Hunting and Gathering Society
Transcript of Hunting and Gathering Society
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Hunting and Gathering Society
As told by Dr. Frank Elwell
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The spread of humans around the
world
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Mode of Production
Even in the most favorable environments
the population density rarely reached 10
people per square mile, more commonly 3
per square mile.
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Mode of Production
IN ORDER TO SURVIVE, ALL
SOCIETIES MUST ESTABLISH
TECHNOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC
SYSTEMS.
TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMY ARE
VERY CLOSELY RELATED IN EVERY
SOCIETY, YET THEY ARE NOT THE
SAME THING.
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The G/wi are contemporary
hunter & gatherers living in the
Central Kalahari.
Anthropological studies of their
way of life, and that of the
!Kung, have revealed much that
throw a light on our early
ancestors’ lives.
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Mode of Production
A SOCIETY'S TECHNOLOGY CONSISTS
OF THE TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
THAT ITS MEMBERS HAVE CREATED
IN ORDER TO MEET THEIR NEEDS
AND WANTS. A SOCIETY'S
ECONOMY CONSISTS OF THE
SOCIALLY ORGANIZED WAY IN
WHICH GOODS AND SERVICES ARE
PRODUCED AND DISTRIBUTED.
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Mode of Production
FOR ABOUT 99% OF THEIR HISTORY,
HUMANS SUBSISTED ENTIRELY BY
HUNTING WILD ANIMALS AND
GATHERING WILD PLANT FOODS.
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Early Neolithic man in Europe. (Mural by Charles
R. Knight.)
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Mode of Production
THE TOTAL MONOPOLY OF THE
HUNTING AND GATHERING WAY OF
LIFE WAS NOT BROKEN UNTIL SOME
10,000 YEARS AGO, WHEN SOME
SOCIETIES BEGAN TO SUBSIST BY
THE PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURE.
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Mode of Production
HUNTERS AND GATHERERS LIVE IN
SMALL GROUPS KNOWN AS LOCAL
BANDS. THESE ARE GROUPS OF
ABOUT 25 TO 50 WOMEN, MEN, AND
CHILDREN WHO COOPERATE WITH
EACH OTHER IN THE QUEST FOR
SUBSISTENCE.
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A fire reinforces the social bond: it becomes the focus of the
group and allows contact to be maintained during the hours
of darkness, as here where a !Kung trance is in progress.
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Mode of Production
EACH LOCAL BAND IS A MORE OR
LESS POLITICALLY AUTONOMOUS
AND ECONOMICALLY SELF-
SUFFICIENT UNIT. HOWEVER, MANY
LOCAL BANDS ARE USUALLY
CONNECTED BY TIES OF
INTERMARRIAGE INTO A MUCH
LARGER CULTURAL UNIT,
SOMETIMES KNOWN AS A TRIBE.
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Bushman women returning to camp. They
have been out gathering wild vegetables.
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Mode of Production
A TRIBE IS A NETWORK OF BANDS ALL
OF WHOSE MEMBERS SHARE THE
SAME CULTURAL PATTERNS AND
SPEAK THE SAME LANGUAGE.
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A young Cheyenne in special war dress with European
influence providing a pistol and cartridge belt.
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Mode of Production
THE COMPOSITION OF EACH LOCAL
BAND IS CONSTANTLY SHIFTING.
PERSONS FREQENTLY MOVE FROM
ONE BAND TO ANTOHER. SUCH
MOVEMENT MAY ARISE FROM
MARRIAGE, OR FROM A NEED TO
CREATE A MORE EVEN BALANCE
BETWEEN POPULATION SIZE AND
THE FOOD SUPPLY.
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An elaborate system of hand signals is used by hunting
people today. The !Kung is giving the sign for a secretary
bird. It is likely that similar signals were supplementary to
early man’s relatively simple language.
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Mode of Production
HUNTER-GATHERERS GENERALLY
DEPEND UPON GATHERING FOR THE
BULK OF THEIR DIET.
LEE (1968) HAS ESTIMATED THAT
CONTERMPORARY H&Gs DERIVE
ABOUT 65% OF THEIR DIET FROM
GATHERED FOODS.
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Bushman woman cooking
mongongo nuts. After the
exterior of the fruit is eaten, the
nut itself is cracked to get at
the edible nut meat.
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Mode of Production
NEVERTHELESS, MORE TIME IS
USUALLY SPENT IN HUNTING
ACTIVITIES, AND MEAT IS A MORE
HIGHLY VALUED FOOD.
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Mode of Production
SINCE HUNTER-GATHERERS ARE FOOD
COLLECTORS RATHER THAN FOOD
PRODUCERS, THEY MUST WANDER
OVER WIDE GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS
IN SEARCH OF FOOD.
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A band of G/wi stalking
giraffes in the Central
Kalahari.
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Model of an Eskimo snow house. The house is heated by
stone lamps burning seal fat. The curved entryway reduces
the wind effect, as does the small door into the main house.
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Mode of Production
THEY ARE THUS GENERALLY
NOMADIC, AND THE
ESTABLISHMENT OF PERMANENT
SETTLEMENTS IS HIGHLY UNUSUAL.
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Winter quarters, Sioux Indians. Part of a group of tipis
arranged in a circle in a grove of trees near the banks of the
Missouri River.
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TOOLS:
THE TECHNOLOGICAL INVENTROY OF
H&Gs IS QUITE LIMITED. THE TOOLS
AND WEAPONS USED DIRECTLY FOR
SUBSISTENCE TYPICALLY
INCLUDES...
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TOOLS:
SPEARS
BOWS AND ARROWS
NETS AND TRAPS
DIGGING STICKS
NEEDLES, PINS AWLS
ANTLER HAMMERS
AXES
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Types of spear throwers or atlalts. The spear thrower precedes
the bow and arrow in Europe and the Americas.
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Traps and snares are widely used. Aluet duck snare.
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Bushman animal trap.
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TOOLS:
TOOLS ARE SIMPLE, GENERALLY
MADE OF STONE, WOOD, BONE, OR
OTHER NATURAL MATERIALS.
THERE ARE USUALLY FEW OR NO
TECHNIQUES FOR FOOD STORAGE
OR PRESERVATION, AND FOOD IS
GENERALLY CONSUMED
IMMEDIATELY.
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Percussion flaking of stone implements by striking with
a hammer stone. (Courtesy of the American Museum
of Natural History.)
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Pressure flaking or chipping of stone implements by applying
pressure with a bone or similar instrument. (Courtesy of the
American Museum of Natural History.)
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The fire plow. Heat is produced by rubbing a stick back and
forth in a channel in the block of wood. One of the most
common fire-making methods.
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A pump drill used for boring holes and making fires known to
some hunters and gatherers.
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DIVISION OF LABOR
H&G SOCIETIES ARE THE SIMPLEST IN
STRUCTURE OF ALL HUMAN
SOCIETIES. THE DIVISION OF LABOR
IS BASED ALMOST EXCLUSIVELY ON
AGE AND SEX DISTINCTIONS.
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Early morning in a
temporary !Kung
camp that has been
established in a
nut-tree grove.
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DIVISION OF LABOR
PRIMARY RESPONSIBILITY FOR
SUBSISTENCE ORDINARILY FALLS
TO PERSONS WHO ARE IN MIDDLE
ADULTHOOD, WITH BOTH YOUNG
AND OLD MEMBERS CONTRIBUTING
LESS TO THE SUBSISTENCE NEEDS
OF THE GROUP.
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Arunta mother and
child. All purpose
carrying dish on head
and digging stick in
hand.
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DIVISION OF LABOR
HUNTING IS CONDUCTED BY MALES,
GATHERING BY FEMALES.
ALTHOUGH WOMEN MAY
OCCASIONALLY ENGAGE IN THE
HUNTING OF SMALL ANIMALS, THEY
ARE NEVER INVOLVED IN BIG GAME
HUNTING.
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Bushman women filling ostrich
egg shell canteens at a
seasonal water hole.
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Cheyenne woman sewing together tanned deerskins to make a
new tipi cover. Meat drying in the background is essential for
the Plains Indians to guard against periodic game shortages.
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DIVISION OF LABOR
LIKEWISE, MEN SOMETIMES SHARE IN
GATHERING ACTIVITIES, BUT THEY
ARE THE PRINCIPAL GATHERERS IN
NO H&G SOCIETY.
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The G/wi people live in
an area that is even more
marginal than the one
inhabited by the !Kung.
During the dry season
they obtain water by
eating succulent plants
such as melons.
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Much of the G/wi food
comes from plants such
as tubers which are
often roasted.
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G/wi: after a successful hunt the kill is carried back to
the camp.
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G/wi shelter.
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DIVISION OF LABOR
THERE ARE NO SPECIALIZED "ARROW
MAKERS" OR "BOW MAKERS." EACH
MAN AND WOMAN MAKES ALL OF
THE TOOLS THAT SHE NEEDS IN THE
SUBSISTENCE QUEST.
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DIVISION OF LABOR
H&Gs ARE NOTORIOUSLY LACKING IN
OCCUPATIONAL SPECIALIZATION
BEYOND SUBSISTENCE TASKS.
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Top: American Indian birch bark canoe; bottom: American
Indian dugout canoe.
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ECONOMY
INDIVIDUAL FAMILIES WITHIN EACH
LOCAL BAND ARE LINKED
TOGETHER INTO A TOTAL
ECONOMIC UNIT, THE LOCAL BAND
ITSELF.
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ECONOMY
THE PRIMARY UNIT OF SUBSISTENCE
AMONG H&Gs IS THE FAMILY, AND
ECONOMIC LIFE MAY BE TERMED
FAMILISTIC. WHILE INDIVIDUAL
FAMILIES PRODUCE THEIR OWN
SUBSISTENCE, THEY ALSO
CONTRIBUTE IN SIGNIFICANT WAYS
TO THE SUBSISTENCE OF OTHER
FAMILIES WITHIN THEIR BAND.
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Socializing is an important part of life among the !Kung:
telling a story.
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!Kung women playing
melon toss--a combination
of a dance and a game.
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ECONOMY
HUNTER-GATHERERS ARE WELL
KNOWN FOR THEIR FAILURE TO
PRODUCE AN ECONOMIC SURPLUS,
AN EXCESS OF GOODS OVER AND
ABOVE WHAT IS NEEDED FOR
SUBSISTENCE.
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!Kung men pegging out
a skin.
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ECONOMY
UNTIL RECENTLY IT WAS WIDELY
BELIEVED THAT THIS WAS DUE
SIMPLY TO AN INABILITY TO DO SO,
AN INABILITY RESULTING FROM A
MARGINAL AND PRECARIOUS
EXISTENCE.
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Artist’s conception of mammoth hunters’ settlement in
Czechoslovakia about 25,000 years ago, based on
archaeological finds.
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ECONOMY
SOCIAL SCIENTISTS NOW GENERALLY
AGREE THAT THE FAILURE TO
PRODUCE A SURPLUS IS DUE TO A
LACK OF ANY REAL NEED.
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ECONOMY
SINCE THE RESOURCES OF NATURE
ARE ALWAYS THERE FOR THE
TAKING, NATURE ITSELF BECOMES
A KIND OF GREAT STOREHOUSE.
CONTEMPORARY EVIDENCE OF H&G
SOCIETIES SUPPORT THIS--EVEN
THOUGH THEY OFTEN LIVE IN MORE
MARGINAL ENVIRONMENTS THAN
PREHISTORIC H&Gs.
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Bushman mother carrying infant while digging roots.
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ECONOMY
HUNTERS AND GATHERERS DO NOT
APPEAR TO WORK HARD OR LONG.
THEY GENERALLY WORK LESS THAN
THE MEMBERS OF MORE
TECHNOLOGICALLY ADVANCED
SOCIETIES.
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Yecuana man is shown
tying tree cotton to the
butt of blow-gun darts.
The points are then
dipped in curare poison.
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Yecuna men using
blow guns. The
quiver hangs in front
where darts can be
quickly withdrawn for
reloading.
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ECONOMY
THE !KUNG BUSHMEN ADULTS SPEND
ONLY AN AVERAGE OF ABOUT 12 TO
19 HOURS PER WEEK IN FOOD-
GETTING ACTIVITIES, AND THUS
THEY HAVE A GREAT DEAL OF TIME
AVAILABLE FOR RESTING AND FOR
VISITING (LEE, 1968).
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Life in a !Kung camp is not
particularly arduous thus
there is a fair amount of
leisure time for activities
other than hunting and
gathering. A !Kung healing
dance.
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ECONOMY
THE HAZDA OBTAIN SUFFICIENT FOOD
WITH RELATIVE EASE. THEY SPEND
LESS TIME AND ENERGY IN
OBTAINING SUBSISTENCE THAN DO
THEIR AGRICULTURAL NEIGHBORS
(WOODBURN, 1968).
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Gathering and trapping
are a most important
part of the !Kung
economy. A kaross of
plant food that has been
gathered during a day’s
sortie.
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A guinea fowl that has
been trapped together
with a collection of eggs.
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ECONOMY
WHILE IT IS DOUBTFUL THAT ALL
HUNTER-GATHERER SOCIETIES
CONSTITUTE AN "ORGINAL
AFFLUENT SOCIETY," PROBABLY
THE MAJORITY DO.
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The mongongo tree
provides shelter for
campsites and nuts for food.
Here !Kung children are
playing.
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!Kung women dipping for
water from the base of a
tree.
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ECONOMY
LIVING AMIDST MATERIAL
ABUNDANCE, WORKING ONLY
MODERATELY TO MAKE A LIVING,
AND ENJOYING AN ABUNDANCE OF
LEISURETIME, MOST H&G PEOPLES
MAINTAIN A RETTY GOOD LIFE.
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Home and possessions of Paiute family in
southern Utah in the 1870s.
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ECONOMY
IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 19th CENTURY,
KARL MARX SPECULATED THAT THE
EARLIEST MODE OF ECONOMIC LIFE
IN HUMAN HISTORY WAS WHAT HE
TERMED PRIMITIVE COMMUNISM.
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ECONOMY
BY PRIMITIVE COMMUNISM, MARX
MEANT A TYPE OF SOCIETY IN
WHICH ALL OF THE VITAL
RESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGIES
WERE HELD IN COMMON. PRIVATE
OWNERSHIP OF RESOURCES BY
INDIVIDUALS OR SMALL GROUPS
WAS NOT FOUND, HE THOUGHT, IN
THIS TYPE OF SOCIETY.
![Page 77: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
ECONOMY
THE VAST MAJORITY OF HUNTER-
GATHERERS STUDIES BY MODERN
ANTHROPOLOGISTS DISPLAY A
MODE OF RESOURCE OWNERSHIP
THAT CAN BE ADEQUATELY
CHARACTERIZED BY MARX'S
NOTION OF PRIMITIVE COMMUNISM.
![Page 78: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
Bushman hunter, southwest Africa.
![Page 79: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
ECONOMY
ALTHOUGH MANY SOCIAL SCIENTISTS
HAVE CHALLENGED MARX'S VIEW
ON THIS MATTER OVER THE YEARS,
CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL SCIENCE
PROVIDES CONSIDERABLE
EVIDENCE THAT MARX WAS
BASICALLY CORRECT.
![Page 80: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
ECONOMY
ALL INDIVIDUALS IN SUCH SOCIETIES
HAVE EQUAL ACCESS TO THOSE
RESOURCES OF NATURE THAT ARE
NECESSARY FOR THEIR
SUBSISTENCE.
![Page 81: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/81.jpg)
ECONOMY
NO PERSON AMONG H&G BANDS MAY
BE DEPRIVED BY ANY OTHER
PERSON OR GROUP OF AN EQUAL
OPPORTUNITY TO HUNT GAME,
COLLECT PLANTS, USE A
WATERHOLE, OR CAMP ON THE
LAND. EVERYONE THUS "OWNS"
THESE RESOURCES COLLECTIVELY.
![Page 82: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/82.jpg)
RECIPROCITY
RECIPROCITY IS THE OBLIGATION TO
REPAY OTHERS FOR WHAT THEY
HAVE GIVEN OR DONE FOR US, OR IT
IS THE OVERT ACT OF REPAYING
OTHERS.
![Page 83: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
RECIPROCITY
TWO DISTINCT TYPES OF
RECIPROCITY, KNOWN AS
BALANCED AND GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY, EXIST.
![Page 84: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/84.jpg)
BALANCED RECIPROCITY
OCCURS WHEN INDIVIDUALS ARE
OBLIGATED TO PROVIDE
EQUIVALENT AND, FREQUENTLY,
IMMEDIATE REPAYMENT TO
OTHERS.
![Page 85: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/85.jpg)
BALANCED RECIPROCITY
BALANCED RECIPROCITY CAN BE
IDENTIFIED BY THE FACT THAT
INDIVIDUALS OPENLYCALCULATE
WHAT THEY ARE GIVING EACH
OTHER AND OPENLY DECLARE THE
NATURE OF THE REPAYMENT TO BE
MADE.
![Page 86: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/86.jpg)
BALANCED RECIPROCITY
EACH PARTY TO THE TRANSACTION
EXPECTS TO BENEFIT IN SOME WAY,
BUT THERE IS A CLEAR
EXPECTATION OF MUTUAL BENEFIT
AND A LACK OF "EXPLOITATION."
![Page 87: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/87.jpg)
GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY
OCCURS WHEN INDIVIDUALS ARE
OBLIGATED TO GIVE OTHERS
WITHOUT EXPECTING ANY
IMMEDIATE OR EQUIVALENT
REPAYMENT.
![Page 88: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/88.jpg)
GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY
GENERALIZED RECIPROCITY DOES
NOT INVOLVE ANY DIRECT OR OPEN
AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE PARTIES
INVOLVED.
![Page 89: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/89.jpg)
GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY
THERE IS A GENERAL EXPECTATION
THAT EQUIVALENT REPAYMENT OF
A DEBT SHALL BE MADE, BUT THERE
IS NO PARTICULAR TIME LIMIT SET
FOR REPAYMENT, NOR IS THERE
ANY SPECIFICATION AS TO HOW THE
REPAYMENT SHALL BE MADE.
![Page 90: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/90.jpg)
GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY
WHILE GENERALIZED RECIPROCITY
OCCURS TO SOME EXTENT IN ALL
SOCIETIES (IT OCCURS AMONG
FRIENDS AND FAMILY MEMBERS IN
OUR OWN SOCIETY), IT ...
![Page 91: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/91.jpg)
GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY
GENERALIZED RECIPROCITY
CONSTITUTES THE VERY ESSENCE
OF ECONOMIC LIFE AMONG
HUNTERS AND GATHERERS.
![Page 92: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/92.jpg)
GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY
HUNTER AND GATEHRING PEOPLES
ARE FAMED FOR THEIR EXTENSIVE
FOOD-SHARING. INDIVIDUALS
CONSTANTLY GIVE FOOD TO
OTHERSAND RECEIVE FOOD IN
RETURN.
![Page 93: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/93.jpg)
GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY
WHEN A HUNTER GIVES MEAT TO
OTHERS HE EXPECTS ONLY THAT HE
WILL PROBABLY BE REPAID IN SOME
WAY AT SOME TIME. WOMEN
CONSTANTLY GIVE AWAY PORTIONS
OF FOOD THEY HAVE GATHERED
TOO.
![Page 94: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/94.jpg)
GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY
ONE WIDELY SUGGESTED REASON
GENERALIZED RECIPROCITY IS THE
DOMINANT DISTRIBUTIVE MODE IS
THAT IT IS DUE TO A "NATURAL"
TENDENCY TO SHARE FOUND
AMONG PEOPLE.
![Page 95: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/95.jpg)
GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY
THE IDEA IS THAT SUCH PEOPLE HAVE
NOT YET BEEN CORRUPTED BY THE
INFLUENCE OF PRIVATE PROPERTY.
THIS EXPLANATION SEEMS
DUBIOUS. IT ALSO PAINTS A VERY
ROMANTIC PICTURE OF HUNTER-
GATHERERS.
![Page 96: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/96.jpg)
GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY
THE EXPLANATION IS MORE LIKELY
TO BE FOUND IN THE NECESSITY OF
CLOSE FORMS OF COOPERATION
AMONG THE MEMBERS OF H&G
GROUPS.
![Page 97: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/97.jpg)
GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY
CLOSE FORMS OF COOPERATION
AMONG THE MEMBERS OF THESE
BANDS IS ESSENTIAL, THEY
INTIMATELY DEPEND ON EACH
OTHER FOR SURVIVAL.
![Page 98: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/98.jpg)
GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY
WHILE RESOURCES ARE TYPICALLY
NOT HIGHLY SCARCE IN A GENERAL
SENSE, THEY ARE NOTORIOUSLY
SUBJECT TO MARKED
FLUCTUATIONS IN AVAILABILITY.
![Page 99: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/99.jpg)
GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY
THUS A MAN MAY ENCOUNTER A
LONG RUN OF BAD LUCK IN
HUNTING. IF OTHERS DO NOT GIVE
MEANT TO HIM DURING THIS TIME,
HE MUST GO WITHOUT.
![Page 100: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/100.jpg)
Bushman men awaiting the distribution of meat from a
small wart hog.
![Page 101: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/101.jpg)
GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY
THEY GIVE MEAT TO HIM BECAUSE
THEY KNOW THEY TOO WILL
EVENTUALLY HAVE BAD HUNTING
LUCK, DURING WHICH TIME THEY
WILL EXPECT TO RECEIVE MEAT
FROM HIM.
![Page 102: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/102.jpg)
GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY
GENERALIZED RECIPROCITY IS THUS
A SPECIAL INSTANCE OF THE
PHENOMENON OF ENLIGHTENED
SELF-INTEREST.
![Page 103: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/103.jpg)
STRATIFICATION, NOT
GENERALLY SPEAKING, HUNTING AND
GATHERING SOCIETIES ARE
UNSTRATIFIED.
![Page 104: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/104.jpg)
STRATIFICATION, NOT
THEIR ECONOMIES ARE
CHARACTERIZED BY GENERALIZED
RECIPROCITY, BY AN INTENSE
SHARING AND COOPERATIVENESS
AMONG ALL MEMBERS, THEY
GENERALLY EXHIBIT "PRIMITIVE
COMMUNISM": OWNERSHIP (OR AT
LEAST RIGHT OFUSE) OF BASIC
RESOURCES IS COMMUNAL.
![Page 105: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/105.jpg)
STRATIFICATION, NOT
H&G SOCIETIES ARE NOT
CHARACTERIZED, THEREFORE, BY
ANY SOCIAL STRATA.
![Page 106: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/106.jpg)
A Sioux grave in a tree. In
a region without stone, it is
difficult for migratory
people to protect the
corpse from predatory
animals.
![Page 107: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/107.jpg)
INEQUALITY
YET THE ABSENCE OF SOCIAL STRATA
DOES NOT MEAN THAT PERFECT
EQUALITY PREVAILS AMONG ALL
THE MEMBERS OF H&G SOCIETIES...
![Page 108: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/108.jpg)
INEQUALITY
INEQUALITIES DO EXIST. THESE ARE
MAINLY INEQUALITIES OF PRESTIGE
OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND ARE
TYPICALLY BASED ON SUCH
FACTORS AS AGE, SEX, AND
PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS.
![Page 109: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/109.jpg)
INEQUALITY
AS IS COMMON THROUGHOUT THE
WORLD, MEN TEND TO HAVE
HIGHER STATUS THAN WOMEN.
PROBABLY DUE TO THE FACT THAT
MEN BRING IN THE MEAT, A MORE
HIGHLY CONCENTRATED AMD
VALUED SOURCE OF PROTEIN AND
CALORIES.
![Page 110: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/110.jpg)
INEQUALITY
OLDER MEMBERS OF SOCIETY ARE
OFTEN GIVEN MORE HONOR AND
RESPECT THAN THE YOUNGER ONES.
PROBABLY DUE TO THE ABSENCE OF
WRITING--THE OLD ARE THE
KEEPERS OF MEMORY.
![Page 111: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/111.jpg)
INEQUALITY
IN ADDITION, THE POSSESSION OF
CERTAIN PERSONAL TRAITS IS
GENERALLY A BASIS FOR THE
ACQUISITION OF PRESTIGE.
![Page 112: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/112.jpg)
INEQUALITY
MEN WHO ARE PARTICULARLY
SKILLED HUNTERS, WHO SHOW
SPECIAL COURAGE, OR WHO ARE
THOUGHT OF AS HAVING GREAT
WISDOM ARE OFTEN ACCORDED
HIGH PRESTIGE. SUCH INDIVIDUALS
TYPICALLY ASSUME LEADERSHIP
FUNCTIONS.
![Page 113: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/113.jpg)
INEQUALITY
HOWEVER, MEN OF PRESTIGE AND
INFLUENCE ARE NO MORE THAN
"FIRSTS AMONG EQUALS," AND
THEY TYPICALLYHAVE NO SPECIAL
PRIVILEGES NOT AVAILABLE TO
OTHERS.
![Page 114: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/114.jpg)
INEQUALITY
IT SHOULD ALSO BE NOTED THAT THE
ACQUISITION OF PRESTIGE AND
INFLUENCE COMES FROM AN
INDIVIDUAL'S OWN ABILITIES, NOT
FROM ANY MECHANISM OF SOCIAL
HEREDITY OR PROPERTY.
![Page 115: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/115.jpg)
INEQUALITY
PRESTIGE IS BOTH PERSONALLY
GAINED AND PERSONALLY LOST.
INDIVIDUALS MUST CONTINUALLY
JUSTIFY SUCH HONOR.
![Page 116: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/116.jpg)
INEQUALITY
THUS, H&G SOCIEITES PERMIT
VIRTUALLY COMPLETE EQUALITY
OF OPPORTUNITY FOR INDIVIDUALS
TO GAIN HIGH STATUS. IN SUCH
SOCIETIES, TALENT, EFFORT, AND
SOCIAL REWARD ARE CLOSELY
ALIGNED, A FACT THAT SETS THEM
SHARPLY APART FROM HIGHLY
STRATIFIED SOCIETIES.
![Page 117: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/117.jpg)
INEQUALITY
THE DEGREE OF PRESTIGE IS VERY
MILD WHEN COMPARED TO THE
NATURE OF PRESTIGE IN OTHER
SOCIETIES.
![Page 118: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/118.jpg)
INEQUALITY
H&Gs LOATHE BOASTING AND SELF-
GLORIFICATION, AND THEY USE
STRONG SANCTIONS AGAINST
THOSE PERSONS WHO COME TO
THINK TOO HIGHLY OF
THEMSELVES. THEIR EMPHASIS IS
CLEARLY ON COMMUNAL WELL-
BEING AND GENERAL SOCIAL
EQUALITY.
![Page 119: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/119.jpg)
SEXUAL INEQUALITY
HUNTING AND GATHERING SOCIETIES
VARY IN THE PROPORTION OF
SUSISTENCE PROVIDED BY EITHER
MEAT OR PLANT FOOD.
![Page 120: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/120.jpg)
SEXUAL INEQUALITY
AMONG SOME, SUCH AS THE ESKIMO,
HUNTING ACCOUNTS FOR NEARLY
ALL SUBSISTENCE NEEDS. AMONG
MOST OTHERS, HOWEVER, THE
FOODS PROVIDED BY GATHERING
ACCOUNT FOR WELL OVER HALF OF
THE TOTAL SUBSISTENCE.
![Page 121: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/121.jpg)
SEXUAL INEQUALITY
WHERE MEN PROVIDE MOST OF THE
FOOD SUPPLY THROUGH MEAT, AS
AMONG THE ESKIMO, THEIR STATUS
IS MUCH HIGHER THAN THAT OF
WOMEN.
![Page 122: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/122.jpg)
SEXUAL INEQUALITY
HUNTING GIVES MEN THE
OPPORTUNITY FOR THE
EXTRADOMESTIC EXCHANGE OF
MEAT, THE MOST PRESTIGIOUS
FOOD AMONG FORAGERS.
![Page 123: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/123.jpg)
SEXUAL INEQUALITY
WHERE MALE HUNTING PROVIDES
THE BULK OF THE FOD, MALE
AGGRESSION TOWARD WOMEN IS
PROMINENT AND A PATTERN OF
STRONG MALE DOMINANCE EXISTS.
![Page 124: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/124.jpg)
SEXUAL INEQUALITY
BY THE SAME TOKEN, WHERE THE
CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO
SUBSISTENCE IS HIGH, THE STATUS
OF MEN AND WOMEN IS MORE
NEARLY EQUIVALENT.
![Page 125: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/125.jpg)
SEXUAL INEQUALITY
FRIEDL (1975) CONCLUDES THAT MALE
DOMINANCE IS GREATEST WHERE
MEN MONOPOLIZE ECONOMIC
PRODUCTION, AND SEXUAL
EQUALITY IS MOST NEARLY
APROACHED IN FORAGING
SOCIETIES IN WHICH MEN AND
WOMEN WORK TOGETHER TO
PROVIDE SUBSISTENCE.
![Page 126: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/126.jpg)
THE BAND
THE MOST RUDIMENTARY FORM OF
POLITICAL SOCIETY IS THE BAND, A
FORM OF POLITY TYPICALLY
ASSOCIATED WITH HUNTING AND
GATHERING SOCIEITES.
![Page 127: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/127.jpg)
Arunta men (Australia) preparing themselves for
totemic ritual.
![Page 128: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/128.jpg)
THE BAND
AS SERVICE (1971) POINTS OUT, ALL
BAND-LEVEL POLITICAL
STRUCTURES ARE FOUND WITHIN
HUNTING AND GATHERING
SOCIETIES, EVEN THOUGH NOT ALL
HUNTER-GATHERERS ARE
POLITICALLY ORGANIZED AT THE
BAND LEVEL;
![Page 129: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/129.jpg)
THE BAND
AND SUCH SOCIEITES AS HAVE
DEVELOPED BEYOND THE BAND
LEVEL HAVE HAD SOME
INFRASTRUCTURAL FEATURES
UNUSUAL FOR HUNTER-GATHERERS.
![Page 130: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/130.jpg)
THE BAND
POLITICAL LEADERSHIP RESTS UPON
INFLUENCE AND TYPICALLY LACKS
ANY SORT OF REAL POWER.
![Page 131: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/131.jpg)
Political decision making is
not taken lightly. Cheyenne
Indians dressed for a
council meeting.
![Page 132: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/132.jpg)
THE BAND
IN ADDITION, LEADERSHIP TENDS TO
BE DISPLAYED IN TRANSIENT
FASHION, FREQUENTLY SHIFTING
FROM ONE PERSON TO ANOTHER.
THESE SHIFTS APEAR TO BE
ASSOCIATED MORE WITH THE
NATURE OF SOCIAL SITUATIONS
THAN WITH THE NATURE OF
PERSONS.
![Page 133: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/133.jpg)
Bontoc Warrior,
Philippine Islands.
![Page 134: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/134.jpg)
THE BAND
FRIED (1967) NOTES THAT THE
NATURE OF LEADERSHIP BEARS A
CLOSE RELATION TO VARIATIONS IN
ECOLOGY AND DEMOGRAPHY.
![Page 135: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/135.jpg)
THE BAND
MORE EXTENSIVE LEADERSHIP (AND
GREATER POWER UNDERLYING
LEADERSHIP) IS ASSOCIATED WITH
DENSER POPULATIONS AND MORE
PRODUCTIVE SUBSISTENCE
PATTERNS.
![Page 136: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/136.jpg)
THE BAND
THE POLITICAL STRUCTURE IS THUS A
LOOSELY ORGANIZED PATTERN OF
FREQUENTLY SHIFTING, INFORMAL
LEADERSHIP.
![Page 137: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/137.jpg)
THE BAND
THIS LEADERSHIP IS TYPICALLY
INVESTED IN A PERSON KNOWN AS A
HEADMAN, ALTHOUGH HE IS OFTEN
NOT THE ONLY PERSON WHO
EXERCISES INFLUENCE OR
LEADERSHIP OVER OTHERS.
![Page 138: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/138.jpg)
Bushman shaman in trance, southwestern Africa.
![Page 139: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/139.jpg)
THE BAND
SOME BAND-LEVEL SOCIEITIES ARE
SO LOOSELY ORGANIZED THAT
THEY APPEAR TO LACK ANY SORT
OF LEADERSHIP STRUCTURE
ALTOGETHER. THE ESKIMO ARE AN
ESCELLENT EXAMPLE. NOT "DO
THIS!" BUT RATHER "IF THIS IS
DONE, IT WILL BE GOOD."
![Page 140: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/140.jpg)
RELIGION
Sympathetic magic
Ceremony and Ritual
![Page 141: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/141.jpg)
Medicine tipi of the Sioux,
the largest in the camp.
Here the group congregate
for ceremonies. The
shaman is tanning a wolf
skin.
![Page 142: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/142.jpg)
RELIGION
Sympathetic Magic: Anything done to an
image, or a part of a person or animal will
affect that person or animal.
Indicated by drawings of men and women
dancing and engravings of processions of
men standing before animals, heads bowed
and weapons resting on their shoulders in a
non threatening position.
![Page 143: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/143.jpg)
A magician is blowing smoke
on a tree struck by lightning to
“cool” it. Otherwise, it is
believed, the lightning that
struck a few days earlier
might kill somebody.
Gurumbura tribe of eastern
highlands, New Guinea.
![Page 144: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/144.jpg)
Split cedar plank house
of the Haida Indian
fishermen, north Pacific
coast. The carved house
posts may have
genealogical or status
significance or perhaps
mythological meanings.
![Page 145: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/145.jpg)
RELIGION
THE TIES OF KINSHIP OFTEN PERSIST
AFTER DEATH.
![Page 146: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/146.jpg)
Art
The art of this era reveals the growth of
human consciousness and the effort of
people to understand and control their
environment, and it attests to the growing
gulf between them and the rest of the
animal world.
![Page 147: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/147.jpg)
Cave art by contemporary Australian hunters
and gatherers: the water snake and turtle are
important figures in their religion.
![Page 148: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/148.jpg)
Polychrome Bison from Font-de-Gaume, Dordogne,
France. (Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural
History.)
![Page 149: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/149.jpg)
From 40,000 to 7000 B.C.
Quickening Pace of Change
Tools
Weapons
Art
![Page 150: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/150.jpg)
Horse and hind from Altamira, Spain. (Courtesy of the
American Museum of Natural History.)
![Page 151: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/151.jpg)
Cro-Magnon artists in the cave of Font-de-Gaume. Mural
by Charles Knight. (Courtesy of the American Museum of
Natural History.)
![Page 152: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/152.jpg)
Rapid Acceleration of Change
Genetic
Language
Population
![Page 153: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/153.jpg)
Genetic
The rapid acceleration in the rate of change in
the last 30,000 years of the Hunting &
Gathering era cannot be explained by
genetic change alone, since our species,
Homo Sapiens, had already evolved by
100,000 B.C.
![Page 154: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/154.jpg)
Language
While symbol use began much earlier than
this, earlier symbols were probably much
less effective as instruments for the
acquisition, storage, and transmission of
information.
![Page 155: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/155.jpg)
Population
Growth of population may also have had an
effect on technological development.
The rate of growth of the human population
increased substantially after 40,000 B.C.
Population levels also substantially
increased.
![Page 156: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/156.jpg)
Estimated Population Level
0
1,000,000
2,000,000
3,000,000
4,000,000
5,000,000
6,000,000
7,000,000
8,000,000
9,000,000
Est. Pop
1800000 Y.A.
150000 Y.A.
40000 Y.A.
7000 Y.A.
![Page 157: Hunting and Gathering Society](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022012013/6158e3074ef09e376736868f/html5/thumbnails/157.jpg)
Population Growth Rates per
1,000 Years
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1800000 Y.A.
150000 Y.A.
40000 Y.A.
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One of the last photographs of the Ona of Tierra del
Fuego, a tribe of hunters and gatherers now extinct.