[HYRAULIC 1]COURSE: HYDRAULICCOURSE CODE: CC303PROGRAMME: DIPLOMA OF CIVIL ENGINEERINGEXPERIMENT 1: FLUID CHARACTERISTICS [HYRAULIC 1]MEASUREMENT OF DENSITIES AND SPECIFIC GRAVITIES.IntroductionThe mass densit or densit o! a materia" is its mass #er unit $o"ume. The sm%o" most o!tenused !or densit is &. Mathematica""' densit is de!ined as mass di$ided % $o"ume()here & is the densit* m isthemass* and V isthe$o"ume.Insomecases* densit isa"sode!ined as its +ei,ht #er unit $o"ume* a"thou,h this -uantit is more #ro#er" ca""ed s#eci!ic+ei,ht.Di!!erent materia"s usua"" ha$e di!!erent densities* and densit ma %e re"e$ant to %uoanc*#urit and #ac.a,in,. Osmium and iridium are the densest .no+n e"ements at standardconditions !or tem#erature and #ressure %ut certain chemica" com#ounds ma %e denser./ess dense !"uids !"oat on more dense !"uids i! the do not mi0. This conce#t can %e e0tended*+ith somecare*to"ess dense so"ids!"oatin, onmoredense!"uids. I!thea$era,e densit1inc"udin, an air %e"o+ the +ater"ine2 o! an o%3ect is "ess than +ater it +i"" !"oat in +ater andi! it is more than +ater it +i"" sin. in +ater.Densit is sometimes e0#ressed % the dimension"ess -uantit 4s#eci!ic ,ra$it4 or 4re"ati$edensit4* the ratio o! the densit o! the materia" to that o! a standard materia"* usua"" +ater.Thus a s#eci!ic ,ra$it "ess than one means that the su%stance !"oats in +ater.The densit o! a materia" $aries +ith tem#erature and #ressure. This $ariation is t#ica""sma"" !or so"ids and "i-uids %ut much ,reater !or ,ases. Increasin, the #ressure on an o%3ect[HYRAULIC 1]decreases the $o"ume o! the o%3ect and thus increases its densit. Increasin, the tem#eratureo! a su%stance 1+ith a !e+ e0ce#tions2 decreases its densit % increasin, its $o"ume. In mostmateria"s* heatin, the %ottom o! a !"uid resu"ts in con$ection o! the heat !rom the %ottom tothe to#* due to the decrease in the densit o! the heated !"uid. This causes it to rise re"ati$e tomore dense unheated materia".The reci#roca" o! the densit o! a su%stance is occasiona"" ca""ed its s#eci!ic $o"ume* a termsometimes used in thermodnamics. Densit is a #ro#ert inthat increasin, the amount o! asu%stance does not increase its densit* rather it increases its massS#eci!ic ,ra$it is the ratio o! the densit o! a su%stance com#ared to the densit 1mass o! thesameunit $o"ume2o!are!erencesu%stance. A##arent s#eci!ic,ra$itistheratioo!the+ei,ht o! a $o"ume o! the su%stance to the +ei,ht o! an e-ua" $o"ume o! the re!erence su%stance. The re!erence su%stance is near"a"+as +ater !or "i-uids or air !or ,ases.Tem#erature and #ressure must %e s#eci!ied !or %oth the sam#"e and the re!erence. Pressure isnear" a"+as 5 atm e-ua" to 565.789 .Pa. Tem#eratures !or %oth sam#"e and re!erence $ar!rom industr to industr. In :ritish %re+in, #ractice the s#eci!ic ,ra$it as s#eci!ied a%o$eis mu"ti#"ied % 5666. S#eci!ic ,ra$it is common" used in industr as a sim#"e means o!o%tainin,in!ormationa%out theconcentrationo! so"utions o! $arious materia"s suchas%rines* hdrocar%ons* su,ar so"utions1sru#s* 3uices* hones* %re+ers+ort* must etc.2 andacids. No units !or s#eci!ic ,ra$it and the !ormu"a are(Gs; M 56 NOC mK?sDeConditionVo"ume1mD2Times 1s2 Dischar,e*P 1 mD?s2Ve"ocit *V 1m?s2Re T#e o!F"o+5. 6.6669 A6 58.9M56NOC 6.555 5CC9 /aminar8. 6.6669 58 8=.A5M56NOC6.8C6 7==6 Transitiona"7. 6.6669 A 589M56NOC 5.569 5C9Q9 Tur%u"ent CONCLUSIONAs the +ater !"o+ rate increase* the Reno"ds num%er ca"cu"ated a"so increase and the red de "ine chan,e!romthinthreadto s+ir"in,insha#e. /aminar !"o+occurs +hentheReno"ds num%er[HYRAULIC 1]ca"cu"ated is %e"o+ than 8766' transitiona" !"o+ occurs +hen Reno"ds num%er ca"cu"ated is%et+een8766andA666+hi"etur%u"ent!"o+occurs+hen Reno"dsnum%erca"cu"atedisa%o$e A666.It is #ro$ed that the Reno"ds e-uation is dimension"ess* no units "e!t a!ter theca"cu"ationDISCUSSION /aminar !"o+O hi,h" ordered !"uid motion +ith smooth stream"ines. Transition !"o+ Oa !"o+ that contains %oth "aminar and tur%u"ent re,ions. Tur%u"ent !"o+Oa hi,h"disordered !"uid motion characteriHed %$e"ocitand!"uctuations and eddies.Accordin, to the Reno"dsRs e0#eriment* "aminar !"o+ +i"" occur +hen a thin !i"ament o! dein3ected into "aminar !"o+ a##ears as a sin,"e "ine. There is no dis#ersion o! de throu,houtthe !"o+* e0ce#t the s"o+ dis#ersion due to mo"ecu"ar motion. )hi"e !or tur%u"ent !"o+* i! ade !i"ament in3ected into a tur%u"ent !"o+* it dis#erse -uic." throu,hout the !"o+ !ie"d* the"ines o! de %rea.s into mriad entan,"ed threads o! de. In this e0#eriment +e ha$e to !irst"is to o%ser$e the characteristic o! the !"o+ o! the !"uid in the #i#e* +hich ma %e "aminar ortur%u"ent !"o+ % measurin, the Reno"ds num%er and the %eha$ior o! the !"o+* second" toca"cu"atetheran,e!or the"aminar andtur%u"ent !"o+and"ast"to#ro$e theReno"ds[HYRAULIC 1]num%er is dimension"ess % usin, the Reno"ds num%er !ormu"a. A!ter com#"ete #re#arin,and setu# the e-ui#ment +e run this e0#eriment. :ut !irst" +e ha$e to ca"cu"ate the areao! %e"" mounted ,"ass tu%e* the $iscosit o! +ater and the densit o! +ater. The densit o!+ater is 5666 .,?mD* the area o! ,"ass tu%e is 8.65S56OA mK* +hi"e the $iscosit o! +ater is 5.6S 56TD.,?ms* this is done !or eas ste# % ste# ca"cu"ation. )eo%ser$e that the red de "ine chan,e +ith the increasin, o! +ater !"o+ rate. The sha#e chan,e !rom thin threads to s"i,ht" s+ir"in, +hich sti"" contains smooth thin thread sand then !u""s+ir"in,. )e can sa that this chan,e is !rom "aminar !"o+ to transitiona" !"o+ and then totur%u"ent !"o+ and itJs not occurs sudden".[HYRAULIC 1]COURSE: HYDRAULICCOURSE CODE: CC303PROGRAMME: DIPLOMA OF CIVIL ENGINEERING[HYRAULIC 1]EXPERIMENT *: BERNOUILLI+S DEMONSTRATIONINTRODUCTION:ernou""iUs Princi#"e is a #hsica" #rinci#"e !ormu"ated that states that 4as the s#eed o! a mo$in, !"uid 1"i-uid or ,as2 increases* the #ressure +ithin the !"uid decreases. :ernou""iUs #rinci#"e is named a!ter the S+iss scientist Danie" :ernou""i +ho #u%"ished his #rinci#"e in his %oo.Hydrodynamica in 5Q7>. :ernou""iJs Princi#"e can %e demonstrated % the :ernou""i e-uation. The :ernou""i e-uation is an a##ro0imate re"ation %et+een #ressure* $e"ocit* and e"e$ation. )hi"e the Continuit e-uation re"ates the s#eed o! a !"uid that mo$in,throu,h a #i#e to the cross sectiona" area o! the #i#e. It sas that as a radius o! the #i#e decreases the s#eed o! !"uid !"o+ must increase and $iceO$ersa. Eo+e$er* :ernou""iJs Princi#"e can on" %e a##"ied under certain conditions. The conditions to +hich :ernou""iJs e-uation a##"ies are the !"uid must %e !riction"ess 1in $iscid2 and o! constant densit' the !"o+ must %e stead* and the re"ation ho"ds in ,enera" !or sin,"e stream"ines. In ,enera"* !rictiona" e!!ects are a"+as im#ortant $er c"ose to so"id +a"" 1%oundar "aers2 and direct" do+nstream o! %odies 1+a.es2. Thus* the :ernou""i a##ro0imation is t#ica"" use!u" in !"o+ re,ions outside o! %oundar "aers and +a.es* +here the !"uid motion is ,o$erned % the com%ined e!!ects o! #ressure and ,ra$it !orces. :ernou""iUs #rinci#"e can %e e0#"ained in terms o! the "a+ o! conser$ation o! ener,. As a !"uid mo$es !rom a +ider #i#e into a narro+er #i#e or a constriction* a corres#ondin, $o"ume must mo$e a ,reater distance !or+ard in the narro+er #i#e and thus ha$e a ,reater s#eed. At the same time* the +or. done % corres#ondin, $o"umes in the +ider and narro+er #i#es +i"" %e e0#ressed % the #roduct [HYRAULIC 1]o! the #ressure and the $o"ume. Since the s#eed is ,reater in the narro+er #i#e* the .inetic ener, o! that $o"ume is ,reater. Then* % the "a+ o! conser$ation o! ener,* this increase in .inetic ener, must %e %a"anced % a decrease in the #ressureO$o"ume #roduct* or* since the $o"umes are e-ua"* % a decrease in #ressure. The :ernou""i e-uation( .inetic ener, V #otentia" ener, V !"o+ ener, ; constantO:WECTIVE(i. To in$esti,ate the $a"idit o! the :ernou""i e-uation +hen a##"ied to the stead !"o+in a ta#ered duct.ii. To measure !"o+ rates and %oth static and tota" #ressure heads in a ri,idcon$er,ent?di$er,ent tu%e o! .no+n ,eometr !or a ran,e o! stead !"o+ rates.APPARATUS(Edrau"ic %ench [HYRAULIC 1]:ernou""iJs a##aratus test e-ui#ment Sto#+atch

Summar o! TheorThe :ernou""i e-uation re#resents the con$ersation o! mechanica" ener,!or a steadincom#ressi%"e* !riction"ess !"o+(P 5 V V 5K V H5 ; P 8 V V 8K V H8&,8,&, 8,+here ( & ; static #ressure detected at a side [HYRAULIC 1] V ; !"uid $e"ocit H ; $ertica" e"e$ation o! the !"uidI! the tu%e is horiHonta"* the di!!erence in hei,ht can %e disre,arded*X5 ; X8Eence* P 5 V V 5K; P 8 V V 8K &,8,&, 8,)ith the arm !ie"d a##aratus* the static #ressure head P* is measured usin, a manometer direct" !rom a side ho"e #ressure ta##in,.The manometer actua"" measures the static #ressure head* h* in meter +hich is re"ated to & usin, the re"ationshi#.h ; P &,this a""o+ the :ernou""i e-uation to %e +ritten in a re$ised !ormV 5K V h5 ; V 8K V h8 8, 8,The $e"ocit re"ated #ortion o! the tota" #ressure head is ca""ed the .inetic #ressure head[HYRAULIC 1]PROCEDURE 52 Ensure that the ri, out!"o+ tu%e is #ositioned a%o$e the $o"umetric tan.* in order to !aci"itate timed $o"ume co""ections. Gradua"" o#en the %ench $a"ue to !i"" the test ri, +ith +ater.82 Chec. that a"" manometer tu%in, is !ree !rom airO%u%%"e. I! needed !"ush the airO%u%%"es % s"o+" c"osin, the e0it $a"ue and drainin, the +ater 1and the airO%u%%"es2 throu,h the manometer tu%in,.72 Ad3ust %oth 1in"et and out"et2 $a"$es so that ou ,et the ma0imum di!!erence in "e$e"s %et+een ta##in, #oint YQ and Y>.A2 Ta.e readin, !rom manometer Y5 to manometers YC +hen the "e$e"s ha$e steadied. Ensure that the tota" #ressure #ro%e is reacted !rom the test section.92 Gent" #ush?s"ide the h#odermic tu%e 1tota" #ressure head #ro%e2* connected to manometer Y>* so that its end reaches the cross section o! each manometer !rom the Venturi tu%e.C2 )ait !or some time !or the "e$e" in manometer tu%e Y> to sta%i"iHe 1it ma.e some time !or it to reach stead state2.Q2 )ait !or some time and note do+n the readin,s !rom manometer Y>. The readin, sho+n % manometer Y> is the sum o! the #ressure and $e"ocit heads* %ecause the h#odermic tu%e is he"d a,ainst the !"o+ o! !"uid !orcin, it to a sto# 1Hero $e"ocit2.>2 Record the time ta.en !or the +ater to !i"" u# the $o"umetric tan.. Ta.e at "ist 7 measurements and record the timin,s in order to ca"cu"ated a$era,e !"o+ rate.[HYRAULIC 1]RESU/T F"o+ Rate Measurement Tria"Vo"ume* V 1mD2 Time* T 1s2 F"o+ rate* P 1mD?s25 6.667 mD 77.9Q >.=A M 56T98 6.667 mD 7A.9C >.=A M 56 T97 6.667 mD 7Q.87 >.=A M 56T9A$era,e !"o+ rate ; 1P5VP8VP72 ? 7 >.9C M 56 T9Manometer readin, Tu%eno.Tu%eDiameter* d1m2Area crosssection* A1mK2Statichead* h1m2Ve"ocit*V 1m2Binetichead* 1m2Tota"head* hZ1m25 6.6896 A.=5 M 56 A 8.9 6.5Q 6.6659 8.96598 6.657= 5.98 M 56 A 8.59 6.9C 6.65C 8.5CC7 6.655> 5.6= M 56 A 5.Q 6.Q= 6.678 5.Q78[HYRAULIC 1]A 6.656Q >.== M 56 9 5.59 6.=9 6.6AC 5.5=C9 6.6566 Q.>9 M 56 9 6.A9 5.6= 6.6C5 6.955C 6.6896 A.=5 M 56 A 6.>9 6.5Q 6.6659 6.>959DISCUSSION I carried out an e0#eriment to test the :ernou""iUs E-uation. A $enturiOmeter a"on, +ith sin,"e "im% manometers +ere used to determine the mass !"o+ rate. I noticed a decrease in the static #ressure head at the throat o! the $enturi meter +hen a #itot tu%e+as introduced into the !"o+. The Reno"ds num%er +as >=A6 at the throat. The tota" #ressure head at the throat +as "ess than the static #ressure head at the in"et.CONC/USION The throat o! the $enturiOmeter had a diameter o! 56 mm. The mass !"o+ rate determined usin, the $enturiOmeter +as 6.6Q>9 .,?s +ith a !"o+ $e"ocit o! 5.66 m?s* +hi"e the mass !"o+ rate ca"cu"ated usin, the #itot tu%e +as 6.6>5C .,?s +ith a !"o+ $e"ocit o! 5.6A m?s. I! I assume the #itot tu%e had a diameter o! 8 mm then the cross sectiona" area a!ter the introduction o! the #itot tu%e +ou"d %e 16.89Z#iZ16.65N8O6.668N822 . Usin, this reduced area and the !"o+ s#eed determined usin, the #itot tu%e 15.6A m?s2* I ,et a mass !"o+ rate o! 6.6Q>A .,?s +hich is much c"oser to that determined usin, the $enturi meter.[HYRAULIC 1]In addition* i! I use the so"enoida" #ro#ert o! $e"ocit and ca"cu"ate the $e"ocit a!ter the reduction in are caused % the #itot tu%e I ,et 5.6A m?s* +hich is e0act" +hat the #itot tu%e measured.So I thin. that the decrease in static #ressure head at the throat on the introduction o! the #itot tu%e +as due to a decrease in crossOsectiona" area.Is this reason $a"id %ecause I donUt thin. that a #itot tu%e shou"d a!!ect the static #ressure at a"".