HUMAN BIOLOGY

WHY?

• To learn about ourselves, our culture• To learn the relationship between form & function• Study the parts to understand the whole body• To become familiar with terminology that describes

the structures & processes associated with the human body

CULTURE & the reasons for it

• CULTURE = Social influences human behavior• Why is culture important?• To learn from the experiences of others• Its carried on through language & “big brains”• Its faster acting & easier to observe than the

evolution of anatomy & physiology

WHAT IS BIOLOGY?

• BiologyBiology comes from the Greek• BiosBios = life• LogosLogos = to study• Biology is the study of life!

What Is the Meaning Of Life?Top 7 ways to tell the living from the nonliving

1 Cellular Organization 2 Reproduction 3 Metabolism 4 Homeostasis 5 Heredity 6 Responsiveness 7 Able to Grow & Develop

If It Does NOT meet ALL 7…

•ITS NOT ALIVE!

CELLULAR ORGANIZATION

• All living things are made up of 1 or more cells• Cells = smallest unit capable of all life functions

REPRODUCTION

• How all life forms make more of their own kind from 1 generation to the next

• All living things (ORGANISMS) can reproduce

METABOLISM

• Sum of all chemical reactions in an organism• Chemistry is necessary for life!• Balancing those chemical reactions =

HOMEOSTASIS

HOMEOSTASIS

• The ability to maintain a relatively constant internal environment (at all levels of body organization) despite changes in the outside environment

EXAMPLES of HOMEOSTASIS

• Body temperature• Water-mineral balance• Blood pressure• Sleep-wake cycle• Blood pH• Any physiological process with a negative-feedback

system of control

Why Is Homeostasis Such A Big Deal?

• Physiological processes can function only under a limited range of conditions

• “Goldilocks” factor• EX--- Body temperature

98.6º F or 37º C

HEREDITY

• All organisms pass on traits from parent to offspring• GENES = sets of inherited instructions for making

proteins• MUTATION = any change in a gene (DNA)• DNA = code on genes for making proteins

RESPONSIVENESS(irritability)

• 1 Detect information about the environment• 2 Process this information• 3 Respond appropriately

GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

• GROWTH = replace worn out cells; increase in size

• DEVELOPMENT = advance, fulfill with time; mature

METABOLISM

• Sum of all chemical reactions within living cells= catabolism anabolism

Catabolism = break down (digest food into protein)

Anabolism = build up (rearrange proteins into new cells)

CELLS

• Functional & structural building block of life• This makes them the SMALLEST LIVING THINGS!

CELLS HAVE 3 THINGS IN ALL COMMON

• Made of Cytoplasm + Nucleus enclosed by a Cell Membrane

1. Cytoplasm = fluid in a cell2. Nucleus = cell’s control center, “brain”3. Cell Membrane = outermost part of a cell,

the cell’s “skin”

The Order of Perspectives on Human Biology (HB)

1 Atoms 2 Molecules 3 Organelles 4 Cells 5 Tissues 6 Organs 7 Organ systems 8 **Organisms—YOU! 9 Populations 10 Ecosystem 11 Biosphere

small

big

The Order of Perspectives on Human Biology (HB)

1 Atoms 2 Molecules 3 Organelles---------------------------- 4 Cells ----------------------------------- 5 Tissues 6 Organs 7 Organ systems 8 **Organisms—YOU! 9 Populations 10 Ecosystem 11 Biosphere

NOTNOT

ALIVE!ALIVE!

ITS ITS VERYVERY

ALIVE!ALIVE!

HUMAN BIOLOGY IS EVERYWHERE!

• Internet• Magazines• TV News• Newspapers • Books

HUMAN BIOLOGY IS EVERDAY INVOLVING EVERYONE!

• Cloning• Human Genome Project (HUGO)• Curing AIDS• Saving the rainforest• Genetic engineering to cure genetic diseasesEX- MS, CF, Dyslexia, Diabetes, Some cancers

HUMAN BIOLOGY IS EVERBODY!

• In 1999, world population exceeded 6 billion!• Not enough space, food, energy, & resources for

everyone is a very SERIOUS problem.

RAINFORESTS & HUMANS

• Destroying rainforests to make space to live affects plants & animals

• Half of the world’s species live in the rainforests• Tropical rainforests are currently being destroyed at

a rate greater than 1 acre/ second!• At this rate, the last tree will fall by 2050!

RAINFORESTS & HUMANS

• This will destroy over 1 million species, making it the greatest extinction since the dinosaurs of 65 million years ago!

• Who knows what potential medicines, foods, plastics, and genetic material we are losing?

• Biologists seek balance between the need for land & protecting ALL life.

MORE PEOPLE MEANS MORE FOOD IS NEEDED

• Biologists seek new crops to grow more efficiently in tropical soils & without too much fertilizer or pesticides

• Genetic engineers place plant genes into other plants to form new crops that are germs & insect resistant AND bear fruit many times a year!

EX- New crops are frost resistant due to inserted genesInsect resistant crops decrease the amount of bug spray used (saves $)

HUMAN BIOLOGISTS SEEK CURES

• AIDS• Cancer• CF (cystic fibrosis)• MS (multiple sclerosis)• MD (muscular dystrophy)• Diabetes• Heart Problems (cardiopathies)• Many others

AIDS

• Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome• Since 1981 (when 1st recognized) 50 million people

have been infected• 14 million already dead, 2 million die per year• Caused by HIV = Human Immunodeficiency Virus• It is an STD, also spread by other body fluids• NOT including urine (pee) , feces (poop) & sweat.

HUMAN BIOLOGISTS SEEK CURES

• Yes, AIDS-like diseases also affect other animals• FIV = Feline Immunodeficiency Virus• FIV ONLY affects cats• It is highly contagious among cats• FIV is curable• Humans do not catch it.• Some forms of HIV can spread to other primates

(chimps, monkeys, bonobos, etc.)

CANCER

• Cellular growth disorder• When cells do not know when to stop reproducing• Can be prematurely set off by chemicals

(esp. in tobacco)• Many human cancers are know curable, thanks to

HUGO (HUman GenOme project)• We will see this in detail in later chapters

CF

• Cystic Fibrosis• Fatal disorder in which abnormally thick mucus

builds up in many organs, esp. the lungs• Too much mucus, not enough breathing• Caused by a defective gene• Researchers try to treat fatal CF with

GENE THERAPY

GENE THERAPY

• Gene therapy = replacing a defective genes with a healthy, normal one

• This treatment is used by GENETIC ENGINEERS sometimes called GENE THERAPISTS.

• This treatment may 1 day cure most genetic diseases, like CF, MS, MD, diabetes, & dyslexia.

• The difficulty is not finding healthy genes, but introducing the normal genes into defective DNA.

1-2 REVIEW

1 Human Biology is a large part of everday life

2 Addressing a growing human population, environmental damage, & human disease demand an answer we are gradually finding.

HOW IS HUMAN BIOLOGY STUDIED?

• Scientific Method1 Observation --- using the 5 senses2 Hypothesis---educated guess3 Prediction that is falsifiable (can be proven wrong)4 Test (Experiment)5 Conclusion

OBSERVATION

• Native American peoples today have smaller teeth than the skulls of the same peoples 2000 years ago.

HYPOTHESIS

• Native American peoples needed larger teeth to eat grains and unprocessed foods before industry entered the USA and made other foods easier to obtain.

PREDICTION

IF the hypothesis is TRUE…• Comparing teeth measurements on the skulls of

ancient Shawnees to those of modern Shawnees on OK reservations will prove that the modern teeth are smaller.

• IF the hypothesis is NOT TRUE…

TEST

• Perform an EXPERIMENT • Experiment = test to prove or disprove a hypothesis• Apply the comparative method to the Sioux,

Iroquois, or Chickasaw Tribes.

• Ask “Why are the Shawnee different?” if they prove to differ in teeth size compared to other tribes.

• Research Shawnee diet and eating habits.

CONCLUSION

• Evidence from the experiment either does or does not support the hypothesis.

• In the comparative teeth experiment…• The evidence actually does support the hypothesis.• From this we could form a CONCLUSIVE

STATEMENT

CONCLUSIVE STATEMENT

• Comparing teeth size in 2000 year old Shawnees to the modern day Shawnee proves that Shawnee teeth have gotten smaller.

Example of the Scientific Method

Observation: Eating red grapes induces labor in ratsHypothesis: Caused by an agent in red grapesPrediction: If the hypothesis is true, then pregnant rats

given red grape juice (experimental treatment) will go into labor before rats given white grape juice (control treatment) go into labor.

Test: Do the experimentConclusion: Based on the results of the experiment

THEORY & LAW• THEORY = explanation based on a set of related

hypotheses that have been tested & confirmed many times

EX- Theory of Evolution

• LAW = theory or a set of theories generally accepted as scientifically true & accurate

“Some theories are so strongly supported that likelihood of their being rejected in the future is small”

EX – Law of Gravity

SCIENTIFIC TRUTH

• SCIENTIFIC TRUTH… “There is no absolute certainty in a scientific theory. The possibility always remains that future evidence will cause a scientific theory to be revised or rejected. A scientist’s acceptance of a theory is always provisional.”

EC- Define “FAITH”

ATOMS

• Smallest units of matter• Cannot be broken down further by chemical means• Made of 3 subatomic particles…

1 Proton 2 Electron 3 Neutron

SUBATOMIC CHART

Neutrons Protons Electrons

Mass 1 1 ~0

Charge 0 +1 -1

Symbol nº p+ e-

SUBATOMIC MASS & CHARGE• Subatomic mass is measured in a unit called “amu”• amu stands for “atomic mass unit”• 1 amu = the mass of 1 p+• 1 amu = 1/1,660,600,000,000,000,000,000,000 gram• Roughly 1.7 septillionth of a paper clip’s mass!• The +1 charge of the p+ and the –1 charge of the e-

are relative charges. There’s no actual unit (like volt) • Actual charges: +1.67x10 -19 coulombs (C) for p+ -1.67x10 -19 coulombs for e-

NUCLEUS

• Nucleus = center of the atom• Always has p+…

Thus it always has an overall + charge.• Sometimes it contains neutrons (NO charge)

ORBITALS

• A “cloud” or haze of orbiting e- around the nucleus• AKA “Energy levels, energy shells,

e- levels, or e- shells”• Electrons ALWAYS orbit the nucleus• Electrons are NEVER found inside the nucleus

ALL ATOMS ARE ELECTRICALLY BALANCED (electrically neutral)

• There is ALWAYS 1 e- for every p+• Thus…

# p+ = # e-

• EX- 2 p+ + 2 e- = 0 (electrically neutral)

ELEMENTS

• Defined as a pure substance of only 1 type of atom• There are currently 114 known elements• Make up the “Periodic Table of the Elements”• They differ in their number of protons (p+)• ATOMIC NUMBER = number of protons (p+)• Atomic # = # p+

ATOMIC NUMBER

• Atomic # = # p+

• EX- Hydrogen has 1 p+, Helium has 2 p+• Thus… 1H and 2He• H has the atomic # 1, He has the atomic # 2

ELEMENTS IN THE HUMAN BODY• There are about 20• Most common are:

• Element Atomic # • Carbon (C) 6 • Hydrogen (H) 1 • Oxygen (O) 8 • Nitrogen (N) 7 • Phosphorus (P) 15

ATOMIC WEIGHT (or mass)• Atomic weight (mass) refers to the weight (mass) of the

nucleus; or the mass of all those p+ and nº• Atomic weight = #p+ + #nº• RECALL… the nucleus is made of p+ and nº• p+ and nº each weigh 1 amu (atomic mass unit)• Adding a p+ adds BOTH +1 amu and +1 C to the

nucleus.• Adding a nº adds ONLY +1 amu. There is no extra

charge added (after all neutrons are neutral, O C)• So….

ATOMIC WEIGHT (or mass)

• Atomic weight = #p+ + #nº

• More p+ means more + charge• More nº just means it weighs more

• Neutrons are atomic fat!!• They just add weight and nothing else.

ELEMENTS IN THE HUMAN BODY• There are about 20• Most common are:Element Atomic # Atomic Weight• Carbon (C) 6 12• Hydrogen (H) 1 1• Oxygen (O) 8 16• Nitrogen (N) 7 14• Phosphorus (P) 15 31• Atomic weight = #p+ + #nº

ATOMIC DATA

• How to quickly find …• # p+ [= atomic number]• # e- [= atomic number also]

RECALL…all atoms are balanced so #p+ = #e-

• # nº [atomic weight – atomic number = #nº] (#p+ + #nº) -- #p+ = #nºEX- (2 + 3) -- 2 = 3nº

ISOTOPES

• Isotope = An element that does not have the typical number of neutronsEX- Natural carbon is 12C.

11C, 13C, and 14C are isotopes (as in 14C dating)(sometimes less nº, sometimes more nº)• Often unstable causing the nucleus to disintegrate• This causes the emission of high energy particles

(like X rays) known as RADIATION.

MOLECULES & COMPOUNDS

• Molecule = Group of atoms chemically joined• Compound = substance made of more than 1 kind of

elementEX- 2 oxygen atoms 1 oxygen gas molecule (O+O) (O2)

2 hydrogen atoms + 1 oxygen atom H2O (water)

Water is BOTH a molecule & a compound.

3 KINDS OF CHEMICAL BONDS

• 1 Ionic = steals e- (attraction of +/-)• 2 Covalent = shares e-• 3 Hydrogen = polarity

IONIC BONDS

• Steals e- to form IONS that attract each other• ION = atom with an overall +/- charge • Cation = + ions• Anion = -- ions

• EX- Na+ attracts Cl- to form NaCl….table salt NaCl is an example of an IONIC compound

COVALENT BONDS

• Covalent bonds form when atoms share e-• EX- Carbon shares e- with 4 hydrogen atoms

H | This is CH4 (methane)

H--- C ---H | H

HYDROGEN BONDING

• Weakest bond, occurs between POLAR molecules• Polar molecules have 1 + end and 1 – end, sort of

like a bar magnet or a AA battery.• They can bond to themselves in chains.

• EX- • +[||||||||||]-- +[||||||||||]-- +[||||||||||]--

WATER IS POLAR!

• Water bonds to itself in chains

H H H H + O- + O- + O- + O- H H H H

WHY IS WATER WET?(yes, there really is a reason why!)

• Because it is both ADHESIVE & COHESIVE!

• Cohesive = it bonds to itself (in drops)• Adhesive = it bonds to other things (like glass) H H H H + O- + O- + O- + O- H H H H

Review the 3 Kinds of Chemical Bonds

• 1 Ionic- By gaining or losing e-, ions of opposite charges are attracted to each other

• 2 Covalent- atoms sharing e-

• 3 Hydrogen- weak bond between the oppositely charged poles (ends) of polar molecules

PREDICTING CHEMICAL BONDS

• Which chemicals will bond and which bond they form is not by chance.

• It depends on the # of e- needed to complete the outermost electron orbital.

• VALENCE electrons = the outermost electrons • This is the basic idea of the Octet Rule

THE OCTET RULE

• Oct- = 8 A) Inner orbitals MUST fill first B) 1st orbital holds 2 e- max C) 2nd orbital holds 8 e- max D) 3rd orbital holds 8 e- max

WHAT DETERMINES IF AN ATOM IS BALANCED OR STABLE?

• By using the term ATOM, we mean it is BALANCED or ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL

• BALANCED means the #p+ = #e-• All (+)s plus all (-)s = 0, they cancel each other out

• STABLE means the chemicals will not REACT (will not try to form any type of bond).

• STABLE = they have a FULL VALENCE

INERT GASES

• Inert = not active, will not react• Have a completed outer (valence) e- orbital is stable• Last column on right in Periodic Table of Elements• AKA Noble Gases

INERT GASES (He)

• Helium (He): atomic # = 2• 2 p+ and 2 e-• 2 e- in inner orbital, He is chemically non-reactive

INERT GASES (Ne)

• Neon (Ne): atomic # = 10• 2 e- in inner orbital, 8 e- in 2nd orbital • Ne is chemically non-reactive

IONS

• An ion is an atom (or group of atoms) that carries an electric charge (+/-)

• Formed by too many or too little e-• Cation = + ion• Anion = -- ion• EX- Na+, Cl- , NH4+ , C2H3O2-

SODIUM CATION

• Sodium : atomic # = 11• 11 p+ and 11 e-• 2 e- in 1st orbital, 8 e- in 2nd orbital & 1 e- extra• The extra e- is lost (stolen), leaving the sodium

cation with a net positive charge…Na +

CHLORINE ANION

• Chlorine: atomic # = 17• 17 p+ and 17 e-• 2 e- in 1st orbital, 8 e- in 2nd orbital, 7 e- extra• 7 extra e- fill the 3rd orbital• It needs 1 more e- to be chemically stable• Chlorine anion attracts an extra e- to complete its

valence orbital has a net negative charge (Cl-)

OPPOSITES ATTRACT

• + and – charged ions attract each other• Na+ joins Cl- to become NaCl (table salt)• The molecule is both BALANCED & STABLE.• This is an IONIC BOND• The bond comes from the mutual attraction of

oppositely charged ions• e- pass from 1 ion to another• They are NOT shared, more like STOLEN!

COVALENT BONDS

• When e- are shared between atoms

• HYDROGEN• Hydrogen: atomic # = 1• 1p+ and 1 e-• Needs 1 more e- to complete 1st orbital

COVALENT BONDS

• CARBON• Carbon: atomic # = 6• 6 p+ and 6 e-• 6 e- is enough to fill the 1st orbital (2 e-) with 4 e-

left over for the 2nd orbital• It needs 4 more e- to complete it valence.

COVALENT SINGLE BONDS

• When 1 e- is shared, shown by 1 line• 1 carbon shares its valent e- with 4 hydrogens

H | This is CH4 (methane)

H--- C ---H | H

COVALENT BONDS

• OXYGEN• Oxygen: atomic # = 8• 8p+ and 8 e-• Inner orbital filled with 2 e-• 6 e- left over for 2nd orbital• It needs 2 more e- to complete the 2nd orbital

DOUBLE COVALENT BONDS

• When 2 pairs of electrons are shared• Shown by 2 lines (=)• EX- O=C=O……CO2……….Carbon dioxide

O=O……….O2…………Diatomic oxygen

H—O—N—O….HNO3….Nitric acid

|| HDiatomic = 2 alike atoms bonded together (N2 ,O2, H2)

HYDROGEN BONDS

• Relatively weak bond between a positively charged hydrogen ion (H+) in a molecule and a

negatively charged ion in another molecule • EX- RECALL, polar water forms cohesive chains. HH O …negative O end attracted by positive H end HH

O

POLAR MOLECULES

• Polar molecules = molecules with an unequal distribution of electrical charge (more e- on 1 end)

• EX- water, isopropyl alcohol, hydrogen peroxide

NONPOLAR MOLECULES

• Nonpolar molecules- molecules that have an equal distribution of electrical charges (e-)

• EX- gasoline, oil, wax, fatty acids

RATING THE STRENGTHS OF CHEMICALS BONDS

• GOLD--------Covalent • SILVER-------Ionic• BRONZE-----Hydrogen

REVIEW

• All matter is made of atoms• Atoms consist of e-, p+, & nº• Molecule= group of atoms bound by covalent bonds• H bonding occurs between polar molecules• Ion = atom with a charge• Opposites charges may form ionic bonds• Sec 2-1 Q1-5 pg 30

WHAT IS pH?

• Water has 2 ions • H+ plus OH- = H2O • H+ cation is a positive hydrogen ion• OH- anion is called a hydroxide or hydroxyl group• pH is a way of counting those H+ cations

POTENZ H+

• The H in pH stands for H+ (or hydrogen cation)• The p in pH stands for “potenz”• Potenz is the German term for

“the negative power of {H+}”• When {H+} increases, {OH-} decreases • It’s a fraction!• {H+} x {OH-} = 10-14 or 1/100,000,000,000,000

THE pH SCALE

• Think of pH as asking “How many H+ are in a solution?”• The pH scale refers to {H+} only• The pH scale runs from 0-14• <7 = acid, more H+• 7 =neutral, like water because it has both H+ & OH-• >7 = base or alkaline, less H+

THE pH SCALE

0---------------------------7----------------------------14 Acid Base H+, OH- H+, OH-

Neutral (H2O or HOH)

H+ = OH-

THE pH SCALE

The pH UNIT

• Each pH unit represents a factor of 10• EX- The pH 6 is 100x more acidic than the pH 8

(8-6 = 2…102 … 100)

Try this…Item A = pH 9, Item B = pH 5Which Item is more acidic and by how much?

pH IN THE HUMAN BODY• The body must maintain the pH of stuff within a

narrow range limits for the normal functioning of physiological processes

• Blood pH………………….7.2-7.4• Saliva (spit) pH……………7• Cytoplasm………………….7.2• Stomach juices pH…………2 • Lysosome* pH………………4-5 • Small intestine pH………….8

* cell’s digestive enzyme sac--digests glucose (#1 human fuel)

WATER

• Covers 75% of the planet Earth• Is molecularly 67% of the human body• Polar ions dissolve well in it, after all…• Water is the UNIVERSAL SOLVENT, because

most things will dissolve in it.• Has a high heat of evaporation heat constancy• Water is not lost easily = body temp. remains stable

OTHER MOLECULES

• Other molecules are much, much bigger than water• EX- proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, DNA

• These are ORGANIC molecules… they all contain carbon (C)

• Sec 2-2 Q1-5 pg 33

ORGANIC MOLECULES

• Always contain carbon (C)• NO C, NO LIFE! All life on Earth is C based• C’s 4 bonding sites allow life to be possible.• Life on other planets SHOULD also be C based.• If not, they may be silicon (Si) based as it too has 4

bonding sites.• Note the location of C and Si on the Periodic Table.

ORGANIC MOLECULES

• Always contain carbon (C )• Usually also contain hydrogen (H), oxygen (O),

&/or nitrogen (N)• C and others are usually in long covalent chains• EX- carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, enzymes, & nucleic acids

CARBOHYDRATES

• Ratio of C:H:O = 1:2:1• EX- C1H2O1 or C3H6O3

• Often abbreviated as CHO• May exist as single molecules or in complex chains

MONOSACCHARIDES

• Simple sugars• Mono = 1, saccharide = sugar• Sugar names end in –ose• Glucose- C6H12O6---the basic plant sugar• Fructose- in fruits like pears, pineapples• Galactose- in plants and milk

MONOSACCHARIDES

DISACCHARIDES

• Are double sugars• Di- means 2• Monosaccharides + monosaccharides = disaccharide• Sucrose – some fruits• Lactose – in milk• Maltose – in (malt) chocolate

DISACCHARIDES

POLYSACCHARIDES• Polysaccharides are CHOs that exist as long chains

of monosaccharides.• Poly- = many• EX- Starch- in potatoes• Glycogen-stored body energy (not exactly fat; close)• Cellulose- pulpy stuff from plants; makes paper• Chitin (KI’ ten)- hard fiber found in animal shells,

insect exoskeletons (shells) & in the cell walls of fungi (mold & mildew)

POLYSACCHARIDES

CHO COMPLEXITY

• CHOs are divided into 2 groups:Simple CHOs & Complex CHOs

• Simple CHOs include both monosaccharides and disaccharides

• Complex CHOs include polysaccharides

SIMPLE CHOs• Covalent bonds hold ALL monosaccharides together• Glucose is the most important simple CHO! • Glucose (C6H12O6) is the primary fuel for humans!

(it’s the only fuel source used by the brain!)• Glucose is made by plants during photosynthesis• Glucose is made of 6 C molecules that form a ring when

they are dissolved in water.

EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE CHOs

• Mono- + Mono- = Di-• glucose + fructose = SUCROSE• glucose + glucose = MALTOSE• glucose + galactose = LACTOSE

COMPLEX CHOs

• These are polysaccharidespolysaccharides = long chains of monosaccharides joined by covalent bonds

• They serve as stored energy in plants (starch) & animals (glycogen)

• Humans store glycogen in the liver & muscles• May be converted back into glucose when energy is

needed

COMPLEX CHOs

• Some polysaccharides are rigid structural materials:EX- Cellulose in plants, Chitin in arthropod shells

• Mammals cannot free glucose from cellulose alone• We need help from bacteria in the post-stomach

digestive tract to break down cellulose fibers• Cellulose fibers are what we call “roughage”• It is truly rough to digest—like the strings in celery

REVIEW

• pH scale 0-14, 0 = acid (H+), 14 = base (OH-)• 7 = neutral (H2O or HOH) has both H+ & OH-• No C, No water, NO LIFE!• C,H,O,N make organic molecules = long chains• Mono-, disaccharides are simple CHOs• Polysaccharides are complex CHOs• CHOs give people energy• Glucose is the primary human fuel

LIPIDS

• Type of fat• These are non-polar molecules• Nonpolar=equal distribution of electrical charge (e-)

NONPOLAR REPELS WATER

• Nonpolar molecules never dissolve in water• EX- water will not dissolve oil, gas, or wax

• Hydrophobic-(fears water) won’t dissolve in H2O

• Hydrophilic- (loves water) easily dissolves in H2O

LAW OF POLARITY

• Like dissolves in like

• Polar dissolves in polar ONLY• Nonpolar dissolves in nonpolar ONLY

• “Water and oil don’t mix!”

3 TYPES OF LIPIDS ESSENTIAL TO HUMANS

• 1 Triglycerides• 2 Phospholipids• 3 Steroids

TRIGLYCERIDES

• Made of a Glycerol head and 3 Fatty Acid tails

• May be saturated or unsaturated

SATURATED FATTY ACIDS

• The saturated fatty acid tails are C chains crammed full or “saturated” with hydrogen atoms .

• Saturated fats (EX-butter) are solid at room temp.• Too much is VERY unhealthy!

UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

• A double covalent bond exists between at least 1 pair of Cs (where Hs could bond with the C)

• C=C

• Unsaturated fats (EX-olive oil) -liquid at room temp.• MUCH healthier (hydrogenated vegetable oil)

POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

• Unsaturated fats with fatty acid chains containing more than 1 double covalent bond

• Poly- = many……EX- C=C=C=C

• Healthiest of all!

PHOSPHOLIPIDS

• Glycerol head,2 fatty acids + phosphate group (PO4)• Glycerol & fatty acids are nonpolar (hydrophobic)• Phosphate groups are polar (hydrophilic)• A cell membrane (cell’s skin) is made of a double

layer of phospholipids = phospholipid bilayer

STEROIDS

• 4 C rings + a functional group ( R)• Many different kinds• Important in reproductive maturation & metabolism• EX- Estrogen, testosterone, cholesterol

• NO FAT, NO SEX!

PROTEINS

• PROTEINS = chains of AMINO ACIDS (AA)• Proteins are the building blocks of most body

structures (hair, cells, muscle, bone…)• Most common organic molecule..its even in comets• Found in ALL life.

AMINO ACIDS

• Chainlike molecules with a central C bonded to:

• 1 Amino group (NH2)• 2 Carboxyl group (COOH)• 3 a single hydrogen atom (H)• 4 Side functional group (R )

THE AMINO ALPHABET

• There are 20 amino acids important to biology• There are 26 letters in the English alphabet• Like how the orderorder and amountamount of letters used

determine which word made, so the orderorder and amount amount of AA used determine which protein is made.

• What words are made from T,C,A?

NUCLEIC ACIDS

• Nucleic acids = Long chains of smaller moleculescalled NUCLEOTIDES

• Nucleotides have 3 parts:• 1 sugar (-ose)• 2 base (OH-, the opposite of an acid)• 3 phosphate group (PO4)

2 TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

• 1 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

• 2 RNA (ribonucleic acid)

DNA• DNA has 2 strands of nucleotides that spiral around

each other.• This is called a double helix• Shape was discovered by Watson & Crick in 1953

• The strands are held together by H bonds between bases across from each other forming

“the rungs of the twisted ladder.”

CHROMOSOMES ARE DNA

• Chromosomes are made up of very long strands of DNA, which is the code on genesgenes containing the instructions for making proteins

RNA

• Single strand of nucleotides• Plays several roles in cells, esp. in making protein

ATP• ATP = a nucleotide called adenosine triphosphate• It’s a single nucleotide with 2 extra, high

energy-storing phosphate (PO4) groups• It stores energy ONLY TEMPORARILY, like a battery,

between the 2nd & 3rd PO4’s.

• A-PO4-PO4 PO4

• When we catabolize food, energy is released.• Energy is captured & stored in ATP, later

used to operate the body’s individual cells.

REVIEW• Organic componds (C) are found in living things.• CHOs, like glucose, are energy sources & some are

used as structural materials in organisms.• Lipids are nonpolar molecules that store energy; found in

cell membranes as phosphlipids.• Proteins are chains of AA, The AA sequence determines a

protein’s shape & function.• Nucleic acids store & transmit heredity info.• ATP is the main energy currency of cells• Sec 2-3 Q 1-5 pg 37

WHAT GOOD ARE PROTEINS?

• ENZYME BOOK CH 2-4?

CYTOLOGY

• Cyte- = cell• -ology = study of• CYTOLOGY = study of cells

FOUNDERS OF CYTOLOGY

• Robert Hooke• Anton van Leeuwenhoek• Mattias Schleiden• Theodor Schwann• Rudolph Virchow

ROBERT HOOKE

• In 1665 observed slices of cork under a microscope• He saw little boxes• He named these boxes “cells,” because they

reminded him of the small rooms where monks lived inside monastaries.

ANTON van LEEUWENHOEK

• Used a microscope to observe drops of rain water• He discovered little creatures living there!• He named these creatures “animalcules,” which

means “tiny animals.”

INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENTS

• Abbreviated SI• Same thing as the metric system• It is a decimal system • All units are based upon powers of 10• WHY?

BRIEF SI TABLE

• Meter = base unit for measuring distance• Meter literally means “measure”________________

• kilo- = 1,000• -meter = 1• centi- = .01 or 1/100• milli- = .001 or 1/1000• micro- = .000001 or 1/1,000,000 (1 millionth)• nano- = .000000001 or 1/1,000,000,000 (1 billionth)

SI SYMBOLS

• km = kilometer• meter = 3.???ft• cm = centimeter• mm = millimeter• µm = micrometer• nm = nanometer

CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROSCOPES

• Two Types of Microscopes• 1 Light microscopes• 2 Electron microscopes

LIGHT MICROSCOPES

• Light passes through one or more lenses to produce an enlarged image of a specimen or MICROGRAPH

• MICROGRAPH = an image produced by a microscope

MAGNIFICATION

• Ability to make an image appear larger than its actual size

• EX- Magnification value of 200x means the image is 200 times larger than the actual specimen

RESOLUTION

• A measure of the clarity of an image

• RECALL…As magnification increases, resolution decreases!

• The bigger the image, the blurrier it gets!

ELECTRON MICROSCOPES

• Forms an image of a specimen using a beam of electrons instead of light

• No cell can survive an e- microscope as specimen preparation requires a type of staining & being placed in a vacuum (&/or being sliced!)

• TWO TYPES • 1 TEM = transmission e- microscope• 2 SEM = scanning e- microscope

TEM

• Transmission e- microscope• The e- beam is aimed at a slice of a specimen

stained with metal ions• TEM micrographs are always black & white

SEM

• Scanning e- microscope• The e- beam is aimed at a specimen coated with

metal ions• SEM micrographs are 3D, usually B&W, but can be

artificially colored

STM

• Scanning Tunneling Microscope• Uses a needle-like probe to measure differences in

voltage caused by e- s that “leak,”or tunnel, from the surface of a specimen

• A computer tracks the movement of the probe• STM micrographs are 3D and in color• STMs can be used to study living specimens• You can even see individual atoms!

MICROSCOPE REVIEW• Microscopes enable us to examine the details of cell

structure & to understand how organisms function.• Scientists use the SI system to measure the size of objects• Light microscopes have a low magnification & can be

used to examine living cells.• Electron microscopes have a high magnification, but

cannot be used to study living cells• The STM uses a computer to generate 3D images of a

specimen.• Sec 3-1 Q1-5 pg 54

CELL THEORISTS

• Mattias Schleiden--• German botanist in 1838 concluded that a plant was

composed entirely of cells• Theodor Schwann--• German zoologist who claimed that animals were

also made up of cells• Rudolph Virchow--• German physician who determined that cells come

only from other cells

CELL THEORY

• Based on the combined observations of Schleiden, Schwann, & Virchow

• All living things are made of one or more cells• Cells are the basic unit of structure & function• All cells arise from pre-existing cells

CELLS MUST BE SMALL

• Small cells work more efficiently than large cells• All substances that enter or leave a cell must cross

the cell’s surface• If the cell’s surface-to-area ratio is too low,

substances cannot move through the cell quickly enough to meet the cell’s needs.

• Substances do not need to travel as far to reach the center of a smaller cell.

• This is why smaller things are more efficient (ants).

CELL FEATURES

• There are many parts needed to make up a functioning cell.

• These “parts” are referred to as cellular features or organelles (meaning ‘little organs’)

CELL MEMBRANE

• Outer boundary, “skin”• Encloses the cell & separates its interior from its

outer surroundings• Regulates what enters & leaves the cell

CYTOPLASM

• Is the interior of a cell• It is mostly water, so it is very fluid

CYTOSKELETON

• A collection of connected microscopic protein fibers that suspends other cell structures within the cytoplasm

• Like the metal “skeleton” of a skyscraper, only much smaller.

• The cytoskeleton holds the cell together & keeps it from collapsing

RIBOSOMES

• Cellular structures that make protein• These are the Protein Factories!

DNA

• Deoxyribonucleic acid• Provides the instructions for making protein that

will be read by the ribosomes.• These instructions regulate cell activity and provide

a raw building material for making what the cell needs.

• It also enables the cell to reproduce by storing hereditary information.

TWO TYPES OF CELLS

• 1 Prokaryotes • 2 Eukaryotes

PROKARYOTES

• Simplest & smallest cells• Lack a nucleus & other internal compartments

known as “organelles.”• Cannot carry out specialized functions• Genetic material is a single circular strand of DNA• Modern prokaryotes are called BACTERIA

BACTERIA• Modern prokaryotes• Exist in a broad range of conditions• Grow & divide rapidly• Some can make their own food• Some can live without oxygen• Enzymes & ribosomes are free to move around in the

cytoplasm because there are no internal structures (organelles) to divide the cell into compartments = their “parts” float around in there!

• DNA is circular (ring), suspended in the cytoplasm

CELL WALL

• Surrounds the cell membrane to provide protection, structure, & support.

• Think of the cell membrane as the SKIN,The cell wall as the SUIT OF ARMOR.

• Cell walls are found in bacteria, fungi, & plants.

CAPSULE

• Strands of polysaccharides that may surround the cell wall of a bacteria

• These enable the bacteria to cling to almost anything• The capsule is like a Velcro suit!

FLAGELLA

• Single (only 1) = called a flagellumflagellum• More than one = called flagellaflagella• Long, threadlike structures that protrude from the

cell’s surface• Long, whip-like “tails” that allow some cells to

swim or move

EUKARYOTES

• First cells with internal compartments• Have a nucleus• Have other “organelles”

NUCLEUS

• Control center of the cell, like the “brain”• Internal compartment (organelle) that

houses the cell’s DNA• It has all the info. (DNA), so it is the

boss (control center)!

ORGANELLE

• Any structure that carries out a specific activity inside of a cell

• It comes from the French language meaning“little organs.” (-elle = little)

CILIA

• Small hair-like structures, found on some eukaryotes, that protrude from the cell membrane.

• Used to make oar-like movements • May be used to help a cell swim through a fluid• May also be used to move substances across a cell’s

surface…• EX- Cilia in the wind pipes sweep debris & mucus

out of the lungs

CYTOPLASM vs. PROTOPLASM

• Cytoplasm = everything inside the cell membrane, BUT OUTSIDE the nucleus

• Protoplasm = Everything inside the cell membrane, including the nucleus

• Protoplasm is ALL’DAT, cytoplasm is not.

• EX- Cytoplasm + Nucleus = Protoplasm

CYTOSKELETON FIBERS

• The eukaryotic cell is supported by the cytoskeleton• There are 2 types of protein fibers that form the

cytoskeleton:

• 1 Microtubules—hollow, flexible• 2 Microfilaments—solid, rigid

MICROTUBULES

• 1 of the 2 types of protein fibers in the cytoskeleton• Microtubules are long tubes (tubules)• Long, hollow tubes that extend throughout the

cytoplasm• These, being hollow, are easy to bend and allow the

cell to flex and it may also help move organelles around inside the cell

MICROFILAMENTS

• 1 of the 2 types of protein fibers in the cytoskeleton • These are thin protein strands that help support the

cell’s shape & structure• They are solid, unlike microtubules.• These give strength and rigidity to the cytoskeleton• Microfilaments hold things in place, restricting

movement

CELL STRUCTURE REVIEW

• Cell membrane = Skin• Cell wall = Suit of Armor• Capsule = Velcro Suit• Nucleus = “Brain”• Flagella = long swimming tail, whip-like• Cilia = short swimming hairs, oar-like• Cytoskeleton = 2 protein fibers• 1 microtubules (hollow), 2 microfilament (solid)

CELL MEMBRANES

• Cell membranes are fluid like a soap bubble.• The fluidity of the cell membrane is caused by lipids• These lipids form a barrier that separates the inside

of a cell from the outer environment• The cell membrane is selectively permeable =selectively permeable =• It allows only certain substances to enter and exit

the cell

PHOSPHOLIPIDS

• Interacts with water to cause a cell membrane to become selectively permeable

• Made of a phosphate group (PO4) with 2 fatty acids• Has a “polar head” and 2 “nonpolar tails”• The head contains the phosphate group & is

attracted to water (hydrophilic = loves water)• The tails contain the nonpolar fatty acids &

repels water (hydrophobic = fears water)

LIPID BILAYER

• Phospholipids arranged in double layers (2 ply)• This arrangement is found in the cell membrane • Nonpolar tails of the phospholipids make up the

interior of the bilayer; they are forced to remain here because water inside & outside the cell repels them.

• Ions & polar molecules, including proteins & sugars, are repelled by the nonpolar interior of the bilayer, forcing them to remain outside the cell.

• It takes an “active door” to let them inside the cell.

PROTEINS EMBEDDED IN THE LIPID BILAYER

• Proteins are chains of amino acids, some of which are polar, others nonpolar.

• The nonpolar parts (center) of a protein is attracted to the interior of the lipid bilayer, but is repelled by the water inside & outside the cell.

• The polar parts (ends) of the protein are attracted to the water on both sides of the lipid bilayer.

• These attractions hold the protein in the proper position inside the lipid bilayer (cell membrane).

TYPES OF CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS

• 1 Cell-surface marker proteins attached to a CHO help define cell type (like a name tag…liver, heart, blood, etc.…)

• 2 Receptor proteins recognize & join with specific substances.

• 3 Enzymes embedded in the cell membrane are involved in biochemical reactions inside the cell.

• 4 Transport proteins aid in the movement of substances into & out of the cell.

TYPES OF CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS REVIEW

• 1 Cell-surface marker proteins = name tags• 2 Receptor proteins = antennae for hormones/signals• 3 Enzymes = speed up biochemical reactions• 4 Transport proteins = doorways

• REMEMBER…• The cell membrane is fluid due to the lipids, allowing the

proteins to move or float round…Imagine a wall with a floating door! They actually exist!

REVIEW• The cell theory has 3 parts.• Small cells function more efficiently than large ones because small

cells have a higher surface-area-to- volume ratio than larger cells.• All cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, & DNA .• Prokaryotic cells = NO nucleus, NO organelles• Eukaryotic cells = HAVE nucleus, organelles, cytoskeleton• The lipid bilayer of a cell membrane is made of a double layer of

phospholipid molecules.• Proteins in cell membranes include enzymes, receptor proteins,

transport proteins, & cell-surface marker proteins• Sec 3-2 Q1-5 pg 60

ORGANELLES (pgs 55-66)

• “Little organs” inside a cell,much like our own organs.

• These are the separate compartments inside a cell that perform specialized functions.

• Organelles are suspended in CYTOSOL (fluid)• Organelles + Cytosol = Cytoplasm (solids + fluid)• Organelles are ONLY found in eukaryotes.• (NOT in prokaryotes = bacteria)

EXAMPLES OF ORGANELLES• 1 Nucleus• 2 Nucleolus• 3 Ribosomes • 4 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) = rER + sER• 5 Golgi apparatus• 6 Cell membrane (& cell wall if present) • 7 Mitochondria• 8 Lysosomes• 9 Peroxisomes• 10 Centrioles

NUCLEUS

• Control center of a cell, “brain”• Surrounded by a double membrane called the

“nuclear envelope or nuclear membrane.”• Ribosomal proteins & RNA are made here• Ribosomes are partially formed in a central area of

the nucleus called the NUCLEOLUS.

NUCLEAR DNA• Most of the cell’s DNA is stored in the nucleus.• Nuclear DNA stores genetic information.• It also contains the instructions for the proper amino

acid sequence of each protein.• Proteins regulate chemical reactions & many other

cellular functions• THUS—• The nucleus is the control center becausebecause it regulates

cell structure & function by controlling protein production.

DNA & CHROMOSOMES • Most of the cell’s DNA is stored in the nucleus• DNA exists most of the time in the form of

elongated strands or strings.• When a cell is about to divide, DNA strands wind

into a compact rod shaped form called Chromosomes.

• These are not visible unless cell ready to divide.• DNA is the “yarn,” Chromosomes are the “skeen,”

Genes are the “designs/ stripes in the skeen.”

NUCLEOLUS

• Very center of the nucleus• Completely enclosed by the nucleus• Houses RNA

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE

• Sometimes called the “nuclear membrane”• It completely encloses the nucleus, “skin”• Made of 2 lipid bilayers that separate the nucleus

from the cytoplasm• Small channels called nuclear pores cover its surface• These pores allow RNA to move out of the nucleus

into the cytoplasm of the cell.

RIBOSOMES• They make protein! HOW?• 1 The genetic code of DNA is translated into

mesenger RNA (mRNA) in the nucleus.• 2 mRNA leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores

in the nuclear envelope, heads to the ribosomes.• 3 Ribosomes chemically read the translated code on the

mRNA strands & link amino acids together in the correct sequence to make a protein. The mRNA holds a translation of DNA’s instructions on which order to place the amino acids in to make a specific protein.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)• Endo- = inside, -plasmic = cytoplasm• Reticulum = network or system• ER = a network inside the cytoplasm of a cell• The ER is a system of internal membranes that move proteins

& other substances throughout the cell.• The membranes are made up of a lipid bilayer with

embedded proteins.• Its usually directly attached to the inside of the

cell membrane.• ER is divided into the rough ER & the smooth ER.

ROUGH ER (rER)• This is the part of the ER that houses ribosomes.• RECALL…Ribosomes make protein• The rER helps transport the proteins made by the

attached ribosomes, like a railroad next to a factory.• As a protein is made, it passes through the ER

membrane into the hollow of the ER tube.• The completed protein becomes surrounded as a

piece of the ER wall is pinched off to form a Vesicle (fatty sac) around the new protein like a package.

VESICLES

• Vesicles are a small membrane sac that transports substances in a cell.

• They are usually made from the pinched off walls of an organelle or a lipid bilayer.

• EX-Vesicles can be made from the walls of the ER, Golgi apparatus, & cell membrane.

SMOOTH ER (sER)• Part of the ER that lacks ribosomes

(that is why its smooth!).• Its downstream from the rough ER (rER).• It simply exists as a tube through which vesicles

(containing proteins and other substances) travel.• The sER makes phospholipids to maintain & patch

the cell membrane.• It also detoxifies toxins like alcohol—liver cells

contain many lengths of sER.

GOLGI APPARATUS

• Named after ________ Golgi• Set of flattened, membrane-bound sacs that serve to

package & distribute proteins.• Enzymes in the Golgi apparatus modify the proteins.• Modified proteins are repackaged into new vesicles

that form from the pinched-off lipid surface of the Golgi apparatus.

CELL MEMBRANE

• Acts as a skin to protect & hold the cell together.• However, vesicles can flow through the cell

membrane easily as to export its contents outside the cell.

• When vesicles empty their contents outside the cell, the process is called EXOCYTOSIS, meaning

to exit the cell.

THE MIGHTY MITOCHONDRIA

• Mitochondrion if singular, (2+ = Mitochondria)• This is the organelle that harvests energy from

organic compounds to make ATP, the main energy currency of cells

• This is the “Powerhouse of the Cell.”• Cells with a high energy requirement, like muscle

cells, may contain thousands of mitochondria.

MITOCHONDRIAL STRUCTURE

• It has both an inner & an outer membrane• The outer is smooth, the inner is folded to increase

the surface area for chemical reactions.• Chemical reactions occur in both membranes to

produce ATP, but mostly on the folded inner membrane because there is more room.

• Mito pic! needed

MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTION

• These are the sites of energy production.• C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + E

glucose + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water + energy

• This chemical equation makes life on Earth possible.

• Cellular respiration is photosynthesis in reverse!

WHAT HAPPENS TO THE ENERGY?

• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the energy saver of the cell.

• ATP works like a battery to temporarily store energy

• High energy bonds exist between the last 2 PO4 s…

A-PO4-PO4 PO4

• EACH molecule of glucose charges 38 ATPs !!!

ATP• Adenosine triphosphate, a nucleotide• It is the main energy currency of cells.• Some ATP is produced in the cytoplasm,

but the majority is produced by mitochondria.• The ATPs circulates throughout the body dispersing

energy needed for skeletal muscles & the heart, as well as the energy needed to start chemical reactions for life, memories, & dreams, to name a few uses.

• Anywhere energy is needed, ATP supplies.

MITOCHONDRIAL DNA

• Mitochondria also have their own DNA, ribosomes, & produce some of their own proteins!

• Mitochondrial DNA is independent of nuclear DNA & is similar to the circular DNA of bacteria.

• The widely accepted Endosymbiotic TheoryEndosymbiotic Theory, states that prokaryotes may be the ancestors of animal mitochondria, that at 1 time they were free living organisms that formed a mutual relationship with another cell!

ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY?

LYSOSOMES• Small vesicles (also considered organelles) that

contain a cell’s digestive enzymes.• This is one type of vesicle that contains a protein

(enzyme) formed by the Golgi apparatus that stays inside the cell for its function; it does not leave the cell by the process or exocytosis.

• The PEROXISOME is another example of a vesicle that remains inside the cell.

LYSOSOME FUNCTIONS

• They often migrate to mitochondria to digest glucose to release energy used to charge ATP.

• Others are used to eat bacteria, germs, invaders.• Also used to recycle wornout/defective

organelles & cells.• Lots of them are inside WBCs (white blood cells)

for immunity (eating germs).

PEROXISOMES

• Enzyme-filled vesicles that digest fats.• RECALL...fats = long chains of nonpolar fatty acids• Peroxisomes are also made by the Golgi apparatus

& stay inside the cell, like lysosomes.• They are involved in removing poisons.• The human body’s natural filters contain many

peroxisomes—in the liver & kidney cells.

CENTRIOLES

• A group of microtubules that aid in moving chromosomes around during cell reproduction.

• These make sure that each cell gets the correct number and copy of each chromosome set.

• Organelles rvw?• Proteins syn/ distrubution• Plant cell features

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS• 1 DNA in the nucleus isis the instructions for making

proteins. It tells what order in which to place amino acids.

• 2 DNA is translated into mRNA that leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores in the nuclear envelope.

• 3 mRNA is read by ribosomes on the rER. The ribosomes gather amino acids together from the surrounding cytosol & bind them in the correct order to form a specific protein.

• 4 A new protein is made!

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS• 5 That new protein is engulfed as part of the ER wall

pinches off to form a vesicle around the protein.• 6 The vesicle serves as packaging as the protein is

transported from the rER, through the sER, to the Golgi apparatus.

• 7 The Golgi apparatus processes (modifies) & puts the finishing touches on the customized protein.

It then repackages the finished protein in a vesicle formed from part of the Golgi’s lipid wall.

PROTEIN DESTINATION

• From here, the 2nd vesicle can either remain in the cell or be exported out through the cell membrane.

• If it is exported (EX- hormones, enzymes), the lipid vesicle just floats through the phospholipid cell membrane in the process of exocytosis.

• Other vesicles may remain inside the cell & function as lysosomes or peroxisomes.

QUICK PROTEIN PATHWAY

• 1 DNA translated into mRNA• 2 mRNA leaves nucleus, goes to rER• 3 Ribosomes of the rER read mRNA, makes protein • 4 ER vesicle forms, leaves rER, sER, goes to Golgi• 5 Golgi modifies & repackages finished protein into

2nd vesicle• 6 Vesicle either stays in cell or exocytosis occurs

QUICKIE!

• 1 DNA mRNA• 2 mRNA leaves nuke rER• 3 rER r’somes read mRNA, make protein from AA• 4 ER vesicle thru ER to Golgi• 5 Golgi modifies protein put in 2nd vesicle• 6 Either stays or leaves cell (exocytosis)

IMPORTANCE OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

• All cells make protein.• It is the basis of life; its the result of having DNA

(or RNA in some cases).• All human cells have these organelles & so do

plants cells, but they have a few extra…

PLANT CELL FEATURES

• Plants have 3 major structures animal cells do not.

• 1 Cell Wall• 2 Chloroplasts• 3 Central Vacuole

CELL WALL

• It surrounds the cell membrane of a plant cell to provide support & protection.

• It does not prevent the movement of substances across the cell membrane.

• It is made of a mixture of proteins & CHOs.• Also connects the cell with adjacent cells.• Cell membrane = “skin”, Cell wall = “armor”

CHLOROPLASTS• This organelle uses light to make CHOs from

carbon dioxide & water (photosynthesis).• Working along with mitochondria, they supply the

plant with most of its energy needs. • Chloro. = make sugar, Mito. = burn sugar• Are surrounded by 2 membranes & have own DNA• Like mitochondria, they are believed to be the

descendents of free prokaryotes (Endosymbiotic Theory again) .

CENTRAL VACUOLE• Takes up most of the plant cell’s volume• MUCH larger than any other vacuole in the cell• Stores water & may contain ions, nutrients, & waste• When the vacuole is full, it presses the cytoplasm against

the cell wall making the cell rigid; this allows the plant to stand upright (overfull balloon)

• This water pressure is called TURGOR PRESSURE.• It allows plants to withstand high winds and make simple

movements (heliotropism, opening blossoms)• Turgor makes the HYDROSTATIC SKELETON

HUMAN ORGANELLES TO KNOW• Nucleus- cell’s control center, “brain”• Mitochondria- powerhouse, get energy from glucose• Ribosomes- makes protein, Vesicle- packaging• ER- system of tubes for communication (subway)----rER- houses ribosomes----sER- makes phospholipids for the cell membrane• Golgi apparatus- modifies, packages, directs protein• Lysosome- digest most stuff• Peroisomes- digests fats• Cell membrane- “skin”

EUKARYOTIC CELL REVIEW• The eukaryotic nucleus directs the cell’s activities &

stores DNA.• An internal membrane system (ER) produces, packages,

& distributes proteins.• Mitochondria harvest energy from organic compounds to

charge ATP.• Lysosomes digest & recycle a cell’s used,worn parts• Plant cells have 3 organelles animal cells lack:

Cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole• Sec 3-3 Q1-5 pg 66

ATOMS TO CELLS

• The human body has more than 10 trillion cells• That’s 10,000,000,000,000 + !!!• There are more than 100 different types of cells with

specialized functions (bone, nerve, muscle…)• They all have organelles,cytosol, & a cell membrane

HOW CELLS GROW & REPRODUCE

• In 3 steps• 1 Interphase 2 Mitosis 3 Cytokinesis

• Interphase- the doubling of DNA & chromosomes

DNA• Stands for deoxyribonucleic acid• It is just a fancy molecule, a combo of nucleotides,

bases, phosphates & sugars.• DNA comes in the form of CHROMOSOMES• Chromosomes- strings of DNA wound around a

central protein• Humans have 46 chromosomes• 23 from mom + 23 from dad = 46 in you!• The process is called FERTILIZATION.

CHROMOSOMES TAKE ON 2 SHAPES

• Chromosomes can be present in a single or in a double strand

• Single- called a single CHROMATID [12 pack]• Double- single chromatid copied & joined to itself

(Like being joined to your clone) [24 pack]

• Interphase = when chromosomes go from single to double strands

MITOTIC CELL DIVISION

• Mitosis = division of a cell into 2 identical daughter cells

• Four stages = PMAT• Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

I PMAT

• Although interphase is NOT part of mitosis, cell division occurs in these steps…

• IPMAT:• I = Interphase• P = Prophase• M = Metaphase• A = Anaphase• T = Telophase

INTERPHASE

• We’ve seen is when the chromosomes get copied• Opposite of Anaphase (12)

PROPHASE

• Nuclear envelope breaks down• Chromosomes contract into the often recognized,

tightly wound, double stranded, “butterfly” shape

• This is that double stranded chromosome

METAPHASE

• Chromosomes migrate to the cell’s equator (midline)

ANAPHASE

• Chromatids (strands) of each chromosome separate & go to opposite sides of the cell

• This is the opposite of interphase (21)

TELOPHASE

• Nuclear envelope reforms at each end

TELOPHASE & CYTOKINESIS

• CYTOKINESIS = movement of cytoplasm• Then the cell membrane pinches in half forming

two separate cells

DAUGHTER CELLS

• These 2 new cells are called DAUGHTER CELLS• They are both smaller than the parent (mother) cell• The larger parent cell has split in two.• Daughter cells are genetically identical• ------Basically mitosis = cloning

• Yes, when a fertilized egg undergoes a rare mitotic division, we get identical twins.

MITOSIS REVIEW

• Cells- made of cell membrane, cytosol, & organelles• Cell growth & division is:

Interphase mitosis (PMAT) cytokinesis

MITOSIS REVIEW+broken telophase• We are made of cells, about 10 trillion of them• Typical cell life spans: hours to days to weeks• We need our cells to be biologically PERFECT• PERFECT = correct with a complete set of

genetic instructions• Mitosis prevents the “broken telophase” effect in

copying genetic instruction• “Broken telophase” effect- results in a bad copy job• Mitosis has built in securities to prevent info. loss

MITOSIS REVIEW

• IPMAT, cytokinesis:• Interphase- c’somes copy themselves(12stranded)• Prophase- nuclear envelope disappears,

chromosomes condense• Metaphase- c’somes line up along cell’s equator• Anaphase- chromatids (strands) pull apart (21)• Telophase- cytokinesis occurs, nuclear envelope

reappears, 2 new cells

MITOSIS REVIEW

• Or …• I- c’somes get copied• P- c’somes condense• M- c’somes Migrate to Equator (Metaphase)• A- c’comes pull Apart (Anaphase)• T- Two new cells (T for 2, 2 for T, T for Telophase)

HEIRARCHY OF ORGANIZATION• Atoms• Molecules• Organelles• Cells• Tissues• Organs• Organ Systems• Your Body• Entire Human Population

TISSUES

• Tissues are a group of cells that work together for a common function

• HISTOLOGY – the study of tissues• Humans are made of 4 tissue types:• 1 Epithelial• 2 Connective• 3 Muscular• 4 Nervous

EPITHELIAL…1st type

• The lining tissue• Characteristics of epithelium:• 1 Lots of cell to cell contact so they stick together

they can form large sheets• 2 Polarized: have a distinct ApicalApical (top) &

BasalBasal (bottom) surfaces to them.• 3 Have a BASAL LAMINA secreted by the

epithelium that anchors the cell in place

TWO TYPES OF EPITHELIUM

• 1 Covering/Lining Epithelium

• 2 Glandular Epithelium

COVERING/LINING EPITHELIUM

• Covers the surface of the body & internal organs• Forms lining inside blood vessels, digestive tract,

respiratory, urinary & reproductive systems

GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM

• Found in cells/glands of the endocrine system--makes hormones

• And in cells/glands of the exocrine system--secretes hormones

• Hormones- chemical messengers of the body

COVERING/LINING EPITHELIUM

• Composed of cell layers, many different cell shapes

• Shapes: (simple-as is, stratified- striped in layers)

• 1 Squamous• 2 Cuboidal• 3 Columnar• 4 Transitional

SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

• Squashed, flat in appearance• Simple squamous: air sacs in the lungs, capillaries• Stratified squamous: lining of the mouth, throat, &

vagina

CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

• Cube shaped• Simple cuboidal: ovaries, blood vessels

COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

• Column-shaped, tall & rectangular• Simple columnar: lining of the digestive tract• Pseudostratified (falsely layered) columnar:• Appears layered but truly in not• In upper respiratory tract (from the voice box & up)

TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM

• Changes shape when the tissue stretches, like Spandex.

• Simple transitional: lining of bladder, uterus, urethra

GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM

• Exocrine Glands• Products empty directly onto body surfaces or into

a body cavity• EX-sweat, oil, salivary glands

• Endocrine Glands• Products secrete directly from the cell (hormones) &

must go into the blood stream• EX- Pituitary, thyroid, sexual glands (gonads)

CONNECTIVE TISSUE…2nd type

• Functions to support & hold the body together• Commonly known as bone, cartilage, tendon,

ligament, sinew, & blood

CONNECTIVE TISUUE CHARACTERISTICS

• 1 Cells are in a matrix (network) of protein fibers and “ground substance”

• EX- not much cell-cell contact, cells NOT polarized

• 2 Ground substance = liquid, solid, or gel

• 3 Fibroblasts & fibrocytes that produce the matrix fibers

QUICK TERMS

• Fibro- = filament, little thread

• -cyte = cell

• -blast = immature, young; usually associated with making things

3 TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• 1 Connective Tissue Proper• 2 Fluid Connective Tissue• 3 Supporting Connective Tissue

CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER

• Connects cells & tissues together• 2 Types of CTP

• 1. Loose Connective Tissue Proper• 2. Dense Connective Tissue Proper

LOOSE CTP

• Consists of many cells in a matrix of a few loosely woven fibers

• EX- Adipose Tissue- fat tissue (adipose, lipid = fat) anchors skin to underlying tissues, supports the liver

• Areolar tissue—CT surrounding nipples (both sexes) . [darker ring around the nipple is called the areola]

DENSE CTP

• Consists of fewer cells in a matrix of dense, tightly woven fibers

• EX-• Dermis------------skin in general• Ligaments--------holds bone to bone• Tendons----------holds bone to MUSCLE

LIGAMENTS & TENDONS

• What is the difference?• Think ABC order!

• . Ligament…Bone to bone• . Tendon…...Muscle to bone

MOST COMMON CTs

• Patellar Ligament…from Kneecap to TIBIA* *(big shin

bone)• Achilles Tendon…calf muscle to CALCANEUS**

**(heel bone)

• Who was Achilles?

ACL

• ACL = Anterior Cruciate Ligament• ACL may be the best known ligament [Bone –Bone]• ACL damage is a frequent sports injury to the knee• This is why leg sweeps are illegal in football.• ACL holds Femur (thigh bone) to Tibia in the knee

PATELLAR CTs

• Patella = kneecap

• Patellar Tendon (Rectus femoris muscle to kneecap)is ABOVE the knee.

• Patellar Ligament (kneecap to tibia)is BELOW the knee.

FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Two Types

• 1 Blood• 2 Lymph

BLOOD• Made in the center of bones by Red Bone Marrow• This process is called HEMATOPOIESIS• Hemo(e)- or Hemato- = blood, -poiesis = forming• Hematology is the study of blood & its diseases.• Hemoglobin is blood pigment.

• Blood has 2 parts• 1 Plasma………….....liquid……55% of blood• 2 Formed elements….solid…….45% of blood

PLASMA

• Blood’s liquid matrix• It is 92% water, 8% floating proteins

FORMED ELEMENTS• These are solids…cells• RBCs---Red Blood Cells * Called

ERYTHROCYTES (erythro- = red) * Involved in gas exchange, swaps O2 & CO2

• WBCs.---White Blood Cells * Called LEUKOCYTES [leuk(c)o- = white] * Fight germs, infection, part of immunity

• Platelets (thrombocytes)…(thrombo- = clot, lump)* Helps in blood clot formation (scabs)

LYMPH

• Basically it is dirty blood plasma that gets cleaned through filters called LYMPH NODES.

• Germs & debris from the blood plasma get collected in the lymph nodes.

• Trapped germs are eaten by the many WBCs that ambush them in the lymph nodes .

• When lymph nodes are clogged, infections occur.• EX- tonsilitis

MAJOR LYMPH NODES

• Tonsils---in the throat• Axillary---in the arm pits• Cervical—in the lower neck• Inguinal—in the crotch/thigh area• Mammary—in the breasts of BOTH sexes• Lumbar—in the lower back

MONONUCLEOSIS• Called Mono or the Kissing Disease• Sometimes germs reproduce so fast, that

they overfill the nodes.• The more germs there are in the body, the more are

likely to get caught.• Sometimes they overrun these filters & nodes swell.• This explains the knots in the neck & armpits.• In extreme cases, Mono causes back pain. WHY?

SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Supports the weight of the body & body structures• Two Types

• 1 Cartilage• 2 Bone

CARTILAGE

• Chondro- = cartilage• Ground substance is strong, but a bit gelatinous

(gel)• Lacks a direct blood supply (no blood vessels at all)• Because of this, it heels slowly• Has open spaces like a sponge• So blood puddles & diffuses thru’ the spongy tissue

CARTILAGE CELLS

• Two Types of Cartilage Cells

• 1 Chondroblasts• 2 Chondrocytes

CHONDROBLASTS

• The younger, immature cartilage cell• These actually do the building of cartilage from the

surrounding ground substance.

CHONDROCYTES

• The fully grown, mature chondroblasts• The name changes as they age.• These are the living tissue of cartilage• This means these cells metabolize, grow, repair, &

maintain the cartilage tissue.• Chondroblasts build it, chondrocytes maintain it.

TYPES OF CARTILAGE

• Three Types• 1 Hyaline• 2 Elastic• 3 Fibrocartilage (collagenous)

HYALINE

• Firm cartilage at the tips of long bones, in ribs, nose, & the trachea (windpipe)

• Almost too hard to pierce comfortably• Rib rings? Its possible…

ELASTIC

• More flexible due to elastin fibers in the matrix• Elastin is stretchy, just like synthetic elastic.• Found in the pinna = outer ear• This we can pierce somewhat comfortably.

FIBROCARTILAGE

• Few cells in a matrix of collagen fibers• A collagen matrix is usually gelatinous• Liquid collagen is used in plastic surgery• EX- in cheeks, breasts, lips

FIBROCARTILAGE

• Collagen is shock absorbing• Collagenous fibrocartilage forms disc-like pads

called meniscimenisci (meniscus(meniscus if singular) to absorb shock & stress in many joints.

• EX- *TMJ in the jaw• . * Inside the knee• . * The pubic symphysis• . * Between most vertebrae in the spinal

column

BONE• Osteo- = bone, Osteology = study of bone • Has a direct blood supply, many blood

vessels & nerves• Heals quite quickly• Provides rigid structural support for protection &

movement• It is the 2nd hardest substance in the body• What is the #1 hardest substance in the body?• WHY?

BONE CHARACTERISTICS

• Bone cells are similar to cartilage cells• Two types

• 1 Osteoblasts• 2 Osteocytes

OSTEOBLASTS

• Young, immature bone making cells• Actually deposit Ca & P salts to make bone

OSTEOCYTES

• Mature, grown up osteoblasts• Osteocytes are the living tissue,

maintaning the bone tissue.• Osteoblasts build bone, osteocytes maintain it.

FUNCTIONS OF BONE

• Five Functions• 1 Support• 2 Protection• 3 Attachment• 4 Hematopoiesis• 5 Storage

SUPPORT

• Bones are the framework to which everything else is attached.

PROTECTION

• Bones protect many vital organs & structures• Skull—protects the brain & pituitary gland• Rib cage—protects the heart, lungs, liver & spleen• Pelvis—protects/supports bladder, intestines, uterus,

ovaries, & kidneys

ATTACHMENT

• Bones have special spikes, ridges, crests, dips, depressions, projections, & holes specially

present for muscle attachment.• The depressions are a perfect match for the bulges

or belly of skeletal muscles that attach there.

• The deeper the dip, the stronger & larger the muscle• EX- Compare cat leg bones to dinosaur leg bones

HEMATOPOIESIS

• Bone generates RBCs in red bone marrow• See the slide titled “BLOOD”

STORAGE

• Bone stores fat in yellow bone marrow• Bone stores many minerals in the form of salts• Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) &

calcium phosphate (CaPO4) are the most abundant.

• PS……CaCO3 is limestone!

BONE TYPES

• Two Types

• 1 Spongy bone• 2 Compact bone

SPONGY BONE

• Less dense• Found at the tips of long bones• Site of hematopoiesis

COMPACT BONE

• Very dense, very hard• Forms the outer collar or shell around most

individual bones , spongy bone on the inside• Site of some fat storage• Also a site of hematopoiesis

BONE SHAPES

• Five Shapes

• 1 Long• 2 Short• 3 Flat• 4 Irregular• 5 Round (sesamoid)

LONG BONES

• Longer than they are wide• EX- arm & leg bones

SHORT BONES

• Wider than they are long• EX- wrist, ankle, & heel bones

FLAT BONES

• Very thin, usually curved• EX- shoulder blades and cranial skull bones

IRREGULAR BONES

• Oddly shaped bones with many dips and projections• EX- all vertebrae & the sphenoid bone

ROUND OR SESAMOID BONES

• Called sesamoid from the Greek term for “sesame seed shaped”

• There are only 2 normally in the human body…• The kneecaps (patellas)• Sometimes extra bones form in sutures between the

skull’s cranial bones that form sesamoids, but rarely ever larger than a pencil eraser around.

• Natural and harmless

TISSUE SUMMARY 1

• Atoms-molecules-organelles-cells-tissues• Tissues- many cells working together for 1 function• 4 tissue types- epithelial,connective, muscle,nervous

• EPITHELIAL-• Char:cell-cell contact, polarized, have basal lamina• Types: covering/lining & glandular• Layers: simple, stratified, pseudostratified• Shape: squamous, cuboidal, columnar, transitional

TISSUE SUMMARY 2

• CONNECTIVE-• Char: matrix of protein + ground substance,

fibroblasts & fibrocytes• Types: CT Proper (loose/dense)

Fluid CT (blood/lymph) Supporting CT (cartilage/bone)

TISSUE SUMMARY 3

• CARTILAGE-• Char: gelatinous, rigid matrix;

has chondroblasts,chondrocytes…No blood vessels• Types: *Hyaline (collagen matrix) in the ribs, nose,

trachea, joints *Elastic (elastin matrix) in the ear

*Fibrocartilage (collagen matrix) between vertebrae

TISSUE SUMMARY 4

• BONE-• Char: hard, has blood vessels/nerves,

osteoblasts,osteocytes• Func: support, protection, attachment

hematopoiesis (make RBCs), storage (Ca,P)• Types: spongy & compact• Shapes: long, short, flat, irregular, round (sesamoid)

MUSCULAR TISSUE…3rd type

• Myo- = muscle, Myology = study of muscle• Characteristics:• Composed of muscle fibers that contract

when stimulated.

3 TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE

• 1 Striated • 2 Cardiac• 3 Smooth

STRIATED MUSCLE• Also called skeletal or striped muscle• It is voluntary muscle attached to the skeleton• Moves the limbs for locomotion, maintains posture• Has cylinder shaped cells with striated patterns• Patterns are made up of the protein filaments

ACTIN & MYOSINACTIN & MYOSIN• Fibers often run in the same direction, giving them a

striped appearance, like wood grain.• Each cell has several nuclei &multiple mitochondria

SMOOTH MUSCLE

• Found inside the walls of blood vessels, airways, stomach, intestines, bladder, & uterus

• Cells are spindle shaped• Single nucleus per cell• No visible striations here (that is why its smooth)

CARDIAC MUSCLE

• Found only in the heart• Its Involuntary muscle• Cells are shaped like branching cylinders

(tree trunks)• Has slight striations• Only 1 nucleus per cell

CARDIAC MUSCLE

• The cells are next to each other are joined at thickened regions of their cell membranes

• These joints are called INTERCALATED DISCS• They allow for rapid conduction of impulses• It’s good to send nerve impulses quickly across the

heart so that it contracts (beats) regularly & on time!

INTERCALATED DISCS

• picture

RECALL THE 4 TISSUE TYPES

• 1 Epithelial• 2 Connective• 3 Muscle• 4 Nervous: brain, spinal cord, body nerves

NERVOUS TISSUE…4th type

• Neuro- = nerves, Neurology = study of nerves• Characteristics:• Composed of 2 types of cells

• A) Neuron- basic nerve cells, actually conduct IMPULSES (chemo-electric messages) IMPULSES (chemo-electric messages)

• B) Neuroglia- cells that support/ help the neurons

NERVOUS TISSUE FUNCTIONS

• 1 Turn external information (input) into pulses• EX- the 5 senses (light, sound, taste, smell, heat…)

• 2 Carry chemo-electric messages (impulses) between parts of the body

NEURONS

• Shapes vary, usually long & branched

NEURON STRUCTURES

• DENDRITE= input end of the neuron, it’s branched, treelike

• Carries impulses TOWARDS the cell body• CELL BODY= main part of the neuron

cell containing the nucleus & organelles• AXON= output end of a neuron, a long extension

of the cell body • Conducts impulses AWAY from the cell body

NEURON DIAGRAM

REMEMBER THIS…

• Dendrite = Input (towards the cell body)• Axons = Output (away from the cell body

• The I in dendrIte stands for Input, axOn = Output• Axons Away!! A stands for Away

NEUROGLIAL CELLS

• Have many functions• Some help the transmission of impulses• Others insulate, protect, support, hold a blood

supply to neurons• Many types of neuroglia (we’ll see the details later)

TISSUES TO ORGANS

• ORGAN = a group of tissues working together for 1 common function

• They are usually composed of 2 or more tissues with specific functions

ORGAN CHARACTERISTICS

• All organs have these 4 things in common:

• 1 Parenchymal cells• 2 Stroma• 3 Nerve Supply• 4 Blood Supply

PARENCHYMAL CELLS

• General term used to describe cells related to an organs major function

• EX- Enamel cells are the parenchyma of the teeth• Acid-making cells are parenchyma of the stomach

• Can you think of another parenchyma of the stomach?

STROMA

• Stroma is the connective tissue that binds the tissues within an organ together & keeps organs

separated from other nearby tissues• Stroma holds the acid-making cells of the stomach

to the smooth muscle of the stomach.• Without stroma, the stomach would digest itself &

its acids would soon spread to the other organs in the body, causing severe damage throughout.

BLOOD & NERVE SUPPLY

• All human organs require blood to bring in nutrients, oxygen, & ATP. Blood also removes wastes, carbon dioxide, & ADP (used, uncharged ATP).

• All human organs need a link to the nervous systemto communicate with the brain & spinal cord & to respond accordingly.

ORGAN SYSTEMS

• An organ system is a group of organs working together for 1 common function

• EX- Digestive system• Teeth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver,

intestines,etc.• 1 function: to break down food & absorb nutrients• The human body has 11 Organ Systems.

11 HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS

• 1 Integumentary 7 Urinary (Excretory)• 2 Skeletal 8 Reproductive• 3 Muscular 9 Nervous• 4 Digestive 10 Endocrine• 5 Circulatory 11 Immune*• 6 Respiratory * an honorary system

INTEGUMENTARY---skin

• Largest organ system, organ, and tissue group in the human body

• Parts:• Epidermis• Dermis• Their derivatives (hair, oil glands, nails,etc.)

INTEGUMENTAL FUNCTIONS

• 1 Protects the body from abrasions & cuts• 2 Senses external environment (heat, cold, touch…)• 3 Maintain body temperature• 4 Immune functions (mostly blocks out dirt/germs)• 5 Make vitamin D in the presence of sunlight• 6 Excretion—sweat

SKELETAL

• Parts: Bones, Cartilage, Ligaments

• Functions:• 1 Muscle attachment for locomotion• 2 Protect vital organs• 3 Stores calcium, phosphorus, & fat• 4 Makes RBCs• 5 Supports body weight

MUSCULAR

• Parts: Striated, Smooth, Cardiac Muscles

• Functions:• 1 Body movement• 2 Internal transport of fluid (peristalsis)

EX- esophagus, large intestine• 3 Makes heat

DIGESTIVE

• Parts: Teeth, Tongue, Salivary Glands, Esophagus, Stomach, Small & Large Intestines, Liver,

Pancreas, and Gall Bladder

• Functions:• 1 Physical & chemical breakdown of food• 2 Uptake, store, & release nutrients

CIRCULATORY• Parts: Heart, Blood, Lymph, Blood & Lymph Vessels,

Lymph Nodes, Spleen, Bone Marrow and Tonsils

• Functions:• 1 Transport system for:• A metabolism (food, waste, gases, heat)• B immune system (antibodies, WBCs)• C endocrine hormones (chemicals that stay inside)• 2 Regulate pH (acid-base balance)

RESPIRATORY

• Parts:• Nose• Larynx—voice box• Trachea—windpipe • Bronchi—branches into the lungs• Alveoli—air sacs in lungs (attached to capillaries)• Lungs• Functions: Gas exchange, pH balance

URINARY (EXCRETORY)

• Parts:• Kidneys• Ureters—pipes between kidneys & bladders• Bladder—stores urine• Urethra—pipe where urine exits the body• Fuctions:• 1 Balance of the internal environment• 2 Blood thicknesspressurepulse rate

REPRODUCTIVE

• Parts: Female-Ovaries, Oviduct (Fallopian Tubes)Uterus, Vagina

Male-Testes, Prostrate, Penis

• Functions:• 1 Make hormones• 2 Make eggs & sperm (gametes)• 3 Site of fetal development

NERVOUS

• Parts:• Sensory organs (5 senses)• Brain + Spinal cord (CNS)• Somatic nerves (PNS)—[somatic = body]• Functions:• 1 Regulate & integrate body functions via nerves• 2 Conduct impulses

ENDOCRINE

• Parts:• Cells, organs, & glands that make hormones

• Function:• Regulate & integrate body functions via hormones

IMMUNITY

• Fighting off germs & disease

• The immune system is really an honorary system• It borrows from many other body systems

TRADITIONAL IMMUNITY• WBCs—makes antibodies & actually eat germs, some

spear them to death• Antibodies—chemical agents designed to destroy specific

germs, It is chemical warfare designed by WBCs• Lymph—circulates/collects dirt, germs, & debris from

ALL tissues• Lymph nodes- filters the stuff collected/floating in

fluid lymph• Spleen- although WBCs are made in bone marrow,

they gather & mature in the spleen

COOPERATIVE IMMUNITY

• Other immune functions are expressed throughout the body as physical or chemical barriers to

prevent the entrance of invading pathogens.

INTEGUMENTAL IMMUNITY

• Skin provides a physical barrier between us & germs

• ACID MANTLE• Has pH of 4.4-5.5 to deter bacterial growth• This is called the acid mantleacid mantle, slightly acidic due to

the secretions of the sweat & oil glands • Hairs also keeps germs out of parts of our body:• EX- Eyelashes, eyebrows, nasal & pubic hair

SKELETAL IMMUNITY

• Hematopoiesis generates germ-eating & antibody-making WBCs

MUSCULAR IMMUNITY

• Maintains body temperature• Muscular contractions generate heat• EX- We shiver when it gets too cold outside.• These involuntary contractions warm up the body• Maintaining a relatively high body temperature

keeps the body too warm to allow most bacteria to thrive inside the body.

NERVOUS IMMUNITY

• Some neuroglial cells specialize in fighting germs in the spinal cord.

THE 5 SENSES

• These are classified as part of the nervous system

• 1 Touch• 2 Taste• 3 Smell• 4 Hear• 5 Sight

EYES

• Eyebrows,eyelashes-physical barriers to dirt & germs• Eyelids do the same• THE ASIAN EYEFOLD—• Flap of skin at the inner corner of the eye• Its an example of immune human adaptation as

Asian ancestors were nomadic people geographically plagued by sandstorms

• Tear glands wash dirt/germs out of the eye

EARS

• The ear canal open to the outside world twists & turns to prevent bugs from flying directly into the middle ear,

• THE BUG TRAP-• Actual speed bump in the ear canal to keep bugs &

foreign objects outside.• Some ear canals are hairy to also prevent the entry

of objects• CERUMIN (ear wax) traps dirt by being sticky

DIGESTIVE IMMUNITY

• Mucous from nose & throat traps germs (flypaper)• This mucous is periodically dumped into the

stomach• Germs trapped in the mucous are “burned alive” &

destroyed in the stomach acid• Many Ohioans experience this excessively during

allergy season as Sinus Drainage• This is natural, but excess is not.

RESPIRATORY IMMUNITY

• Mucous in the nose, mouth, throat, pharynx, trachea, & bronchi collect germs by their sticky

surfaces.• Mucous also warms the air we inhale, helping to kill

off germ. This is why it is healthier to breathe through the nose rather than the mouth.

• Nasal hair also filters the air inhaled into the body• Cilia lining the air passages do the same.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE IMMUNITY

• Reproductive body openings (orifices) are well protected.

• The Penal Orifice• Has mucous lining• Can completely close & seal shut• Prepuce cartilage forms a physical barrier in front of

the opening

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE IMMUNITY

• The Vaginal Orifice• Larger orifice lined by a double fleshy hood/lips• Labia majora & the labia minora form this barrier• Labia = lip, majora = greater, minora = lesser• Labia majora is the outer lip, l. minora is the inner

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE IMMUNITY

• Vagina is highly acidic to chemically destroy germs • Acidic enough most times of the month to destroy

sperm itself• THIS IS NOT CONTACEPTION!• Not all sperm will be destroyed upon entry• Sperm travel in great numbers,

outer ones protect the inner ones• The HYMEN also forms a barrier to invaders

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE IMMUNITY

• The Uterus• This is the site of human development• It must be protected to ensure healthy offspring• It can form a protein barrier around itself to prevent

the transmission of some types of germs between mother & fetus

THIS IS…

• Just a few of the stories in the ongoing saga of • HUMAN BIOLOGY!!