Adaptive Strategies: Hunting & Gathering (Foraging)
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Transcript of Adaptive Strategies: Hunting & Gathering (Foraging)
Adaptive Strategies:
Hunting & Gathering(Foraging)
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4 Adaptive StrategiesHUNTING & GATHERING
(FORAGING)HORTICULTURE PASTORALISM AGRICULTURE
INCLUDES PEASANTS
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Cultural Ecology
Inter-relationships between people & environment
ADAPTIVE STRATEGY: THE WAY PEOPLE IN A PARTICULAR
ENVIRONMENT USE CULTURAL MEANS TO SURVIVE IN THAT ENVIRONMENT;
THE STRATEGY EMPLOYED TO PROCURE NEEDS OF THE GROUP
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ENVIRONMENTAL POSSIBILISM:
ENVIRONMENT PLACES LIMITATIONS & PROVIDES POSSIBILITIES
IT DOES NOT DETERMINE CULTURE
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Hunting & Gathering Successful way of life – 99% of human
history Out of 150 billion people ever – 60%
H&G--10,000 YA 10 million 100% H&G
0 AD 50% H&G
1500 AD 350 million 1% H&G
2000 AD 4 billion .001% H&G(300,000)
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Why Have H & G Disappeared?
Disappearance is not due to technological inefficiency Political factors – European expansion
Importance of early human history Contemporary H&G are not relics
from the past But participants in the modern world
system Forced into marginal areas
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Geographic DistributionH&G
European contact ~ 1600 (polar, desert)
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Where H&G persist today
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Collectors (vs. Producers) Dependent on
scarcity or abundance of resources
Hunt Forage Combine
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I. PEDESTRIAN H&G !KUNG SAN: Plant-focused H&G
55,000 SAN; 4000 !KUNG SAN)
1 KUNG BAND = 250 SQ. MI. POPULATION DENSITY
44/100 SQ. MI. 11 GROUPS
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Functional Consequences
SMALL GROUP SIZE, 25-50 NOMADIC, FUSION & FISSION MOBILITY - DONT ACCUMULATE
SURPLUS
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BASIC UNIT OF PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION = VILLAGE/CAMP
DIVISION OF LABOR BY SEX & AGE LACK SPECIALIZATION EGALITARIAN - EQUAL ACCESS TO
RESOURCES NO SOCIAL STRATIFICATION NO INDIVIDUAL OWNERSHIP
OF RESOURCES RECIPROCITY
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BANDS ORGANIZED ON BASIS OF KINSHIP
INFORMAL SOCIAL CONTROL "HEADMAN"
POLYTHEISTIC RELIGION PART-TIME RELIGIOUS SPECIALIST
(SHAMAN)
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MOBILITY & SOCIAL RELATIONS
= SOLUTION TO ADAPT TO RESOURCES FOOD IS CONSTANT BUT DISTANCE TO IT
INCREASES IN DRY SEASON GROUP SIZE IS DETERMINED BY CARRYING
CAPACITY
THE KEY ISSUE IS WATER - FIXED DISTRIBUTION OF WATER HOLES SEASONAL AGGREGATION IN DRY (100);
MAY BE 7 GROUPS AT 1 WATERHOLE DISPERSAL IN WET (SMALLER)
MOBILITY: MAY MOVE 2 - 10 TIMES/YEAR
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Perspectives… HOBBES:
“LIVE IN A STATE OF NATURE”;
LIFE IS “NASTY, BRUTISH & SHORT”
SAHLINS: “THE ORIGINAL
AFFLUENT SOCIETY”
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Richard Lee’s Research D.O.L. - MEN HUNT, WOMEN GATHER
"MAN THE HUNTER IS A MYTH" 60-80% DIET IS VEGETABLES, GATHERED
BY WOMEN; 2-3 DAYS/WEEK
LESS THAN 20% OF DIET IS MEAT 1 KILL EACH 4 DAYS
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WOMEN PROVIDE 2-3 TIMES THE AMOUNT OF FOOD AS MEN PROBABILITY OF MEN FINDING FOOD IS
LESS THAN 25%; WOMEN 100% 1 HR. HUNTING 100 CAL.; 1 HR. GATHER 240 CAL.
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ACUTE AWARENESS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
MEN’S KNOWLEDGE OF ANIMAL HABITS, ABILITY TO TRACK ANIMALS POISON ARROWS WITH BEETLE LARVAE
WOMEN’ ABILITY TO IDENTIFY VINES, EDIBLE PLANTS
40% (YOUNG & OLD) DON’T CONTRIBUTE, DEPEND ON REST
POPULATION OF 466, 46 ARE OVER AGE 60
LEISURE TIME (compared to industrial society)
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Dietary Quality?Reciprocity Evens out wealth
differencesDiet: 37% MEAT, 63% VEG. Mongongo nuts (not all are eaten)
300 NUTS/DAY; 33% OF VEG. DIET; PROVIDES 5 x CALORIES &
10 x PROTEIN AS CEREAL (CORN, RICE)
EQUIVALENT OF 2 1/2 LB. RICE, 15 OZ. BEEF; 56 GM. PROTEIN
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VARIETY: 84 PLANTS (FRUIT, BERRIES, ROOTS, BULBS) WIDE RANGE ALTERNATIVES;
90% OF VEG. DIET IS BASED ON 23 SPECIES SELECTIVENESS
KNOW 2300 ANIMALS, 54 EDIBLE, 17 HUNTED
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OPTIMAL FORAGING THEORY
SELECTION IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE CALORIES OFFERED, PER UNIT OF EFFORT REQUIRED TO OBTAIN THEM
GREATER ENERGY COST TO OBTAIN, LESS LIKELY TO SELECT
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Brink of Starvation??PROTEIN & CALORIES RECOMMENDED
PROTEIN & CALORIESCONSUMED
CALORIES 1975 2140
PROTEIN 60 93
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Richard Lee: "CONSIDERING THE GREAT IMPORTANCE
OF THE MONGONGO & THE LONG DISTANCES WALKED BY THE !KUNG TO REACH THE GROVES, ONE WOULD IMAGINE THAT SOME ATTEMPT WOULD HAVE BEEN MADE TO GROW THE MONGONGO TREES IN THE SANDY SOILS NEAR THE PERMANENT WATER HOLES, MAKING POSSIBLE A MORE SEDENTARY LIFE. I ASKED XASHI, " WHY DONT YOU TRY GROWING THE MONGONGO TREE?" HE ANSWERED, " WHY SHOULD WE PLANT WHEN THERE ARE SO MANY MONGONGOS IN THE WORLD?"
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II. Equestrian H&G Cheyenne (agriculture nomadic
hunters) LARGER GROUPS, MORE MOBILE MORE LIKELY TO DEVELOP A SOCIAL &
POLITICAL HIERARCHY
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GREAT PLAINS - SPANIARDS INTRODUCED
THE HORSE IN THE 17TH CENTURY
THUS H&G IS A RESULT OF EUROPEAN CONTACT
1ST ACQUIRED BY APACHE, WHOSE RAIDS IMPELLED OTHER GROUPS TO ADOPT THE HORSE & DEVELOP WARFARE FOR DEFENSE
MILITARY SOCIETIES DEVELOPED
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EXPANSION OF THE AMERICAN FRONTIER UPROOTED NATIVE AMERICANS & FORCED THEM WEST THEY CAME INTO CONFLICT WITH OTHER
TRIBES AS THEY COMPETED FOR HUNTING GROUNDS
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CHEYENNE: 10 BANDS FORM TRIBE, EACH BAND HAS MEMBERS FROM
SEVERAL OF THE 7 MILITARY SOCIETIES
band A band B
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FUSION IN SUMMER – 1000'S UNITE FOR BUFFALO HUNT (MATING SEASON) SUCCESS DEPENDED ON COOPERATIVE
HUNTING IN SUMMER BUFFALO POLICE WITH COERCIVE
AUTHORITY ONLY DURING HUNTS FISSION -- DISPERSE IN WINTER VARIATION: TRIBAL ORGANIZATION
& WARFARE RARE AMONG H & G
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III. Aquatic H&G KWAKIUTL – Northwest Coast EVEN LARGER GROUPS, GREATER SOCIAL
STRATIFICATION, MORE ELABORATE MATERIAL CULTURE ELABORATE FISHING TECHNOLOGY (BOATS) PRIVATE PROPERTY IS
CLEARLY DEFINED
DIFFERENCES IN WEALTH & SOCIAL RANK
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25 GROUPS (TRIBES), EACH WITH ITS OWN AUTONOMOUS VILLAGE
CEDAR & SALMON = RICH ENVIRONMENT, "HARVEST THE SEA" 5-7 SALMON RUNS PER YEAR
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UNUSUAL ABUNDANCE = FOOD SURPLUS, LIFEWAY SIMILAR TO AGRICULTURALISTS
LARGE SETTLED COMMUNITIES, PLANK HOUSES
LEISURE ALLOWED ATTENTION TO NON-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF LIFE ELABORATION OF MATERIAL CULTURE
(TOTEMS, MASKS)
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EXTENDED FAMILIES WITH INHERITED RIGHTS TO FISHING AREAS & HUNTING TERRITORIES; FAMILIES WERE RANKED
ACCORDING TO WEALTH & PRESTIGE, VALIDATED THROUGH POTLATCH
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Friedl: Society & Sex Roles What is the source of power among
H&G? Understand her hypothesis ! Comparative study of 4 H&G
societies The !Kung are an anomaly Why don’t women hunt? What lessons does this have for
women in the U.S.?
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Gather
HuntSmall
HuntLarge
Marriage
Divorce
Washo(N.America
Hadza(Tanzania)
Tiwi(Australia)
Inuit(Alaska)
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Gather
HuntSmall
HuntLarge
Marriage
Divorce
Washo(N.America
♀♂ cooperation
♀♂rabbit
♀♂lovers
+
Hadza(Tanzania)
Tiwi(Australia)
Inuit(Alaska)
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Gather
HuntSmall
HuntLarge
Marriage
Divorce
Washo(N.America
♀♂ cooperation
♀♂rabbit
♀♂lovers
+
Hadza(Tanzania)
♀♂independently
♂ (♂)rarely
♀♂♀polygyny
+
Tiwi(Australia)
Inuit(Alaska)
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Gather
HuntSmall
HuntLarge
Marriage
Divorce
Washo(N.America
♀♂ cooperation
♀♂rabbit
♀♂lovers
+
Hadza(Tanzania)
♀♂independently
♂ (♂)rarely
♀♂♀polygyny
+
Tiwi(Australia)
♀ ♀ ♂ ♀= alliances, select
husband
Inuit(Alaska)
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Gather
HuntSmall
HuntLarge
Marriage
Divorce
Washo(N.America
♀♂ cooperation
♀♂rabbit
♀♂lovers
+
Hadza(Tanzania)
♀♂independently
♂ (♂)rarely
♀♂♀polygyny
+
Tiwi(Australia)
♀ ♀ ♂ ♀= alliances, select
husband
Inuit(Alaska) ♂
provide all food
♀sexual favors to trade partners
?
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Conclusions:Male dominance varies with the
amount of meat availableThe less meat, the more
egalitarianVegetables are distributed
within the familyMeat is distributed to the band
(source of power)
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!KUNG SAN - SOCIAL CHANGE
HAS !KUNG CULTURE REMAINED UNCHANGED FOR 1000s OF YEARS?
GOOD ANTHROPOLOGISTS UNDERSTAND THE IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY
!KUNG PEOPLE HAVE BEEN ALTERNATELY REPRESSED BY DUTCH, BANTU, & INFLUENCED BY THE HERERO & TSWANA
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Botswana
Namibia
Kalahari Desert
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HUNTING & GATHERING SOCIETIES OCCUPY THE LAST FRONTIERS OF EXPLOITABLE RESOURCES IN
THE WORLD
1652 ON, DUTCH KILLED 200,000 SAN IN 200 YEARS; LAND TAKEN OVER FOR AGRICULTURE, HERDING
18TH C.: COLONIAL SETTLERS USED THE !KUNG AS MENIAL LABORERS OR WENT ON RAIDS & MASSACRED SMALL CAMPS
THE ENCROACHMENT OF CAPITALISM & SOUTH AFRICA'S WAR ON ITS NEIGHBORS TOOK A TOLL ON !KUNG CULTURE
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BOTSWANA - RAPID EXPANSION OF CAPITALIST RANCHING
BROUGHT IN DRILLING RIGS & DUG WELLS TO REACH DEEP WATER IN THE KALAHARI
PEOPLE IN HIGH GOVT. POSITIONS ARE GAINING 99 YEAR LEASES TO THE LAND
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KALAHARI DESERT - SITE OF MAJOR MINERAL PROSPECTING BY MNCs
THE FUTURE OF H&G IS MORE CLOSELY BOUND TO MNCs THAN WITH HUNTING ANTELOPE OR AVAILABILITY OF MONGONGO NUTS
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BOTSWANA WAS A S. AFRICAN PROTECTORATE (1886)
GAINED INDEPENDENCE 1966 BELONGS TO UN & SUPPORTED S. AFRICAN
LIBERATION MOVEMENTS VS. APARTHEID FOUGHT VS. ONE OF WORLD'S MOST POWERFUL
& RACIST REGIMES LACKS A LARGE EUROPEAN SETTLER
POPULATION MAJORITY ARE BANTU SPEAKERS;
SAN ARE MINORITY SUBJECT TO INTENSE MISSIONIZING
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NAMIBIA WAS A COLONY OF SOUTH AFRICA, SEIZED
FROM GERMANY IN WW I
AS S. AFRICA IMPLEMENTED EXTREME POLICIES OF APARTHEID, U.S. CONSIDERED IT STRATEGICALLY IMPORTANT: GOLD, DIAMONDS, MINERALS
S. AFRICA'S SMALL RULING WHITE ELITE DEPENDED ON THE LABOR & SUPPRESSION OF MILLIONS OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLE
S. AFRICA TIGHTENED BORDERS BETWEEN BOTSWANA & NAMIBIA, RESTRICTING MOVEMENT OF !KUNG & INHIBITING THEIR SUBSISTENCE ACTIVITIES
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BY 1970s !KUNG WERE LIVING IN SMALL GOVERNMENT-ADMINISTERED CAMPS, DEPENDING ON GOVT. RATIONS, & UNABLE TO HUNT & GATHER
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SWAPO SW AFRICAN PEOPLE'S ORGANIZATION
FORMED IN 1966 MARXIST GUERRILLA GROUP U.S. OPPOSED THE LEFTIST
GOVERNMENT OF NAMIBIA
S. AFRICA USED NAMIBIA AS A CORRIDOR TO RAID SWAPO CAMPS IN ANGOLA, SUPPORTED BY THE U.S.
S. AFRICAN ARMY RECRUITED 100s OF !KUNG, FORMING 2 BATALLIONS 4000 !KUNG IN THE AREA WERE UNDER TOTAL
CONTROL OF THE ARMY
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THE RESULT: ALCOHOLISM, FIGHTING, HOMICIDES TRIPLED AS !KUNG MEN GOT WEAPONS & ACQUIRED A MACHO IMAGE
THE SYSTEM OF RECIPROCITY BROKE DOWN, ANOMIE
SWAPO GAINED INDEPENDENCE FOR NAMIBIA IN 1990
THE NEW CONSITITUTION STRESSES HUMAN RIGHTS & DEMOCRATIC PARTICIPATION FOR ALL PEOPLES
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SOME H&Gs HAVE DEVELOPED POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS TO MOBILIZE & RESIST ENCROACHEMENT
THESE DRAW ON THEIR OWN CULTURAL, POLITICAL, & ORGANIZATIONAL RESOURCES
BUT THEY RELY ON OUTSIDE HELP, SUCH AS ANTHROPOLOGISTS
1975 ANTHROPOLOGISTS CREATED KALAHARI PEOPLE'S FUND CONCERN WITH AIDING THE
STRUGGLE FOR SELF-DETERMINATION