 23 or 8 rows
• Arrange the rows in some orderly fashion: rightmost column
alternates repeatedly between True and False, then the next
column in left alternates betweenTrue and False and so on...
Figure: P and not (Q or R) : Truth TableDepartment of CSE,Coimbatore
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Department of CSE58
Let, p AND (~q)
Let, NOTq be FALSE
What is the truth value of p AND (~q) ? Explain.
Solution:
• ~q is false
• the whole statement p AND (~q) is FALSE(regardless of whether p
is true or not).
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Revisit the logical expressions
(a < b || (a >= b && c == d)) be statement 1
(a < b || c == d) be statement 2
We have examined that,
# A. For a is less than b be True:
TRUE is returned by both the statements
# B. For a is less than b be FALSE
• If c == d is TRUE then TRUE is returned by both the statements
• If c == d is FALSE then FALSE is returned by both the statements
Observe anything?
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Statements 1 and 2 return TRUE
when a < b is TRUE or when c == d is TRUE
Statements 1 and 2 return FALSE
when a < b and c == d are both FALSE
Both the statements are equivalent !!
The simplified conditional expression in statement2 can be substituted
for the first with no change in the logic
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The ≡ operator
• ≡ means “is equivalent to” or “has the same Boolean value as”
• No matter what truth values are assigned to the propositional
variables in the expression,
the left-hand side and right-hand side of the expression are either
bothTRUE or both FALSE.
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≡ means if and only if
p ≡ q is true when :
• both p and q are true,
• or when both are false,
• but not otherwise.
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Example revisited
Let, p denote a < b
Then NOT p denotes a >= b
Let, q denote c==d
Consider, the two expressions:
p OR( (NOT p) AND q)
(p OR q)
both areTRUE when p isTRUE or when q isTRUE both are FALSE if p and q are both FALSE
Thus, we have a valid equivalence:
p OR( (NOT p) AND q) ≡ (p OR q)
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Department of CSE64
1. (P AND Q)AND R and P AND(Q AND R)
2. P OR (R OR Q) and (P OR R) OR Q
3. ¬(P∨Q) and ¬P∧¬Q
4. P∨(Q∧R) and (P∨Q)∧(P∨R)
5. (P∧P) and P∨P
Check whether the following pairs are equivalent
or not
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• The phrase “P not Q” is actually a sequence of twoseparate propositions rather than a single proposition.
• Although each of the two propositions may bemeaningful when considered in isolation, the sequenceitself does not have a truth value.
• P : I am hungry
• Q : I am cold
We understand the expression “P not Q” to be something like
“I am hungry I am not cold.”
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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• Just as the rules of English grammar require us to insert
a semicolon or perhaps a period between these two
propositions.
• Boolean logic expects to see a logical connective such as
“and” joining the two propositions.
• Since there is no connective, the resulting phrase is
nonsensical.
• Joining the two propositions with a logical operator
such as “and” would yield the meaningful proposition “I
am hungry and I am not cold.”
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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• The truth value of the compound proposition “P and Q” depends
upon the truth values of both P and Q.
Perhaps I have just finished eating a very large dinner of sushi, turkey, fruit
salad, and organic beets.
• In this case, we understand that the statement “I am hungry and I
am cold” is false because the simple proposition that “I am hungry”
is false.
Similarly, perhaps I am resting on the beach during a sizzling summer
afternoon.
• In this case, we understand that the statement “I am hungry and I
am cold” is false because the simple proposition that “I am cold” is
false.
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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Logical operators
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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Equivalence operatorVariables P and Q are said to be equivalent
if they have the same truth value.
Figure: Equivalence operator truth table
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
p ↔ q
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Implication
if p, then q
p implies q
In the proposition “P implies Q” we refer to P
as the antecedent and Q as the consequent.
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If we win the game we will get much money.
71 Department of CSE
Propositions:-
P: We win the game
Q : We will get much money
Representation:-
If P, then Q : P Q
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If the book is not in the library then it is in the
bookstore.
72 Department of CSE
If the book is not in the library then it is in the bookstore.
Propositions:-
P: Book is in library
Q : Book is in the bookstore
Representation:-
If NOT P, then Q : ~P Q
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Implication Truth Table
The statement q→p is called the converse of the
statement p→q
A conditional and its converse are not equivalent
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• This operator captures the idea that if one thing is
true, then some other thing must also, by logical
necessity, be true.
• For example, if the proposition: “my car battery is dead”
has a value of True, this implies that the proposition
“my car won’t start” must also be true.
• In Boolean logic we would say that “My car battery is
dead implies my car won’t start.”
• We might phrase this informally as “whenever my car
battery is dead, my car won’t start.”
Department of CSE,Coimbatore
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“My car battery is dead implies my car won’t start.”
75 Department of CSE
• P = “My car battery is dead.”
• Q = “My car won’t start.”
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Here is a theory :
If the sky is overcast, then the sun is invisible.
76 Department of CSE
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If the sky is not overcast
the sun may be visible (during daytime)
Or
the sun may be invisible (during the
night/eclipse).
The theory holds……….
77 Department of CSE
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If the sun is invisible
it may be overcast
Or
night
The theory holds……….
78 Department of CSE
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But if the sun is visible while the sky is overcast,
the theory is does not hold ….. It becomes false………………
since it specifically states that is should be invisible.
An overcast sky means that the sun is not visible.
79 Department of CSE
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p = sky is overcast,
q = sun not visible,
sky not overcast sun is visible is possible (day)
sky not overcast sun not visible is possible (night/eclipse)
sky is overcast sun is visible not possible
sky is overcast sun not visible is possible (overcast)
80 Department of CSE
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p: sky is overcast
q: sun not visible
sky not overcast sun is visible is possible (day)
sky not overcast sun not visible is possible (night/eclipse)
sky is overcast sun is visible not possible
sky is overcast sun not visible is possible (overcast)
81 Department of CSE
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Understanding the implies operator
• p is true and q is false, then p→q is false
• If p and q are both true, then p→q is true
• If p is false, then p→q is true, no matter whether q is true or not
82 Department of CSE
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Tautology
• A tautology is a proposition that is always true.
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Contradiction
• A contradiction is a proposition that is always
false.
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Contingency
• A contingency is a proposition that is neither a
tautology nor a contradiction.
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Department of CSE87
a. Check if p→q ≡ (~p) OR q.
b. What does it say?
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Department of CSE88
p q p→q ~p (~p) OR q
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
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Department of CSE89
p q p→q ~p (~p) OR q
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
b. It expresses the equivalence between
saying "if p is true, then q must be true" and
saying "either p is not true, or else q must be true"
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Department of CSE90
1. If I love math, then I will pass this course.
2. I love math.
3. Therefore, I will pass this course.
Write the expression for the argument
and check its truth table
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Department of CSE91
1. If I love math, then I will pass this course.
2. I love math.
3. Therefore, I will pass this course.
p: I love math
q: I will pass the course
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Department of CSE92
1. If I love math, then I will pass this course.
2. I love math.
3. Therefore, I will pass this course.
Solution
p: I love math
q: I will pass the course
1. p → q
2. p
3. Therefore, q
This is written as : [(p → q) and p] → q
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Department of CSE93
p q p and q(p implies q)
and p
[(p implies q)
and p] implies q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
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Department of CSE94
• If roses are red and violets are blue, then sugar
is sweet and so are you.
• Roses are red and violets are blue.
• Therefore, sugar is sweet and so are you.
Express the given argument as proposition.
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Department of CSE95
Solution
p: Roses are red
q:Violets are blue
r: Sugar is sweet
s:You are sweet
• (p and q)→(r and s)
• p and q
• Therefore r and s
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Department of CSE96
• (p and q)→(r and s)
• p and q
• Therefore r and s
t : (p and q)→(r and s)
u : p and q
This is written as : [ t and u] → r and s
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What does this say?
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If the races are fixed or the gambling houses are crooked,
then the tourist trade will decline.
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If the races are fixed or the gambling houses are crooked, then the
tourist trade will decline.
1. If the races are fixed or the gambling houses are crooked, then
the tourist trade will decline.
2. If(the races are fixed or the gambling houses are crooked), then
(the tourist trade will decline)
3. (the races are fixed or the gambling houses are crooked) (the
tourist trade will decline)
4. (the races are fixed) or (the gambling houses are crooked)
(the tourist trade will decline)
5. (f ∨ c) d
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If the car has no fuel or it has no spark,
then it will not start.
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1. If the car has no fuel or it has no spark, then it will not
start.
2. If the car has no fuel or car has no spark, then car will
not start.
3. If (the car has no fuel or car has no spark), then (car will
not start).
4. (the car has no fuel or car has no spark) (car will not
start)
5. (the car has no fuel ) or (car has no spark) (car will
not start)
6. NOT(car has fuel) or NOT(car has spark) NOT(car
will start)
7. (~f ∨ ~s) ~t
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1. p AND (p OR q)
2. NOT p OR q
3. (p AND q) OR (NOT p AND NOT q)
4. (p → q) ≡ (NOT p OR q)
5. p → (q → (r OR NOT p))
6. (p OR q) → (p AND q)
Evaluate the following propositions
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Department of CSE111
If the sky is blue and the moon is round, then (in particular)
the sky is blue
A. Write the given sentence as directed:
(1) Argument form
(2) Proposition form
B. Verify it for tautology
Solution
A.
(1) The sky is blue and the moon is round.
Therefore, the sky is blue.
(2)
• p and q
• Therefore p
• (p and q) implies p
B. yes it is Tautology
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Department of CSE112
Check whether the following are tautology or
not
1. ¬P→(P→Q)
2. P ∨ ~P
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Case study time …..113 Department of CSE
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The one-bit adder
• The one-bit adder sums two input bits x and y, and a carry-in bit
c, to produce a carry-out bit d and a sum bit z.
The truth table tells us the value of the carry-out bit d and the sum-
bit z, as a function of x, y, and c for each of the eight combinations
of input values.
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Observe the Truth Table
• The carry-out bit d is 1 if at least two of x, y, and c have the value 1
• d = 0 if only zero or one of the inputs is 1
• The sum bit z is 1 if an odd number of x, y, and c are 1, and 0 if not
1. From rows 3 and 7, d is 1 if both y and c are 1.
2. From rows 5 and 7, d is 1 if both x and c are 1.
3. From rows 6 and 7, d is 1 if both x and y are 1.
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Modeling the observations
• Condition (1) can be modeled by the logical expression y AND c,because y AND c is true exactly when both y and c are 1
• condition (2) can be modeled by x AND c
• condition (3) can be modeled by x AND y
• All the rows that have d = 1 are included in at least one of thesethree pairs of rows.
• Thus we can write a logical expression that is true whenever oneor more of the three conditions hold by taking the logical OR ofthese three expressions:
(y AND c) OR (x AND c) OR (x AND y)
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Check the correctness of this expression
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Case study time …..118 Department of CSE
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Wason’s 4-card problem (the ‘selection’ task)
• We will conduct an ‘experiment’ in relation to a specific
phenomenon:
• - you will see four cards - pretend they are real cards and you could
turn them over
• - each card has a number on one side and a letter on the other
• Your task is to decide whether the following is true of the cards you
are shown
• – If there is a vowel on one side, there is an even number on the
other
119 Department of CSE
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The Experiment
• The rule you are to check:
• – If there is a vowel on one side, there is an even number on the
other
• Which card/cards do you turn over to check the rule?
• - write down your choice of cards While you are fresh from making
the choices, examine the reasons a little. Consider why you did or
did not turn a card?
120 Department of CSE
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Consider why you did or didn’t turn a
card?
• Most responses run a little like this:
• – I turned the A because if it has, say, a 4 on the back,
then the rule is true of this card.
• – I didn’t turn the K because the rule isn’t about
consonants.
• – I turned the 4 to see if there was an A, because that
would support the rule.
• – I didn’t turn the 7, because the rule isn’t about odd
numbers
121 Department of CSE
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What is the norm (most frequent choices)?
• Most people select the A
• A few select the K
• A few select the 4
• Few people select the 7
• Wason says the ‘correct answer’ is:
• –Select A (which nearly everyone does)
• –Select 7 (which almost nobody does)
• – Leave K and 4 (which most people do)
122 Department of CSE