heritage framework book - Chesapeake Bay

An Ecology of People and Place 95

AN ECOLOGY OF PEOPLEAND PLACE

M PEOPLE

The mid-nineteenth century broughtunprecedented transformations to allaspects of life in the region (see Map 9).Coal, steel, and steam fueled industrialexpansion, binding the Chesapeakeregion more firmly with the rest of thenation and the world. Scientificadvances and religious revivals chal-lenged people’s views. New crops wereintroduced, and old plants were farmedin new ways.

Sectional differences divided Northernand Southern parts of the nation and theregion during this period. In theChesapeake Bay region, North-South ten-sions eclipsed earlier differencesbetween the Coastal Plain and Pied-mont. Made more efficient by technolog-ical advances, slavery became vital tothe economies of Southern states. Thesesame technological advances allowedNortherners, strengthened by industrialgrowth, to ideologically and materiallychallenge Southern attempts to extendand expand the slave system. The strug-gle over slavery and states’ rights wasfueled by more than differing economicsystems. In a broader sense, it became acontest over contending concepts of race,class, work, and ethnicity that divided

Chapter SevenSectional Strife,

1820 to 1880

SIGNIFICANTEVENTS▫ 1820’s–canal, railroad,

and coal industrialdevelopment revolu-tionizes technology

▫ 1826–Marylandassembly extendssuffrage to Jewish men

▫ 1827–Charles Carroll ofCarrollton, Marylandorganizes the Baltimoreand Ohio Railroad; firstpassenger and freightrailway in United States

▫ 1828–work begins onBaltimore and OhioRailroad and the Chesa-peake and Ohio Canal

▫ 1829–Chesapeake andDelaware Canal opens

▫ 1830–Peter Cooper’ssteam engine, the TomThumb, makes first tripfrom Baltimore toEllicott’s Mills

▫ 1831–Maryland StateColonization Societyestablished to relocatefreed slaves

▫ 1831–Nat Turner leadsunsuccessful slaverevolt in SouthamptonCounty, Virginia

▫ 1832–Edmund Ruffin’spublication of influen-tial scientific reportregarding use of marlas fertilizer increasesefficiency of plantationagriculture

▫ 1832–worldwide choleraepidemic strikes region

▫ 1837–Chesapeake andOhio Canal completed

▫ 1837–Great Panic of1837 throws nation’seconomy into depression

▫ 1839–nation’s first iron-hulled ship, theDeRosset, built inBaltimore

▫ 1840–Pennsylvaniafarmers begin growingcigar wrapper tobacco

▫ 1841–Tredegar IronWorks opens inRichmond

▫ 1844–nation’s firsttelegraph line erectedbetween Baltimore andWashington

▫ 1844–anti-immigrantKnow-Nothing partyformed

▫ 1845–United StatesNaval Academy opens inAnnapolis

▫ 1848–Irish, German,and Polish immigrantsbegin arriving in largenumbers

▫ 1850–regional popula-tion exceeds 1.8 million

▫ 1853 to 1863–Washington Aqueductconstructed

▫ 1855–Republican partyformed

▫ 1858–first steam-powered fire engineplaced into service inBaltimore

▫ 1859–Abolitionist JohnBrown leads unsuccess-ful raid on Harper’s Ferryto spark slave revolt

▫ 1861–Virginia secedesfrom Union and joinsConfederacy

▫ 1861 to 1865–Civil Warfought between Unionand Confederacy

▫ 1862–northwesternVirginia counties secedeto form new federalstate of West Virginia

▫ 1862–Battle of Antietamfought in Maryland’sGreat Valley; bloodiestsingle day of Civil War

▫ 1863–pivotal Battle ofGettysburg fought

▫ 1865–Robert E. Lee sur-renders Army of North-ern Virginia to GeneralGrant at AppomattoxCourthouse; otherConfederate surrendersend the Civil War

▫ 1865–ThirteenthAmendment to Consti-tution abolishes slavery

▫ 1865 to 1877–Era ofReconstruction

▫ 1866–Gallaudet College,first institution ofhigher learning for deaf,opens in Washington

▫ 1867–Howard University,nation’s first AfricanAmerican college,opens in Washington

▫ 1868–Hampton Normaland AgriculturalInstitute opened inHampton, Virginia

▫ 1873–Economic Crash▫ 1876–Johns Hopkins

University opens inBaltimore

▫ 1877–striking railroadworkers violentlysuppressed by Marylandmilitia

1820-29 1832 1840 1850 1861 1865 1866 1867 1876| | | | | | | | |

Canal, Fertilizer Pennsylvania Region Virginia Surrender at Gallaudet Howard Johnsrailroad improves grows population secedes Appomattox; College University Hopkinsand coal plantation tobacco exceeds from the slavery founded founded University

development agriculture 1.8 million Union abolished founded

Antebellum Period1820 to 1861

Civil War1861 to 1865

Reconstruction and Industrial Expansion1865 to 1880

SusquehannaRiver

Mon

ocac

yR

iver

Cho

ptan

kR

iv

er

Rapidan River

Pat ap sc o R iver

Cheste

r Rive

r

Potomac River

James River

Mattaponi RiverPamunkey River

Appo

mat

tox

Rappahannock River

Patuxent R

iver

Shen

ando

ah R

iver

Poco

mok

e Riv

er

Nan

tico

ke R

iver

Chesapeake B

ay

Rap

pahan nock River

York Riv e r

James River

CapeHenry

CapeCharles

Tangier Sound

River

Poto

mac

Riv

er

KentIsland

SmithIsland

TangierIsland

Loudon

& Hampshire RR

Cat

octin

Rid

ge

Sou

th M

ount

ain

Harper's Ferry Gap

Manassas Gap

Bul

l Run

Mou

ntai

n

ThorofareGap

Thornton Gap

Blu

e R

idge

Mou

ntai

ns

Rockfish Gap

Blue R

idge

Mou

ntain

s

James River Gap

Hampton Roads

SeashoreNatural Area

CharlesC.Steirly

Natural Area

GreatDismalSwamp

Battle CreekCypress Swamp

Belt Woods

CaledonState Park

Montpelier Forest

Sugar LoafMountain

Long GreenCreek andSweathouseBranch NaturalArea

Gilpin'sFalls

Ferncliff Wildlifeand Wildflower

Preserve

VirginiaCoast

Reserve

CalvertCliffs Preserve

Fort Monroe

Camden

Wheatland

Susquehanna and Tidewater Canal

Chesapeake and

Delaware Canal

Chestertown

U.S. NavalAcademy

PotomacCanal

WaterfordChesapeakeand Ohio Canal

MountVernon

Green Springs

Marlbourne

John Tyler HouseHamptonInstitute

AppomattoxCourthouse

Five ForksSaylor's Creek

SpotsylvaniaThe Wilderness

Cold Harbor

Manassas

Gettysburg

Monocacy

OakHill

Bomberger'sDistillery

Union Canal Tunnel

SionHill

Thomas PointShoal Light Station

Riversdale

ThomasViaduct

Ellicott CityStation

CarrolltonViaduct

WashingtonAqueduct

JamesRiverCanal

AntietamBattlefield

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad

Manassas Gap RR

Orang

e & A

lexan

dria

RR

Cent

ral R

ailro

ad

Columbia Railroad

Rich

mon

d, F

rede

rick,

and

Poto

mac

RR

Virginia Central Railroad

Virginia

& Tennes

see R

ailro

ad

MetropolitanRailroad

Philadelphia, Wilmingtonand Baltimore Railroad

Norfolk & Petersburg Railroad

Richmond & York River

Petersburg & Weldon Railroad

Southside Railroad

Petersburg &City Point Railroad

Southside Railroad

Philadelphia &

Richmond &

Danville Railr

oad

Railroad

North

Baltimore

Salisbury

Cambridge

ChesapeakeCity

Elkton

Lancaster

York

Frederick

AlexandriaWashington DC

Warrenton

Leesburg

Ball'sBluff

FredericksburgCulpeper

Charlottesville

Mattaponi IndianReservation

PamunkeyIndian

Reservation

HarpersFerry

Chancellorsville

Norfolk

Portsmouth

Richmond

Petersburg

Appomattox

Lynchburg

Centreville

FredericksburgBattlefield

RichmondBattlefields

PetersburgBattlefields

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96 CHAPTER SEVEN: SECTIONAL STRIFE

Map 9: Sectional Strife, 1820 to 1880

0 5 10 25 50 miles

kilometers0 5 10 40 80 North

LEGENDNational Historic LandmarkCivil War Battlefields

• City or Town© National Natural Landmark■ Natural or Cultural Feature

RailroadCanalBayPlainPiedmont


KEY LOCALES

NATIONAL HISTORICLANDMARKS

District of ColumbiaLandmarks

American Peace Society[1860s]

Anderson House [mid-19th century]

Army Medical Museumand Library [1867]

Ashburton House [ca.1836]

Blair-Lee House [1827]

Blanche K. Bruce House[1865]

Carnegie Endowment forInternational Peace[1860]

City Hall [1820-1849]

Franklin School [1862-1875]

Gallaudet College [1866]

General Post Office[1839-1866]

Georgetown HistoricDistrict [18th-19thcenturies]

Charlotte Forten GrimkeHouse [1880]

Healy Hall [1877-1879]

General Oliver OtisHoward House [1869]

Lafayette Square HistoricDistrict [18th-20thcenturies]

Old Naval Observatory[1844]

Old Patent Office [1840]

Renwick Gallery [1860]

Zalmon Richards House[mid-19th century]

Saint Elizabeth’s Hospital[1852]

Saint Luke’s EpiscopalChurch [1879]

Smithsonian InstitutionBuilding [1855]

State, War, and NavyBuilding (Old ExecutiveOffice Building) [1871-1888]

Oscar W. UnderwoodHouse [19th century]

United States Capitol[1793-1865]

United States Departmentof the Treasury [1836-1862]

United States SoldiersHome [1851]

Washington Aqueduct[1853-1863]

Washington Navy Yard[1800-1910]

MarylandChestertown Historic

District [18th-19thcenturies], Kent County

Ellicott City Station[1831], Howard County

Monocacy Battlefield[1864], FrederickCounty

Old Lock Pump House,Chesapeake andDelaware Canal [1837],Cecil County

Riversdale [early 19thcentury], PrinceGeorge’s County

Sion Hill [19th-20thcenturies], HarfordCounty

Thomas Point Shoal LightStation [1875], AnnArundel County

United States NavalAcademy [1845],Annapolis

Washington Aqueduct[1853-1863],Montgomery County

Baltimore CityLandmarks

Baltimore and OhioTransportation Museumand Mount ClareStation [1830]

Carrolltown Viaduct[1829]

College of Medicine ofMaryland [19th-20thcenturies]

Constellation (Sloop ofWar) [1854]

Minor Basilica of theAssumption of theBlessed Virgin Mary[1806-1863]

Mount Vernon PlaceHistoric District [19thcentury]

Phoenix Shot Tower[1828]

Edgar Allen Poe House[1833-1835]

Sheppard and Enoch PrattHospital and GateHouse [1862-1891]

Thomas Viaduct,Baltimore and OhioRailroad [1835]

PennsylvaniaBomberger’s Distillery

[1753, 1840], LebanonCounty

Fulton Opera House[1852], LancasterCounty

Union Canal Tunnel[1825-1827], LebanonCounty

Wheatland, JamesBuchanan House[1828], LancasterCounty

VirginiaAlexandria Historic

District [18th-19thcenturies], AlexandriaCity

Ball’s Bluff Battlefield andNational Cemetery[1861 and 1865],Loudon County

Camden [17th-19thcenturies], CarolineCounty

Drydock No. 1 [1827-1834], Portsmouth City

The Exchange [1841],Petersburg City

Five Forks Battlefield[1865], DinwiddieCounty

Fort Monroe [1819-1834],Hampton City

Franklin and ArmfieldOffice [1828-1836],Alexandria City

Green Springs HistoricDistrict [18th-19thcenturies], LouisaCounty

Hampton Institute[1868], Hampton City

Marlbourne, EdmundRuffin Plantation[1843], HanoverCounty

General William “Billy”Mitchell House [1826,1925], Loudon andFauquier counties

Oak Hill, James MonroeHouse [1820-1823],Loudon County

Patowmack CanalHistoric District [1786-1830], Fairfax County

Sayler’s Creek Battlefield[1865], Amelia andPrince Edward counties

John Tyler House [1780,1842], Charles CityCounty

University of VirginiaHistoric District [19th-20th centuries],Charlottesville City

University of VirginiaRotunda [1822-1826,1898], CharlottesvilleCity

Waterford HistoricDistrict [18th-19thcenturies], LoudonCounty

Richmond CityLandmarks

Egyptian Building [1845]

Ellen Glasgow House[1841]

Jackson Ward HistoricDistrict [19th-20thcenturies]

James Monroe Tomb[1859]

Tredegar Iron Works[1841]

White House of theConfederacy, Dr. JohnBrockenbrough House[1818, 1861-1865]

people both across and within sec-tional lines. First emerging duringcolonial times, it became a constitu-tional crisis over the issue ofrights–both of states and of individu-als–that increased in rancor andintensity until it erupted into civilwar and on into reconstruction.

The Chesapeake region stoodastride the invisible line that split thenation into North and South at thebeginning of this era. Yet differencesbetween the sections never becameeither total or completely clear cut.The nation’s Northern and Southernsections spoke the same language,followed the same forms of worship,relied on the same technologies,and looked back on similar culturalheritages and histories. To an out-sider, their differences must haveseemed more like variations of stylethan differences that could only beresolved by violence.

These complex, subtle differenceswere reflected in the lack of definiteboundaries between the sections.Although slavery only existed southof the Mason-Dixon line–the bound-ary line separating Pennsylvania andMaryland–neither this line nor thePotomac River boundary betweenMaryland and Virginia put a stop torelations between the states. Theindustrial life dominating the banksof Baltimore Bay and the fall linetowns along the lower Susquehannaand Potomac Rivers began develop-ing in the region’s more southerlyparts, such as Richmond, Peters-burg, and Norfolk. And tobacco, tra-ditionally associated with the South,became a major cash crop alongthe lower Susquehanna in York andLancaster counties, Pennsylvania.So when civil war finally came, theregion did not simply split alongstate boundaries. For example, in1862, counties in northwesternVirginia seceded from Virginia andjoined the Union, becoming thenew state of West Virginia. Andthough many who lived in Mary-land’s southernmost counties fought


PORTFOLIO: VIEWS OFTHE EARLY INDUSTRIALCHESAPEAKETRANSPORTATIONLANDSCAPE.

Figure 49: Dismal Swamp Canal.(From The Transformation of Virginia, 1740-1790 by Rhys Isaac; used by permission of theUniversity of North Carolina Press ©1982)

Figure 53 (left):Present-day GroundLevel View of theBaltimore and OhioRailroad’s ThomasViaduct, LookingNorth, Spanning thePatapsco River atElkridge, Maryland.(Photograph courtesy of theNational Park Service)

Figure 52 (right): Present-dayAerial View of Carrollton

Viaduct, Built by the Baltimoreand Ohio Railroad Over

Gwynn’s Falls Near CarrollPark, Baltimore. (Photograph

courtesy of the National Park Service)

Figure 50(above):Building theChesapeakeand OhioCanal.(Illustrationcourtesy of theNational ParkService)

Figure 51: The completed Chesapeake and Ohio Canal WaterSystem. (Illustration courtesy of the National Park Service)

for the Confederate cause, slave stateMaryland stayed in the Union through-out the war.

Of course tension existed between thosewishing to secede from the Union andthose in favor of staying put. This tensionaffected every aspect of life in theChesapeake. Interestingly, an explosionof federal, state, and privately fundedconstruction was creating new turnpike,canal, and railroad networks linking thenation’s regions closer together than everbefore. The Dismal Swamp Canal link-ing Chesapeake Bay with NorthCarolina’s Albemarle Sound, theChesapeake and Ohio Canal stretchingalong the Maryland side of the PotomacRiver from Georgetown to Cumberland,the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, andother transportation systems critical tothe nation’s development were first builtduring the early decades of this period.

But these improvements also strength-ened sectional solidarity. Trains capableof carrying produce and minerals to mar-ket, for example, brought wealth to freelabor employers in the Union andincreased the profitability of Southernplantations, mines, and furnaces, all ofwhich used slave labor. Prosperity en-couraged people to anticipate peacefulresolutions of sectional differences. Freelabor advocates hoped that the successesof industrial development would showSoutherners that slavery was not econom-ically efficient and should be abandoned.Slave owners, for their part, used profits

reaped in the fields to purchase goodsand open manufacturing enterprises oftheir own. Prohibited from importingslaves from overseas, slave markets suchas Alexandria, Virginia’s Price, Birch andCompany, prospered by auctioningslaves from plantations in the region tobuyers from newly opened cotton landsfarther south in Alabama, Mississippi,and Louisiana (see Figure 54).

New immigrants also had to choosesides. Many Irish, German, and otherimmigrants–fleeing famine and unrest inEurope–landed in Chesapeake Bay portssuch as Baltimore and Norfolk duringthe 1840s and 1850s. Their first challengewas to assimilate into an American soci-ety increasingly hostile to them. Thesefeelings crystallized in the formation ofthe anti-immigrant Know-Nothing partyin 1844. Despite such opposition, immi-grants managed to settle quietly through-out the region, where most eventuallyadopted the sectional sympathies oftheir new neighbors or communities.

The ships bringing new immigrantsmade up only a small part of the Bay’squickly growing passenger and cargotraffic. Improvements in ship design in-creased the speed and range of wooden-hulled Baltimore clippers, schooners,and other sailing vessels (see Figure 55).Boats began using steam driven paddlewheels, first in addition to sails, and theninstead of them. Metal ship hulls andscrew propellers, linked to steam boilersby strong metal drive shafts, came intouse more and more during the middledecades of the period. Wooden wharves,docks, and warehouses along ChesapeakeBay waterfronts expanded to handlegrowing coastal and international trade.


Figure 54: Way Station on the Landscapeof Servitude: Photograph of the officesand slave pen (the low wall to the rightof the office building) of Price, Birch andCompany, slave merchants, in Alexandria,Virginia. (Alexander Gardner photograph courtesy of

the National Archives)

Figure 55: The Clipper Saint David,ca. 1900-1906.(Photograph courtesy of the Library of Congress)

Price, Birch and Company,Virginia

Dismal Swamp Canal,Virginia

Chesapeake and Ohio Canaland Baltimore and OhioRailroad, Maryland

Products from throughout the regionwere combined to fuel industrial devel-opment. Coal from upper Potomac andSusquehanna Valley mines fueled rail-road engines; the trains carried cargo tonew factories in and around Baltimore,Washington, and Richmond. These sametrains brought iron ore to coal-fired fur-naces, which smelted the ore into ironand steel. In turn, these metals wereused to manufacture rails, bridges,engines, machines, and finished goods.Ambitious capitalist entrepreneurs strug-gled to meet the transportation needs ofrapidly expanding markets as demandfor goods produced in Chesapeake Bayfactories rose. Banks funded develop-ment, and they prospered or collapsedalong with the volatile market economy.

The Chesapeake Bay region was splittinginto a free labor market in the north anda slave labor economy farther south.Thus the question of the economicfuture preoccupied its people. Whitesoutherners feared that slave rebellionsmight grow into a general insurrection.One led by Nat Turner just south of theregion in Southampton County, Virginia,in 1831 left sixty people dead in fourdays of violence. Fear widened sectionaldifferences as slave states insisted ontheir right to avoid restrictions imposedby a growing free-state majority. Feelings

reached a flash point in 1859, afterNorthern abolitionist John Brown madean abortive attempt to spark a slaveuprising with arms seized from theHarper’s Ferry arsenal in the VirginiaPiedmont (see Figure 56).

The drive for sectional independencefinally led to the Civil War in 1861. Thewar pitted Chesapeake Bay region peopleand states against one another on bothsides of the Mason-Dixon line. Pennsyl-vania remained steadfast for the Union.Pro-slavery border states of Marylandand Delaware stayed loyal to the federalgovernment, despite their many South-ern sympathizers in Baltimore city, SaintMary’s County, and other Coastal Plainlocales. Virginians followed a differentpath. The state seceded from the Unionand joined the southern Confederacyafter South Carolina troops firing on thefederal post of Fort Sumter in CharlestonHarbor brought on the war. EdmundRuffin fired the war’s first shot. Today, heis remembered more as an ardent fire-breathing advocate of the Confederacythan for his contributions to agriculture.

Violence brought on by the Civil Wardevastated the Chesapeake Bay region.The part that fell midway between thefederal capital in Washington, D.C., andthe Confederate capital in Richmondbecame the war’s decisive theater. Menof both armies pillaged farms, damagedrailroads, and burned bridges every-where they marched. Fighting broke outas far north as Carlisle, Pennsylvania, asfar east as the outskirts of Baltimore, andas far south as the Piedmont village ofAppomattox Court House (see Figure 57).And they fought massive, bloody battles


Figure 57: Landscape of Reconciliation and Remembrance: AppomattoxCourt House, Virginia. (Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service)

Figure 56: Harper’s Ferry, July, 1865.(Photograph courtesy of the National Archives)

Harper’s Ferry Arsenal,West Virginia

Southampton County,Virginia

Appomattox CourtHouse, Virginia


LANDSCAPE OF MEMORY:GETTYSBURG NATIONAL MILITARYPARK. This 6,000 acre National Parkpreserves the place where one of themost pivotal battles in American historywas fought. On July 1, 1863, units of theConfederate army advancing north intoPennsylvania in an offensive aimed atending the war, collided with Uniontroops at the crossroads town ofGettysburg. During the next two days, the75,000-man Confederate Army of North-ern Virginia under the command ofRobert E. Lee struggled to break throughUnion defenses along a line of hills andridges to the west and north of the townheld by the 95,000 men of the UnionArmy of the Potomac led by George C. Meade. By the time the battle ended on July 3, more than 51,000soldiers, nearly a third of all the men engaged, were either dead, wounded, captured, or missing. Stoppedby the Union army and suffering losses in excess of 20,000 men, the Confederate army retreated backto Virginia.

This site of singular struggle and sacrifice soon became anational shrine. Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address, deliveredsome months later at the dedication of the NationalCemetery where more than 7,000 of the Union troops(1,668 of them unidentified) killed in the battle wereinterred, captured the essence and meaning of the war forthe Union in the few paragraphs that are still memorizedby children throughout thenation. States and veteranserected monuments atDevil’s Den, Little RoundTop, Cemetery Ridge, andother places where thefighting was heaviest.Established by Congress asa National Military Park onFebruary 11, 1895, theNational Park Service todaypreserves the locale’spastoral landscape, themilitary landscape of thebattle itself, and thecommemorative landscapesubsequently created tomemorialize the struggle(see Figures 58-61).

Figure 60: Nineteenth Century Postcard View ofDevil’s Den. The scene of heavy fighting duringthe second day of the battle.(Photograph courtesy of the Dennis Montagna Collection)

Figure 61: The Crest of LittleRound Top, 1992. The monu-ment commemorates the standof the 20th Maine, who held theUnion left flank againstrepeated Confederate attacksduring the second day of thebattle. (Photograph courtesy of the

National Park Service)

Figure 59: The Union Line on Cemetery Ridge,1989. Where Union troops stopped Pickett’sCharge on the third and last day of the battle.(Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service)

Figure 58: Postcard View of the National Cemetery at Gettysburg.Where Lincoln delivered the famous “Gettysburg Address,” andwhere more than 7,000 Union soldiers killed during the battle areinterred. (Photograph courtesy of the Dennis Montagna Collection)

at Coastal Plain locales such asFredericksburg, the Peninsula, and ColdHarbor. Farther inland in the Piedmont,armies periodically occupied Harper’sFerry and engaged in equally costlystruggles at Manassas, Chancellorsville,Spotsylvania, battled decisively atGettysburg in Pennsylvania, and foughtin battles around Richmond andPetersburg in Virginia that finallydecided the outcome of the war. Hugechains of forts surrounded Washington,D.C. Many of these forts can still be seentoday, as can the great moat-encircledstone stronghold of Fort Monroe (seeFigure 62) and the lines of earthworktrenches and bastions dug during siegesat Williamsburg, Richmond, and Peters-burg. Ships sank while fighting to controlthe strategically vital Chesapeake water-way. The C.S.S. Virginia, the U.S.S.Cumberland, and many other ships stilllie in muddy graves beneath Bay waterstoday (see Figure 63).

It took four years of bloody fighting toreunite the nation politically, if not inother ways. The war proved disastrousfor the South in many ways. TheNorthern blockade cut the South offfrom the rest of the world and graduallystrangled production. Short of raw mate-rials, in need of machine tools, andunpaid by fiscally strapped Confederateand state governments unable to paytheir bills, Southern commerce declinedcatastrophically. By 1865, famine threat-ened people living in many sections ofthe South.

The situation was much different in theNorth. Northern losses on the battlefieldswere horrible. On the home front, how-ever, the war stimulated a new peak ofindustrial expansion. Lucrative federalgovernment contracts funded new trans-portation routes, improved harbor facil-ities, and stoked the furnaces of factoriesand finance. Even greater industrialgrowth in the North after the war helpedrestore many ravaged communities andhelped bind the region’s states, andthe rest of the country, into a firmerfederal union.

At first, recovery was slow in Virginia.Small farmers and large landownersstruggled to make livings on the land.Public debt to pay for the war consumeda disproportionate share of governmentdollars. Embezzlement and misappropri-ation of public school funds cripplededucational development. By 1880,railroad expansions, infusions of capital,and new production techniques helpedVirginia’s industry and agriculture startto recover.

Baltimore and Washington were alreadymajor cities before the war, and theygrew dramatically afterward. Many peo-ple from the countryside moved there,joining the growing ranks of Europeanimmigrants seeking work in factories andbusinesses as much American agricul-ture shifted west into the prairies andplains. Throughout the region, a mix ofnationalities, races, religions, and ethnic-ities lived beside one another, not alwayshappily. Immigrants struggled to find


Figure 62: Fort Monroe, Old Point Comfort, Virginia, 1862.(E. Sachse and Company lithograph courtesy of the Library of Congress)

Fredericksburg,Peninsula, Cold Harbor,

Manassas,Chancellorsville,

Spotsylvania, Richmond,Petersburg, Fort Monroe,Williamsburg, Richmondand Petersburg, Virginia

C.S.S. Virginia andU.S.S. Cumberland

Gettysburg, Pennsylvania

Harper’s Ferry,West Virginia

Figure 63: C.S.S. Virginia sinks the U.S.S.Cumberland, March 8, 1862.(Painting courtesy of the Library of Congress)

their places in Chesapeake society,dealing with both the intolerance ofnative born Americans and difficulties ofcutting ties to the old country–andupholding its traditions.

African Americans, recently freed fromslavery worked with freeborn blacks,other people of color, and sympatheticwhites to secure voting rights, find work,fight discrimination, and establishschools. In 1867, a federal agency knownas the Freedman’s Bureau openedHoward University (named after theBureau’s white commander, GeneralOliver Otis Howard) in Washington, D.C.to train African American teachers,lawyers, and business leaders. One yearlater, Virginia’s Hampton Institute(today’s Hampton University) opened.But anti-black prejudice reasserted itselfby the mid-1870s, after being suppressedby federal military authority during theera of Reconstruction. White votersenacted Black Codes, laws that severelyrestricted African American rights. Newlaws made it almost impossible for themto vote. Black people were barred frompublic life and forced to conform tostrict segregation laws.

For the poor, finding work and a place tolive were major challenges. In the coun-tryside, poor people of all races workedfields for portions of the harvest assharecroppers or rented them as tenantfarmers. Black people employed asservants to middle and upper classfamilies were often given quarters in thehouses where they worked. AfricanAmericans and new immigrants movingto smaller cities often took up lodgingsin well kept, established neighborhoods,but those moving to larger cities oftenhad to live in rundown ghettoes andaccept unskilled work. Though theystruggled against discrimination, AfricanAmericans and new immigrants estab-lished churches, benevolent societies,and educational institutions to improveconditions for their people throughoutthe region.

M PLACE

The period’s profound changes radicallytransformed Chesapeake Bay environ-ments. Most of the region’s remainingold-growth forests were cut down.Farmers cleared from 40 to 50 percent ofthe land for planting fields. Wheat beganto supplant corn and tobacco as the majorcash crop. In the Susquehanna Piedmontin the 1840s, growers began naturalizinga variety of tobacco from Cuba thatcould tolerate the cold. RechristenedPennsylvania seedleaf tobacco, itbecame the favored outer wrapping forAmerican cigars by the 1850s.

Wood remained the region’s primarysource of heat, light, and building mater-ial until the 1860s. Growing cities andrural towns required huge amounts ofmilled timber for building constructionand maintenance. Innumerable cords offirewood were needed for heat as theLittle Ice-Age winds made winters bittercold. Farther inland, charcoal fueledPiedmont furnaces, foundries, and facto-ries. Since it took 20,000 to 30,000 acresof woodland to produce enough char-coal to smelt 1,000 tons of iron, charcoalproducers consumed entire forests.Woodlots on land that could not be usedfor farming provided wood for all ofthese domestic and industrial purposes.

Landscapes in and around ChesapeakeBay cities were transformed as neverbefore. Complexes of stores and munici-pal buildings rose in city centers.Residential and industrial districtsemerged in outlying areas. Brick, stone,iron, and steel replaced wood as thefavored building material in city andtown centers. Horses drew carriages,wagons, and streetcars on city roads andrail lines. Great terminals were built toserve the steam railroads linking citieswith the countryside. Coal fueled the rail-roads and began supplanting charcoalas the fuel of choice in city buildings andin factories. Production rose higher thanever in many established factories, suchas the arsenal complex in Harper’s Ferryfirst built in 1803. New rail constructionlinking Virginia with the rest of the


Howard University,Washington, D.C.

Hampton Institute,Virginia

Harper’s Ferry, Virginia

nation stimulated the erection of theTredegar Iron Works in Richmond in1841. Initially built to produce rails,engines, and rolling stock, the Tredegarworks became one of the South’s fewmunitions plants during the Civil War.

Baltimore and Washington city fatherswere intent on securing adequate sup-plies of fresh water. So they created reser-voirs by damming nearby Piedmontrivers and streams. The most ambitiousof these water supply projects, theWashington Aqueduct (constructedbetween 1853 and 1863), carriedPotomac water stored in a dam built justabove the river’s Great Falls to holdingreservoirs in Georgetown and Wash-ington City (see Figures 66-67). Locallyobtained brick, stone, wood, and metalwere used to construct the pipelines and


TREDEGAR IRON WORKS. The Tredegar Iron Works was built in Richmond Virginia between the northbank of James River and the southern berm of the James River and Kanawha Canal in 1841. Worked byhighly skilled slave laborers, Tredegar’s coal-fired forge and furnace smelted iron that was then cast toproduce cannon barrels and ammunition, machined into parts for steam engines, or rolled into sheetmetal and steel rails. Continually expanding, the works grew into the nation’s third largest ironworks bythe time the Civil War broke out in 1861.

Tredegar became the South’s largest and most important munitionsplant during the war. Served by as many as 2,500 workers, mostlyslaves, convicts, paroled Union prisoners, and Confederate soldiersdetached from their units, the Tredegar works turned out 1,099 can-non of all calibers, hundreds of tons of shot and shell, and the platearmor mounted on the sides of the Confederate ironclad ram C.S.S.Virginia. Experimental prototypes of the submarine, the torpedo,and the machine gunwere also produced atTredegar during the war.

Blown up by retreatingConfederate troopswhen Richmond fell

to Union forces on April 3, 1865, the Tredegar Works werequickly repaired and placed back into production. The workscontinued to produce munitions, locomotives, and sheet metalup the end of World War I. Several restored buildings (seeFigures 64-65) and the archeological remains of others aretoday preserved on the twenty-two acre Tredegar tract.

Figure 64: Tredegar Iron Works,April, 1865. Photograph by AlexanderGardner. (Alexander Gardner photographcourtesy of the Library of Congress)

Figure 65: Tredegar Iron Works, 1990. Northand east facades of the Spike Factory.(Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service)

Figure 66: Working Water Landscape: The Great Falls of the Potomac,June, 1906. (F. Lamson Scribner photograph courtesy of the Library of Congress)

Figure 67: The Dalecarlia Reservoir inGeorgetown, April, 1973. (Environmental Protec-

tion Agency photograph courtesy of the National Archives)

Tredegar Iron Works,Virginia

Washington Aqueduct,Washington, D.C.

aqueducts of this and subsequent watersupply systems that carried reservoirwater to city water mains. The samematerials were also used in new sewersdug under city streets. These sewerspouring wastes and runoff into riversflowing into Chesapeake Bay.

Expanded agricultural, residential, andindustrial development meant more soilerosion. In the interior, tailings of wasterock, cinders, and other residues frommines, quarries, and furnaces–mixedwith soils eroded from logged-overlands–flowed into Piedmont rivers andstreams. Soils eroded from agriculturalfields washed millions of additional tonsof topsoil into regional waterways acrossthe Coastal Plain. Untreated sewage andother city wastes–pumped directly intoharbor waters by coastal cities–furtherfouled Bay waters.

The region’s plant and animal communi-ties began to show signs of the affects ofpollution and sedimentation. Offshoreoyster beds, for example, were once sodense that they were regarded as naviga-tional hazards. But they were decimatedafter better transportation networksopened new markets for fresh, pickled,and spiced oysters in the 1830s.Searching for new supplies in deeperwaters, Chesapeake Bay oystermendredged up the huge quantities of oys-ters discovered in Tangier Sound in 1840.By 1845, coastal canneries had beenbuilt, and oystermen were hauling theircatches there. Oysters were steamed inhuge kettles, then packed into sealedbottles and cans that could preserve per-ishable contents. They were then sent inwooden crates by ship and rail through-out the region and the nation.

The oyster industry became big business.Baltimore canneries alone processed 1.6million bushels (a bushel represents therough equivalent of eight gallons) in1857, 4 million bushels in 1865, and 10million bushels in 1868. Overall,Maryland oystermen took approximately400 million bushels of oysters fromChesapeake Bay waters between 1836and 1890. Oystermen ripped up theseabed with metal rakes and dredges,taking all oysters, regardless of age and

condition. But oysters were not in end-less supply. Sickened by pollution anddevastated by crude harvesting tech-niques, Chesapeake Bay oyster breedingstocks were severely threatened by 1880.

The Bay’s blue crab communities beganto be exploited as well, after rail lineexpansion and the invention of therefrigerator car in the 1870s made it pos-sible to ship blue crabs to cities. Marketdemand for hard shelled crabs caught bytrotlines, long lengths of line baited withchunks of eel and other bait sunk inopen Bay waters, emerged soon after(see Figure 72).


PORTFOLIO: THECHESAPEAKE BAYSHELLFISH INDUSTRY

Figure 71: Oyster Bed Watch House.Typical of the types of houses usedto shelter watchmen looking out forpoachers raiding oyster groundsthroughout the Chesapeake drainage.(From Harvesting the Chesapeake: Tools andTraditions, by Larry S. Chowning, courtesy ofTidewater Publishers ©1990)

Figure 72: Catching BlueCrabs with a Trotline.

(Sketch courtesy of the VirginiaInstitute of Marine Sciences, th

College of William and Mary)

Figure 68: Working an OysterBed off Rock Point, Maryland,1936. (Arthur Rothstein photographcourtesy of the Library of Congress)

Figure 70: Oyster House andShuck Pile, Rock Point,Maryland, 1941.(Reginald Hotchkiss photographcourtesy of the Library of Congress)

Figure 69: Oyster Tongers off RockPoint, Maryland, 1941. (Reginald Hotchkissphotograph courtesy of the Library of Congress)

Market demand also drastically reducedwaterfowl populations. One commercialhunter reported that he had shot 7,000canvasback ducks during the 1846-1847hunting season. Market gunners com-monly reported daily hauls of more thana hundred canvasbacks. Canvasbackducks were most frequently huntedalong the west side of the upper bay,between the mouths of the Susquehannaand Patapsco Rivers. Market hunters fre-quently used large, cannon-like, smoothbored shotguns, which they mounted onswivels fixed to the rail sidings of shallowdraft vessels, such as sneakboats–lowboats barely visible above the waves.Volleys of shot fired by a battery of suchguns could kill thousands of birds at atime. Sport hunters often used the lifelikewooden decoys carved by ChesapeakeBay craftsmen to lure flights of ducks,geese, and other waterfowl into range.Farther inland, hunters shot huge num-bers of passenger pigeons and othermigratory birds. Hunters developed aspecial breed of dog, the Chesapeake BayRetriever, to be particularly adept at bring-ing in birds under all weather conditions.

Accurate records of Chesapeake fish har-vests were first kept during this period.The Maryland Fish Commission’s com-prehensive survey, List of Fish of Mary-land, catalogued 202 different species inChesapeake Bay in 1876. Only five ofthese were full time residents; the restwere migrants of one sort or another. TheBay was noted as the northernmost limitfor twenty-seven species that were morecommonly found farther south. Andtwelve northern species reached thesouthern limits of their ranges in the Bayregion. Anadromous species spawningin freshwater, such as American shad,alewives, and striped bass, were heavilyfished by Chesapeake Bay watermen.Farther inland, sport fishing grew popular.

On land as well, hunting had an evergreater impact on animal populations.Drastic declines occurred in the numberof game animals such as white-taileddeer and black bear. In repeatedattempts to protect the remaining popu-lations, local governments defined andredefined legal bag limits and limitedhunting seasons.

THE CULTURALLANDSCAPE OFSECTIONAL STRIFE

M PEOPLING PLACES

Immigration, relocation from rural areasto Chesapeake Bay cities, and the greatwestward migration changed the region’sdemography dramatically between 1820and 1880. Successive waves of Europeanimmigrants arrived at ports such asBaltimore, Washington, and Norfolk.Even more came on trains from northerncities such as Boston, New York, andPhiladelphia. Many Swedes settled at thenorthern end of the Eastern Shore in theearly 1840s. Germans, Czechs, andPoles–fleeing failed revolutions–came toBaltimore after 1848. And numerous Irishimmigrants also arrived at this time, dri-ven from their homes by poverty, repres-sion, and famine.

Many new immigrants fought in botharmies during the Civil War. And growingnumbers of Italians, Russians, Greeks,Ukrainians, Jews, and Scandinavianscame to the region in the decades afterthe war. They were joined by impover-ished Southerners of all races seekingopportunities farther north. Many new-comers settled together in city neighbor-hoods with names like Little Italy.

Small numbers of Nanticoke, Powhatan,Mattaponi, and other Native Americanscontinued to live in scattered rural reser-vations and other enclaves. They wereoften unable to find spouses in their owncommunities because the communitieshad shrunk so much. As a result, manymarried non-Indians. Children born tothese families often moved from their im-poverished communities to the region’scities in search of employment in mills,shops, and factories. Many other ruralinhabitants did the same. Most of thesenewcomers were poor and had to live inracially and ethnically segregated neigh-borhoods. Each of these neighborhoodsdeveloped its own places of worship,markets, clubs, and other institutions.


City services, already sparse in thisperiod, were rarely available in neighbor-hoods occupied by new immigrants ornative born African Americans. Blind tosocial distinctions, diseases such asmalaria and yellow fever were spread bymosquitoes thriving in the warm, stillwaters of the Bay estuary. And ships fromforeign ports carried lethal illnesses suchas cholera. An epidemic of cholera origi-nating in India in 1826 slowly spreadaround the world, reaching theChesapeake by 1832. Together, epi-demics and contagious illnesses sick-ened and killed tens of thousands.Although city authorities did what theycould to improve sanitation and provideclean water, their efforts did little to haltthe spread of contagious diseases formuch of the nineteenth century.

M CREATION OF SOCIALINSTITUTIONS

Social life in the region expanded farbeyond home and hearth between 1820and 1880. Churches, taverns, shops, andinns remained centers of social interac-tion in rural communities. Publiclyfunded primary schools began openingin communities in Pennsylvania andMaryland in the late 1820s. Virginiancommunities started their own publicschool systems in the years after the CivilWar. Much of the region’s current educa-tional infrastructure was in place by1880. These schools came to be staffedby teachers who had attended colleges(then known as normal schools)designed to train educators.

Higher education also expanded dra-matically. The United States NavalAcademy, for example, was founded inAnnapolis in 1845. Federally funded landgrant colleges–intended to stimulategrowth in agriculture, industry, and engi-neering – opened in Maryland andVirginia in the 1860s and 1870s. Severalprivate colleges were also established inand around Washington. One of these,Gallaudet College, which opened in1866, was the nation’s first institution ofhigher learning dedicated to educatingdeaf people. African American commu-nities also opened schools of their own

when almost all established institutionsclosed their doors to black students.These included the previously men-tioned Howard University and HamptonInstitute.

Other social services were expanded,and new facilities were built throughoutthe region. These included hospitalssuch as Baltimore’s Pratt Hospital, watertreatment facilities such as the earliermentioned Washington Aqueduct, andhomes for retired soldiers and seamensuch as the United States Soldier’sHome, built in Washington. Many werein rural locales, far from settlements.Others were built in or near city centersand county seats. At first, many of theseinstitutions were housed in structures–wood-framed or masonry, in the GreekRevival style–that were believed to repre-sent and foster democratic values. TheUnited States Naval Hospital inPortsmouth is one of the best knownexamples in the region. Another archi-tectural style, an imposing one known asEgyptian Revival, was used to emphasizethe solemn, scientific purpose of Rich-mond’s Medical College of Virginia, thefirst institution of its kind in the South.Wood, brick, and stone masonry hauledfrom nearby quarries were also used tobuild both ornate Victorian GothicRevival buildings, such as the JamesMonroe Tomb in Richmond (built in1859), and Italianate structures, such asthe Camden Plantation House in PortRoyal, Virginia (see Figure 73).

The Cultural Landscape of Industrial Development 107

Figure 73: Camden Plantation Great House, 1986(Photograph courtesy of the Virginia Department of Historic Resources)

United States NavalAcademy and Pratt Hospital,Maryland

Gallaudet College, HowardUniversity, WashingtonAqueduct, and United StatesSoldier’s Home, Washington,D.C.

Hampton Institute, UnitedStates Naval Hospital,Medical College of Virginia,James Monroe Tomb,Camden Plantation House,Virginia

The huge numbers of Civil War soldiersmaimed by incapacitating wounds hadmade large scale institutional healthcare necessary, and it also led to muchsubsequent construction in the region.Crippled or aged soldiers were cared forin veterans’ homes (see Figure 74).Orphanages, homes for widows, andpoor farms opened to care for other vic-tims of the war. Cities and counties builtfacilities to care for growing numbers ofprison inmates, impoverished citizens,and mental patients. Sanitariums wereopened to care for tuberculosis victims,whose numbers began to grow alarm-ingly towards the end of the period. Thisincrease occurred as crowded urbanslums became breeding grounds for thedisease. Libraries, museums, and histori-cal societies sponsored by influentialfamilies began to open in larger citiesand county seats. In the cities, new immi-grants began benevolent societies andother support services. Reactionarygroups intent on restricting the rights ofimmigrants and people of color alsoorganized secretly throughout the regionduring this period.

Foremost among these groups was theKu Klux Klan. Initially a social club, itquickly grew into a secret army that usedterror and violence to intimidate its vic-tims; authorities administering Recon-struction in the South and black peopleexercising newly won rights. Some tradi-tions hold that the Klan’s name originallyreferred to a legendary Indian demonthought to prey on willful black people.Its founders, a group of lawyers who had

served in the Confederate armies, pat-terned their organization’s name and cer-emonies after the Greek three-letterfraternities of their college days. Meetingin Pulaski, Kentucky in 1866, they estab-lished a highly ritualized secret fraternalorder whose name derived from kucklos,a Greek word for circle, and clan, aGaelic word for family. In less than a year,this small club grew into a far-flungsecret army. This army waged a covertwar on Reconstruction and used tacticsemployed by vigilantes and militia guardsto hunt escaped slaves in Southern statesbefore the Civil War. Disbanding soonafter the federal government officiallysuppressed their organization in 1871,the Ku Klux Klan nevertheless played amajor role in the enactment of discrimi-natory Black Codes in Maryland,Virginia, and other Southern states.

M EXPRESSING CULTURALVALUES

Like other areas of the nation,Chesapeake Bay struggled to form a cul-tural identity between 1820 and 1880.New journals appeared, includingRichmond’s Southern Literary Mes-senger, providing places for culturalexchange. One of its editors, Edgar AllenPoe (1800-1849), spent much of his lifemoving between Richmond andBaltimore. Poe explored the darkerdepths of the romantic sentimentalitythat dominated the nation’s popular cul-ture of the period.

Sentimental minstrel performances alsobecame popular at this time. They show-cased banjo music played by whiteactors who had blackened their faces.Their minstrel shows presented a roman-tic view of Southern plantation life–aview of that world as it never was.Although the minstrel shows were madeto appear as if they were drawn fromAfrican American life, their middle classsensibilities, polka-style beat, and homelylyrics were mostly the inventions ofNorthern songwriters such as StephenFoster.

Other forms expressed the region’s manycultures more accurately. These forms


Figure 74: Soldier’s Home, Washington, ca. 1868.(Lithograph by Charles Magnus courtesy of the Library of Congress)

included starkly simple choral singing(the tune of one such song, “AmazingGrace,” is still widely known), camp-meeting revival songs, call-and-responseblack spirituals, and European-style mili-tary marches.

People became more aware during thesedecades that historic sites could be usedto support cultural messages. For exam-ple, a group of Know-Nothings callingthemselves the American Party tried tobuild a monument to George Washing-ton in the capital. This was clearly anattempt to use the first president as asymbol to support their anti-immigrantprogram. The Know-Nothings were notthe only group to appreciate GeorgeWashington’s symbolic significance. In abustle of patriotic zeal, the citizens of theSouth Mountain town of Boonsboro,Maryland erected the nation’s first monu-ment to Washington, a stone mound, inone day on July 4, 1827. Rebuilt by theCivilian Conservation Corps in 1936, it isnow the centerpiece of a state park. And,in the late 1850s, a national group ofwomen calling themselves the MountVernon Ladies’ Association, formed toaddress the growing North-South ten-sions tearing at their country. They pur-chased Mount Vernon, Washington’shome on the Potomac, preserving it andmaking it a monument to America’s com-mon heritage (see Figure 75). Inspiredby their example, patriotic citizensbegan erecting replicas of the buildingelsewhere in the nation in the decadesfollowing the end of the Civil War.

Enthusiasm for classical Greek andRoman culture swept the region and thecountry in this period. This classical

revival influenced architecture, the arts,and the names of new towns and cities(such as Arcadia, Maryland, andPalmyra, Virginia). Classically land-scaped parks and cemeteries featuringcurvilinear paths, ornamental and com-memorative monuments, sculptures, andfountains, mown lawns, and gardens andgroves emulating layouts of ancientdesigned landscapes unearthed duringthe nineteenth century at Pompeii andother Roman and Greek archeologicalsites, began to appear in regional cities.This use of Greco-Roman style had sym-bolic value, as the Greek and Romanempires were founded on democraticideals that the United States intended touphold. The movement also emphasizedthe European origins of American cul-ture, ignoring or denigrating the culturalcontributions of Africans and NativeAmericans. Such an emphasis wasstrengthened by a so-called scientificview that emerged in this period. Basedon evolutionary theory as it was thenunderstood, this view held that peoplesconsidered by white Europeans andAmericans to be more primitive–such asAfricans and Native Americans–werealso biologically and culturally inferior.

Before the Civil War, Quakers, abolition-ists, feminists, and other Northern socialreformers struggled to put forward moreegalitarian cultural agendas in theregion. Criticizing social inequality andinjustice, reformers supported the aboli-tion of slavery, fought to extend votingrights to all adult citizens, struggledagainst religious intolerance and anti-immigrant Know-Nothingism, and cham-pioned other causes. Although therhetoric often ran hot, public supportwas lukewarm at best, as John Brown dis-covered to his sorrow at Harper’s Ferry in1859.

The dramatic postwar development inthe North appeared to signal victories forthe reformers, but it did not radicallytransform cultural values. ManySoutherners in the Chesapeake and else-where rejected what was called the radi-cal agenda. Laws supporting this agenda,which called for, among other things, fulland immediate representation of African


Figure 75: Aerial View of Mount Vernon:April, 1973. (Photograph by the EnvironmentalProtection Agency courtesy of the National Archives)

Arcadia, Maryland

Palmyra, Virginia

Boonsboro, Maryland

Mount Vernon, Virginia

American voters in federal, state, andlocal governments, were proposed andenacted by politicians known as theRadical Republicans. And those inpower both north and south of thePotomac refused to give women the vote.Most native born Americans, also contin-ued to look with disdain on AfricanAmericans, Native Americans, and thelatest waves of immigrants from EasternEuropean and Mediterranean countries.

M SHAPING THE POLITICALLANDSCAPE

Chesapeake Bay people struggled to bal-ance state rights with federal authoritythroughout this period. They agreed thatthe national government should see tothe nation’s defense, but they debatedwhether or not to create national postal,banking, and transportation systems. Thequestion of slavery brought these stateversus federal issues to a head when theCivil War erupted in 1861. That upheavalchanged the region’s entire politicallandscape, as every level of governmentmobilized every possible resource tosupport military operations. The Federaland Confederate governments built forti-fications, expanded and modernizednavy yards (see Figure 76), raised armies,and established elaborate networks tosupport the logistics of war. Trains, ships,canal boats, and other essential utilitieswere pressed into war service. Militarypriorities determined what products fac-tories and farms produced. And foragingsoldiers seized livestock, confiscatedfood supplies, and burned fence rails forfuel wherever their armies marched.

The Federal government funded recon-struction after the war, and it placeddefeated Southern states under militarylaw. Wartime forts and camps were main-tained to train troops in the North and tohouse occupation forces in the South.Massive stone administration buildingsrose up in Washington. Some, such asthe General Post Office (completed in1866), were built in the restrained neo-classical style. Others, such as the State,War, and Navy Building (built between1871 and 1888 and today known as theOld Executive Building), were con-structed in the ornate French SecondEmpire style, reflecting the triumph ofthe Federal government. The impulse tobuild impressive edifices extended tocity and county administrations, whichalso funded the construction of hugeand elaborate administrative buildings,courthouses, halls of records, and prisons.

M DEVELOPING THECHESAPEAKE ECONOMY

New coal-driven technologies began torevolutionize the region’s economic lifein the 1820s and beyond. Marylandentrepreneurs, first excited by discoveriesof hard coal seams to their north, foundcloser deposits in western parts of thestate. Often supported by the federal andstate governments, they organized corpo-rations to take advantage of new devel-opments such as railroads, steamships,and other coal-powered technologies.Many of these corporations raised theirdevelopment funds by selling stock andsponsoring lotteries. Larger enterpriseswere actually allowed to open banks andprint their own currency.

Some corporations got both public andprivate funds. These included theChesapeake and Ohio Canal Companyand the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad,which extracted and conveyed coal, tim-ber, and other raw materials to new fac-tories, foundries, and furnaces in CoastalPlain cities and Piedmont mill towns.Other improvements, such as theChesapeake and Delaware Canal,forged closer links with coastal portsnorth and south of the region. Fueled by


Figure 76: Washington Navy Yard, 1861.(Sketch by Alfred R. Waud courtesy of the Library ofCongress)

General Post Officeand State, War, andNavy Buildings (OldExecutive Building),

Washington, D.C.

Chesapeake and OhioCanal Company,

Baltimore and OhioRailroad, and

Chesapeake andDelaware Canal,

Maryland

coal, growing numbers of corporationsbegan turning local sand, clay, and ironore into glass, ceramics, bricks, iron, andsteel. New houses and structures roseeverywhere as a building boom grippedthe region following the recovery fromthe Great Panic of 1837 (see below).Entrepreneurs organized new construc-tion companies to meet demands fromnew industries and their ever growingnumbers of workers. Mills in coastalcities and Piedmont villages–such asHarper’s Ferry, Lancaster, and Peters-burg–worked glass, metal, and wood intofinished tools, implements, and furnish-ings. Whatever could not be producedwas imported into the region by tradingcompanies operating in Baltimore,Norfolk, and other port cities.

New roads, canals, and rail lines carriedgoods to cities, towns, and villagesthroughout the region. Railroads made itpossible to develop small Piedmonttowns such as Centreville, Virginia (seeFigure 77)–towns that lacked access toadequate roads or river routes. Estab-lished industries employed once inde-pendent artisans to train and superviseworkforces of new immigrants and ruralcountryfolk. These included ship build-ing facilities and factories that mass pro-duced precision goods, such as steamengine parts and rifled muskets. Thosewho stayed in the countryside raisedfarm production with new and more effi-cient plows, harrows, and other tools.

Most farmers stayed largely self sufficientin the first decades of this period. Allcontinued to depend on horses, mules,and oxen to pull their plows and drawtheir wagons, but steam railroads helpedget their growing amounts of produce tomarkets. Advances in transportation alsostimulated development of the Pennsyl-vania tobacco industry and encouragedthe growth of large commercial orchardsin Adams County, Pennsylvania, and otherChesapeake Piedmont communities,since tobacco and fruit producers couldsend their products to far off markets.

Both farms and factories grew depen-dent on industrial developments. Their

owners borrowed money from regionalbanks to meet the growing costs of pro-duction and transportation. Private andpublic banks competed to offer thesefunds, and their dispute soon spilledover into divisive political conflict on thefloors of statehouses throughout theregion. As the fortunes of individualsand corporations rose and fell, the econ-omy became more volatile. Periods ofprosperity were followed by depressions.These falls were often sparked by fiscaldisasters such as the Great Panic of 1837,which was set off when the Bank ofMaryland and other financial institutionsin and around the region failed.

Economic changes brought on by theCivil War started an era of unprece-dented industrial expansion. Northernindustries and financial institutions hadbeen enriched by military contracts andtook full advantage of the new purchas-ing power of workers in the boominglabor market. But they grew even moreprosperous, as the spending power ofNorthern consumers and western mar-kets grew after the war. For their part,Southerners wishing to end their depen-dence on Northern manufacturersstarted up their own industries and finan-cial institutions as they worked to rebuildeconomies shattered by the war. In tide-water areas, tobacco gave way to a morediverse agricultural economy. Many oldplantations were broken up into smallerholdings. These were increasinglyfarmed by tenant farming renters andsharecroppers who gave up parts of theirharvests to more prosperous largerlandowners.


Figure 77: Centreville, Virginia, March,1862. (Photograph by George N. Barnard and James F.Gibson courtesy of the National Archives)

Large corporations also made their pres-ence visible in the landscape during thisperiod. Powerful companies built impos-ing, ornate structures that rivaled federal,state, and local government buildings.Corporate employers dominated life insmaller mining and mill towns, often run-ning community banks, stores, andschools. Corporations needing skilledlabor began encouraging educationalimprovements required to create a morecompetent, literate workforce. Literacyalso fueled development. Printingpresses turned out growing numbers ofbooks and newspapers to meet thedemands of newly literate consumers.

Toward the end of the period, industrialphilanthropists also began funding theconstruction of libraries and museums inmajor cities and towns. Corporationspurchased huge amounts of locally pro-duced brick, stone, glass, timber, andcast iron to build stately office buildingsin city centers and factory warehousecomplexes near rail heads, terminals,and harbor wharves. Impressed by thesegrand structures, people flocked to workin them. Many found contentmentwithin their walls. Others, influenced bythe writings of progressive American andEuropean social theorists, dreamed ofbetter wages and working conditions.

But even so, Northern organizers whocame to the region to form unions hadlittle success in most Chesapeake

locales. They found a workforce afraid ofunemployment; a group of established,powerful families more interested in get-ting richer than in distributing corporatewealth; and civil authorities who wantedthings to stay as they were. Now and thena business crisis threatened to spark astorm in labor relations; one of these wasthe Economic Crash of 1873. Caused bya catastrophic drop in stock prices onthe Vienna and New York markets, thiscrash set off a five-year period of eco-nomic depression. But even so, the dis-content and anger of workers in theregion’s factories and fields mostly stayedhidden–or was forced into hiding–between 1820 and 1880.

But worker unrest flared into violence onthe open waters of the Bay when oyster-men began fighting state authorities andeach other for the shellfish they had tosell to survive. In struggles known asOyster Wars, oystermen using tongsfought those using the far more destruc-tive dredges, which had been outlawedin Maryland and Virginia. Dredges indis-criminately scraped up vast quantities ofoysters regardless of age or condition inlarge scoops dragged from boats acrosswide swaths of Bay bottom. These con-frontations erupted into gunfire. To endthe violence, Maryland created whatbecame known as the Oyster Navy in1868. Patrolling Chesapeake waters inswift, highly maneuverable vessels, theOyster Navy worked to enforce anti-dredging laws and restore order (seeFigure 78). Although the Oyster Navyended the fighting, it could do little tostop the over-harvesting and pollutionthat were quickly depleting the Bay’soyster beds.

M EXPANDING SCIENCE ANDTECHNOLOGY

Major developments in science and tech-nology fueled industrial expansion in theChesapeake Bay region between 1820and 1880. Native born mechanics andskilled European technicians adaptedEuropean innovations in metallurgy,steam technology, and textile manufac-turing to fit local needs. Mechanics


Figure 78: Hulk of the Governor Robert M. Lane. Flagship ofthe Oyster Navy, 1884-1932 laid up in Baltimore Harbor nearthe Baltimore Museum of Industry, 1997.(Photograph by Susan B. M. Langley courtesy of the Maryland Historical Trust)

Oyster Navy,Maryland

improved engine efficiency, increasedthe production capacities of industries,and used new transportation develop-ments to create better vehicles. As notedabove, faster and more efficient woodensailing vessels were developed, andthese were replaced eventually by wheeland propeller-driven steamships withmetal hulls (see Figure 79). Engineerssuch as Charles Reeder, inventor of thecrosshead engine, improved steam en-gines for ships dramatically. Locomotiveswere made larger and more powerful.Safer and more efficient metal railroadcars replaced their wooden predecessors.Lighter, stronger, and more malleablemetals also transformed the buildingtrades, enabling architects to designtaller, larger, and more ornate structures.

New information moved quickly throughthe region in technical articles, guide-books, and other publications. Baltimorebecame a major information center, as itwas strategically located on the banks ofthe region’s roomiest deepwater harborand at the heart of a web of major trans-portation networks (see Figure 80).Publications produced by its regionalpresses were gathered together inlibraries, technological institutes, andcolleges such as the Johns HopkinsUniversity, a research center focusing onpostgraduate education. College gradu-ates and self-trained technicians openedor worked in the many laboratories andworkshops created in and around the city.

Technological advances also increasedagricultural production. By 1832,

Virginian Edmund Ruffin showed howmarl (a crumbly dirt rich in calcium car-bonate) could provide a cheap, easilyobtainable fertilizer for fields that hadbeen depleted by intensive tobacco,corn, and wheat cultivation. Farmers alsobegan using new genetic theories tobreed more productive and disease resis-tant plants and animals. Graduates ofland grant colleges introduced other use-ful techniques, including crop rotationmethods and tilling techniques thatguarded against erosion. The results–greater farm yields of higher quality–were carried to regional towns and citiesalong rail lines. And new refrigerationand canning techniques encouragedexports of farm products to otherAmerican and foreign markets.

M TRANSFORMING THEENVIRONMENT

The many factors described above –industrialization, urban growth, shifts inagricultural production, and transporta-tion improvements – radically trans-formed Chesapeake Bay environments inthis period. Marching armies of the CivilWar did affect the environment nega-tively, polluting local water supplies, cut-ting trees, and, on occasion, reroutingwaterways with makeshift ditches like the

Where, What, and When 113

Figure 79: Steamboat Potomac on thePatuxent River at Lower Marlboro,Maryland, ca. 1900. (Photograph courtesy of the

Calvert Marine

Figure 80: Baltimore City, 1862. Panoramic view from the Mount VernonPlace Historic District looking south beyond the Washington Monument.(Lithograph by E. Sachse and Company courtesy of the Library of Congress)

Johns HopkinsUniversity

Dutch Gap Canal (see Figure 81), builtby Union troops in 1864 to bypassstrongly fortified Confederate positionsoutside Richmond. Such environmentaldisturbances tended to be temporaryand of a highly localized nature. Riversediments quickly filled the Dutch Gapditch, and most other envi-ronmental dislocations werecorrected by concerned citi-zens and local communitieswithin a few years of the endof the war. But postwar devel-opment posed more seriousproblems. Eroded soil sedi-ments, human and animalwastes, and industrial wastespolluted Chesapeake Baywaterways as never before.And vast clouds of wood andcoal smoke billowed fromfactory smokestacks and thechimneys of residences and office build-ings. This pollution blotted the skiesabove Chesapeake Bay towns and cities.Intensive use of particular resourcescaused the clear cutting of old growthforests, the killing of entire species, andthe altering of ecosystems. As men-tioned, hunting and harvesting even

threatened the future of the Bay’s duckand oyster populations.

M CHANGING ROLE OF THECHESAPEAKE IN THEWORLD COMMUNITY

During this period, wharves, warehouses,and immigrant communities rose alongthe shores of Norfolk, Alexandria,Baltimore, and other Chesapeake Bayports (see Figure 82). This growth tookthe region from an isolated agriculturalenclave to a cosmopolitan center ofindustry and trade. Propellers replacedsails, and schooners, clipper ships, andsteam transports brought in imports fromEurope and Asia. The Washington NavyYard (see Figure 83) and other Chesa-

peake Bay shipyards also produced moreand more warships that could projectAmerican power far from the nation’sshores. American determination to turnback potential foreign invaders alsomotivated the placement of cannon bar-rels in the walls of stone fortresses on theregion’s shores.

Washington and Baltimore grew intointernational cities as new immigrantsand foreign diplomatic and trade delega-tions moved in. More and more immi-grants gathered in ethnic neighborhoodswith distinctive churches, shops, signage,and eateries offering inexpensive OldWorld meals to unmarried male new-comers. Farther inland, new immigrantsfound work in Piedmont mills, mines,and factories.


Figure 82: Sixth Street Wharf, 1863, Washington, D.C.(Lithograph by Charles Magnus courtesy of the Library of Congress)

Figure 81: Dutch Gap Canal, on the JamesRiver, Eight Miles from Richmond March,1865. (Photograph by John Reekiecourtesy of the National Archives)

Figure 83: Washington Navy Yard, 1861. Shad fishermendraw in a net in the foreground. (Harper’s Weekly sketch

courtesy of the Library of Congress)

Dutch Gap Canal,Virginia

Washington Navy Yard,Washington, D.C.

FURTHER INFORMATIONThese works are foremost among themany sources containing usefulinformation surveying this period inChesapeake Bay history:

Carol Ashe, Four Hundred Years ofVirginia, 1584-1984: An Anthology(1985).

Carl Bode, Maryland: A BicentennialHistory (1978).

Daniel J. Boorstin, The Americans (1973).

Robert J. Brugger, Maryland: A MiddleTemperament,1634-1980 (1988).

Suzanne Chapelle, et al., Maryland: AHistory of Its People (1986).

Federal Writers’ Program, Maryland: AGuide to the Old Line State (1940a).

——-, Virginia: A Guide to the OldDominion (1940b).

Frederick A. Gutheim, The Potomac(1968).

Alice Jane Lippson, The Chesapeake Bayin Maryland (1973).

Paul Metcalf, ed., Waters of Potowmack(1982).

Lucien Niemeyer and Eugene L. Meyer,Chesapeake Country (1990).

Edward C. Papenfuse, et al., Maryland: ANew Guide to the Old Line State(1979).

Morris L. Radoff, The Old Line State: AHistory of Maryland (1971).

Emily J. Salmon, ed., A Hornbook ofVirginia History (1983).

Mame and Marion E. Warren, Maryland:Time Exposures,1840-1940 (1984).

John R. Wennersten, Maryland’s EasternShore: A Journey in Time and Place(1992).

Major environmental studies includethe following:

William C. Schroeder and Samuel F.Hillebrand, Fishes of Chesapeake Bay(1972).

James P. Thomas, ed., Chesapeake(1986).

P. R. Uhler and Otto Lugger, List of Fish ofMaryland (1876).

David A. Zegers, ed., At the Crossroads: ANatural History of SouthcentralPennsylvania (1994).

These useful atlases and geographicsurveys graphically depict largescale patterns of development in theChesapeake Bay’s cultural landscapein the period:

Michael Conzen, ed., The Making of theAmerican Landscape (1990).

David J. Cuff, et al., eds., The Atlas ofPennsylvania (1989).

James E. DiLisio, Maryland, a Geography(1983).

Donald W. Meinig, The Shaping ofAmerica. Volume 2: ContinentalAmerica,1800-1867 (1993).

Donald W. Meinig, The Shaping ofAmerica.Volume 3: TranscontinentalAmerica,1850-1915 (1999).

Edward C. Papenfuse and Joseph M.Coale, eds., The Hammond-HarwoodHouse Atlas of Historical Maps ofMaryland,1608-1908 (1982).

John R. Stilgoe, Common Landscape ofAmerica,1580 to 1845 (1982).

Helen Hornbeck Tanner, ed., The Settlingof North America (1995).

Derek Thompson, et al., Atlas ofMaryland (1977).

Kent T. Zachary, Cultural Landscapes ofthe Potomac (1995).

Small-scale community studiesinclude this one:

Jack Temple Kirby, Poquosson (1986).

Biographical accounts providinginsights into individual lives includethe following:

Frank A. Cassell, Merchant Congressmanin the Young Republic: Samuel Smith ofMaryland,1752-1839 ( 1971).

Frederick Douglass, Life and Times ofFrederick Douglass (1962).

Further Information 115

Eugene S. Ferguson, Oliver Evans, TheInventive Genius of the AmericanIndustrial Revolution (1980).

Richard H. Hunt, Enoch Pratt:The Story ofa Plain Man (1935).

Dickson J. Preston, Young FrederickDouglass:The Maryland Years (1980).

Helen Hopkins Thom, Johns Hopkins: ASilhouette (1929).

Aspects of the cultural life of theperiod is examined in these works:

Helen Chappell, Chesapeake Book of theDead (1999).

Hugh D. Hawkins, Pioneer: A History ofthe Johns Hopkins University, 1874-1889 (1960).

Esther Wanning, Maryland: Art of theState (1998).

The many studies surveying keyaspects of social life of the periodinclude these:

Herbert Aptheker, American Negro SlaveRevolts (1943).

Kathleen Brown, Good Wives, NastyWenches, and Anxious Patriarchs(1996).

Dieter Cunz, The Maryland Germans(1948).

Bianca P. Floyd, Records and Reflections:Early Black History in Prince George’sCounty,Maryland (1989).

Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’sUnfinished Business,1863-1877 (1988).

Mary Forsht-Tucker, et al., Associationand Community Histories of PrinceGeorge’s County (1996).

Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier:The Suburbanization of the UnitedStates (1985).

Terry G. Jordan and Matti Kaups, TheAmerican Backwoods Frontier (1989).

Suzanne Lebsock, Virginia Women, 1600-1945 (1987).

Roland C. McConnell, Three Hundredand Fifty Years (1985).

Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery,American Freedom (1975).

Stephen B. Oates, The Fires of Jubilee: NatTurner’s Fierce Rebellion (1990).

Vera F. Rollo, The Black Experience inMaryland (1980).

Helen C. Rountree, Pocahontas’s People(1990).

Allen W. Trelease, White Terror: The KuKlux Klan Conspiracy and SouthernReconstruction (1971).

Bruce G. Trigger, ed., Northeast (Vol. 15,Handbook of North American Indians,1978).

Edward C. Papenfuse, et al., Maryland: ANew Guide to the Old Line State(1979).

Wilcomb E. Washburn, ed., History ofIndian-White Relations (Vol. 4,Handbook of North American Indians,1988).

Charles Lewis Wagandt, The MightyRevolution: Negro Emancipation inMaryland,1862-1864 (1964).

James M. Wright, The Free Negro inMaryland,1634-1860 (1921).

Significant examples of the manyrecent scholarly studies of slavery inthe region in this period include thefollowing:

Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone (1998).

——-, and Philip D. Morgan, eds., TheSlave’s Economy (1991).

——-, and Philip D. Morgan, eds.,Cultivation and Culture (1993).

Barbara J. Fields, Slavery and Freedomon the Middle Ground (1985).

Ronald Lewis, Coal, Iron, and Slaves(1979).

Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint(1997).

Michael Tadman, Speculators and Slaves(1989).

T. Stephen Whitman, The Price ofFreedom (1997).

William H. Williams, Slavery andFreedom in Delaware, 1639-1865(1996).

Carol Wilson, Freedom at Risk (1994).


Gilbert L. Wilson, An Introduction into theHistory of Slavery in Prince George’sCounty (1991).

These are among the many studiesaddressing the development ofreligion in this period:

Donald G. Mathews, Slavery andMethodism (1965).

Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion(1978).

Useful insights into period politicallife may be found in the following:

Jean H. Baker, The Politics of Continuity(1973).

——-, Ambivalent Americans: The KnowNothing Party in Maryland (1977).

Richard O. Curry, ed., Radicalism,Reconstruction, and Party Realignment(1969).

William A. Evitts, A Matter of Allegiances:Maryland from 1850 to 1861 (1974).

Robert B. Harmon, Government andPolitics in Maryland (1990).

Whitman H. Ridgway, CommunityLeadership in Maryland, 1790-1840(1979).

Malcolm J. Rohrbaugh, The Land OfficeBusiness (1968).

Among the huge number of studieson the Civil War in the ChesapeakeBay region is this work:

Eric Mills, Chesapeake Bay in the CivilWar (1996).

Key economic studies include thefollowing:

Percy W. Bidwell and John I. Falconer,History of Agriculture in the NorthernUnited States,1620-1860 (1925).

Avery O. Craven, Soil Exhaustion as aFactor in the Agricultural History ofVirginia and Maryland, 1606-1860(1925).

Lewis C. Gray, History of Agriculture in theSouthern United States to 1860 (1932).

Luther Porter Jackson, Free Negro Laborand Property Holding in Virginia, 1830-1860 (1969).

Paula Johnson, ed., Working the Water(1988).

Joanne Passmore, History of theDelaware State Grange and the State’sAgriculture,1875-1975 (1975).

Glenn Porter, ed., Regional EconomicHistory of the Mid-Atlantic Area Since1700 (1976).

John R. Wennersten, The Oyster Wars ofChesapeake Bay (1981).

Useful analyses of regional scientificand technological developments inthe period may be found in theseworks:

Albert Lowther Demaree, The AmericanAgricultural Press,1819-1860 (1941).

James D. Dilts, The Great Road: TheBuilding of the Baltimore and OhioRailroad (1993).

Geoffrey M. Fostner, Tidewater Triumph(1998).

Thomas F. Hahn, The Chesapeake andOhio Canal (1984).

Brook Hindle, ed., America’s Wooden Age(1975).

David C. Holly, Chesapeake Steamboats(1994).

David A. Hounshell, From the AmericanSystem to Mass Production, 1800-1932(1984).

Walter S. Sanderlin, The Great NationalProject: A History of the Chesapeakeand Ohio Canal (1946).

David G. Shomette, Shipwrecks on theChesapeake (1982).

Fred A. Shannon, The Farmer’s LastFrontier:Agriculture,1860-1897 (1945).

George Rogers Taylor, The TransportationRevolution,1815-1860 (1951).

Surveys examining the region’sarchitecture and buildings includethe following:

Pamela James Blumgart, At the Head ofthe Bay: A Cultural and ArchitecturalHistory of Cecil County, Maryland(1995).

Further Information 117

Michael Bourne, Historic Houses of KentCounty (1998).

——-, et al., Architecture and Change inthe Chesapeake (1998).

J. Ritchie Garrison, et al., eds., AfterRatification (1988).

Henry Glassie, Pattern in the Material FolkCulture of the Eastern United States(1968).

——-, Folk Housing in Middle Virginia(1975).

Bernard L. Herman, Architecture andRural Life in Central Delaware, 1700-1900 (1987).

Terry G. Jordan, American Log Buildings(1985).

Gabrielle M. Lanier and Bernard L.Herman, Everyday Architecture of theMid-Atlantic (1997).

Marilynn Larew, Bel Air: An Architecturaland Cultural History,1782-1945 (1995).

Calder Loth, Virginia Landmarks of BlackHistory (1995).

George W. McDaniel, Hearth and Home(1982).

Susan G. Pearl, Prince George’s CountyAfrican-American Heritage Survey(1996).

Paul Touart, Somerset: An ArchitecturalHistory (1990).

Dell Upton, ed., America’s ArchitecturalRoots (1986a).

——-, ed., Holy Things and Profane(1986b).

——-, and John Michael Vlach, eds.,Common Places (1986).

Donna Ware, Ann Arundel’s Legacy: TheHistoric Properties of Ann ArundelCounty (1990).

Christopher Weeks, ed., Where Land andWater Intertwine: An ArchitecturalHistory of Talbot County, Maryland(1984a).

——-, ed., Between the Nanticoke andthe Choptank (1984).

Archeological studies include these:

James Deetz, Flowerdew Hundred(1984).

William M. Kelso and R. Most, eds., EarthPatterns (1990).

Paul A. Shackel and Barbara J. Little,Historical Archaeology of the Chesa-peake,1784-1994 (1994).

——, et al., eds., Annapolis Pasts (1998).

David G. Shomette, Tidewater TimeCapsule (1995).

Theresa A. Singleton, ed., The Archae-ology of Slavery and Plantation Life(1985).

The following are among the manystudies of the development of urbanand suburban life in and aroundWashington, D.C.:

Constance M. Green, Washington: AHistory of the Capital, 1800-1878(1961).

Frederick A. Gutheim, Worthy of theNation (1977).

Elizabeth Jo Lampl and KimberlyWilliams, Chevy Chase (1998).

Fredric M. Miller and Howard Gillette, Jr.,Washington Seen: A PhotographicHistory,1875- 1965 (1995).

These works trace the emergence ofBaltimore as the region’s largest city:

Toni Ahrens: Design Makes a Difference:Shipbuilding in Baltimore, 1795-1835(1998).

Gary Browne, Baltimore in the Nation,1789-1861 (1980).

Isaac M. Fein, The Making of an AmericanJewish Community (1971).

Leroy Graham, Baltimore:The Nineteenth-Century Black Capital (1982).

James W. Livingood, The Philadelphia-Baltimore Trade Rivalry, 1780-1830(1947).


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