Cxzzzzh;American University of Afghanistan

Name: Ershad ZaheerInstructor: Dr. Bahar JalaliCourse: HIS 120Modern Afghanistan: Amin SaikalChapter OneFrom Tribal Confederacy to National Coalescence

AFG has existed as a recognizable political unit since the middle of the 18th century. Prior to this, of course, the country did not have any national cohesion or a political identity as AFG.

1. Ahmad Shah (1747- 1772) Was a leading figure of the prestigious Sadozai clan of the Pashton Abdali tribe and the Abdali tribe was led by his father Zaman Khan Ahmad Shah was at the service of the Persian King Nader Afshar. After assuming the title of Durr-e-Durran or pearl of pearls rapidly managed to free divided Afghan tribes from prison and Mughal domination. He established a powerful Durrani Conquest empire, stretching from its north-westernmost point at Khorasan to the Ganges plain in the Indian subcontinent. He died in 1773 He ruled AFG for 25 years.

AFG is a macro society with 30 languages and consist of following populations: Pashtons Tajiks Turkic Mongolian-Iranian (Hazaras, Char Aimaq) Brahuis (belong to sub continental pre-Aryan, spoke Dravidian) Baluchis Turkic Peoples (Uzbeks, Qezelbash (redheads)) Nooristanis Arabs Jews Armenians Punjabis KhorasanisAhmad Shah always sought to maintain ethnic peaces and political alliance. Married wives from other ethnicities and even hired the Qezelbash to serve as his PSDs.Ahmad Shahs conquest:Two main reasons of his conquest successes-1. Claimed to be a defender of Islam and the constant urging from some Indian Muslim leaders, esp. Shah Waliullah Dehlawi, that he defends Muslims in the Indian subcontinent against Hindu hegemony. 2. The consideration of the more the Afghan tribal militias were engaged in offensive ops, the greater the chances of their units and commanders becoming persistently preoccupied with warfare, proud of their conquest and, above all engrossed in the pecuniary gains which war booty brought them.

While skirted by divine claims-divine right of king-, his rule was in reality grounded in his unique personality, the supremacy of his own tribal Pashtons and a skilful manipulation of flexible accommodation of non-Durrani Pashtons and non-Pashton ethnic groups and sub-groups, as well as offensive warfare.

Four major Abdali tribes: 1. Sadozai Popalzai Durrani2. Barekzai Mohammadzai3. Alokozai4. Achekzai The Ghilzais were a rival tribe of the Abdali. The central bond that held them together was Ahmad Shahs charisma and sensible policies in regulating and controlling tribal relationships within his confederation.

Polygamy: Ahmad Shah Habibullah Khan, father of Amanullah Khan, then Amanullah Khan abolished this law because it was misused by Afghans.

2. Taimoor Shah: (1772 1793)Ahmad Shahs older son Taimoor Shah initially appeared successful in holding the Durrani Empire together to a considerable extent. However, he didnt have the same leadership attributes as his father. His rule was soon challenged from within his own sub-clan, and revolts from other tribes and ethnic groups, particularly the Ghilzais, Khorasanis and Sistanis, forcing him to transfer the capital from Kandahar to KBL during 1775-76.

3. Zaman Shah (1793 1800) Taimoor Shah failed to designate someone as his successor. Zaman Shah, Taimoor Shahs 5th son by his favorite wife, who belonged to the east Pashton tribe of the Yousofzai, with the help of a leading Barekzai figure of KAN, Payendah M. Khan, set in motion a sequence of power struggles between him and his brothers. The Durrani Empire was disintegrated in 1818 into three major princedoms KBL, KAN, and Herat plus scores of lesser principalities. The Persians under their new and assertive Qajar dynasty were trying to remove AFG control over part of Persia and Herat. The Sikhs, under the leadership of Ranjit Singh, threw off AFG domination in the wake of Nowshera in 1823, rapidly expanding influence in the traditional AFG lands. The British supported the Sikhs, and the Russians encouraged and assisted the Persians to move against the Afghans as part of wider competition between Russian and GB.

Decentralized Provincial Kingdoms (1800 1880)Emergence of Modern State with Demarcated Borders (1880)Major Power Rivalry Russians wanted:a. Safe geographical borders, preferably delineated by the oceanb. Kulturager, or the civilizing of the White Manc. Opening new economic markets for Russias export

British wanted: To protect their new colonial outlay on a region-wide base.

The Great Game:The Great Game between two imperial powers developed three salient features.1. It unleashed an extraordinary chain of actions and reactions, unparalleled in modern history, aimed at the securing of regional domination. It prompted the British to manipulate the Afghans as a resisting force against possible Russian ambitions in the direction of the Indian subcontinent and the Persian Gulf. This motivated the Russians to become more assertive in their desire - to tighten their influence in the Central Asian territories lying between Russia proper and AFG. This in turn increased British determination to do whatever possible to prevent the Russians from expanding beyond the Amu River and threatening British colonial interest. To this end, the British eventually developed the Forward Defense Policy by Lord George Curzon who claimed that it was the most resolute defender of the British colonial power.2. Neither Britain nor Russian thought it beneficial to colonize AFG. This was for two reasons:a. Total subjugation of the country by either side would have placed the two powers on a course of full mil confrontation, which neither side seemed to wish to risk.b. AFG then had none of the immediately exploitable economic and mineral resources that might have made it sufficiently attractive to make colonization worthwhile.3. The relative independence of central control and warlike nature of the tribes made conditions highly unfavorable to foreign invaders. During both first two Anglo-Afghan Wars, the British lost only one of the set-piece of battles, but the writ of their amir ran only, and even then not always, where their troops were, and they could occupy only main centers such as KBL, JBad and KAN. During each war, a British general election, in Aug 1841 and Apr 1880 respectively, resulted in replacement of a pro-forward defense policy government by one opposed to it. The new govs, of Robert Peel in 1841 and William Gladstone in 1880, each dismissed the Governor-General/Viceroy who had ordered invasion, and after achieving some face-saving victories, the Anglo-Indian forces returned to India.

These experiences eventually convinced both British and Russians that it was in their interests to transform the country into an effective buffer zone, separating Russian imperial domain from British colonial possessions. However, the only way the rival powers could enforce a buffer status on AFG was for each one of them to make sure it had sufficient influence in the country to pre-empt any moves by the other. This predictable led to their quest for individual spheres of influence in AFG, with the British attempting to be dominant in the region south of the Hindu Kush range, which bisects AFG in the middle from east to west, and the Russians trying to maintain influence in the region north of the range. At the same time, both sides endeavored either to have a friendly gov in KBL or to check the power of the KBL gov by allying themselves with the regional and tribal leaders in what they regarded as their respective zones on influence.

The British steady but forceful campaign to limit and manipulate Afghan rulers had two objectives:1. To expand the security perimeter of their Indian colony and eventually confine Afghans within as limited a territorial base as possible2. To secure a foundation for long-term anti-Russian influence in the country

The British forged alliances and counter-alliances with competing southern tribes, their leading figures and various full and half ruling Durrani brothers and throne aspirants; and they acted like kingmaker.

The two most damaging of treaties which were forcefully signed are:1. The Treaty of Gandamak: signed in 1879, under which British India gained practical control over Afghan fiscal, defense and FPs2. The Durand Agreement: concluded in 1893. The Durand Line, drawn by a British Commission and named after its head, the British Indian Foreign Secretary, Sir Mortimer Durand, was the line arbitrarily determining AFGs present eastern and southern frontiers and it demarcated British & Afghan responsibilities in the Pashtun area. Since it ran through and split several Afghan Pashtun tribes, the Durand Line was rejected by most Afghans then and became the basis for what subsequently developed as thorny border dispute between AFG and British India and, after 1947, Pakistan. The Tsarist Russia did not sit idle, it extended its borders effectively to the north of the Amu River. After many negotiations, the Panjdeh Oasis was relinquished to the Russians and determined AFGs northern boundary largely along its present lines.

From the reign of Zaman Shahs successor, his brother Shah Mahmud, in 1800 to Amir Abdul Rahamn Khans assumption of the throne in 1880, seven figures proclaimed their sovereignty over AFG. Of these rulers, who held the throne on average for a period of seven years each, four of them assumed the throne twice. They were Shah Mahmud (1800 - 1803 and 1809 1818), Shah Shujah (1803-1809 and 1839 1842), Amir Dost Mohammad Khan (1826 1839 and 1843 1863) and Amir Sher Ali Khan (1863 1866 and 1868 1879). While Shah Shujah ruled both times completely at the behest of the British, the last two, whose reigns were the longest among all rulers, pursued policies towards the British that could be characterized as both accommodationist and mildly confrontationist. Sher Ali Khan at times even became receptive to Russians overtures against the British. Of the two, nonetheless, Amir Dost Mohammad Khans rise to power marked a turning point in the Durrani rule.

Amir Dost M. Khans Rule Barekzai Durrani Sardar Payenda M. Khan, his father, was a notable Barekzai Kandahari who had served as a powerful official in the courts of Sadozai. His mother was a Shiite Qezelbash concubine from KBL. When his brother was assassinated by Sadozais in 1818 and a power struggle broke out between Sadozais and Barekzai Durrani, in particular their M.zai clan, named after his ancestral figure, M. Adopted the title of Amirul Momineen or Commander of Faithful in 1836. He faced treachery and intrigues from his half-brothers. A serious challenge was Shah Shuja, Taimoor Shahs son who was backed by the British as most amenable to their interests The British refusal to assist Dost M. K. in recovering Peshawar from the Sikhs led him to receive a Russian officer in KBL. The GB thereupon invaded in 1839 replacing Dost M. Khan with their client, Shah Shujah, and thus igniting the first Anglo-Afghan war. Dos M. was surrendered in Nov 1840. The change of the gov in GB resulting from the British general election on Aug 1841enabled Dost M. Khan to regain power in 1842 and ruled for another 20 years. The Pashtons were favored over other ethnic groups and the ruling elite remained exclusionist and continued to be dominated by the immediate family of the monarch and a handful of Durrani chieftains. He succeeded in bringing together most territories which had formed the Durrani Empire in the mid 18th century, with the exception of Peshawar and other Pashtun lands on the right bank of the Indus and he held them together by force. His period was relative stable and it was once again seriously disrupted when he died in 1863. Dost M. Khan designated Sher Ali Khan as his successor.

Amir Sher Ali Khans Rule: Gained power in 1863 His rule was challenged by his two half-bros:a. Afzal Khan seized the throne and ruled from 1866 1867 and died in 1867b. M. Azam Khan took power in 1867 and ruled for one year (1867-68). Sher Ali Khan regained power in 1868 (second time) Received the title of Amir, proved more perceptive and innovative than any of his predecessors, created a professional army and organized a strong and effective central gov, pursued such a domestic and FP steps as could both strengthen his authority and keep at bay the Anglo-Russian rivalry. His Achievements: To a degree to revived the late Ahmad Shahs multiethnic accommodationist approach to gov in an attempt to broaden his power base and create a national cohesion. He not only set up a Council of Elders to advise him on state affairs, but also included people from diverse ethnic backgrounds in his administrative services. The Ghilzais were particularly beneficiaries from this policy change. He initiated a number of reformist measures, which at least on a modest scale provided some important bases for his successors in their efforts to achieve greater national unity and modernize AFG. They included the creation of a national army and mil school, which received students from different tribes and ethnic groups; the institution of a system for collecting land revenues in cash; a postal service; and publication of a periodical, Shamsul Nehar Morning Sun- is published for the very first time. Although, favorably disposed toward Britain, he tried to avoid antagonizing the Russians and played on Anglo-Russian rivalry to pursue what could be called a policy of mild neutrality in his FRs.

Practically all Amir Sher Ali Khans major innovation affected only KBL and territories immediately adjacent to the capital city where he could project his power. Despite his vision and craving for reforms, he remained hostage of traditional forces present in the country. He ultimately could not save his rule from the dangers inherent in the deep-rooted polygamic politics of the ruling family and Anglo-Russian rivalry. His decision to designate as successor his youngest son, Abdullah Jan, born from a favorite Kandahari wife but who died before the succession time, alienated his older sons, esp. M Yaqub Khan & M Ayub Khan. Yaqoob Khan revolted against his fathers decision and was imprisoned. These rivalries among royals, together with the tribal uprisings that they ignited markedly hampered Amir Sher Ali Khans efforts at reform. The British once again invades AFG in Nov 1878. Sher Ali Khan escapes to the Russian border and was refused entry by Gen. Kaufman. Sher Ali dies in Feb 1879 and Yaqoob Khan succeeded. Ayub Khan also opposed Abdullah Jans nomination as heir, but took a different path to his brother by fighting the British in the Anglo-Afghan War II. Ayub Khan emerged as the hero of war but was heavily defeated in Aug, 1880. Ayub Khan seized KAN after the British left, but was defeated by Abdul Rahman Khan, and fled to first Persia and then to British India.

Sardar Abdul Rahman Khans Rule: Son of Afzal Khan, grandson of Dost M. Khan Lived in exile in Samarkand and Tashkent for 12 years after his father was defeated by Sher Ali Khan (half-bro and arch-rival of his deceased father) in 1868. Gen Kaufman, believing him to be pro-Russian and expecting him at least to make trouble for the British, facilitated his return to AFG. He quickly marshaled the support of AFGs northern Khans and Begs (Uzbek & Turkmen leaders) and marched to KBL. He accepted the most important point of The Gandamak Treaty that AFG has no FR with other countries except the GB. Then the British left. He was an Afghan nationalist, with a special distaste for the Russians, also a man of great discipline, political will and foresight, capable of establishing absolute rule and solidifying AFG within the structure of a modern nation-state. He identified the ethno-tribal heterogeneity of Afghans and the Anglo-Russian rivalry as major sources of AFGs problems. His mission was to work for the welfare of the nation and be devoted to the progress of the Afghan people for the welfare and true faith of the Holy Prophet M. He scorned the foreign powers as infidels and aggressors, who constantly violated the faith, integrity and territory of the AFG people.

Achievements: Built a very disciplined and capable army and engaged in a process of what subsequently became known as internal imperialism. He changed Kafirstan to Nuristan(10,000 were killed and 16,000 forcibly resettled through the country, reducing the population by half), and used brutal force to suppress opponents Initiated a number of substantive political, administrative, legal, economic and social reforms. Concurrently managed to exhibit a great deal of caution and aloofness in his FR and to assure both Russian and British that a strong central gov under his leadership would be in the best interest of both powers, as it would prevent either from using AFG against other. His rule was brutal and absolute, based primary on coercion and backed by an elaborate spy network, which earned him the title of Iron Amir Created an AFG that had recognized international boundaries, was politically unified, and governed directly by a centralized authority, within the framework of fairly well-defined and universally applied administrative and judiciary rules and regulations. Ahmad Shah Durrani created the fundamentals for the modern evolution of AFG as a pol unit and A. Rahamn Khan took serous steps toward building the first modern state in that country. He died in 1901 of natural causes; but despite his having taken several wives, his death did not bring as turbulent a leadership succession crisis as the deaths of his predecessors had caused. He had had established sufficient gov structure and mechanism of controls to enable his heir and elder son, Habibullah Khan, though born of a Samarkandi concubine mother, to succeed him with relative ease and rule for the next 18 years.