Harapa Civilization
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Transcript of Harapa Civilization
Harappa Civilization
HISTORY
GLOBAL MANIA
Concepts
Concepts
Introduction
Discovery of Harappa
Subsistence Strategies
Mohenjodaro
Artifacts
Religion
Decline
Introduction
Fertile river valleys had been the cradle of human civilisation since time immemorial.
The traces of these ancient cultures have been explored by
the archaeologists across the world.
Let us study about one such river valley civilisation that flourished in Indian subcontinent. The civilisation that has dated back Indian history for almost 5000 years,
i.e., Harappa Civilisation.
Continuous efforts of archaeologists help us to know about ancient people. They brought to surface the
achievements of these people.
Discovery of Harappa
Initial Discovery
Videos
John Marshall
R.E.M Wheeler
Discovered Evidence
Subsistence Strategies
By CunninghamText and inscriptions used as guide to investigationsAccounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims used as referenceRecovering artifacts of cultural value
Initial Discovery
• In 1924 by John Marshall (Director-General of the ASI)
• Formally announced to the world
Harappa Discovered
• Stint as Director General of ASI• First professional archaeologist to
work in India• Brought his experience of working
in Greece and Crete to the field• Keen to excavate patterns of
everyday life
John Marshall
• Excavated along different horizontal units• Measured uniformly throughout the mound• Ignored stratigraphy of the site• Artifacts found from same unit grouped together• Belonged to different strata of soil
Style of Working
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• Became Director of ASI in 1944• Rectified the problem of stratigraphy• Brought a military-like precision to
excavation• Did not dig along uniform horizontal
lines
R.E.M. Wheeler
• Civilisation dated between c. 2600 and 1900 BCE • Called the Mature Harappan Culture • Earlier and later cultures existed • Called Early Harappan and Late Harappan• Existed in the same area
Phases of the Civilisation
• Resulted in major sites being located in Pakistan
• Spurred Indian archaeologists to locate Indian sites
• Settlements recovered in Kutch and Punjab
• Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhi Garhi and Dholavira added to list
Effects of Partition
• International interest in Harappan archaeology
• Specialists working on the subcontinent
• Use of modern scientific techniques including surface exploration
• Trying to recover traces of clay, stone, metal and plant and animal remains
• Available evidence minutely analysed
Growing Interest
Found fairly early in nineteenth centuryReached CunninghamImportance not realisedMissed significance of Harappa
Discovered Evidence
Sketch of seal given to Cunningham
• By discovery of more seals• Recovered by Daya Ram Sahni• More found at Mohenjodaro by R D Banerji• Led to the decision that they belonged to a
common culture
Significance Realised
Harappa Seals Mohenjo-Daro Seals
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Subsistence Strategies
Dietary Habits
Agriculture
• Wide range of plants and animals (including fish) eaten• Charred grains found, reconstruct dietary habits• Grains found include lentils, chickpeas and sesame• Millets found from sites in Gujarat• Finds of rice relatively rare
Dietary Habits
• Animal bones found (include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig)
• Were domesticated• Bones of wild species (like boar, deer and gharial) also
found• Were probably hunted
Use of Animals
• Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that bull was known
• Oxen used to plough field• Models of plough found – Cholistan and Banawali (Haryana)
sites • Evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan)
Agriculture
• Harappan sites located in semi-arid lands.• Irrigation was probably required for agriculture.• Traces of canals found at Shortughai in Afghanistan.• Water reservoirs were found in Dholavira (Gujarat).
Using Water
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About the Site
Mohenjodaro
Layout
Distinctive Structures
Videos
• Most well known site• A planned urban centre• Better preserved than Harappa (which was destroyed
unintentionally by brick robbers)
Mohenjo-Daro
• Settlement divided into two sections:
Layout
Layout of Mohenjo-Daro
Citadel
Lower Town
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• Walled citadel
• Was higher and smaller
• Physically separated from lower town
Citadel
• Buildings constructed on mud brick platforms• Reason for unusual height• Had prominent structures like Warehouse, Granary and
the Great bath
• Massive structure • Probably used for special public purposes• Lower brick portions remain• Upper portions probably of wood• Decayed now
Warehouse
• Large rectangular tank• Surrounded by corridor on all sides• Two flights of steps leading to water• Tank made water-tight using mortar of gypsum• Water flowed into large drain
Great Bath
Length – 54 mtsBreadth – 33 mtsThickness of outer wall – 3 mtsSituated in rectangular verandah
Surrounded by gallery and roomsGreat bath centrally situated
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• To the north lay a smaller building with eight bathrooms.• Four on each side • Drains from each bathroom connected to a drain.• Scholars suggest that it was meant for some kind of a special
ritual bath.
Distinctive Structure
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Lower Town
Features
Houses Sanitation
Layout of House
• Was fortified• Several buildings built on platforms• Building activity restricted to a fixed area on the platforms.• Settlement planned and implemented accordingly
Features : Lower Town
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• Rooms centred around a courtyard• Centre of activity like cooking and weaving
Houses
BricksReeds
Grass and husk
Door
WindowMud plaster
Construction materials were used in Harappan houses.
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No windows in the walls along ground level.Main entrance did not give view of inner courtyard.
Layout of Harappan House
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• Bathrooms were paved with bricks in every house.• Staircases were used to go to next floor.• Evidence of wells discovered from some houses.• Every house had one wall on the street.
Other Rooms
• Eliminated through well planned drainage system• Drains were laid alongside streets in grid like
arrangement.• Domestic waste water flowed into street drains.• Larger drains were lined in the centre of streets.
Waste Water
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Artifacts
Classifying Artifacts
Materials for Production
Centres of Production
Beads
Harappan Script
Harappan Weights
Videos
Classification
Two Simple Methods• First: In terms of materials such as stone, clay, metal, bone and
ivory
• Second: In terms of function (more complicated ) – whether tool or ornament or both or meant for ritual use
Classification of Artifacts
• Often shaped by its resemblance to present-day things• Beads, querns, stone blades and pots • Functions also identified by investigating the context in
which it was found.• Artifacts found in a house, drain, grave or in a kiln.
Function of the Artifact
• As (a) Utilitarian (b) Luxury
• Utilitarian includes objects of daily use made of stone and clay.
• Also includes querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers (body scrubbers)
• Found distributed throughout the settlement
Classifying Artifacts
• If found rarely, classified by archaeologists as luxury • Pots of faience considered rare• Found only in large settlements• Artifacts made by raw material not available locally,
considered luxury item
Artifacts of Luxury
• Some made of two or more stones cemented together
• Some of stone with gold caps
• Some decorated by incising or painting
• Some had designs etched onto them• Shapes numerous – disc shaped, cylindrical,
spherical, barrel-shaped, segmented
Design of Beads
Material for Beads
Copper and BronzeCarnelianJasperCrystalQuartzSteatite
• Materials like clay available locally• Stone, timber and metal procured from alluvial plains• Models of bullock cart suggest transportation of material• Riverine routes along Indus used for transportation
Material for Production
• Shells from Nageshwar and Balakot
• Lapis lazuli, a blue stone from Shortughai in Afghanistan
• Carnelian from Lothal• Steatite from Gujarat and
Rajasthan• Copper from Rajasthan• Gold from South India
Procuring Material
• Dead laid out in pits• Hollowed out burial pits lined with bricks• Belief in afterlife prevalent• Proved by existence of pottery and ornaments in graves• Some dead buried with copper mirrors
Burials
• By archaeologists• Looked for raw materials such as stone nodules, whole
shells, copper ore, tools, unfinished objects, rejects and waste material
• Waste best indicator of craft work at site
Identifying Centres of Production
• Harappan settlement near sea coast• Specialised centre for making shell objects including
bangles, ladles and inlays • Taken to other settlements
Balakot
• Small settlement (7 hectares)
• Mohenjo-Daro (125 hectares)
• Exclusively devoted to craft production like bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making
Chanhudaro
• Copper probably brought from Oman.• Omani copper and Harappan artifacts
have traces of nickel suggesting a common origin.
• Sea contact with Bahrain• Mentioned in Mesopotamian texts
Contact with Distant Lands
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• Facilitated long distance communication• Seals pressed on bags of goods• Bag reaching intact meant not tampered with• Sealing conveyed identity of sender
Sealings in Harappa
Process of Sealing
• Goods were packed properly.• Wet clay applied on it• Impression of seal made on it • Left it to become dry
• Writing present on seals• Most inscriptions short, longest with 26 signs• Script not deciphered till date• Not alphabetical, had too many signs – 375 to 400• Written from right to left
Harappan Script
• Scripts were probably written right to left.• It is proved by seals that show wider spacing on right and
cramping on left.• The writer ran out of space while writing right to left.
Wider spacing
CrampingCramping Wider spacing
Style of Writing
• On a variety of objects• On copper tools, rims of jars, copper and
terracotta tablets, jewellery and bone rods
Script Found
• Very precise stones called Chert• Usually cubical• Had no markings• Used to regulate exchanges
Harappan Weights
• Lower denominations were Binary (1, 2, 4, 8,16, 32 etc. up to 12,800)
• Higher denominations followed decimal system• Smaller weights used for weighing jewellery• Metal pans also found
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• Indications of complex decisions taken by higher authority
• Uniformity in pottery, seals and weights across settlements
• Uniformity in ratio of bricks
• Settlements in specific locations
Authority in Harappa
Priest King
• As understood by some archaeologists• Harappan society had no rulers.• Equal status enjoyed by all citizens. • Others feel that Mohenjo-Daro had a separate ruler.• Some feel that there was a common state.
Differing Opinions on Authority
• Seen by structures that may have been assigned ritual significance
• Includes the Great Bath • Also fire altars found at Kalibangan and
Lothal• Terracotta figurines of women who are
heavily jewelled have been found.• Some had elaborate head-dresses.• Names like Mother Goddess signify a
religious bent.
Religion in Harappa
Mother Goddess?
• Reconstructed by examining seals• Some depict ritualistic scenes• Some with plant motifs indicate nature worship• Others with the ‘Unicorn’ indicate mythical creatures.
Religious Beliefs and Practices
• Shows a figure seated cross-legged in a “yogic” posture surrounded by animals
• Regarded as depiction of “proto-Shiva”
Proto Shiva Seal
Decline of the Civilisation
Signs of Decline
Factors of Decline
Seen around c.1800 BCEMature Harappan sites abandonedTransformation of material culture witnessed while distinctive artifacts disappeared
Signs of Decline
• Sites located in Gujarat, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh witnessed simultaneous increase in population
• House construction techniques show decline
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• Historians not unanimous over causes of decline • Propounded many theories for decline
Ecological imbalance Shifting of river beds Frequent flooding Aryan invasion
Factors for Decline
• Ecological imbalance: Increased human interference led to ecological changes and subsequent decline in land and agriculture. Shifts in monsoon pattern and changes in temperature left the area more arid.
• Shifting of river beds: Changes in the drainage patterns and correspondent widespread flooding would have disrupted agricultural base.
•Harappa: River Indus is at present flowing 4 km away from the present site.
Listing the Factors
• Frequent flooding: It has been opined by historians that many Harappan sites were destroyed due to frequent flooding.
•Mohenjodaro: Evidence has been found that it was devastated 7 times by floods.
• Aryan invasion: Mortimer Wheeler presented the view that Aryans invasion may have led to the decline of Harappan civilisation.
•Discovery of skeletons at Mohenjodaro without proper cremation. (Mohenjodaro = Mound of dead)
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Go to Map
Now, on your FINGER TIPS…
• Citadel: It was a fortress for protecting a town in the Harappan civilisation. This was built on a higher level in comparison to the town. Citadel was located on the western side of the settlement.
• ASI: It stands for the Archaeological Survey of India. The department works under the Ministry of Culture. It is a premier organisation for archaeological research and protection of cultural heritage sites in India.
• Stratigraphy: It is the study of strata or layers. It refers to the application of the Law of Superposition to soil and geological strata containing archaeological materials in order to determine the relative ages of layers.
Continuing slides are supportive slides, need not to be seen
individually.
Excavation of Harappa Civilisation
1828
Charles Masson
1853-56
Alexander Cunningham
1920
John Marshall
1921
D.R Sahni
1922
R.D Banerjee
1946
Mortimer Wheeler
Charles Masson
• A deserter of EEIC’s Bengal artillery
• 1827 – Left regiment at Agra, reached Indus lands
• Territory not the part of EEIC’s Indian possession
• First European to narrate about Harappan ruins• Wrote – “Narratives of Various Journeys in
Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Punjab”
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• Regarded as father of Indian Archaeology• Influenced by James Princep• His collection of rare Indian coins is on display
at British Museum.• His most important contribution lies in
identifying the lost cities of India.• He actively contributed in the excavation of
Sarnath, Sanchi and Mahabodhi temple.
Alexander Cunningham
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• Director General of ASI from 1902 to 1928
• Involved native Indians to contribute in excavation of their own country
• 1913: Excavated Taxila
• Revealed Harappan civilisation to the world
John Marshall
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• Discovered and excavated Harappa
• Aware of presence of ancient monument but never assumed of a city
• Found some seals and considered it to be of pre- Aryan period
• Excavation of 50 mts depth made
D. R Sahni
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• Discovered and excavated Mohenjodaro
• Adopted stratigraphy method for excavating the site
R.D Bannerjee
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• Became Director General of ASI in 1943
• Explored details of Indus Valley Civilisation at Mohenjodaro
• Returned in 1948, became professor of Archaeology
• 1949-50 – Archaeological Adviser to the Government of Pakistan
Mortimer Wheeler
Back to Timeline
Amazing Facts
• Harappans were the first cotton producers of the world.• Chnahudaro was the only site that had no citadel.• A weighing scale made up of ivory has been found from
Lothal and Mohenjodaro. • The doors of houses in Lothal opened on main street.• The evidence of fortification of lower town found in
Kalibangan.• The evidence of mummy found in Lothal testifies
relations with Egypt.
Global Mania
Egypt
China
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
Unpredictable rivers (Tigris and Euphrates)Flat land open to invasionSituated in semi-arid climatic zone
Geography of Mesopotamia
Plains
Steppes
Mountain of Iran
Desert
Desert
Desert
Inhabitable region
Centre of the civilisation
Locating Mesopotamia
In the north-east lies green, undulating plains with enough rainfall to
grow crops.
In the north,lies a stretch of upland called a steppe where
animal herding is done.
To the east, tributaries of the Tigris provide routes of
communication into the mountains of Iran.The south is a desert - the first
cities and writing emerged here.
The Rivers Euphrates and Tigris made the regions fertile.
Land of Diverse Environments
• Mesopotamia was a succession of societies.Sumerian (Sumer)AkkadFirst BabylonAssyriaSecond Babylon
• Based on city-states• Geography influenced development• Theocratic form of government• Divided into classes• Class System
Monarch/nobilityPriests/scribesCommonersSlaves
Sumerian Society
Ziggurats – stepped towers topped by temples
Ziggurats were the focal point of the city-state.
Cuneiform – First system of writing
Cuneiform tablet with envelope
Cuneiform – Developed to keep record of business transactions and taxes
Later used for literature
The first work of literature was the Epic of Gilgamesh – a Sumerian flood story
Writing was reserved for the wealthy classes
Deciphered letters in Cuneiform and their equivalent English Alphabets
• Trade links with Egypt and Harappa
• Sumerian mathematics based on 60 (clock and circle)
• Sumerian astronomical charts basis for modern astronomy
• Sumerians invented quadratic expressions
Sumerian Trade
Conquered Sumer – Akkad first empireAttempted to centralise powerSargon I – First emperorAbsorbed Sumerian culture
Akkad
Conquered Akkad
Continued Sumerian culture
Code of Hammurabi 282 laws Based on Lex Talonis
(eye for an eye) and social class
Babylon
Conquered Babylon
Highly organised military
Ruthless and hated
Largest of Mesopotamian empires
Assyria
Founded by king Nebuchadnezzar
Introduced hanging gardens
Continued Sumerian culture
Conquered by Persians
Neo Babylon
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• Developed along river Nile• Also known as ‘Gift of Nile’• Geography – Natural barriers
Desert Mediterranean and Red seas
• Form of government – Theocracy• Bureaucracy – vizier• Three major periods – Old, Middle and New Kingdoms
Egyptian Civilisation
Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt – King Menes (Narmer)
Pharaoh (a God) – separated from population
Era of peace
Some trade with Mesopotamia/Africa
The Old Kingdom
Construction of Pyramids began
Slavery not existed or was on less scale
Kingdom fell due to power struggles with nobility
The first pyramid
The pyramids at Giza
Contrary to popular belief, the pyramids were not built with slave labor but by the Egyptian people.
How was it done?
• Pharaohs were more accessible.• They derived support from middle class.• Extensive trade links with Mesopotamia,
Mediterranean, and Africa • Fell to Hyksos, supposed to be of Asiatic origin
The Middle Kingdom
Egyptians gained knowledge of war from Hyksos.
Era of war and expansion
Large slave population
First female ruler: Hatshepsut
The New Kingdom
Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton)Established monotheismAton: Sun GodShifted capital from Thebes to el-AmarnaQueen NefertitiHad very short reign
Akhenaton and his wife, Nefertiti
Succeeded throne at the age of 9 yrs
Polytheism restored by Tutankhamen
Restored traditional privileges to priesthood
Tried to restore relations with neighbours
Quite successful, suggested by gifts recovered from his tomb
Forensic experts have created the real Tutankhamen
Tutankhamen
Tomb of Tutankhamen
Prolific ruler, fought to reclaim territories in Africa and West Asia
5th year of reign fought battle of Kadesh
Won territories, later lost to Hittites
Conquered by nomadic sea people
Last real independent kingdom
Ramses II
The Treaty of Kadesh
Ramses the Great today
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The Chinese Civilisation
Flourished on banks of river Huang He River popularly known as “China’s Sorrow” because of its devastating floodsNorthern borders vulnerableWestern borders mostly covered by desertSouth-west frontier: Mighty HimalayasEastern frontier: Pacific OceanCivilisation centred around Arable land
Geography of the Civilisation
• Yangshao/Longshan People • Xia Dynasty – mythical?• Shang Dynasty:
3,000 states – FragmentedKing – Head shamanDynasty based on divine rule Technologically advancedBureaucracy increasingly sophisticated
People and Rulers
Writing found on: Oracle BonesProminently
ideographic symbolsPrimarily for religious
purpose
Writing and Script
BronzeSophisticated
metallurgy skillsControlled by
elitesUsed for
religious rituals and weapons
Bronze Craft
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Learning through Maps
Civilisations of Ancient World
Early Harappan Settlements
Mature Harappan Settlements
Four Great Civilisations
Egyptian Civilisation
Mesopotamian Civilisation Harappan
Civilisation
Chinese Civilisation
Early Harappan Settlements
Amri-Nal cultures
Damb Sadaat
Kot Diji
Siswal culture
Mature Harappan Settlements
LothalRangpur
Dholavira
Chanhudaro
Mohenjodaro
Harappa
Ganeriwala
Kalibangan
Banawali
Mitathal
Manda
Sites located in India
Sites located in Pakistan
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Harappa Trade
Harappa
Silver
Copper
Gold
Copper & Steatite
Carnelian
Situated in Sindh province of modern PakistanExcavated by N.G MajumdarFirst site to provide evidence of pre-Harappan artifactsNo evidence of fortificationCreated artificial gulf for defenceEvidence of reindeer found
Amri-Nal Culture
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Situated on the left bank of river Indus in the Sindh province of PakistanExcavated by Fazl Ahmad Khan (1955)Major discovery: Arrows made of stone
Kot Diji Culture
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Located in Baluchistan, outside Indus Valley
Similarities evident in ceramic form and design
Shows – these areas were in contact during middle and late third millennium B.C.
Damb Sadaat Culture
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• Located in Hissar district of Haryana• Three stages of Harappan culture revealed• Brought to light early Harappan ceramic culture with
super imposition of late Siswal ceramic culture
Siswal Culture
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Mix ‘n’ Match
Identify the Site
Group these archaeological sites on the basis of their distribution in India and Pakistan.
LothalRangpur
Dholavira
ChanhudaroMohenjodaro
Harappa
Ganeriwala
Banawali
Mitathal
Manda
Back to List Solution
• Located in Khadir Byet of Rann of Kutch• Stone slab having largest letters of
Harappan script found • Located in Gujarat• Only site having three lines of
fortifications
Identify the Site
Ans: Dholavira
• Situated on left bank of river Ravi
• First description provided by Charles Masson
• Railway contractors used bricks of this settlement
• Excavation began in 1921 under D.R Sahni
Ans: Harappa
• Situated on bank of River Bhogava
• One of the production centres of the civilisation
• A bead factory discovered from the site
• Contributed in Harappan trade with distant lands
Ans: Lothal
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