WELCOME!LET REVIEW 2009HISTORICAL, PHILOSOPHICAL and LEGAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION PROF. EDGARDO S. VILLASEORLECTURERPRIMITIVE EDUCATION ( Education in the Preliterate Period )Education for Conformity Aims:1.Security or survival2.Conformity Methods or Means of Learning( Practical / Informal Education )1.Simple telling and instruction ( show me or tell me )2.Imitation / trial and error3.Observation4. Indoctrination Content:1.Simple forms of domestic, vocational, physical, moral, and military training; 2.Religious, musical or literary activities.HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONSPERIODS AND INFLUENCESEducation During the Ancient Period Education in Ancient Asia Education in Ancient GreeceEducation in Ancient Rome Medieval EducationRenaissance Education Education in the 20th CenturyTHE EFFECTSThe culture was passed on and preserved for generationTribes were able to meet their economic needs and were able to survivePeople were able to adjust and adapt to political and social lifeEDUCATION IN ANCIENT ASIA (Oriental Education)Education was basically a system of social stratification and division of classes.Aims:1.To acquire group traditions2.To learn ordinary skills and trades of lifeMethods of teaching and learning:1.Imitation and apprenticeship2. Rote learning and memorizationContent:1.Memorizing the contents of the Confucian classics, the Vedas, the Tripitaka, the Mosaic Law of the Jews etc.Contributions:1.From the Chinese - The civil service examination.2.From the Assyrians Cuneiform writing 3.From the Egyptians Pictographic & Hieroglyphic writingEDUCATION IN ANCIENT GREECEThe Greeks were the first people in Europe to develop civilization; but it was from the Minoans, Egyptians and the Phoenician traders that the Greeks learned how to write, to use metals, to trade, and to build and sail ships.There are two contrasting types of education in Greece:1.Spartan Education2.Athenian EducationSPARTAN EDUCATIONIt is controlled by the state and exercised the right to expose sickly babies on the mountainside to dieA seven boys and girls were gathered in the barracks for physical trainingMemorizing the laws of Lycurgus the Spartan lawgiver and the epics of Homer, Iliad and the OdysseyAt 18, definite training in the use of arms and warfare beganAt 20-30, service in the army and guarding the borders of the state were requiredPhysical training for the girls were also rigorous to bear healthy children at 20Agoge state trainingArete a virtue or excellence, moral goodness, one which makes a thing a hero, the best, the most effective of its kind.Paidonomus a barracks commanderThe Spartan education system ensured that the citizens were reared in such a way that they neither would , nor could live by themselves one with the public good. This involved a long process of conditioning, beginning at birth where deemed much less the children of their parents than the wards of the state. ATHENIAN EDUCATIONThe first state in the worlds history where human capacities were allowed to develop freelyThey believed that the greatest work of art was the human formMan should be molded in the ideals of the arte or chivalrous honorSchool attendance was voluntaryAt seven, boys can be sent to the palaestra for physical training Introduced Holistic education the development of perfect citizens, knowing both how to rule and to be ruled on the basis of justice (Plato & Aristotle)They approached their problem in a scientific way, by examining principles governing human life , asking what a man was, body, mind and spirit. Education is the making of man, not training men to make things (technicism). Teaching someone the skills of using a computer or a mobile phone is not education, it is not a true culture of the whole person. To Plato and Aristotle, useful, no doubt necessary, but not education.Palaestrae public gymnasiumsDidaskaleon music schoolPaidogogus once a slave but very learned and was in-charge with teaching the boys with the intricacies of manner and moralsHeterae cultured women who participated in social life and intellectual discussions of the upper class malesKitharist music teacherGrammalist grammar teacherPaedotribe gymnastics teacher Great Athenian philosophers:A.Socrates developed the question-and- answer method of inquiry known as the Socratic Method.B.Plato wrote the Republic, a treatise founded on the aristocratic ideals that education must be controlled by the state. C. Aristotle developed the first scientific argument based on human nature.Sophists Gr. wise men , scholars who teach for feesProtagoras one of the leading Sophists who wrote extensive description of Greek education.Ephebus a young man at 18, enters military training and join the Ephebi. Two categories of curriculum:1.Mousike- includes music, language and literature2.gymnastike- physical training and athletics needed in war and competitions.ROMAN EDUCATIONThe aim of Roman education was utilitarian, not theory but application, not learning but practice.It emphasized a practical training for the military life and citizenship acquired through memorization of the Laws of the Twelve Tables and the historical traditions of Rome.It is concerned with the development of a vir bonus, a man endowed with the highest virtues, a good citizen. Ludus primary schoolLudi magister- schoolmasterGrammaticus teacher of language and literatureRhetor teacher of rhetoricSchola secondary schoolTwo most influential Roman teachers and thinkers:1.Cicero- wrote De Oratore, providing the ideals of education in the Middle Ages2.Quintillian- wrote Instituto de Oratore, emphasized that an orator must be a man of integrity and character.MEDIEVAL EDUCATIONEARLY CHRISTIAN EDUCATIONAim: Moral regeneration of man Types of education:a.Moral and,b.Religious trainingSchools:a.Catechumenal schools for those who desire to become members of the churchb.Catechetical schools- for the training of church leadersc.Cathedral or Episcopal schools- theological training schools under the direct instruction of the bishops.Contribution: The spread of Christianity all over the world. MONASTICISMAims: 1. Salvation of individual souls2. Worldly renunciation for the sake of moral improvement ( thru vows of chastity, poverty and obedience)Type/Content:a.Literacy activities and manual training based on The Rule of Benedictb.The Seven Liberal Arts ( Trivium and Quadrivium)Schools:Monastic schools were established by Charlemagne and supervised by a missi dominici Alcuin- the greatest schoolmaster of this time Contribution:The principle of self-abnegation or organized asceticism as those in seminaries and monasteries. SCHOLASTICISMAims:a.Support the church doctrines by rational argumentsb.Intellectual disciplineTypes: 1.Scholastic Realists (Anselm)2.Conceptualists (Abelard)Summa Theologicae- official doctrine of the church by papal decree written by St. Thomas AquinasAgencies: Monastic schools - AbbotCathedral schools - BishopMedieval universities Pope, emperor, king Palace schools - King Organization:Chancellor-given authority to issue a teaching license.Universitas Magistrorum et Scholarium or universitas- a corporation of teachers and students Studium Generale- student bodyNations group of students according to place of originCouncilor head of the nationsFacultas group of teachers teaching the same subjectDean head of the facultas Rector chief executive officer of the universityMethods: LectureRepetitionDisputationExamination Contribution:Knowledge on how to organize our own schoolsCHIVALRIC EDUCATIONAim: Teach the best ideals for entrance into aristocracy Type/Content:Taught young nobles to manage their estate and acquire the class consciousness of superiority over the lower class.Consisted of physical, social, military and religious activities.AgencyHome, then court schools, and the fields of battle Contribution:Training for effective warfare THE GUILD SYSTEM OF EDUCATIONAim: Vocational training Types/Content:Reading and writing in the vernacular for commerce and industry. Agencies:1.burgher schools2.chantry schools3.guild schools Organization:Stages of development as craftsman:1.apprentice2.journeymen3.master craftsmen Contribution: Mercantilism and industrial knowledge. SARACENIC APPROACH TO EDUCATIONAim: Search for knowledge and the application of scientific facts to the affairs of daily life.Type/Content:Memorizing the KoranElementary education was open to all. Financial aid was given to needy studentsMuslim curriculum was the most complete.Agencies:Early caliphs founded elementary schools including universities.Contribution:1. Improved strategies in teaching subjects like science because of the inventions they made 2. ScholarshipRENAISSANCE EDUCATIONA. INDIVIDUALISTIC HUMANISMAim: To develop personality through music and the arts.Types/ContentLiterary Physical EducationAesthetic Social trainingClassical Art Literature Agencies:Home and court schoolsContribution: ( From Vittorino da Feltre)Developing the power to thinkAdapting the work of an individual to his needs and capacitiesInclusion of play in the curricula B. NORTHERN OR SOCIAL HUMANISMAim: Eliminate the ignorance of the common people and the hypocrisy of the social leaders.Types/Content1.Moral education 4. Classical literature2.Social education 5. Biblical literature 3.Literary education Agencies:Court schools French lyceesGerman gymnasium Universitas Methods:Erasmus: Individualized instructionVives: Use of the vernacular; education of womenStrum: Memorization and imitationAscham: Double translation in teaching language. ContributionLeading figure was Guarino Veronese who designed a curriculum consisting of physical and intellectual education. PROTESTANT REFORMATION MOVEMENTLeading Advocates:1.Martin Luther 2.John Calvin3.Philip Melancthon Aim: Religious moralismType/ContentCharacter Education Bible studyVocational training Agencies:Home and church Methods:Religious indoctrination Memorization Contribution:1.Made education available to masses2.Organization of school system ( Saxony Plan, later Wurtenberg Plan)3.Parents were obliged to send children to school COUNTER-REFORMATION MOVEMENTAim: Religious moralism to develop an unquestioning obedience to the authority of the church.Type/Content:Religious and moral education Agencies/Methods:a.Jesuits-Doing small amount of work at a time, doing it well and making sure it is retainedb.Christian Brothers-Grade pupils according to abilitiesc.Jansenists-Nothing is to be memorized unless understoodContribution:Discipline among Catholic schools was firm but free from brutality. REALISTIC MOVEMENTThree Groups1.Humanistic or literary realists2.Social realists3.Sense realistsAims:1.Knowledge and understanding human society through the study of literature ( Vives, Rabelais and Milton)2.To prepare aristocratic youth for the life of a gentleman in the world affairs( Michael de Montaigne)3. To develop a harmonious society working in accordance with natural and universal law (Bacon, Comenius, Mulcaster and Ratke)FORMAL DISCIPLINEAim: Formation of character or habits through exercises of the mind, body and self-controlTypes/ContentPhysical, moral and intellectual development through mastery of linguistics and mathematicsAgenciesGrammar schools- EnglandGymnasium- Germany Lycees- FranceTutorial SystemMethodsLockes three steps of learning: Sensation, memory and reasoning The use of corporal punishment in case of obstinacy (stubbornness)Contribution: The value of drill subjects such as spelling, mathematics and grammar to enhance memorizing, reasoning, analyzing and problem solving skills. RATIONALISMAim: To develop an individual capable of controlling all aspects of his life by reason, suppressing passions and feelings, to live in a highly artificial world.ContentResults to the creation of a group of intellectual aristocrats called illuminatiOld moral values were replaced by sexual laxity, immodesty, infidelity, and extravagance.ImplicationUpheld the right of an individual to his own opinion, liberty of conscience, and freedom of thought Rationalist Thinkers1.Rene Descartes Cogito ergo sum I think, therefore I exist2.Benedict Spinoza- Psycho-physical parallelismseries of phenomena pertaining to extension are parallel to those pertaining to thought.EDUCATION IN THE 20TH CENTURYNATURALISMAim: Preservation of natural goodness and virtue of the individualType/ContentDemocratic and universal type of educationInformal exercises of the sensesTextbook was dwelt on Robinson Crusoe (Dafoe) and Emile (Rousseau).Methods1.Principle of growth2.Principle of pupil activity3.Principle of individualizationContributionEducation should consider the nature of the child NATIONALISMAims: Preservation of the state, economic protection, unity, and identityTypes/Content1.Religious and moral2.Physical education3.Vocational trainingMethods1.Pestalozzian2.HerbartianAgenciesPublic and private schools (Elementary, secondary and Colleges) Contributions:Ladder system of educationFree and absolute education for all DEVELOPMENTALISMA psychological movement advocating a child-centered point of view which aimed to unfold the natural capacities of the child which can be enhanced or retarded by the methods used in the school.Noted Developmentalists:1.JOHANN HEINRICH PESTALOZZI He believed that pedagogical reform would lead to social reform. Learning come through the senses.2.FREIDRICK FROEBEL- known for his kindergarten. Children should not be thought why they dont understand.3.JONATHAN HERBART- known for his highly structured methodology of teaching (Herbartian Method)4.MARIA MONTESSORI- known internationally because of her Casa de Bambini which offered early childhood education. Three major activities: practical, sensory and muscular, and formal. 5. JOHN DEWEY-known for his philosophy of pragmatism. He viewed education as a process of social activity and the school was related to the society which it served.6. JEAN PIAGET-known for his contribution to early childhood education in the field of cognitive development.7. EDWARD L. THORNDIKE- a scientific educator known for his laws of learning such as: the law of readiness, law of exercise and the law of effect.SOCIOLOGICAL MOVEMENTThis leading movement in education is attributed to John Dewey. The focus is on the contribution of education to the preservation and progress of the society; what he called as the social function of education.Two points of View:1.Social TraditionalismAim: To give pupils insight into their traditions to arouse sympathy toward social service2. Social ExperimentalismAim: To foster social change specially in the field of science and technology to meet the needs of the changing society.INTERNATIONALISMEthical belief or scientific approach where in which people of different nations are held to be equal as opposed to national chauvinism and racism.It encourages an active partnership between teachers and students moving from awareness and analysis of issues to action.Styles of internationalism1.Unilateral internationalism2.Bilateral internationalism3.Multilateral internationalismPHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATIONNATURALISMConsidered to be the oldest philosophy in the Western world. The early Greek thinkers were naturalists. Some of them were Thales, Democritus, Epicurus and Lucritus. The contemporary naturalists are:1.THOMAS HOBBESAccording to him, the native condition of man is a war of everyone against everyone. He is continually in competition with others, grasping for honor and dignity. Man should be kept busy from which he must struggle for something better, because he is troublesome if he is not at ease. His hunger for power is an unquenchable only ceases at death. 2.JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAUHe views that everything is good as it comes from the hands of nature but everything degenerates in the hands of man.He established three (3) great principles of learning: 1)The principle of growth the order of nature is need, activity, experience and knowledge. The teachers role is not to impel learning but merely to guide it in such a way that it follows the natural order.2)The principle of student activity- Nothing must be done for the student that he can do for himself. 3)The principle of individualization The needs and interests of the student must be placed above those of the society. 3. HERBERT SPENCERHe believed in an Absolute Being, the foundation of all phenomena which man can observe. It is conceivable yet unknowable. It is the continuing force or power in the world of nature. REALISMThe philosophical doctrine that universals have a real objective existence. It is based on what is real as they are; something that exists independently of all other things and from which all others are derived. Some realist thinkers:a. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS-According to him, matter which is the material substance out of which the world was made, did not co-exist with God before the creation of the universe. a. JOHN AMOS COMENIUS The mind of man is like a spherical, mirror suspended in a room which reflects images of all things that are around it.c.RENE DESCARTES- Believes that the physical world is real and his senses are not deceived.d.BARUCH SPINOZA- Believes that there is only one substance and this is his being identical with God. e.JOHN LOCKE- Believes that there are no innate ideas in the mind. At birth, it is just similar to a blank sheet of paper (tabula rasa) upon which the world writes its impressions. f.IMMANUEL KANT-Our sensory experience and perceptions are representations of the external world and not direct representations of it. Our experience of the world is private. IDEALISMReality is composed of thought related to mind and idea, and that matter is just an appearance. Contemporary Idealist:GEORGE BERKELEYConsidered as the founder of modern idealism. Believes that the fundamental element of the world is not matter but spirit or mind PRAGMATISMA philosophical movement stressing practical consequences as constituting the essential criterion in determining meaning, truth or values. This was primarily an American philosophical movement formulated by CHARLES SANDERS PEIRCE. WILLIAM JAMESFor him, the test of a theory, doctrine or belief must be its results. The only reason that we have for asserting that anything is true is whether it works. INSTRUMENTALISMAccording to JOHN DEWEY, what constitutes our brute or animalistic experience is the interaction between a biological organism and its environment. Experience is not an object known, but rather, an action performed. He proposed that the educational system should try to develop methods for problem solving. If the student learned how to solve problems, presumably he would be better fit for living in our ever-changing world with its manifold perplexities.For him knowledge is not an end but an instrument an individual can utilize to attain his desired goal. It emphasizes the importance of experience, experimentation, and learning by doing which brought tremendous influence on the learner.EXISTENTIALISMA modern movement encompassing the doctrine that individual existence determines essence, that man has no absolute freedom of choice but there are no rational criteria serving as a basis for choice.Two prominent exponents of existentialism:1.SOREN KIERKEGAARD-For him, man is a subjective thinker and comprehends himself not as an abstraction but as an ethically engaged existing subject. An authentic choice is fundamentally a product of passion and zealous intention.2.FRIEDRICH NIETZSHE-He sees that the nature of man makes him vulnerable to deficiencies which have to be corrected to produce a superior race. He said that traditional morality is the reason of an inferior race of man. Nature is beyond good and evil; all men are unequal; morality is an invention of the weak to limit and deter the strong; that power is the supreme virtue and the supreme desire of man; and that of all forms of government, the wisest and most natural is aristocracy. OTHER PROMINENT EXISTENTIALISTS1.JEAN PAUL SARTRE- According to him, in anxiety, man becomes aware of his freedom, knows himself and is responsible for his own actions and commitment. He believes that there is no creator of man. Man determines his essence. Man first is, then he defines himself.2.KARL JASPERS- For him existence is always in a situation. It is mans reactions to inescapable situations (death, suffering, guilt, struggles) that our potential existence becomes actual. 3.MARTIN HEIDEGGER- Man is a being-in-a- world by participation and involvement. His world is a world which he shares with others. Human existence itself is essentially togetherness. There are three (3) fundamental features of man. They are factuality (He is already involved in the world);Existentiality (He is a project and a possibility); and fallenness or forfeiture ( He has the tendency to become a mere presence in the world; failing to make the most of his possibilities because of gossip, curiosity and ambiguity)FIELDS OF PHILOSOPHY AND ITS AREA OF METAPHYSICSINQUIRY- Studies the nature of reality and beingEPISTEMOLOGY-Inquires about the nature, presuppositions, and scope of knowledgeLOGIC- Studies correct thinking or rules of inference to argumentsETHICS- Inquires into morally right conduct and morally good lifeAESTHETICS- Analyzes standards and values in art and aesthetic experienceAXIOLOGY- Studies the nature, status and types of valuesEDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY AND THE ROLE OF THE TEACHERWhy study Educational Philosophy?It provides a means of systematic inquiry by which teachers can examine their values, knowledge, and actions and subsequently make decisions that lead to the accomplishment of classroom, school and societal goals.New Standards for Teacher Education (NBPTS,1987)Knowledge. About people and social organizations, cultures, epistemology, specific disciplines, human growth and development, communication and language, scientific inquiry, and research on effective learning and teaching.Skills. Assessment, planning, instruction, evaluation, social behavior management, and role modeling.Dispositions. Toward self, toward the learner, toward teaching, and toward the profession. Three Categories of Philosophic InquiryMetaphysics-the branch of philosophy that seeks to explain the nature of being or reality (ontology) and the origin and structure of the world (cosmology).Epistemology-is the study of the origin, nature, methods, and limits of knowledge.Axiology-From metaphysical and epistemological questions emanate knowledge of standards and moral conduct (ethics) and concern about issues related to beauty and art ( aesthetics). CONNECTING PHILOSOPHY TO THEORY AND PRACTICEThe Early Period (5th Century - 4th Century B.C.) Philosophers and their philosophy:a.Plato Ideas are perfect paradigms and universal.b.Aristotle- Explained organisms in terms of their contributions to society or to the ideal state. This is known as teleological explanation.c.Socrates- Knowledge is virtue and all virtuous actions are based on knowledge.PERENNIALISM AND ESSENTIALISMKey ConceptsPerennialism refers to the belief that truth is universal and unchanging and therefore education should have as its goal the preservation and transmission of lasting values and ideas.In practice, it is concerned with the development of the intellectual and spiritual potential of humankind.Essentialism-derives its name from the belief that the task of education is to instill students with the essentials of academic knowledge and character development.Present-Day Proponents of Perennialism and EssentialismMortimer Adler-(1902-2001) Known for his proposal for an educational system that would fulfill the democratic promise of equal educational opportunities for all. (The Paideia Proposal)Arthur Bestor-(1908-1994) For him, genuine education is intellectual education, and this is the only education that has worth. He stressed that the function of education is to provide sound training in the fundamental ways of thinking. E.D. Hirsch, Jr.-(1928- ) He is best known for his bookCultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know and another one entitled, The Schools We Need. He advocated that being culturally literate means the necessary information (shared symbols) to communicate in the national community.Robert M. Hutchins- He averred that education should be based on the classical disciplines of grammar, rhetoric, logic, mathematics, natural science, philosophy and ideas from the Modern World. He said that we should not allow students to think that the purpose of education is simply to get better jobs.Theodore Sizer-He stressed the concept of less is more when applied to the curricular scope of schools. It means more is to be gained by committing the school and its resources to the task of cultivating the intellect through academic disciplines. Implication of the Perennialist/Essentialist Philosophy to Schools1.Belief in the need for a common course of study.2.A minimum of 12 years of study in the fundamental discipline3.Development of the habit of self-discipline, thoughtfulness leading to ethical behavior, and the recognition of the need for lifelong learning.4.Highly structured schools with universal standards for all, performance objectives and evaluation methods that are clear to all.5.A recognition that a common course of studies for all students is necessary to fulfill the promise of citizenship in a democracy.6.Toughening of standards for entrance to and completion of the teacher education program in order to prepare highly qualified teachers who possess the knowledge and skills to teach-and inspire students. Major Educational Educational Educational Practice Philosophies Theories GoalsIdealismPerennialism Development Socratic method and of intellectual and logical EssentialismpotentialreasoningRealismPerennialism Transmission Universal standards, and of the basic Teacher-centered Essentialismelements of classrooms, highly qualified teachers in culturecontent-areas, age appropriate materials, progressive curriculum, strict order and disciplineThe Dawning of the Child-centered CurriculumDevelopmentalism-refers to the belief that teaching based on the developmental stages of the child is the most effective teaching practice.It is also called developmentally appropriate practice and constructivism.The Advocates of this philosophy were:1. Jean Jacques Rousseau2.Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi3.Friedrich FroebelWHAT THIS MEANS FOR SCHOOLS?Children are diverse in their abilities, and new information should be introduced only when the child is ready for it.A prepared environment is conducive to learning.Play is an integral factor in learning and uninterrupted time should be allotted to it.Curriculum and instruction should match the childs needs and interests.Schools provide society with an opportunity to better the world and the human condition.The Advent of Rationalism and EmpiricismEmpiricism- stresses the search for knowledge through use of the five senses and through observation and experimentation. (Bacon and Locke)Rationalism emphasizes the importance of reason as secondary to sensory experience, feelings, or authority. (Descartes)Other Contemporary Developmentalists are the ff:Lawrence Kohlberg- Theory of Moral DevelopmentJean Piaget- Cognitive Development TheoryLev Vygotzky- Social Development Theory ZPDAlbert Bandura-Social Development Theory-Internal Locus of Control RATIONALISM AND EMPIRICISMMajor Educational Educational Educational Philosophies Theories Goals PracticeRationalism Developmental Education that will Attention to needs, and Empiricism Theory allow children to develop naturally in interests and readiness of (Developmentaaccordance with learner.lism)their own abilities and interests.Use of manipulatives, hands-on and Acquisition of concrete materials knowledge through Emphasis on observation, discovery through experimentation and observation, reflection of and on experimentation, the natural world.and reflection.Emphasis on The Contemporary PeriodExistentialism-Philosophical and literary movement stemming from Kierkegaard and represented by Sartre, Camus, and others; based on the the doctrine that existence takes precedence over essence and that human beings are totally free and responsible for their actions, and that this responsibility is the source of the dread and anguish that are part of being human. Instrumentalism-The pragmatic doctrine that ideas are plans for actions serving as instruments for adjustment to the environment, and that their validity is tested by their effectiveness.Pragmatism-Philosophical doctrine that denies the possibility of obtaining absolute truth; truth or validity is determined by consequences.Utilitarianism-Philosophy brought into full bloom by the 18th and 19th century English philosopher Jeremy Bentham, affirms that the rightness of actions is determined by whether or not they bring the greatest good for the greatest number of people.Progressivism and Constructivism Major Educational Educational Educational Philosophies Theories Goals PracticePragmatismProgressivismAllow Engage students in individuals to activities that facilitate And create or the construction of Constructivismconstruct their meaning.own Curriculum organized in understanding a spiral meaning so student can build upon of knowledge prior knowledge. through the Use of techniques like: interaction of cooperative learning, what they project method, problem already know solving etc.and believe.Give challenging activities geared to students ZPDAdvocates of Progressivism and ConstructivismProgressivism1.William Heard Kilpatrick-2.Harold Rugg3.Jane Addams4.Ella Flagg YoungConstructivism1.Paolo Freire2.Jean Piaget3.Lev VygotskyThoughts Concerning Education: Directions for the 21stCentury ( Nicholas Burbules)Prepare individuals with capacity to learn and adapt to the changing world.Look at problems concerns from a cosmopolitan perspective.Developing capacities for curiosity, for flexibility in thinking in different waysFostering of a moral character that is not fundamentalistMaking education valuable through recognition of human potentialities: wide-awakeneness (Maxine Greene)CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PROBLEM SOLVERPositive attitudeConcern for AccuracyHabit of Breaking the Problem Into PartsAvoidance of GuessingActive Problem Solving