History of Pakistan.doc

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History of Pakistan

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Prior to creation as a modernstate in 1947, the area of modern Pakistanwas both ruled and reigned by local kings and under

numerous imperial power throughout different time periods. The ancient history of the region comprising present-day Pakistan also

includes some of the oldest empires from thesubcontinent [1] and some of its major civilizations.[2][3][4][5]By the 18th century the land

was incorporated intoBritish India. The political history of the nation began with the birth of theAll India Muslim League in 1906 to

protect "Muslim interests, amid neglect and under-representation" and to oppose Congress and growing Indian nationalism in return

theBritish Raj would decide to grant local self-rule. On 29 December 1930,Sir Muhammad Iqbalcalled for an autonomous new

state in "northwestern India for Indian Muslims".[6] The League rose to popularity in the late 1930s.Muhammad Ali Jinnahespoused

theTwo Nation Theoryand led the League to adopt theLahore Resolution[7] of 1940, demanding the formation of independent

states in the East and the West ofBritish India. Eventually, a united Pakistan with its wings West PakistanandEast Pakistan
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gained independence from theBritish, on 14 August 1947. After an intense guerrilla insurgency, followed by warwithIndia, the state

ofEast Pakistan separated at a considerable distance from the rest of Pakistan, became the independent state ofBangladeshin

1971.

The firstconstituent assembly of Pakistan passed theObjectives Resolutionon March 12, 1949. The resolution, proposed by the

firstPrime MinisterLiaquat Ali Khan, proclaimed that the future constitution of Pakistan would not be modeled entirely on

anEuropean pattern, but on the ideology and democratic faith of Islam. Thelegislative elections in 1954 saw theAwami

Leaguecoming to power and its leaderHuseyn Suhrawardybecoming country's firstBengaliPrime minister. Promulgation

ofConstitutionin 1956 leads to Pakistan declaring itselfIslamic republic(official name) with the adoption ofparliamentary

democraticsystem of government. The constitution transformed theGovernor-General of Pakistan intoPresident of Pakistan

(ashead of state). Subsequently,Iskander Mirza became the first president as well as first Bengali in 1956, but the democratic

system was stalled after President Mirza imposed themilitary coup d'tatand appointedAyub Khan as an enforcer of martial law.

Two week later, Ayub Khan ousted President Mirza; his presidency saw an era of internal instability and asecond warwith India in

1965. Economic grievances and political disenfranchisement inEast Pakistan led to violent political tensions and armed repression,

escalating intoguerrilla war[8] followed by thethird warwith India. Pakistan's defeat in the war ultimately led to the secession of East

Pakistan and the birth ofBangladesh.[9]

Democracy again returned which was resumed from 1972 to 1977 underZulfikar Ali Bhutto, until he was varnished by General Zia-

ul-Haq, who became the country's third military president. Pakistan's banished-secularpolicies were replaced by the new

IslamicShariah legal code, which increased religious influences on the civil service and the military. With the death of President Zia-

ul-Haqin 1988, the new general electionsannounced the victory ofBenazir Bhuttowho was elevated as the country's first

femalePrime Minister of Pakistan. Over the next decade, she alternated power withNawaz Sharif, as the country's political and

economic situation becoming worsen. Military tensions in theKargil conflict[10]

with India were followed by a1999 coup d'tat in

which GeneralPervez Musharrafassumed executive powers.

In 2001, Musharraf appointed himselfPresidentafter the resignation ofRafiq Tarar. After holding the2002 general elections,

Musharraf transformed executive powers to newly elected Prime MinisterZafarullah Jamali, who was succeeded in the 2004

by Shaukat Aziz. On 15 November 2007, the State parliament completed its term and a caretaker government was appointed with

the former Chairman of The Senate,Muhammad Mian Soomroas Prime Minister. Following theassassination of Benazir Bhutto,

that resulted in a series of important political developments, her husbandAsif Ali Zardariwas eventually elected as the new

President in 2008.

Prehistory

Soanian Culture

Main article:Soanian
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An early farming village in Mehrgarh, c. 7000BCE, with houses built with mud bricks. (Muse Guimet, Paris).

TheSoanianis an archaeological culture of theLower Paleolithic(ca. 1.9 mya to 125,000 BC), contemporary to theAcheulean. It isnamed after theSoan Valley in the Sivalik Hills, near modern-day Islamabad/Rawalpindi, Pakistan. The bearers of this culturewereAHSAN. InAdiyala and Khasala, about 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) from Rawalpindi, on the bend of theSoan Riverhundreds ofedged pebble tools were discovered

Mehgarh period

Mehrgarh, (70005500 BCE), on the Kachi Plain ofBalochistan, is an importantNeolithic site discovered in 1974, with earlyevidence of farming and herding,[11]and dentistry.[1]Early residents lived in mud brick houses, stored grain in granaries, fashionedtools withcopper ore, cultivated barley, wheat,jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle

Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization developed between 33001700 BCE on the banks of theIndus River. At its peak, the civilisation hosteda population of approximately 5 million in hundreds of settlements extending as far as theArabian Sea, present-day southern andeasternAfghanistan, southeasternIran and theHimalayas.[15]Major urban centers wereat Dholavira,Kalibangan,Harappa,Lothal,Mohenjo-daro, andRakhigarhi, as well as an offshoot called the Kulli culture(25002000BCE) in southern Balochistan, which had similar settlements, pottery and other artifacts. The civilization collapsed abruptly around1700 BCE.

In the early part of the second millennium BCE, the Rigvedic civilization existed,[16]between the Sapta Sindhu andGanges-Yamuna rivers.[17]The city ofTaxilain northern Pakistan, became important to Vedic religion (and later inBuddhism).

Early history

Vedic period

Archaeological cultures. The GGC, Cemetery H, Copper Hoard and PGW cultures are candidates for cultures associated withIndo-

Aryans.

Early Vedic society consisted of largely pastoral groups, with late Harappan urbanization having been abandoned.[19]After the timeof theRigveda, Aryan society became increasingly agricultural and was socially organized around the fourvarnas, or social classes.In addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hinduism,
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ehrgarhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochistan_(region)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Pakistan#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Pakistan#cite_note-coppa-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jujubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Pakistan#cite_note-feuerstein-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholavirahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibanganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harappahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-darohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulli_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Pakistan#cite_note-stein-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapta_Sindhuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamunahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Pakistan#cite_note-britannica-early-vedic-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxilahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Pakistan#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigvedahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)


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TheKuru kingdom[22] corresponds to the Black and Red WareandPainted Grey Ware cultures and to the beginning of the Iron Agein South Asia, around 1000 BCE, as well as with the composition of theAtharvaveda, the first Vedic text to mention iron, as ymaayas, literally "black metal." The Painted Grey Ware culture spanned much of northern India from about 1100 to 600 BCE.[21]

Achaemenid Empire

Much of modern-day Pakistan was subordinated to the Achaemenid Empire and forced to pay tributes to Persia

Little is known about the Achaemenid Persian invasion of modern-dayPakistanas historical sources and evidence are scant andfragmentary containing little detail. There is no archaeological evidence of Achaemind control over modern-day Pakistan as not asingle archaeological site that can be positively identified with the Achaemenid Empire has been found anywhere in Pakistan,including at Taxila.

Gandhara and Sattagydia (Thatagus) are listed amongst the provinces inherited by Darius when he seized the throne in 522 BC in

his commemorative Behistun inscription, however, the dates of the initial annexation of these two regions is not certain.

Additionally, much of what constitutes Balochistan province in southwest Pakistan formed part of the Achaemenid satrapofGedrosia.

Greek invasion

Greek colonization and culture

Map showing the route of Alexander the Great

Crushing the Persian Achaemenid empire,Alexander the Great, the Greek king fromMacedonia, eventually invaded the region ofmodern Pakistan and conquered much of the Punjab region. After defeatingKing Porusin the fierceBattle of the Hydaspes(moderndayJhelum), his battle weary troops refused to advance further into India[26] to engage the formidable army ofNanda Dynasty andits vanguard of trampling elephants, new monstorities to the invaders.

After Alexander's untimely death in 323 BC, hisDiadochi(generals) divided the empire among themselves, with the MacedonianwarlordSeleucussetting up the Seleucid Kingdom, which included the Indus plain. [28]Around 250 BCE, the eastern part of theSeleucid Kingdom broke away to form theGreco-Bactrian Kingdom.
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Maurya Empire [edit]

Mauryan Empire underAshoka the Great

Main article:Maurya Empire

Modern day Pakistan was conquered byChandragupta Maurya, who overthrew the powerful Nanda DynastyofMagadha andestablished Maurya empire: He conquered the trans-Indusregion to the west, which was under Macedonian rule -annexing Balochistan, south eastern parts ofIran and much of what is nowAfghanistan, including themodernHerat[29] andKandaharprovinces - and then defeated the invasion led bySeleucus I, a Greek general from Alexander'sarmy

The Empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excludeda small portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions nearKalinga(modernOdisha), till it was conquered byAshoka. With anarea of 5,000,000 km2, it was one of the world'slargest empires in its time,

Under Chandragupta and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture and economic activities, all thrived and expandedacross India thanks to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance, administration, and security.

Gandhara culture [edit]

Greco-Buddhism (or Grco-Buddhism) was the syncretism between the culture ofClassical GreeceandBuddhism in thethen Gandhararegion of modernAfghanistanand Pakistan, between the 4th century BCE and the 5th century CE.[31]It influencedthe artistic development of Buddhism, and in particularMahayana Buddhism, before it spread to central and eastern Asia, from the

1st century CE onward.Demetrius

Graeco-Indians [edit]

A coin ofMenander I, who ruled the eastern dominions of the divided Greek empire ofBactriaand the modern Pakistani provinces

of theKhyber-Pakhtunkhwa,PunjabandSindh.
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wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana_Buddhismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Bactriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Pakistan&action=edit&section=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menander_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab_(Pakistan)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindh


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The Indo-GreekMenander I (reigned 155130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians out ofGandhara and beyond theHindu Kush,becoming a king shortly after his victory. His territories coveredPanjshirandKapisa in modern Afghanistan and extended tothePunjab region, with many tributaries to the south and east, possibly as far asMathura. The capitalSagala(modernSialkot)prospered greatly under Menander's rule and Menander is one of the few Bactrian kings mentioned by Greek authors.[32]TheclassicalBuddhist textMilinda Pahapraises Menander, saying there was "none equal to Milinda in all India.

Kushan Empire

The Kushan kingdom was founded by KingHeraios, and greatly expanded by his successor,Kujula Kadphises. Kadphises'

son,Vima Takto conquered territory now in India, but lost much of the west of the kingdom to the Parthians. The fourth Kushanemperor,KanishkaI, (c. 127 CE) had a winter capital at Purushapura (Peshawar) and a summer capital at Kapisa (Bagram). Thekingdom linked the Indian Oceanmaritime trade with the commerce of the Silk Road through the Indus valley.

Gupta Empire

TheGupta Empireat its maximum extent.

The Gupta Empire existed approximately from 320 to 600 CE and covered much of theIndian Subcontinent, including modernPakistan.[36]Founded byMaharaja Sri-Gupta, the dynasty was the model of a classical civilization[37]and was marked by extensiveinventions and discoveries.[38][39]

The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architectures, sculptures and paintings. [clarification needed][40][41][42]Science andpolitical administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. [clarification needed][43]Strong trade ties also made the region an importantcultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions inBurma,Sri Lanka,MaritimeSoutheast Asia and Indochina.[44]

The empire gradually declined due in part to loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories, andfrom the invasion by theHunasfrom Central Asia.[45]After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruledby numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire.These Guptas were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana kingHarsha, who established an empire in the first half of the 7th century.

Harsha, Hindu and Pla Empires

Main article:Pala Empire
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Pala

Empireunder Dharmapala

Pala Empire under Devapala

After the collapse of the Gupta Empire,Indiawas ruled by numerous regional kingdoms until the first half of the 7th century, whenthe Vardhana rulerHarsha, a north Indian ruler, established a vast empire. It disintegrated after his death, to be invaded by otherIndian warlords, soon after their victory over the Arab forces in Sindh, that set the eastern borders of Arab Sindh for a long time tocome.

The Pla's were aBuddhistdynasty ofBengal, which lasted for four centuries (7501120 AD). The empire reached its peakunderDharmapala and Devapalato cover much ofSouth Asia and beyond up toKamboja (modern dayAfghanistan), shattering thepride of many a ruler, including theHuna.

Later Medieval Age

Arab Invasion

Although soon after conquering the Middle Eastfrom theByzantine empireArab forces had reached the present western regions ofPakistan, during the period ofRashidun caliphacy, it was in 712 CE that a young Arab general called Muhammad binQasim conquered most of the Indus region for theUmayyad empire, to be made the "As-Sindh" province with its capital at Al-Mansurah, 72 km (45 mi) north of modernHyderabad in Sindh.

Ghaznavid Dynasty

In 997 CE,Mahmud of Ghazni, took over theGhaznavid dynastyempire established by his father, Sebuktegin, a Turkic origin ruler.Starting from the city ofGhazni (now inAfghanistan), Mehmood conquered the bulk ofKhorasan, marched on PeshawaragainsttheHinduShahis in Kabulin 1005, and followed it by the conquests ofPunjab (1007), deposed theShiaIsmaili rulers ofMultan,(1011), Kashmir (1015) and Qanoch (1017).

Delhi Sultanate

In 1160,Muhammad Ghori, aTurkicruler, conquered Ghazni from the Ghaznavids and became its governor in 1173. He for the firsttime named Sindh Tambade Gatarroughly translated as the red passage. He marched eastwards into the remaining Ghaznavidterritory and Gujarat in the 1180s, but was rebuffed by Gujarat'sHinduSolanki rulers. In 118687, he conquered Lahore, bringingthe last of Ghaznevid territory under his control and ending the Ghaznavid empire. Muhammad Ghori's successors establishedtheDelhi Sultanate.
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Mughal Empire

Mughal Empire at its peak

In 1526,Babur, a Timuriddescendant ofTimurandGenghis Khanfrom Fergana Valley(modern day Uzbekistan), swept acrosstheKhyber Pass and founded theMughal Empire, covering modern dayAfghanistan,Pakistan,IndiaandBangladesh.[49]TheMughals were descended from Central AsianTurks(with significant Mongol admixture). However, his sonHumayunwas defeated bythe Afghan warriorSher Shah Suri who was from Bihar state of India, in the year 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to Kabul.

After Sher Shah died, his sonIslam Shah Suri became the ruler, on whose death his prime minister, Hemu ascended the throne andruled North India from Delhi for one month. He was defeated by EmperorAkbar's forces in theSecond Battle of Panipaton 6

November 1556.

Durrani Empire

In 1739,Nader Shah, the Turkic emperor ofAfsharid dynasty in Persia, invaded South Asia, defeated the MughalEmperorMohammed Shah at the huge Battle of Karnal, and occupied most of Balochistan and the Indus plain.[50]After Nadir Shah'sdeath, the Durrani kingdom was established in 1747 by one of hisAfghangenerals,Ahmad Shah Abdali, and included Balochistan,Peshawar, Daman, Multan, Sind and Punjab.

Maratha Empire

Maratha Empire at its peak in 1758(orange)

In 1758 theMaratha Empire's general Raghunath Rao marched onwards, attacked and conqueredPunjab,KhyberPakhtunkhwa and Kashmirand drove outTimur Shah Durrani, the son and viceroy of Ahmad Shah Abdali.Lahore,Dera GhaziKhan,Multan,Peshawar,Kashmirand other subahs on the south eastern side of Afghanistan's border were under the Maratha rulefor the most part.[51] InPunjab,Khyber PakhtunkhwaandKashmir, theMarathas were now major players.[52][53]

Durrani reconquest

In 1761, following the victory at theThird battle of Panipat between the Durrani and theMaratha Empire, Ahmad Shah Abdalicaptured remnants of the Maratha Empire in Punjab andKashmirregions and had re-consolidated control over them.[54]
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9/18

Sikh Empire

Maharaja Ranjit Singh, born in Gujranwala,Punjab. He was referred to as the "Maharaja of Lahore".

TheSikh Empire(17991849) was formed on the foundations of thePunjabi ArmybyMaharaja Ranjit Singhwho was proclaimed"Sarkar-i-Khalsa", and was referred to as the "Maharaja of Lahore".[55]It consisted of a collection of autonomousPunjabiMisls, whichwere governed by Misldars,[56]mainly in the Punjab region. The empire extended from theKhyber Passin the west, toKashmirin thenorth, toMultanin the south andKapurthala in the east. The main geographical footprint of the empire was the Punjab region

Early period of Pakistan Movement

In 1877,Syed Ameer Alihad formed the Central National Muhammadan Association to work towards the political advancement ofthe Indian Muslims, who had suffered grievously in 1857, in the aftermath of the failedSepoy Mutinyagainst theBritish East IndiaCompany; the British were seen as foreign invaders. But the organization declined towards the end of the 19th century.

Lord Minto met with the Muslim delegation in June 1906. TheMinto-Morley Reformsof 1909 called for separate Muslim electorates.

In 1885, theIndian National Congresswas founded as a forum, which later became a party, to promote a nationalist cause.[59]Although the Congress attempted to include the Muslim community in the struggle for independence from theBritish rule- andsome Muslims were very active in the Congress - the majority of Muslim leaders did not trust the party, viewing it as a "Hindu-dominated" organization.[citation needed] Some Muslims felt that an independent united India would inevitably be "ruled by Hindus", [citationneeded] and that there was a need to address the issue of the Muslim identity within India.[citation needed]
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10/18

The Muslim League

TheAll-India Muslim Leaguewas founded on 30 December 1906, in the aftermath ofpartition of Bengal, on the sidelines of theannualAll India Muhammadan Educational Conference inShahbagh,Dhaka.[60]The meeting was attended by three thousanddelegates and presided over by Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk. It addressed the issue of safeguarding interests of Muslims and finalised aprogramme. A resolution, moved byNawab Salimullah and seconded byHakim Ajmal Khan. Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk(conservative),declared:

The constitution and principles of the League were contained in the Green Book, written byMaulana Mohammad Ali. Its goals at this

stage did not include establishing an independent Muslim state, but rather concentrated on protecting Muslim liberties and rights,promoting understanding between the Muslim community and other Indians, educating the Muslim and Indian community at large onthe actions of the government, and discouraging violence. However, several factors over the next thirty years, including sectarianviolence, led to a re-evaluation of the League's aims.

George VI,Emperor of Pakistan.

In 1907, a vocal group of Hindu hard-liners within theIndian National Congressmovement separated from it and started to pursue apro-Hindu movement openly. This group was spearheaded by the famous trio ofLal-Bal-Pal-Lala Lajpat Rai,Bal GangadharTilak and Bipin Chandra Palof Punjab, Bombay and Bengal provinces respectively. Their influence spread rapidly among other likeminded Hindus - they called itHindu nationalism - and it became a cause of serious concern for Muslims. However, Jinnah did not

join the League until 1913, when the party changed its platform to one of Indian independence.
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11/18

Allama Sir Muhammad Iqbal

The League gradually became the leading representative body of Indian Muslims. Jinnah became its president in 1916, andnegotiated theLucknow Pact with the Congress leader,Bal Gangadhar Tilak, by which Congress conceded the principle ofseparateelectorates and weighted representation for the Muslim community.[65]However, Jinnah broke with the Congress in 1920 when theCongress leader,Mohandas Gandhi, launched a law violatingNon-Cooperation Movement against the British

Muslim homeland - "Now or Never"

The election ofRamsay MacDonald'sLabourgovernment in 1929 in Britain, already weakened byWorld War I, fuelled new hopesfor progress towards self-government in British-India. Gandhi travelled to London, claiming to represent all Indians and criticising theLeague as sectarian and divisive.Round-table talks were held, but these achieved little, since Gandhi and the League were unableto reach a compromise. The fall of the Labour government in 1931 ended this period of optimism. By 1930 Jinnah had despaired ofIndian politics and particularly of getting mainstream parties like the Congress to be sensitive to minority priorities. A fresh call for aseparate state was then made by the famous writer, poet and philosopher AllamaMuhammad Iqbal, who in his presidential addressto the 1930 convention of the Muslim League said that he felt that a separate Muslim state was essential in an otherwise Hindu-dominated South Asia.[6][66]The name was coined by Cambridge student and Muslim nationalistChoudhary Rahmat Ali,[67]and waspublished on 28 January 1933 in the pamphlet Now or Never.[68]After naming the country, he noticed that there is an acronymformed from the names of the "homelands" of Muslims in northwest India "P" forPunjab, "A" for theAfghanareas of the region,"K" forKashmir, "S" forSindh and "tan" forBalochistan, thus forming "Pakstan".

Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman seconding the Resolution withJinnah and Liaquat Ali Khanpresiding the session

In 1940, Jinnah called a general session of the Muslim League inLahoreto discuss the situation that had arisen due to the outbreakof theSecond World Warand the Government of India joining the war without consulting Indian leaders. The meeting was alsoaimed at analyzing the reasons that led to the defeat of the Muslim League in the general election of 1937 in the Muslim majority
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provinces. In his speech, Jinnah criticized the Indian National Congressand the nationalists, and espoused theTwo-NationTheory and the reasons for the demand for separate homelands.[70]Sikandar Hayat Khan, the Chief Minister ofPunjab, drafted theoriginal resolution, but disavowed the final version.

The Working Committee of the Muslim League in Lahore (1940)

In 1941 it became part of the Muslim League's constitution.[75]However, in early 1941, Sikandar explained to the Punjab Assemblythat he did not support the final version of the resolution.[76] The sudden death of Sikandar in 1942 paved the way over the next fewyears for Jinnah to emerge as the recognised leader of the Muslims of South Asia.[64]In 1943, theSind Assemblypassed aresolution demanding the establishment of a homeland.[77]Talks between Jinnah and Gandhi in 1944 in Bombay failed to achieveagreement and there were no more attempts to reach a single-state solution.

Creation of Pakistan [edit]

Main articles:Indian Independence Act 1947,Independence Day (Pakistan), andPartition of India

Muhammad Ali Jinnah (right) taking oath from Justice Sir Mian Abdul Rashid (left) as Governor-General of Pakistan on 14 August

1947

On 14 and 15 August 1947,British India gave way to two new independent states, theDominion of Pakistan and the Union of India,both dominionswhich joined theBritish Commonwealth. However, the decision to divide PunjabandBengal, two of the biggestprovinces, between India and Pakistan had disastrous consequences. This division created inter-religious violence of suchmagnitude that exchange of population along religious lines became a necessity in these provinces. More than two million peoplemigrated across the new borders and more than one hundred thousand died in the spate of communal violence, that spread evenbeyond these provinces. The independence also resulted in tensions overKashmirleading to theIndo-Pakistani War of 1947, whichculminated in an armistice, brokered by the United Nations, and a hitherto unresolvedKashmir dispute. The post-independencepolitical history of Pakistan has been characterised by several periods of authoritarian military rule and continuing territorial disputeswith India over the status of Kashmir
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