6. The Language of Headlines

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Headline language is not opaque provided that certain linguistic rules and characteristics can be identified. Headline language is elliptical and compressed and often the fractured grammar and idiosyncratic vocabulary challenge' the understanding even of native speakers. In dealing with headlines, the reader is always involved in seeking out meaning. The most compelling argument for studying headlines is that you need to be able to interpret them. A person who cannot use headlines to grasp the gist of newspapers is at a big disadvantage: he cannot brows newspapers so as to choose what to read, skim or ignore.

Hughes (1988) rightly assumes that press is not simply a “mirror” reflecting the world but a “lens” giving the reader the news refracted and coloured ideologically from pink to blue. It is a matter of fact that the press is a mediator between readers and events, from here derives the general noun which unifies all the means of spreading information: media. It is also a matter of general knowledge that nowadays the public is either too busy or hasn’t the mental application to make an exact and detailed study of what is going on. Consequently, the role to interpret, pre-digest or even better, to “prepack” public events is to be acted by the press.

6.1 Functions and classification of headlines

Undoubtedly, one of the goals is to help the reader perform an evaluation and grading of the news while skimming rapidly a newspaper and get an image of the news highlights. Subsequent headline writers have in mind to attract the reader’s attention to arise his interest and thus to lead him to the story itself. By means of the headline characteristic to epitomize the content of the article, the selection of the news is easier to be made.

Due to the great range of purposes or roles headlines have, they can be classified according to several criteria.

In terms of the topic a headline deals with, two types of

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headlines can be distinguished. The first type is news headlines that usually give a summary of the news story. These are not mere labels because the content of news headlines is very often taken from the head of the story that is the opening paragraph. In any case this type should not contain anything that is not in the story. Many of these headlines are written in a straightforward style not very difficult to understand, their function being informative. The second type is feature headlines. This type usually introduces stories that do not report major events, but may be highly unusual or amusing. Accordingly, headline writers use certain strategies to make them clever, to stimulate the reader’s interest. Editorial headlines they, may pass personal comments, appeal to the reader or infuse a touch of humour. Headlines that belong here are characterized by indirectness of style. In terms of both vocabulary and syntax, headlinese has become a sub-language in its own right.

6.2 Lexical characteristics of headlines.

• Analysing the vocabulary of headlines a dominant characteristic shows up: brevity. Fredrickson and Wedel (1984: 64) provide a list of 86 words from the headline vocabulary meant to give "a fast start in learning it".

According to the rule that governs headline writing i.e. “maximum of information with minimum digression” brevity is a clear condition. Thus, short words are favoured not only by the reason of space but due to their strong connotations that exaggerate things and make them more dramatic. Words like axe, cut, slash are employed to report a decrease and swoop, probe, blitz, replace the verb “to investigate”. Phrases with verbals such as infinitives, gerunds, participles_are preferred due to their concision, to their capacity of comprising the maximum of information.

The sensationalism of the news is induced by these short words which turn a possibility into a threat, rivalry into a war, in other words, they turn everything into a “drama”. There is also the opposite tendency. Thus, the use of abstract or euphemistic terminology chiefly latinized serves to cool emotions of fear or anger. Here headlines manifest an interesting shifting from sensational to anaesthetic language. Unpleasant realities are called by suggestive words. Dead are called casualties, a bomb is referred to as an explosive device, a strike as a stay away and rioters as demonstrators. We can notice that in this case the aim of increasing sales

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by using highly emotive words does not function anymore although popular journalism still trivialize thought or oversimplifies situations considering that simplification is necessary to reach a mass readership.

Lexical devices in headline writing have caused a grammatical flexibility though no one can still determine which. Thus, instances of using nouns as verbs e.g. boost, boom, axe, slash come to support this view. Another case in point is the use of adjectives and verbs, as nouns e.g. great, first, must, young marrieds.

Because press is like an open-air scene where events are to be seen by a heterogeneous public, idiomatic exclamations and expressions are employed for their both amusing and shocking effects. Daily Mirror reports Mr. Wrushchev' s boorish behaviour in the United Nations - DON'T BE SO BLOODY RUDE! and the financial crisis in 1974 was signed in a very original way - IS EVERYBODY GOING BLOODY MAD? Another article in Newsweek (February 4, 1991) reported the elector's' slogan: NO MORE MR NICE GUY! In the same manner, Sunday Today does not hesitate, to entitle one of its articles WE DON'T GIVE A DAMN’ According to the well known principle that an action has as a response an equal and opposite reaction, headline writers use ostentatiously rare synonyms as affluent for “prosperous” and parley for “meeting” in the title REDUCED DIETS IN AFFLUENT LANDS PROPOSED AT WORLD FOOD PARLEY.

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Some linguists associate headline language with a kind of pidgin English with one basic tense - the Present, the most opague of the verbal forms - the Past and Present Participle, and a few simple, general purpose nouns which are frequently conversed into adjectives and verbs.

The use of tenses in headlines is undoubtedly determined by the journalist's endeavour to sell his story as well as by this aim to achieve brevity of style.

The Present Tense is used for past events in order to convey a sense of reality, of closeness and to induce the feeling of immediacy to the reader: CHINA SHOWS OFF WHO IS THE BOSS 0Newsweek, July 26, 1993)

More often than not the Infinitive is used with reference to future events, though Future Tense can be used, too: QUEEN TO VISIT SAMOA {Time, October 11, 1980]The so-called “most opaque of the verbal forms” i.e. the past and present participle have an important role in headline reporting. These verbal forms are endowed with the quality of preserving the meaning in spite of the usual omission of auxiliary verbs. What is really worth pointing out is that while Past Participles convey a passive meaning, Present Participles render a present active meaning; BATTERED BY MAN AND NATURE (Newsweek, August 30, 1993) expresses a passive action. Present Participle usually refers to something that is changing or developing - WALKING OUT ON THE BOYS (Time, February, 11, 1991)

Imperatives and Infinitives are meant to achieve the headline writer's intention of involving the reader in the problem dealt with. TO GIVE PIECE A CHANCE (Time October 2, 1991) or LOOK FIRST TO BE KLERK (Time, August, 17 1992) induce in the reader the feeling of participation and involvement.The constrictions of the headline contribute to flexibility of usage. Considering the use of nouns in headlines, we have to mention that nouns take on an adjectival function simply by being placed in a sequence. Here are some examples: NEW PEACE MOVE (Sunday Time) and WOOD MURDER CHARGE COURT SCENE {Daily Mirror)

It is interesting to notice that the growth of the all noun headline was originally accentuated by a curious taboo in headline language, viz. the avoidance of the -s form of the present tense of the verb. Here comes the moment to consider a grammatical phenomenon which has a great significance in headlinese. This is conversion, which takes headlinese to the furthest limits of communication.

This can be achieved only through the flexible medium of an uninflected language. As we mentioned earlier, a series of nouns are conversed into verbs or adjectives such as: target in the TARGETTING SAD AM (Time, November 9, 1992) inflation in SOUTH AMERICA'S NEW INFLATION HEADACHES (Newsweek , February 11, 1991). Adverbs are conversed into nouns as in a headline from a sports page (Time August 12, 1992) - THE UPS AND DOWNS.

Other grammatical features of headline language consist in the omission of articles - DAY OF RECKONING (Time August 26, 1990), possessive determiners - JOHN MAJOR DECLINE AND NEAR FALL (Newsweek, August 2, 1993), auxiliary verbs - NEW PRICE CURB PROPOSED (Time, August 2, 1987). In 20,000 GEMS STOLEN (Time, August 2, 1987) the auxiliary verbs “have been” are dropped. Even adjectives and modifiers can be om-itted provided that a well-chosen verb is able to dispense with modifiers, prepositions or conjunctions.

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It is also useful to mention here space-saving punctuation. Headlines, due to their conciseness, do not generally need punctuation. As s a result, comma never occurs, a fact that generates ambiguity in many situations. The only signs used are the question mark and exclamatory mark. Also for reason of space, headline writers use acronyms andabbreviations in order to appeal to the elements called “knowledge of the world”: EEC CHIEF SEES NO PLO ACTIONS in which EEC stands for Economic European Community and PLO means Palestine Liberation Organization and TOWN HALL MAN TURN TO D-I-Y where DIY stands for do it yourself.

Syntactically, the following patterns are known: Declarative statements classified into nominative sentence resembling labels such as A SURVIVAL GUIDE (Newsweek, July 26, 1993) and verbal sentences like PLAYNG THE ASYLUM GAME CNewsweek, aug 2, 1993). Another type is elliptical sentences such as COLD BUT NOT DEAD {Newsweek, September 23, 1988) and A NATIONALTREASURE IN DANGER (Time, August 26, 1990)

In the former example the subject and auxiliary are dropped whereas in the latter the elliptic element is the predicate.

In order to appeal more to the reader’s thinking, headlines are often disguised in interrogative sentences that can be questions proper- IS THIS GETTING OUT OF HAND? (Newsweek, August 2, 1993) or questions resemblingstatements- WHY THE DETAILS ARE STICKY? (Time, October 7, 1991)

Headlines in an interrogative form are sometimes used to report a future possibility- OIL PRICE TO RISE? (Newsweek, October 21, 1989)

6.4 Stylistic devices used in headlinesStylistically, headlines are interesting to approach since they are mostly based on puns (some of them

offering many possibilities of interpretation, others being simple play upon words). Here are some examples:“Time”, November 9, 1992 wrote with respect to Perot’s claim to the presidency of America - PEROT-NOIA, paranoia being a mental disease in which a person is obsessed he is very important. WHATT’S THIS? is the title of an article reporting about the smallest battery in the world appealing to the unity of electric power the Watt. (Time, September 7, 1992)

Another play upon words is a title such as A JUST CONFLICT OR JUST A CONFLICT (Time, February 11, 1992) when “just” has the meaning of “righteous” in its former occurrence and the meaning of “only” in its latter occurrence. Alliteration is also favoured by headline writers in order to produce even humorous effects - THE WIDE WORLD OF WEAPONRY (Time, February 11, 1991). Another frequent device ussd by headline writers as a trick is rhyme- ICE-THE NEW VICE? (International)

When talking about the euphemistic way of expressing things, we cannot ignore metaphor as a means, of veiling unpleasant realities. Thus, papers talk about ROCKS ON THE ROYAL ROAD (Time, August 17, 1992) regarding the troubled marriage of Princess Diana and about the VALLEY OF THE SHADOW (Newsweek, February 11, 1991) concerning anti- Semitism and poverty. The puzzling change in Woody Allen’s marriage to Mia Farri has also been referred to by means of a pun - PAST PERFECT, PRESENT TENSE where the auxiliary forms was and is are omitted. (Time, aug 17, 1992).

Headline writers also use oxymorons though not regularly. Time (July 8, 1991) advises HURRY UP AND RELAX when advertising a tourism agency. Time, September2, 1991 writes about THE SILENT GUNS OF AUGUST.

In conclusion, nobody can deny the semantic effects that press has on everyday language and also on the vocabulary in general. One of the semantic trends that journalism brought about is generalization and weakening of meaning often to the point of verbicide (overused terms) of many words as a result of their exaggerated use. Such words are “drama”, “madness”, “shock” which nowadays no longer maintain their

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basic meaning.The other semantic tendency derived from journalistic language is the grammatical flexibility of

words, conversion, a much favoured means of headline language displays all the possibilities of expression of an uninflected language such as English.

When so many cliches and set phrases specixic to headline have gained. enormous currency and force, when journalistic language has such a strong impact upon our daily vocabulary who can still call headlinese - an opaque language?

6.5 Study Questions and Activities

I. Answer these questions1. What are the characteristics of headline language?2. Wshy is the study of headlinese important?3. How does Hughes characterise the press?4. What are the roles acted by the press?5. What are the functions of headlines?6. How are headlines classified in terms of topic?7. What are the differences between the two types of headlines?8. What is the dominant feature of headlines from a lexical point of view?9. Why are short words with strong connotations favoured by headlines?10. How are the reader's emotions of fear or anger cooled by headline writers?11. What is one of the most frequent lexical devices used in headlines? Give examples.12. What role do idiomatic exclamations and expressions have in headlines?13. What are the most common tenses occurring in headlines?14. What kind of events does the Present Tense refer to?15. What meaning is associated with the use of the Infinitive and the Future Tense?16. Point out the difference in meaning between the Past Participle and the Present Participle in headlines.II. Match these verbs which are often found in newspaper headlines with the more common verbs given below: axe/scrap, back, call, clash, curb, grab, loom, oust, quit, slam, soar, swoop, vow/pledge.Common verbs: be imminent, confiscate, criticise, disagree, promise, raid, reduce/dismiss, replace, request, resign, restrict, rise, support.

III. Match these nouns which are often found in newspaper headlines with the more common nouns given below: battle/clash/feud/row, bid, blaze, chief, drama, fury/outrage, link, riddle, split, threat, war.Common nouns', anger, attempt, connection, disagreement, division, fire, happening, mystery, person in charge/leader, possibility, rivalry.'

IV. Headlines are shorter than normal sentences. List some words which you think are omitted from these headlines. What kinds of words are omitted? Why do you think they are omitted?1. Power bills, spark revolt.2. Charles, 32, seeks bride.3. Fan kills wife.4. Montana housewife fights federal law.5. Town council airs its objection.6. Carter breaks collarbone.

V. Look at the following headlines. Discuss with ypur neighbour what incidents they might describe.A. Yard checks on 'sale' of A-level papers.B. Gem vanishes from auction in pink nail polish switch.

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C. Chips were downfall of computer conman.D. Luggage tags invitation to burglars.E. Sneeze traps a bungling burglar.Now look at the extracts from the reports which followed th* headlines. Can you match the headlines to the reports?1. Late at night in a rowing boat, intending to break into ai1 Islington record warehouse and steal a haul

of LP'S ^llt climbed into the wrong building.2. He was caught because he became homesick for Yorkshne and wanted "to taste some real fish and

chips".3. Crooks mingle with trippers at Heathrow and Gatwick an1 note where they live. They watch traveller

fly out then...4. It appeared that despite tight security, the 9.58-caiat diamond was stolen during the series of pre-sal e

examinations in a specially lighted...5. About 5,500 pupils who sat A-level French yesterday 1,1 London and at schools in the south-east may be

asked to re-. '

VI. Make inferences about the meaning of the italicised word'' in the following headlines1. SIX DIE IN HOTEL BLAZE.2. EXPORT FIGURES BOLSTER CITY CONFIDENCE3. DOCTOR CLEARED OF DRUGS CHARGE4. DEADLOCK IN PEACE TALKS5. DOLE QUEUES LENGTHEN6. GOVERNMENT FACES FLAK OVER VAT7. RIOTS FLARE IN ULSTER8. PM HAILS PEACE PLAN9. LAST MINUTE HITCH DELAYS SATELLITE LAUNCH10. MAN HELD AFTER STATION BLAST

VII.Some of these headlines refer to the past and some of then> refer to the future. Which ones do you think refer to the pas< and which refer to the future?1. Dinner to bar some reporters2. Labour to debate 5-day week3. Coffee prices soar4. Republicans to push farm housing5. Killer escapes from courtroom6. Power bills spark revoltVIII. Explain the meaning of the italicised verbal forms in these headlines1. BISHOP LASHES TV SEX AND VIOLENCE2. VAT ON FOOD. NEW ROW LOOMS3. MODERATES OUSTED IN UNION ELECTIONS4. BANKS PEG INTEREST RATES5. MINISTER PRESSED TO ACT ON HOUSING6. POLICE PROBE RACING SCANDAL7. MINISTER TO QUIT GOVERNMENT8. POLICE QUIZ MILLIONAIRE SUPERMARKET BOSS9. JOBLESS FIGURES STUN CITY10. HOSPITAL PROTEST SWAYS MINISTERS

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IX. These headlines show a special way of expressing passives and the present tense. Which headlines do you think are expressed passively and which are expressed in the present tense?1. Steel pay claim granted2. Thames approaching danger level3. Reporters barred from dinner4. 3 injured in bomb attack5. Bush winning battles of nerves

X. Comment on the stylistic devices used in these headlines1. THE BRIDE AND THE GLOOM (Daily Mail, April, 15,

1999)2. GIRLS WHO TEASE FOR E-MALES (The Mirror, December, 3, 1999)3. GOATS SLAUGHTER (The Mirror, December, 3, 1999)4. WHAT'S THE STORY, MOURNING OR GLORY? (The Times, December, 3, 1999)5. WHAT WE W.W.WANT (The Mirror, December, 3, 1999)

XI. Read the following newspaper headlines where puns have created second meanings. Can you explain what the news stories are probably about and what the othel interpretations might be ?1. THUGS EAT THEN ROB PROPRIETOR2. DRUNK GETS NINE MONTHS IN VlOEIN CASE3. STOLEN PAINTING FOUND BY TREE4. CARIBBEAN ISLANDS DRIFT TO LEFT5. IRAQI HEAD SEEKS ARMS6. MILK DRINKERS ARE TURNING TO POWDER

XU. Arrange these disorganised headlines ^nto l^eir ProPer word order:A. tear, classes, California, teach, citizens, g&s’to use-B. hostages, free, Nigerians, riotC. the, Rumpus, on, estate, RoyalD. attack, probes, experts, mosqueE. spark, power, revolt, billF. its, tower, airs, council, objectionsG. blood, flimsy, lag, donation, excuses, cause

H. pay, delayed, sick, employers, plan

II. Match the headlines (1-3) with the parci^raP^s (a~c)-a. Next month's Budget will be largely dietated by the International Monetary Fund, trade uf>i°n leadei s

were told yesterday.b. A team of do-it-yourself councillors wih save about

2,0 GBP by clearing weeds from th^T town hall loof today.c. The owner of a Citizen's Band radio v^° usec* an ihegal

transmitter from his Needham home, wasordered to forfeit the set by Stowmark61 magistrates on Wednesday.

I. CB radio enthusiast fined 50 GBP2. IMF will have say3. Town hall men turn to D-I-Y