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HANDBOOK

GEOLOGICAL TERMSGEOLOGY

BY

DAVID PAGE,

F.G.S.8cC.

AUTHOR OF INTRODOCTORT AND ADVANCED TEXT-BOOKS OF GEOLOOT,

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONSEDINBURGH AND LONDON MDCCCLIX '''/^-f

TO

JAMES POWEIE,IN

F.G.S.

REMEMBRANCE OF PLEASANT WANDERINGS

IN

THE INVESTIGATION OF THE OLDER ROCK - FORMATIONSOF OUR NATIVE COUNTRY.

PREFACE.

Should

it

be asked

why

I

publish this volume,

I an-

swer, along with

many

others.

Because;

I

believe such athis convic-

Handbook

to be greatly needed

and under

tion have doneit

my

best, within moderate limits, to renderwill^

useful.

Go where you

to the popular platform,

the

public lecture-room, or the private parlour

and youGeology

hear;

immense

interest professed in the science of

but

the profession, for the most part, accompaniedthatitsit

by the regret

"hard words and forbiddingso difficult of acquirement.

technicalities" should

render

Now, while deprecating,

in the strongest

manner, the introduction of unnecessary

terms,

it

is

quite evident that every science

must have:

its

own

technicalities

and modes of expressionfacts

new

objects

require

new names, and newThereis

new phrases

to express

their relations.

no avoiding this necessity in any progressive branch of human knowledge, and the only thingthat can be done to lessen the difficultyexclusion of whatever seems superfluous

next to the rigid to explain theseis

terms in brief and simple language.

This

I

have endeavoured

to do, chiefly with a view to the requirements of the general

L

PREFACE.same time appending such details as might render the volume an acceptable Handbook of Reference toreader, at the

the student and professed

Geologist.

Thus the ordinarywhat followsad-

reader will generally find the information he requires in thefirst

and second sentences of a

definition

;

is

dressed more especially to the professional

inquirer to the

student, miner, engineer, architect, agriculturist, and others,

who may have occasion to deal with geological facts, and yet who might not be inclined to turn up half-a-dozen volumes,or go through a course of geological readings, for an explanation of the

term in question.the aim and object of this "I lay

Such

is

Handbook

of Geolo-

gical Terms."

claim to

little

more than the arrangement

of the matter which has been gleaned and sifted fromsources

care

manythe

having always been taken to present the

science in its newest aspects,clearesttions, I

and to expressSensible of

its facts in

and simplest language.

many

imperfec-

would respectfully

solicit corrections

from those who

may

generally approve of the work, in order that any subse-

quent edition

may

be rendered more worthy of the Science

whose truths we are labouring to establish

a science which,

whether intellectually or economically considered, standssecond to none on theroll of

human

acquirements.

D, P.GiLMORE Place, Edinburgh,August 1859,

CONTENTS

GICAL,

AND VITAL ASPECTS OF THE GLOBE.

II.

DICTIONARY OF TERMS AND TECHNICALITIES EMPLOYED

BY BRITISH AND AMERICAN GEOLOGISTS.

m.EXPLANATION OF SPECIFIC APPELLATIONS MADE USE OF

BY BRITISH AND FOREIGN PALEONTOLOGISTS,

Note.

" It

is,

indeed," says Agassiz, in his recent Ussay on Classificatiou ,

very unfortunate tendency, which prevails now almost universally among naturalists, with reference to all kinds of groups, of whatever value they may be, from the branches down to the species, to separate at once

"a

from one another any types which exhibit marked differences, without even inquiring first whether these differences are of a kind that justifies suchIn our systems, the quantitative element of differentiation separations. If such distinctions are prevails too exclusively over the qualitative. introduced under well-sounding names, they are almost certain to be

adopted as if science gained anything by concealing a difficulty under a Greek or Latin name, or was advanced by the additional bvirden of a new nomenclature. Another objectionable practice, prevailing quite as exten;

sively also, consists in the change of names, or the modification of the extent and meaning of old ones, without the addition of new information

in

new views. If this practice is not abandoned, it will necessarily end making Natural History a mere matter of nomenclature, instead of fostering its higher philosophical character." Influenced by this opinion,or ofI

have adopted in the following tabulations such arrangements of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal kingdoms as have been sanctioned by our leading naturalists which appear to be most intelligible to the generalreader

and on which, indeed, the greater

portion of the nomenclature of

Geology and Palaeontology has been founded.

CHEMICAL SCHEME,order,

Exhibiting the so-called "Elementary Substances" in alphabetical with their symbols and chemical equivalents hydrogen being taken as 1.

Elements.

Symbols.

Equivalents.

Aluminium Antimony {Stibium)Arsenic

Al

Sb

13,69 129.0375.

Barium Bismuth Boron Bromine

As BaBi

68.64 70.95 10.90

BBr

CadmiumCalcium Carbon CeriumChlorine.'.

CdCa

78.26 55.7420.6.

CCeCI

46.

ChromiumCobalt

Cr

Co

Copper {Cttp-um)

Didymium ErbiumFluorine

FGl

Cu

35.50 28.15 29.52 31.66

18.70 26.50

Glucinium or Beryllium Gold {Aurum)

Au

98.33

Hydrogen IlmeniumIodine Iridium Iron (Fen-um)

HII

126.36 98.6828.

1.

I

Ir

Fe

LanthanumLead {Plumbum) Lithium

Ln PbLi

48.

103.56 6.4312.67 27.67 100.07 47.88 29.5714.

Magnesium Manganese Mercury {Hydrargyrum) Molybdenum'.

Mg Mn HgMoNi

Nickel

NiobiumNitrogen

NbNi

Norium

Not1

'

CHEMICAL SCHEME.Elements.

Symhols.

Squivalenta.

OsmiumOxygenPalladium

Os

95.568.

PdPe;

53.27

Pelopium Phosphorus Platinum Potassium {Kalium)

PPt

32.

98.6839.

KRRuSeSi

Rhodium RutheniumSeleniumSilicium, Silicon Silver {Argentum)

52.11 52.11 39.57 21.35108.

Sodium (iV^a^mm)Strontium

Ag NaSr S...

22.97 43.8416.

Sulphur

Tantalum or ColumbiumTellurium

Ta

Terbium Thorium Tm.{Stanmim)Titanium

Ti

Te

92.30 66.14

ThSn

Tungsten or Wolfram

WU V YZnZr

59.59 58.82 24.29 94.6460.

Uranium VanadiumYttriumZinc

Zirconium

68.55 32.20 32.52 33.62

Of the preceding elementary or ultimate substances only a few enterlargely into the composition of the earth's crust ; and of the others many are extremely rare, or only evolved from their natural unions by chemical

In the following list the most important (geologically speaking) are printed in capitals, their characters being given as under the ordinary pressm*e and temperature of the atmosphereanalysis.:

G'ases Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, and fluorine. Non-Metallic Liquids and Solids Bromine, iodine, SULPHUR, PHOSPHORUS, selenium, carbon, boron, silicon. Metals being tlie bases of the Earths and A Ikalies POTASSIUM, SODIUM,

lithium; barium, strontium, calcium; magnesium, aluminium, thorium, glucinium, zirconium, yttrium. TAe 3/c^a^ Manganese, zinc, iron, tin, cadmium, cobalt, nickel; arsenic, chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, columbium, antimony, uranium, cerium, bismuth, titanium, tellurium, copper, LEAD mercury, SILVER, GOLD, PLATINUM, palladium, rhodium, osmium, iridium, ruthenium (and the following, of which little is yet determined), erbium, terbium, didymium, lanthanum, niobium, norium, ilmenium, pelopium.; ;

12

MINERAL SCHEME,Exhibiting the simple minerals, or constituents of rock-masses, as ar-

ranged by Professor Weiss, of Berlin, into Orders and Families.

I.

ORDER OXIDISED

STONES.Mica.

Families:!. Quartz. 2. Felspar. 3. ScAPOLiTE. 4. Haloid Stones. 5. Leucite. 6. Zeolites.II.

7. 8.

Hornblende.Clays.

9.

10,11. 12.

Garnet. Gems. Metallic Stones.

ORDER-SALINE STONES.4.

Families :l. Calc-spar.2. 3.

Gypsum.Rock-salt.

Fluor-spar. Heavy-spar.III.

5.

ORDER SALINE3.

ORES.

Families

; 1. Sparry Iron Ores.2.

Lead Salts.

Copper Salts.IV.

ORDERr-OXIDISED ORES.4. 5.

Families: I. Iron Ores. 2. Tinstone.3.

Red Copper Ores. White Antimony Ores.

Manganese Ores.V.

ORDER NATIVE METALS.Formonly one Family.

VI.

ORDER SULPHURETTED METALS.4. 5.6.

Families : 1. Iron Pyrites.2.3.

Galena.

Grey Antimony Ore.VII.

Grey Copper Ore. Blende. Ruby Blende.

ORDER INFLAMMABLES.4.6.

Families

;1. Sulphur.2.3.

Mineral Resins.Combustible Salts.

Diamond.Co.1L.

13

MINEEAL SCHEME.The following list contains the so-called Species usually arranged under the respective families the more abundant and better known being markedin Italics;

ORDER- OXIDISED1.

STONES.

2.

Quartz, QuAETZ Family Species). Felspar Family (14 Species). (2

Opal.

Ortlioclase, Ryacolite, Alhite,

Andesin,

Saccharite, Lahradorite, Couzeranite, Anorthite, Oligoclase, Petalite, Spodumene, Kastor, Pollux, Amorplious Felspar.3.

SCAPOLITE Family (13 Species). ^ctyw^iVe, Nuttalite, Barsowite, Ottrelite, Palagonite, Dipyr, Nepheline, Davyne, Gehlenite, Humboldtilite,Prehnite, Zeuxite, Nephrite.

4.

Haloid StonesLeucite

(9 Species).

Lazulite, Calaite,

Wavellite, Wagnerite,

Amblygonite, Alunite, Aluminite, Pissophane, Latrobite.6.

Porcelain spar, (8 Species). Leuctte, Nosean, Ittnerite, Lapis Lazuli, Eudialite.

Sodalite,

Hauyne,

6.

Zeolites (22 Species). Analcime, Natrolite, Scolezite, Damourite, Thomsonite, Stilbite, Aedelforsite, Heulandite, Brewsterite, Ejnstilbite, ApophyllUe, Okenite, Pectolite, Chabasite, Faujasite, Harmotome, Phillipsite, Zeagonite, Laumonite, Leonhardite, Glottalite, Edingtonite.

7.

Mica Family

Potash Mica, Lithia Mica, Magnesia Mica, (31 Species). Lepidomelane, Chloritoid, Chlorite, Ripidolite, Talc, Schillersjmr, Antigorite, Hydropite, Serpentine, Picrosmine, Villarsite, Spadaite, Gymnite, Chonikrite, Pyrosklerite, Kammererite, Pyrosmalite, Cronstedtite, Stilpnomelan, Brucite, Hydromagnesite, Nemalite, Seybertite, Margarite, Pyrophyllite, Anauxite, Pholerite, Rosellan.Tephroite, Troostite, Wollastonite, Achmite, Sordawalite, Krokydolite, Pyrallolite, Pyrargillite, Karpholite, Babbingtonite, Isopyre, Polylite, Tachylite.Bronzite,

8.

Hornblende Family

D tallage, Rhodonite,

(19 SY>ec\es). Hornblende, Augite, Hypersthene,

9.

Clays

(24 Species).

Kaolin,

Yellow - Earth, Halloysite,

Fidlers' -Earth,

Clay, Rock-soap, Plinthite, Green-EaHh, AUophane, Schrotterite,

Challilite, Bole, Teratolite, KoUyrite, Lithoinarge, Miloschin, Kerolite, Agalmatolite, Soapstone, Pipestone, Meerscloaum, Pimelite, Dermatin,

Retinalite.10.

Garnet Family

(15 Species). Garnet, Pyrope, Helvine, Idocrase, Epidote, Axinite, Cyanite, Sillimanite, Bamlite, Andaltcsite, Staurolite, Diaspore, Hydrargillite, Periclase, Glaucophane.

11.

Gemslolite.

(16 Species).

Zircon, Malacon,(22 Species).

Spinel, Automalite,

Comndum,

Crysoberyl, Topaz, Pycnite, Leucophane, Euclase,

Emerald, Phenakite,

Tourmaline, Crysolite, Chondrodite.

12.

Metallic Stones

Lievrite,14

Hisingerite, Anthosiderite,

Nontronite, Pinguite, Chloropal, Chlorophceite, Thorite, Eulytine, Gadolinite, Allanite, Tschewkinite, Cerite, Pyrochlore, Keilhauite, Polymignite, Poly erase, Perorskite, Aeschynite, Mengite, Monazite, Samarskite.

MINERAL SCHEME,.

ORDER SALINE(6 Species).

STONES.

1.

Calc-spar Familynesite,

Calc-spar, Dolomite, Breunnerite, Mag

Mesitine Spar, Airagonite.

2.

Fluor-spar Family

(14 Species). Fluor-spar, Yttrocerite, Fluocerite, Fluocerine, Cryolite, Chyolite, Hopeite, Apatite, Herderite, Childrenite, Xenotime, Boracite, Hydrohoracite, Datholite.(7 Species). Barytes, Dreelite, Witherite, AlstonBaryto-Calcite, Celestine, StrorUianite. (7 Species). 6??/jositm, Anhydrite, Polyhalite, GlauPharmacolite, Haidingerite, Berzelite.

3.

Heavy-Spar Familyite,

4.

Gypsum Familyherite,

5.

Rock-Salt Family

Roch-Salt, Alum, Alunogene, Glau(28 Species). ber Salt, Melanterite, Botryogene, Copiapite, Coquimbite, Tectizite,

Cyanose, Goslarite, Bieberite, Johannite, Natron, Titer monatr ite, Trona, Gaylussite, Borax, SassoUne, Nitre, Nitr aline, Nitrocalcite, Nitro-Magnesite, Sal-Ammoniac, Mascagnine, Arcanite, Thenardite, Epsomite.

ORDERSALINE1.

ORES.Man-

Sparry Iron Ores

(17 Species). >Si(Zm

2.3.

>Digiti| Digitigrade.

Hysenidae

Hyaenas.

24

ANIMAL SCHEME.Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam.4.

Viverridse

Civets.

5.

Mustelidae

Weasels.Badgers, Bears.

I

Semiplantigrade.

6.7.

Melidse UrsidseCercoleptidee

"j

> Plantigrade.J

8.

Fossil Forms.

Mackairodus,

Kinkajous.

existing genera Canis, Meles, Ursus, &c.

Vulpes, Fells,

Galecynus, and species of the Hyanay Putorius^

Order VI. Pinnipedia.

Fam. Fam.

1.

PhocidseTrichecidse

Seals.

2.

Walruses.

Fossil Forms.

Species of existing genus, Phoca.Hares.Cavies.

Order VII. Rodentia.

Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam.Fossil

1.

2. 3.

Leporidae CavidaeHystricidae Castoridse

4.5. 6.7.

Muridse

PsammorychidseGeorychidseChinchillidse

Porcupines. Beavers. Rats. Sand-Rats. Mole-Rats,Chinchillas.

8. 9.

Dipopidse

Jerboas.

10.

Myoxidae

Dormice.Sqtdrrels.

11. Sciuridse

Forms.

Trogmitherium^

and species of existing

genera Arvicola, Castor ^ Lagomys, Lepus and Mus.

Order VIII. Edentata.

Fam. Fam. Fam.Fossil

1,

2.3.

Myrmecophagidse... Ant-eaters. Armadilloes. Dasypodidae Sloths. Bradypodidse

Forms. Glyptodo7i, Megatherium, 31egalonyx, Mylodon, Macrotherium, Scelidotherium, &c.

Order IX. Ruminantia.

Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam.

1.

2.3.4.

Camelidae MoschidaeCervidae

Camels, Llamas. Musk-deers.Deers....

5.

Camelopardidae Bovidae

Giraffe.

Fossil Forms.

species of ox, sheep, goat ; Megaceros ; species of musk-deer species of camel, Macrauchenia, Sivatherium^ MerycoHierium, &c.;

Several

Oxen, sheep, antelopes.

Order X. Solidungula or Solipedia.

Fam.

Fossil Forms.

Horses, asses, zebras. Equidae Species of the existing genera Eqxius and Asinv^.1.

25

ANIMAL SCHEME.Order XI. Pachydermata.

Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam.

1.

Elephantid^Tapiridse

Elephants.Tapirs....

2.3.

|j

p^oboscidea.

HippopotamidseEhinoceridaeSnidae

Hippopotami.Rhinoceroses. Swine. Conies.

4. 5.

6.

Hyracidse^

Fossil Forms.jplotlierinm,

; Palwotherium, PaloAnoplotherium ; Hyojyotamus^ Choeroptamus, Mia'ochoertis ; Dichohune, Coryphodon, Dichodon ; Hyraco-

Mammoth, Mastodon

theHum ; and several speciesOrder XII. Cetacea.Sub-orderI.

of existing genera.

Cete.1.

Fam. Fam. Fam.Sub-orderII.

Balsenidse

True Whales,"j

2. 3.

Physeteridse Delphinidse

Sperm Whales. VZoophagous.Dolphins.j

Sirenia.1. 2.

Fam. Fam.

Rhytinidse Manatida^

Rhytines. Sea-cows.

)

t^,

,

,

Fossil Forms.

Balasnodon,{1) ;

}

Phytophagous.;

Zeuglodon, Squalodon

Hali-

therium, Dinotherium

and

sub-fossil species of exist-

ing genera.

Sub-class II.

APLACENTALIAbringing forth imperfect young.1. 2.

Order

I.

Marsupialia.

Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam.

Phascolomydse MacropodidsePhalangistidse

Wombats.Kangaroos,v Phytophagous.N(.

3. 4.5.6.

PeramelidseDidelphidse

Phalangers. j Bandicoots.

RapaBanded Ant-Eaters. cious. Myrmecobiidse ^ 7. Dasyuridae Dasyures. Fossil Forms. Amphiiherium, Phascolotherium, Triconodon,j

Opossums.

Plagiaidax, Microlestes, Aniphilestes, Nototlienum., Diprotodon, ZygomatiiruSy Thylacoleo; and sub-fossil species of existing genera.

Order

II.

Monotremata.Fam. Fam.1.

2.

Omithorhyncidse... Ornithorhynchus. Echidnidse Porcupine Ant-Eaters,

26

REPTILIA.{The fossil orders and sub-orders after Professor Owen.)Sub-class

I.

KEPTILIA,

OR REPTILES PROPER.

Order L Chelonia.

Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam.

1,2.3.

ChelonidaeTryonicidge

EmydidaeTestudinidse

4.

Turtles Soft Tortoises Box Tortoises Land Tortoises

Marine.Fluvial.

Marsh.Terrestrial.

Fossil Forms.

Pleurosternon, Protemys, Platemys; fossil footprints, as Chelichmis, &c. ; and species of the existing genera Ckelone, Tryonyx, and Emys.

Colossochelys,

Order

II.

Crocodilia or Loricata.1.

Sub-orderFossil

Procoelia

2.

AmphiccBlia

Fossils. OpisthocoeliaFossil Forms.

1. Specific forms of the existing genera Crocodilus, Alligator &nd Oavialis ; 2. Teleosaurns, Steneosaums, Suchosaurus, Goniopholis, &c. ; 3. Cetiosaurus, Streptospondylus, &c.

Having concavo-convex vertebrae. Having bi-concave vertebrae. Having convexo-concave vertebrae.

Order

III.

Sauria.I.

Sub-order

Lacertilia or Squamata.Scincidse

Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam.

1.

Skinks.Lizards.

2.3. 4.

ChalcidaeLacertidse Teidse

5. 6. 7.8.

VaranidaeIguanidae Geckotidae

Ameivas, Varanas.Iguanas. Geckos.

Chamaeleonidae

Chameleons.Leiodon,

Fossil Forms.

Telerpeion,

Palceosaurm,

Alacellodus,

Lacerta, Coniosaurus, Dolichosaurics, &c.

Sub-order

II.

Thecodontia

(Sheath-teeth).

oBs,\i.Tliecodontosaurus, Protorosaurus, Cladyodon, Belodon, &c.

Sub-order HI. Cryptodontia (Concealed-teeth).Fossil.

Rhyncosaunis, Oudenodon, &c.Dicynodon (various species).27

Sub-order IV. Dicynodontia (Two-canine-teeth).Fossil.

ANIMAL SCHEME.Sub-order V. Pterosauria (Winged Savirians).Fossil.

Pterodactylus, Dimorphodon, Rampkorhynchus, &c. Iguanodon,MegalosauriLs,

Sub-order VI. Dinosauria (Huge Land-Saurians).Fossil.

Hylceosaurus,

Regnosanms,

SuTj-order VII.Fossil.

Ichthyosaurus,Crotalidse

Enaliosauria (Marine

Saurians).

Plesiosanrus, Pliosaurus, Simosaurus,

No-

thosaurus, &c.

Order IV. Ophidia.

Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam, Fam. Fam.

1.

Eattlesnakes.

2.

3.4. 5.

Viperidae Colubridse

Vipers. Snakes.

HydrophidjB DendrophidaeBoidse

Water- Snakes.Tree-Snakes. Boas.Laophis, Paleryx ; detached bones

6.

Fossil Forms.

Palceophis,II.

and eggs

of

imdetermined genera.

Sub-class

BATEACHIA OR AMPHIBIA.Blindworms.Lepidosiren.

Order

I.

Apod a.Fam. Fam.1.

Coeciliidse

2.

Lepidotidse

Order

II,

Urodela. Fam. 1. Proteidse Fam. 2. Sirenidae Fam. 3. Amphiumidse Fam. 4. SalamandridseFossil Forms.

Proteus.Sirens.

Amphiuma.Tritons.

Archcegosaurus or Apateon,

Dendrerpeton, Palceo-

phrynos, Andrias, &c.

Order

III.

Anura.1.2.

Fam. Fam. Fam.

Pipidse

Surinam Toads.Toads.Frogs.

3.

Bufonidaj Ranidae

Sub-fam.

Hylineae

Fossil Forms.

Raniceps ;

Tree- Frogs.

Batrachopus, Sauropus, and other frog-

like footprints.

Order IV, Labyrinthodontia (Labyrinthine-teeth).Fossil,

Lahyrinthodon,

Parahatrachus,

Baphetes,

Zygosaurus,

OdontosauriLS, &c.

28

PISCES OR FISHES.{Chiejly from

Morriis Catalogue of British Mailer and Owen.)

Fossils, as modified

from

Class

PISCES.I,

Order

Dermopteri.I. 1.

[Cycloidei, Agass.]

Sub-order

Pharyngobranchii, seu Cirrhostomi.

Fam.Sub-order

AmphioxidseMarsipobranchii.

Lancelet.\Cyclostomi, Cuv.]

TI.1.

Fam. Fam.OrderII.

2.

Myxinidae Petromyzontidse{Physostomi, MUller).

Myxine. Lamprey.[Cycloidei, Agass.]

MalacopteriI.

Sub-order

M. apodes.SymbranchidseMursenidse

Fam. Fam. Fam.Sub-order

1.

Cuchia.Eel.

2.3.

Gymnotidse

Gymnotus.

II.1.

M. abdominales.HeteropygiiClupeidae

Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam.OrderIII.

2.3. 4. 5.6.

SalmonidseScopelidse Characinidse Galaxidse

Amblyopsis. Herring. Salmon.Savu-us.

Myletes.Galaxias.Pike.

7.8.

Esocidse

MormyridseCyprinodontidse Cyprinidae

9.

Mormyrus. Umber.Carp.Sheat-fish.

10.

11. Siluridse

Pharyngognathi {Muller).I.

[Cycloidei

et

Ctenoidei, Agass.]

Sub-order

Ph. malacopterygii.

Fam.Sub-order

1.

Scomber-esocidsePh. acanthopteryg^i.

Saurj'-Pike.

II.1.2.

Fam. Fam. Fam.

Chromidse

Cyclo-labridaj 3. Cteno-labridte

Chromis. Wrasse. Pomacentrus.

29

ANIMAL SCHEME.Order IV. Anacanthini {Muller). Sub-order I. A. apodes.[Cycloideiet

Ctenoidd, Agass.]

Fam.Sub-order

1,

OphididseA. thoracici.

Ophidium.Cod.Plaice.

II.1.

Fam. Fam.

GadidsePleuronectidse

2.

Order V. Acanthopteri {Muller).

[Cycloidei

et

Ctenoidei, Agass.]

Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam.

1. 2. 3,

Percidse

Perch.

SclerogenidseSparidseScisenidas

Gurnard.Sparus. Maigre.

4,

5. 6.7.8. 9.

LabyrinthobranchiiMugilidse Notacanthidae

Anabas.Mullet.

Scomberidse

Squammipennes

Notacanth. Mackerel. Chaetodon.Riband-fish.Lancet-fish.

10. Tajnioidei

11. Theutyidse 12. Fistularidse13.

Pipe-mouth.

Gobiidse

Goby.Wolf-fish.

14. Blenniidas15.

Lophiidse(Cuvier).

Angler.[Ganoidei, Agass.]File-fish.

Order VI. Plectognathi

Fam. Fam. Fam.

1.

Balistini

2.

Ostraciontidso

Trunk-fish.Globe-fish.

3.

Gymnodontidse{Cuvier).

Order VII. Lophobranchii

[Ganoidei, Agass.]

Fam, Fam.

1.

HippocampidseSyngnathidae

Sea-horsePipe-fish.; as restricted

2.

Order VIII. Ganoidei, seu Goniolepidoti {Agass.Muller).

by

Fam.

1.

Salamandroideiterus.

Lepidosteus and Polyp-

(Sauroidei, Agass.)

5J,

Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam.Fam. Fam.

2.3. 4.

Pycnodontida? LepidoideiSturionidse

Pycnodus. Dapedius.Sturgeon. (Acipenserini, ^^a55. ) Acanthodes.Dipterus.(Sauroidei-dipterini,

5.

AcanthodeiDipteridae Agass. )[Coelacanthi,

6.

*>

7.

Agass

Coelacanthus. ]

8.

Cephalaspides[Ganoidei, Agass.]

Cephalaspis.

Order IX, Protopteri.

Fam,

1.

Sirenoidei[Placoidei, Agass.]

Lepidosiren.

Order X. Holocephali.

Fam. Fam.

1.

Chimaeridae

Chimaera.

2.

Edaphodontidae 30

Edaphodon.

ANIMAL SCHEME.Order XI. Plagiostomi.[Placoidei, Agass.]

Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam.

1.

HybodontidooCestraciontidse

Hybodus.Cestracion.

2.3.4.

NotidanidseSpinacidaaScylliadae

Grey Shark.Piked Dog-fish. Spotted Dog-fish.Tope. Porbeagle. Fox Shark. Greenland Shark. Monk-fish. Hammer-head Shark.Saw-fish.

5.6.

Nictitantes

7.

LamnidaeAlopecidae ScymniidaeZygscnidae

8.9.

10. Squatinae11.

12, Pristidae13.

Rhinobatidae

Rhinobates.Electric Ray.

14. Torpedinidae 15. Raiidae

Skate.

16.

TrygonidaeCephalopteridae

17. Myliobatidae1 8.

Sting Ray. Eagle Ray. Cephaloptenis

.

31

CRU{Extinct Families

ST

A

E

A.in italics.)

and Genera are printed

Sub-Class

I.ENTOMOSTRACA.

Fam. 4. Branchiopodidae, Genus Cheirocephalus, &c.Extinct Group, Trilohitce. HarpedidcB. ParadoxidCB.Proetidce.

Legion

1.

Lophyropoda.1.

Order

Copepoda.1.

Fam.Order2.

Cyclopidse.

Ostracoda.

Fam. 1. Cyprididse. Genus Cypris.Candona.Cypridea.

Asaphidce. Phacopidoe. Calymenidoi. Lichadidce.Trinucleidoe.

Fam. 2, Cytheridse. Genus Cythere.Sub-genus Bairdia.Cytheridae. Cythereis. Cj^herella. Cypridinidae.

AcidaspidcB. Gheiruridce.Bronteidce.

Agnosiidce.

Legion

3.

P(ecilopoda.

Fam,

3.

Genus Cypridina.Cypridella. Cyprella.

Fam, 1, Limulidae. Genus Limulus, &c. Extinct Fam, 2. Eurypteridce. Genus Eurypterus.Pterycjotus.

Erettopterus.

Daphnoidea.

Stylonurus.

Legion

2.

Branchiopoda.

Legion

4,

Siphonostomata.

Order

1. Cladocera. Fam, 1, Daphniadae. Genus Daphnia, &c.

Sub-Class

ILMALACOSTRACA.

Legion 1, Podophthalmia. Order 1, Dec apod a,

Order

2. Phyllopoda. Fam. 1. Limnadiadae. Genus Limnadia.

Fam,Fam.Fam.Order2.

1.

Brachyura= Crabs,&c.

2.

Anomm'a= HermitCrab, &c.

Estheria.

Leperditia. BeyricJda.

3.

Macrura=Lobster,&c.

Fam. 2. Nebaliadae. Genus Nebalia.Ceratiocaris.

Hynienocaris.

STOMAPODA=Squills, &c. Legion 2. Edriophthalmia. Order \. AMPHiPODA=Gammarus, &c.

Kamfecaris.

Fam. 3. Apodidae. Genus Apus.Dithyrocaris.

Order Order

2.

Losmipoda&c.

= Caprella,

3,

l80P0DA=0niscus, &c.

32

MOLLUSC A.{Modified from Woodward! s Manual, the fossil families being printed in Italics.)

and genera

CLASS I. CEPHALOPODA.Ordera.I.

Dibranchiata

= Acetabulifera.

OCTOPODA.

Fam. Fam.h.

1. 2.

Argonautidse, Argonauta. Octopodidse. Octopus, Pinnoctopus, Eledone, Cirroteu-

this, Philonexis.

Decapoda.Fam,3. Teuthidse. Loligo, Gonatus, Sepioteuthis, Beloteuihis, Geoteutkis, Leploteuthis, Cranchia, Sepiola, Loligopsis, Cheiro-

Fam,

teuthis, Onychoteuthis, Enoploteuthis, Ommastrephes. 4, Belemnitidce. Belemiiites, Belemnitella, Acanthoteuthis,

Belemnoteiithis, Conoteuthis.

Fam. 5, Fam, 6

.

Belemnosis. Sepiadaj, Spirulidte.Sepia, Spirulirostra, Beloptera, Spirula.Nautilidse,

Order IL Tetrabranchiata1.2,

= Tentaculifera. Nautilus, Lituites, Trochoceras, Clymenia. Fam, Orthoceratidce. ^rthoceras, Oncoceras, Gomphoceras, Phragmoceras, Cyrloceras, Gyroceras, Ascoceras. Fam, Ammonitidce. Goniatites, BactHtes, Ceratites, Ammonites,3.

Crioceras, TuiTilites, Hamites, Ptychoceras, Bacidites.

CLASS IL PTEROPODA.a.

Thecosomata.Fam. Fam.1.

Hyaleidse,

Hyalea,

Cleodora, Cuvieria, TJieca, PteroSpinalis.

theca,2.

Comdaria, Eurybia, Cymbulia, Tiedemannia.

Limacinidae.

Limacina,

h.

tFam.Ordera.I.

Gymnosomaia. Fam. 3. Cliidse.

Clio, Pneumodermon, Pelagia,

Cymodocea.

CLASS IIL GASTEROPODA.

Prosobranchiata.

SiPHONOSTOMATA.

Fam. Fam.

1. 2.

Strombidse.

Strombus, Pteroceras, Rostellaria, Seraphs. Muricidse. Murex, Pisania, Ranella, Triton, Fasciolai-ia,

Turbinella, Cancellaria, Trichotropis, Pyrula, Fusus.

33

ANIMAL SCHEME.Fam.3. Buccinidae. Buccinum, Pseudoliva, Anolax, Halia, Terebra, Ebiorna, Nassa, Phos, Eingicula?, Purpura, Purpurinay

Monoceros, Pedicularia, Ricinula, Planaxis, Magilus, Cassis, Oniscia, Cithara, Cassidaria, Dolium, Harpa, Columbella,

Fam. Fam. Fam.I.

Oliva, Ancillaria. 4. Conidse. Conus, Pleurotoma.

5.6.

Volutidse.

Voluta,

Cypraeidae.

Cypraea,Cymba, Mitra, Volvaria, Marginelia. Erato, Ovulum.Sigaretus, Lamellaria, Narica, Vel-

HOLOSTOMATA. Fam. 1. Naticidae.utina.

Natica,

Fam.

2. Odostomia, Chemnitzia, Eulima, Stylina, Loxonema, Macrocheihis. Fam. 3. Cerithiadae. Cerithium, Potamides, iVen^ioea, Fastigiella, Aporrhais, Struthiolaria. Fam. 4. Melaniadae. Melania, Paludomus, Melanopsis. Fam. 5. Turritellidae. Turritella, Aclis, Cascum, Vermetus, Sili-

Pyramidella, Pyramidellidae.

quaria, Scalaria. Fam. Litorinidae. Litorina, Solarium, Phorus, Lacuna, Litiopa, Rissoa, Skenea, Truncatella?, Lithoglyphus. Fam. Paludinidse. Paludina, Ampullaria, Amphibola, Valvata. Fam. Neritidae, Nerita, Pileolus, Neritina, Navicella. Fam. Turbinidae. Turbo, Phasianella, Imperator, Trochus,6.7. 8.9.

Rotella,

Monodonta, Delphinula, Adeorbis, Euomphalus, Sto-

matella, Broderipia.

Fam.

10. Haliotis. Haliotis, Stomatia, Scissurella, P^ewofo^nana, Murchisonia, Trochotoma, Cirrus, lauthina. Fam. 11. Fissurellidae. Fissurella, Puncturella, Rimula, Emar-

ginula,

Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam.

12.

nyx.13.14.

Calyptraea, Crepidula, Pileopsis, HippoCalyptraeidae. Patellidae. Patella, Acmaea, Gadinia, Siphonaria. Dentaliadae. Dentalium.Parmophorus.Chitonidae. Chiton.

15.

Ordera.

II.

Pulmonifera.

Inoperctjlata.

tacella. Fam. Oncidiadae. Oncidium, Vaginulus. Fam. Limnaeidae. Limnaea, Chilinia, Physa, Ancylus, Planorbis. Fam. Auriculidae. Auricula, Conovulus, Carychium (SiphonFam.3.

1. Helicidae. Helix, Vitrina, Succinea, Bulimus, Achatina, Pupa, Cylindrella, Balea, Tomatellina, Paxillus, Clausilia. Fam. 2. Limacidae. Limax, Incilaria, Arion, ParmaceUa, Tes-

4.

5.

aria).b.

Operculata. Fam. 6. Cyclostomidse.

Cyclostoma, Ferussina Pupina, Helicina, Stoastoma. Fam. 7. Aciculidao. Acicula, Geomelania.

?

CycloiDhorus,

34

ANIMAL SCHEME.Order III. Opistho-branchiata.a.

Tectibranchiata.

Fam.

1.

Tomatellidse.

Tomatella, Cinulia,

Eingicula, Globicon-

cha, Varigera, Tylostoma, Pterodonta 1, 2. Bullidae. Bulla, Acera, Cylichna,

Tomatina ? Amphisphyra, Aplus-

Doridium, Gastropteron. ^Aplysia, Dolabella, Notarchus, Icarus, LotFam.biger. Pleurobranchidae. Pleurobranchus, Posterobranchsea, Fam. Euncina, Umbrella, Tylodina, Phyllidia, Diphyllidia. Phyllidiadse.tniin, Scaphander, BuUsea,3.

Fam.

Aplysiadae.

4.

5.

PFam.h.

NUDIBRANCHIATA. Fam. 6, Doridse.

Doris, Goniodoris, Triopa, -iEgirus, Thecacera, Polycera, Idalia, Ancula, Ceratosoma. Fam. 7. Tritoniadse. Tritonia, Scyllsea, Tethys, Bomella, Dendronotus, Doto, Melibtea, Lomanotus. Fam. 8. ^Eolidse. ^olis, Glaucus, Fiona, Embletonia, Proctonotus, Antiopa, Hermsea, Alderia,

Fam. Fam.

9.

10.

Phyllirhoidse. Phyllirhoe. Elysiadse, Elysia, Acteonia, Cenia, Limapontia.

Order IV. Nucleobranchiata.Fam. 1. Firolidse, Fam. 2. Atlantidse. Madurea.

Firola, Carinaria, Cardiapoda. Atlanta, Porcellia, BellexopJion,=CONCHIFEKA.

Cyrtolites,

CLASS IV. ACEPHALAa.

ASIPHONIDA.

Ostrea, Anomia, Placuna, Pecten, Lima, Spon Mytilus, Myalina, Modiola, Lithodomus, Fam. Mytilidae. Crenella, Dreissena. Fam. Arcadae. Area, CucuUsea, Pectunculus, Limopsis, Nucula, Isoarca, Leda, Solenella, Solemya. Trigonia, Myophoria, Axinus, Lyrodesma. Fam. Trigoniadse. Fam. Unionidae. Unio, Castalia, Anodon, Iridina, Mycetopus,Fam.1.

Ostreidae.

dylus, Pedum, Plicatula, Fam. 2. Aviculidae. Avicula, Posidonomya, Avicido-pecten, Gervillia, Perna, Inocermnus, Pinna,3.

4.

5.6,

^theria,h.

Miilleria.

Siphonida; Integro-pallialia. Fam. 7. Chamidse. Chama, Monopleura, Diceras, Requienia. Fam. 8. HippuHtidce. Hippurites, Radiolites, Caprinella, Caj)-

rina, Caprotina. Fam, 9. Tridacnidse.

Tridacna, Hippopus. Cardium, Hemicardium, Lithocardium, Serripes, Adacna, Conocardium. Fam. 11. Lucinidae. Lucina, Cryptodon, Corbis, Tancredia, DiFam.10.

Cardiadae.

Fam. Fam,

plodonta, Ungulina, Kellia, Montacuta, Lepton, Galeomma. 12. Cycladidae. Cyclas, Cyrenoides, Cyrena. 13, Cyprinidse. Cyprina, Ci]'ce, Astarte, Crassatella, Iso-

-

35

ANIMAL SCHEME.cardia, Cypricardia, Pleurophorus, Cardilia, Megalodon^

Pa-

chydomns, Pachyrisma, Opts, Cardinia, Myoconcha, Hippopodium, Cardita, Venericardia, Verticordia.c.

Siphonida; sinu-pallialia. Fam. 14. Veneridse. Venus, Cytherea, Meroe, Trigona, Gratelou-

pia, Artemis, Lucinopsis, Tapes, Venerupis, Petricola, Glau-

comya.

Fam. Fam.

15. Mactridae.16.

Tellinidse.

Mactra, Gnathodon, Lutraria, Anatinella. Tellina, Diodonta, Capsula, Psammobia,

Sanguinolaria, Semele, Syndosmya, Scrobicularia, Mesodesma, Ervilia, Donax, Galatea.

Fam.

17. Solenidse. Solen, Cultellus, Ceratisolen, Machsera, Solecurtus, Novaculina.18.

Fam.

Myacidse.Mya, Corbula, Sphenia, Neaera, Tbetis, Pan-

opsea, Saxicava, Glycimeris. Fam. 19. Anatinidae. Anatina,

CocUodesma, Thracia, Pholadomya, Myacites, Goniomya, Ceromya, Cardiomor'pha, Edrnondia, Lyonsia, Pandora, Myadora, Myochama, Chamos-

trea.

Fam.

20. Gastrochsenidae. Gastrochaena, Chaena, ClarageUa, Aspergillum. Fam. 21. Pholadidae. Pholas, Pholadidea, Jouannetia, Xylophaga, Teredo, Teredina.

.

CLASS v.BRACHIOPODA.

Fam,

TerebratuJa, Terebratella, Argiope, Thecidium, Siringocephalus.1.

Terebratulidae.

Fam. Fam.

2.3.

Spiriferidoe.

Spirifera,

RhynchoneUidae. merus, Atrypa,

Athyris, Rhynchonella, Reizia, CamaropJioria,

Uncites.

Penta-

Fam.

4. Orthidoe. Orihis, Strophomena, Lept(xnn,a, KonincJcia, Davidsonia, Calceola. Fam. 5. Productidce. Producta, Aulosteges, Strophalosia, Chonetes.

Fam. Fam. Fam,

6.

7.8.

Crania. Discinidae. Discina, SipJwnotreta. Lingula, Lingulidae.Craniadae.Ob'olus.]

MOLLUSOOIDA.CLASS I.TUNICATAFam. Fam, Fam, Fam. Fam, Fam,1.2,:

doubtfuUy known in aor

fossil state.

CLASS XLBRYOZOAEscharidae.Celleporidao,Crisida3,

3,4.

5, 6.

Eschara, Ptilodictya, Glauconome. Cellepora, Flustra, Retepora, Fenestella,Lepralia. Reteporidae. Polypora. Idmonea, Fascicularia, TerebellaHa, Theonoa. Myriaporidce. Tubuiiporidw. Tubulipora, Heteropm'a,Crisia,Ilippotlioa.

POLYZOA.

Cei-iopora.

36

ECHINODERMATA.(Fossil Families

and Examples printed in

Italics.)

Order!. Crinoidea.Examples.

Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam.Order

1. 2.3. 4.

ComatulidseMarsupitidce Apiocrinidce PentacrinidaeCyathocrinidce MelocrinidceCnpressocrinidoe Polycrinidce

Comatula.Marsupites. Apiocrinus, Bourgueticrinus. Pentacrinus, Eztracrinus.CyatJiocri7ms,Potei'iocrinus,Rhodocrinus. Actinocrinus, Hexacrimts, PlatycrimbS.

5.

6. 7.8.

Cupressocnntis. Eucalyptocrinus.

II.

Cystoidea.CystidcB

Fam.Order

1.

Pseudocrinites, Hemicosmites.

III.1.

Blastoidea.PentremitidcePentremites, Codonaster.

Fam.

Order IV. Ophiuroidea.

Fam.

1.

Ophiuridae

Ophiura, Amphiura, Ophioderma.

Order V. AsTEROiDEA.

Fam. Fam.

1.

Asteridse

Asterias, Goniaster, Oreaster.

2.

Crenasteridse

Crenaster, Euryale.

Order VI. Perischo-echinoidea.

Fam. Fam.

1.

Palcechinidce

Palcechinus.Archceocidaris, Perisckodonus.

2.

Archoeocidaridce

Order VII. EcHiNOlDEA.

Fam. 1. Echinidse Fam. 2. Cidaridae Fam. 3 Galeritidce Fam. 4. Echinoneidce Fam. 5. Cassidulidse Fam. 6. Ananchytidce Fam. 7. Spatangidse.

Echinus, Diadema, Hemiaster.Cidaris.Galerites, Dysaster, HolectypiLS.

Echinocy amies, Echinarachnius. Nucleolites, Pygaster. Ananchyles, Cardiaster. Spatangus, Micraster.

Order VIII. Holothuroidea.

Fam. Fam.

1.2.

HolothuridseSynaptidse

Holothuria.

37

GEOLOGICAL SCHEME.All OTir ideas of geological arrangement are founded on the fact, tliat in the earth's crust there are two great sets of rocks, the Stratified and the Unstratified the former the results of deposition in water, and hence also known as Aqueous and Sedimentary, the latter the products of igneous fusion, and consequently termed igneous and eruptive, thus

I.

Stratified, Sedimentary, Aqueous, or Neptunian the results of deposition in water, and consequently arranged in layers or strata

:

more or less persistent and coal, and the like.II.

regular, as sandstone, shale, limestone,

Unstratified, Eruptive, Igneous, or Plutonic the products of igneous fusion, and cast forth, for the most part, in irregular and amorphous masses, as granite, greenstone, basalt, lava, and the like.

The following arrangement of the Stratified Formations is that which gave direction and consistency to the researches of British Geologists during the earlier portion of the present century is still, in part, retained in its nomenclature, and continues less or more to influence our ideas of succession and chronology

:

All superficial accumulations, as sand, gravel, silt, marl, peat-moss, coral reefs, &c. Contain the remains of existing plants and animals only partially fossilised. Tertiary. Local and limited deposits of regular strata occurring above the chalk. Contain the remains of j)lants and animals not differing widely in character from those now existing. Secondary. Embracing all the strata known as chalk, oolite, lias, Concoal-measures, mountain limestone, and old red sandstone.

Recent.

tain fossil plantsthose

and animals ofof slaty

species totally different

from

now

existing.

Transition.

as sandstones, Contain fexo *'greywack^," calcareous shales, and limestones. or no fossil plants, and the remains of no higher animals thansiliceoxis

Strata

and

known

Crustacea, shell-fish, and zoophytes. Primary. All slaty and crystalline strata as roofing-slate, micaschist, and gneiss, very hard and compact, and totally destitute

of organic remains.

38

GEOLOGICAL SCHEME.Although the Igneous rocks burst through and appear among the stratiwithout order or arrangement, it is customary to speak of them as Granitic, Trappean, and Volcanic meaning, by the term Granitic, the igneous rocks which, like granite, are usually found associated with the older strata by the term Trappean, the igneous rocks most frequently associated with the secondary a,nd tertiary strata and by the term Volcanic, those that have made their appearance during the current epoch. Classifying them according to this view, we have the subjoined tabulafied;; ;

tion

:

Volcanic.

Lava, trachyte, accumulations.

scoriae, &c., associated

with recent

Trappean.

Trap-tuff, amygdaloid, greenstone, basalt, &c,, associated for the most part with tertiary and secondary strata.

Granitic. Granite, syenite, porphyry, &c., associated in greatest force with transition and primary strata.

extensive examination of the strata in different countries, by a more minute investigation of their fossil contents, the "formations" of the earlier geologists have, to a certain extent, become This new obsolete, and other subdivisions and groupings been adopted. arrangement has been founded either on mineral or on fossil distinctions such differences being sufficient to warrant the conclusion that each set of strata was f oraied during successive epochs, under different distributions of sea and land, and consequently under different conditions of climate

By a more

and

especially

it is

and other modifying influences and as geological investigation advances, more than probable that we must still farther abandon our Rock Formations, and adhere to great Life Periods as the true exponents of the world's progress and history. In the mean time the following arrangement gives consistency to the researches of European and American geologists;:

Systems.1.

Periods.

Cycles.

Post-Tertiary.Tertiary.

Cainozoic(RecentLife).

2.3. 4.

Cretaceous. Oolitic or Jurassic.i

NEOZOIC.Mesozoic(MiddleLife).

6. Triassic.6.7.8.

Permian.Carboniferous. Devonian or Old Red.Silurian.

Paleozoic(Ancient Life).

9.

10.

Cambrian.Crystalline, or Non-fossiliferous.

PALEOZOIC.Azoic(Void ofLife).

n. Metamorphic,

89

GEOLOGICAL SCHEME.

BEITISH STEATIFIED SYSTEMS.The following tabulation exhibits the arrangement of the British stratified rocks, as accepted by our leading geologists minor and local deviations of superposition being subordinated for the sake of distinct comprehension and ready reference:

I

Groiips.

Periods.

Post-Teetiary.[

In progress. Recent.Pleistocene.

Cainozoic.

I

Tertiary.).

Pliocene,

MioceneEocene.Chalk.

(?)

I

Cretaceous.I

Greensand.

Wealden.j

Oolitic.I .

Oolite.>

Lias.

Mesozoic.

Saliferous marls.

Triassic.

Muschelkalk (?) Upper new red sandstone.

Permian.

Magnesian limestone.

Lower new red sandstone.Coal-measures.Millstone grit. Mountain limestone._

Carboniferous.

Lower coal-measures.Yellow sandstones. Devonian limestones and

Devonian.

schists.

Red conglomerates,stones,

PALiEOZOIC.sand-

and cornstones.sandstones, ones," or "tile-

Grey

fissile

2 O

stones."

Silurian.

Upper Silurian. Lower silurian. Cambrian (?)Clay-slate. Mica-schist.

Metamorphic.

Gneissschists.

and

Granitoid

Azoic, or

Hypozoic.

40

GEOLOGICAL SCHEMIE.

TABLE OF EUROPEAN FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA.{After Sir Charles Lyell, 1855.)

1.

Recent.Post-Pliocene.J

2.

GEOLOGICAL SCHEME.

AGES GEOLOGIQUES{After lUOrUgny, 1852.)Terrains.

Mages.

British Equivalents.

EPOQUE ACTUELLE.27.

CUERENT EPOCH,SubapenninFalunien

Red andSuffolk.

Coralline Crag of

26.

Upper Greensand.Gault.

_

TERTIAIRES.

25. Parisien 24. Suessonien23.

Upper and Middle Eocenes. Lower Eocene,

DanienSenonien

^22..

21 Turonien20.

Upper White Chalk. Lower White Chalk.

CenomanienAlbien

CRETACES.

19.18.

Aptien

17. 16. 15,

NeocomienPortlandien

Lower Greensand, in part. Do. andWealden.Portland Group.

Kimni^ridgien 14. CoraUien13.

KimmeridgeCoral Rag.

Clay.

Oxfordien

1 2. Callovien

Oxford Clay. Kelloway Rock.

JURASSIQUES.

11.10.9. 8.

BathonienBajocien

Bath

Oolite.

Inferior Oolite.

ToarcienLiasien

UpperLower

Lias.;

Middle LiasLias.

Marlstone,

7.

Sinemurien

6. Salif^rien

Saliferous Marls.

TRIASIQUES.

5.

Conchylien

Variegatedpart;

Sandstones,

in

Upper New Red..

4.

PermienCarboniferien

Magnesian Limestone, &cCoal-Measures.

PAL^OZOIQUES.

3.2.^

Devonienfw.,.

Old Red Sandstone.Sup^rieur Upper Silurian.Inf6rie\ir

1.

Silunen

(

\

Carboniferous.

Ponent,Verg-ent,

Chemung Group.Hamilton Group.. . .

Cadent,Post-Meridian,

Devonian.

Upper Helderberg Limestone.Oriskany Sandstone.

Meridian,

Pre-Meridian,Scalent,

...

Lower Helderberg Limestone.Niagara Group.Clinton Group.

Silurian.

Surgent,Levant,

Medina Group.

Matinal(

Hudson and Trenton

Eiv. Gr..

^^^^^Primal,

Blue Eiver, Chazy, and Calciferous Sandstone Groups. i /Cambrian.

Potsdam Sandstone.

" These fifteen formations, or series of deposits," says Professor Rogers, "defined by their prevalent organic remains, and by the physical horizonsrelative

which separate them as sediments, are called by names significant of their the words employed suggesting metaphorically the difages

Thus, beginning with the lowest or earliest, they mean respectively Dawn, Daybreak, Moraing, Sunrise, Mounting-day, Climbing-day, Forenoon, Noon, Afternoon, Declining-day, Descending-day, Some such nomenclature, based on Sunset, Evening, Dusk, and Nightfall. time, is, for many reasons, preferable to the inexpressive ones which i-est for the most part on geographical terms, only locally correct, or on narrowferent periods of the day.

and inconstant paloeontological characters."

GEOLOGICAL SCHEME.

CONTEMPORARY OR EQUIVALENT DEPOSITS.

I.

POST -TERTIARY SYSTEM.

British.

Foreign.

Terrain quaternaire of French

Peat of Great Britain and Ireland, with human remains, &c. Fens, marshes, and riverdeposits, with ancient canoes, implements, &c. Lake - silts, fresh - water

Modem authors, in part. portion of Deltas of Rhine, Nile, Ganges, Mississippi, &c. Marine strata enclosing temple of Serapis at PuzFresh- water strata zuoli.

enclosing temple

Historical.

/

marls, &c., with canoes,

mere. Tundras(;

metal implements, remains of domesticatedanimals, &c.

in Cashof Siberia ; Tarai or Jungle soil of In-

Accumulationsdrift,

of

sand-

beach

shore-caves, and condeposits, siderably beyond the reach of existing tides.-

dia Cypress swamps, &c. Modern part of America. of coral-reefs of Red Sea and Pacific. Travertine of calcareous tufa of Italy Guadaloupe and Lavas of Vesuvius and Etna, over-

;

;

spreading objects of art, &c.

human

Peat-moss, Lake-silts, and other alluvia, with treecanoes and rude stone

implements.Alluvia and river-deposits,

Terrain quaternaire of French authors in part. Upper Alluvia of Tigris and Eu-

phrates.

with remains of Irish-

PREHISTORICAL.

deer, wild oxen,

mam-

moth, and other extinct

mammals.Cave-deposits in part, with

.

bones of extinct mammals, stone implements, and fragments of charred wood.

per Egypt in part. Upper portion of cave-deposits of Mediterranean and Southern Europe, with stone implements and charred wood. Plain of Holland in part and much of the river-alluvia of America.;

River-silt of

Up-

45

GEOLOGICAL SCHEME.British.

Foreign.

Shell-marl under peat, and

submarine

forests

of

modera

trees.

Postglacial.

Eaised beaches at various heights, with species of shells more boreal than those of existing seas. Ancient alluvia and gravel of most of our carses, strathsjdales, and holmes the '' Brick Clay " of many authors. Contains remains of seals, &c. and of exwhales, tinct land mammals, as

Loess of the Rhine, with recent fresh- water shells and mammoth bones. Volcanic tufa of Ischia, with living species

of

marine

shells,

and with-

out

of art.

human remains or works Newer boulder for-

;

mammoth,urus, &c.

rhinoceros,

Bluffs Driftwood and mammoth-gravel Tchorof the Arctic nozem or black-earth of the AuriAralo-Caspian

mation in Sweden.of the Mississippi.

seas.

plain.

Cave-deposits in part, with bones of extinct and living carnivora and herbivora ursus, hytena,

ferous Drift, in part, of the and Uralian, Australian, Californian gold-fields.

human

megaceros, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, &c. Noremains.

11.'

TERTIARY SYSTEM.Terrain quatemaire, diluvium. Terrain tertiare sup^rieur.drift of Northern of Northern United States and Alpine erratics. Limestone of Girgenti Kunkur of India (?) ; Australian cave-breccias.

Pleistoceneor

NewerPliocene.

Glacial drift or boulder formation of Norfolk, of the Clyde, of North Wales the " Boulder Clay" of Normany authors.

GlacialEurope;

;

wich Crag. Cave-depoKirkdale, &c., with bones of extinct andliving quadrupeds.sits

of

Sub-Apennine

strata.

HiUsof

OlderPliocene.

Red Crag of Suffolk,line

Coral-

Rome, Monte Mario, &c, Antwerp and NormandyCrag.

Crag of

Suffolk.

Aralo-Caucasian

de-

Pampas posits, older part. Formation of South America,&c.

Faluns Falurien sup^rieur. Part of Borof Touraine.

deaux

Bolderberg beds. Part

Miocene.

Marine strata of this age wanting in the British(

strata in Belgium.

of

Isles.

Leaf -bed of Mull. Lignite of Antrim (?)

Vienna Basin. Part of MolSands lasse in Switzerland. of James River and Rich-

mond,

GreenVirginia.Mary-

sands and mai'ls of land, United States.

46

GEOLOGICAL SCHEME.British,^

Foreign.

Lower parttiare

of

Upper Eocene{Loiver

moyen. Calcaire Lacustre sup^rieur, and gr^s de Fontainebleau. Part of the Lacustrine strata of Auvergne.

Terrain

ter-

Hempstead beds near Yarmouth,Isle of

Mioceneof manyAuthors.)

Wight.

gium. (Kupelian and Tongrian system of Dumont). Part of Mayence Basin.

Limburg beds, Belof

brown coal HermsdorfBerlin.

Germany.

tile -clay,

near

1.

Gypseous

series of

Mont-

martre, and Calcaire lacustresuperieur. 2 and 3, Calcaire silicieux. 2 and 3. Gr^s de Beauchamp, Laecken or sables moyens.

1.

2.

Bembridge or Binsted Beds, Isle of Wight. Osborne or St Helensseries.

beds, Belgium,

4 andSeries.

5.

MiddleEocene.

3.

4.

Headon Headon

Upper and

Middle

Hill sands

and

5.

Calcaire grossier. Bruxillien or Brussels Bedsof

5.

Barton clay. Bagshot and Brackles-

5.

Dumont. Lower Calcaire

grossier, ov-

ham6.

Beds.(?)

glauconie5.

gi'ossiere.

Wanting

Caibome beds, Alabama.6.

5 and6.

Nummulitic

forma-

tion of Eiu-ope, Asia, &c. Soissonnais Sands, or LitsCoquilliers.

1.

London Clay and Bognor Beds.Plastic

1,

LowerEocene.

J 2.

\3.

clays

and mottled and sands; Wool-

Wanting in Paris Basin, occurs at Cassel in French Flanders. Limestones and Clays of the Carolinas (?)

wich Beds. Thanet Sands.

2,

3,

Argile Plastique et Lignite. Lower Landenian of Bel-

gium, in part.

IIL

CEETACEOUS SYSTEM.Danien of d'Orbigny.Calcaire pisolitique, Paris.

MaestrichtBeds.

Wanting

in England.

Maestricht Beds. Coralline limestone of Faxoein

Denmark.of d'Orbigny.

Obero Kreide and Upper Qua-

Upper

der-sandstein of

the

Ger-

WhiteChalk.

White Chalk, with

flints.

mans.

La

Scaglia of the Italians.

Yellow Limestone and Greensand of (Senonien New Jersey, in pai-t.47

GEOLOGICAL SCHEME.British.

Foreign.

Lower WhiteChalk.

Chalk without Chalk Marl.

Turonian of d'Orbigny. Calcaire h hippurites, Pyreflints.

nees.

Upper Planer Kalk

of Saxony.

Yellow Limestone and Greensand of New Jersey, in part.Loose sand, with bright green grains. Forestone of Merstham, inSurrey.

C^nomanen of d'Orbigny. Gres Vert Sup^rieur. Craie Chloritee.Lower QuadersandsteinGermans.of the

Marly stone, with I Isle of Wight.

chert,

Marl, Kent. Folkestone Marl. Black Down Beds (sandstone and chert), Devonshire. {Dark-blue

Albien of d'Orbigny. Glauconie Crayeuse. Lower Planer Kalk of Saxony.

'Greensand ofSussex.

Kent and"Gres Vert inf^rieur.

Lower. Geeensand,

Limestone (Kentish Rag). Sands and Clay, with calcareous concretions andchert, Atherfield, Isle of

Neocomien superieur.Aptien of d'Orbigny. Hils Conglomerat of Germany. Hils-thon of Brunswick.

Wight. Speeton Clay, Yorkshire.^

Wealden.

(

Clay, with occasional bands of limestone and sandstone Weald of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex.;

Neocomien

Inf^rieur.

Sand, with calcareous grit and clay Hastings,;

Formation Waldienne. Walderformation of Germany.

North

Cuckfield, Sussex.

IV.

OOLITIC OR JURASSIC SYSTEM.1.

Serpuliten Kalk and Wal-

derformation of1.

Purbeck Beds.PortlandSand.

UpperOolite.

2.3.

StoneClay.

and

/

Portlandien of d'Orbigny. Kim-

many,

in part.

N.2.

Ger-

3.

Kimmeridge

meridgien of d'Orbigny. Calcaire k gryph^es virgules, of Thirria. Argiles de Honileur of de Beaumont.

11.

MiddleOolite.

2. 3.4.

Calcareous Grit. Coral Rag.

and 2. Corallien of Beudant and d'Orbigny. Calcaire k Nerinndes of Thurmann.3.

Oxford Clay. Kelloway Rock.

Oxfordien Supdrieur. 4. Oxfordien Infdrieur or Cal-

lovien of d'Orbigny.

48

GEOLOGICAL SCHEME.British.

Foreign.

Combrash and ForestMarble. Great (or Bath) Oolite1

and

2.

Bathonien

;

Grand

LowerOolite.

and Stonesfield

Slates.

Fuller's Earth, Bath. Freestone Calcareous

and Yellow Sandsferior Oolite).

(In-

Oolithe ; Calcaire de Caen. 3 and 4. Oolithe inferieur ; Oolithe ferrugineux of Normandy Oolithe de Bayeux ; Bajocien of d'Orbigny.;

1.

Toarcien of d'Orbigny.Lias

2.1.

Moyen

;

Liasien

of

UpperLower

Lias.Lias.

Lias.

2.3.

Marlstone.

3.

d'Orbigny. Calcaire a gryph^e arqu^e

;

Sinemurienginia(?);

Coal-field of

of d'Orbigny ; Richmond, Virand Coal-fields of

India

(?)

V. THIASSIC SYSTEM.

Bone - bedUpper.

of Axmouth ; Saliferous and Gypseous

Shales and Sandstones of Cheshire.

Salif eri en of d' Orbigny ; ]\Iames irisees of the French ; Keuper

of the

Germans.

Conchy lienMiddle.i

Wanting

in England.

of d'Orbigny, in Calcaire h C^ratites part of Cordier Muschelkalk of;

;

Germany.

Red and White SandstonesLower.and Quartzose Conglomeratesof

Bunter Sandstein of the Germans Grhs bigarre of the French of Conchjdien;

;

Lancashire

and Cheshire.

Red d'Orbigny, in part Sandstones of Connecticut, U.S.;

VI.

PERMIAN SYSTEM.Limestonesof1.

1.

Laminated and Concretionary

Stinkstein of Thuringia.

MagnesianLimestone.

York and Durham.2.'6.

2.3.

4.

5.

Brecciated Limestone do. Fossiliferous Limestone. Compact Limestone, do. Marl-slate of Durham.

Rauchwackfe do. Dolomit or Upper Zechstein.

4. 5.

Zechst^in proper.

Mergel or Kupfer schiefer.

Red Sandstones,

RedSanDSTONE.

Grits,

and

Rothliegendes of Thuringia.

/I

Marls Dolomitic Conglomerate of Bristol, Exeter, Annandale, &c.;

Permian of Russia. Grfes des Vosges of French. Red Sandstones of Chatham, North Carolina, U.S.

49

GEOLOGICAL SCHEME.VII.

CARBONIFEEOUS SYSTEM.British.

Foreign.

Uppee.

{'1.

or Measvires.

Upper

True

Coal-

}'2.

Coal-fields States.

of

the United

Millstone Grit of England.

Middle,

2.

Mountain or Carboniferous Limestone.

Calcaire Carbonifbre of the French. Bergkalk orKohlenkalk of the Germans. Pentremite Limestone, U.S.

1.

Lower Coal - measures and "Calciferous Sand-

1.

Kiesel Schiefer and Jiingere

Lower.

stones" of Lower Limestone, Shale, CarboniferMendips. ous Slates of Ireland.

Scotland.

Grauwackfe of the Germans. Gypseous Beds and Encrinital Limestones of Nova Scotia. Cypridina Schiefer of Nassau, Saxony, &c.

VIII.1.

DEVONIAN OR OLD RED SANDSTONE.Yellow Sandstones

Dura Den, Fifeshire. White Sandstones ofUpper..

of

Upper Devonians of Russia;Cypridina Schiefer of Ger-

*

Elgin2.

(?

Triassic).

and chocolatecoloured Sandstones and Grits of Berwick and Roxburgh.

White

many, in part,Catskill Group, U.S.

'^1.

2.

Middle.3.

Red Sandstones and Marls of Perth, Forfar, Hereford, &c. and Middle Upper Schists and Limestones of Devonshire. Micaceous and Bituminous Flags of Caithness.

Eifel

Limestone

;

and Up-

per and Middle Devoniansof Russia, in part.I

2

and

3.

Middle Devonians of;

Russia, in part and Genessee,

Chemung, Hamilton

Groups, North America.

4.

v1.

Great Pebbly Conglomerate of Scotland./

Lower.

2,

Devonian of North, Devon. of Grey Flagstones Perth and Forfar Tile;

Lower

1.

SpiriferSlate.

SandstoneDevonian,

andlower

2.

Russianpart;

stones of Hereford,part.

in

Oriskany America.

and Onondago and North Groups,

IX.1.

SILURIAN SYSTEM.1-5.

2.

Upper.

3.4.

Upper Ludlow Rocks; Lesmahago Tilestones. Aymestry Limestone. Lower Ludlow. Wenlock Limestone andShale.

Upper stages of Bohemian Basin E to H of;

1-3.

Barrande. Pentamerus,

Delthjnns,

and Onondago Groups, "kewYork. 4. Schoharie Coralline Limestone. 5. Medina Sandstone.

5.

Llandovery Rocks.

50

GEOLOGICAL SCHEME.British.

Foreign.1

1.

2.

Lower.

3.

Caradoc Sandstone. Bala Beds. Llandeilo and LingulaFlags.

and 3. Lower stages of Bohemian Basin C and DBarrande. Primordial 4. zone of Barrande Slates of Angers, France. 1-4. From Oneida Conglomerates to Potsdam Sandstone inclu-

;

4.

Longmynd oi'Eocks."

" Bottom

;

X.

CAMBRIAN SYSTEM.Schists Schistsof

Fossiliferous

Alum

Schists

of

Sweden

;

Upper.

WicklowSlates of

;

and

North Wales.

lowest fossiliferous rocks of Wisconsin and Minnesota.

Lower Grits and Schists of Dumfries and Grits,;

HuronianChloritic Schists.

Lower.

Schists, rates of lands.

and ConglomeNorthern High-

and Sandstones and Gneissose

61

II.

GENEEAL TEEMS AND TECHNICALITIES

GENEEAL TEEMS AND TECHNICALITIES.

ABRA. In words derived from the Greek, the prefix a is used privatively, or in *a negative sense, and has the effect of the English word without, as a-podous, without feet ; a-cephalous, without a head a-cotyledonous, having;

no seed-lobes

Abdomen

a-zoic, destitute of organic remains. In animals the belly (Lat. ahdo, I conceal).;

and

or cavity contain-

ing the viscera

Abdominal, pertaining to the belly. Abdominales (Lat. ahdo, I conceal hence abdomen, the belly). In the zoological arrangement of Cuvier a section of the Mala'copterygian, or softfinned fishes, which have their ventral fins placed on the abdomen, behind;

;

the pectorals. The section includes the carps, the the herrings, and the pikes.

silvires,

the salmons,

in Natural HisAberrant (Lat. ah, and erro, I wander tory classification to those species ("aberrant species") which differ widely from the type of the natural group or family to which they belong, or rather under which they are usually arranged. Abietites (Lat. ahies, the fir-tree).A genus of coniferse occ\irring in the Wealden and Lower Greensand. The genus has been founded chiefly on the fossil cones which are often found in great perfection these cones being composed of scales that terminate in a point, and not in a rhomboi-

Applied from).

dal disc as in Pimts, which see.

Abnormalirregular of nature; ;

Without rule or order ; (Lat. ah, from, and norma, a rule). in a condition differing from that produced in the regular course;

deviating from the general type or form not occurring in the usual order, or according to that which is generally considered as the natural law.

AbrancMata (Gr. a, without, and hrancJda, gills). Applied to animals which have no apparent external organs of respiration, as the leech, earthworm, &c., and which respire by the entire surface of the skin, or by internal cavities. The AbrancMata constitute the third order of the Annelida of Cuvier. The term Abra7ichia has also been applied to certain amphibia, as the menopoma and ampkmma, which do not undergo meta55

ABRBranchia andAbrasionof wearingits

ACCSee

morphosis, but breathe by lungs during the whole of their existence.

sand, nature.

The operation rasiis, rubbed or scraped). (Lat. away by rubbing or friction. Currents of water laden with shingle, and other rock-debris are the chief abrading agents in;

compounds. ah, from, and

Abrasion may also result from the passage of icebergs, the descent of glaciers, &c. hence the frequency of abraded rock- siu-faces in connection with the "Boulder clay." Abrasion, as a geological result, presents some important distinctions as compared with Denvdation and Degradation, which see, One of the Zeolite family, known also as zeagonite and gismon' A'brazite. dine. Its crystals occur in hemispherical bundles in the cavities of volcanic rocks are of a greyish-white to a reddish-brown or red colour and consist essentially of silica, alumina, lime, and potash.

;

;

Absorbent

(Lat. ab,

and

sorbeo, I

suck

in).

Capable of sucking in fluids;

in Geology, applied to soils, rocks, and minerals which have the quality of readily imbibing water into their pores and interstices.

Abstergent (Lat. abstergo, I cleanse). Having a cleansing property earth is an abstergent, Acalephse (Gr. akaUiihe, a nettle). A zoological term for the soft gelatinous radiata known as medusae, sea-nettles, jelly-fish, &c. The term has reference to the property which many of them possess, of causing, when touched, a hot stinging sensation like that produced by the nettle. AcanthoteutMs (Gr. acdntha, a thorn, and teuthis, a cuttle-fish), A genus of fossil cuttle-fishes occurring in oolitic strata, and so termed from the horny booklets that arm their tentacles, which appear to have been ten These booklets, the horny sucking- discs, and internal bones or in number.;

fullers'

genera of ganoid fishes occurring in the Upper Devonian and Lower coal-measiires,

osselets (belemnites), are generally the only portions preserved. Acanthodes (Gr. acantlm, a spine or thorn). One of Agassiz's

and characterised by its strong thorn-like ichthyodorulites or fin-spines. The type of the family Acanthodidce, in which all the fins are furnished with strong spinous rays the dorsal and anal being single. Acanthopterygian (Gr. acantlia, a spine or prickle, and pterygion, a winglet or fin). A term applied to fishes having the back or dorsal fin composed of spiny rays, as the perch, gurnard, &c. One of Cmier's orders

of osseous fishes.

Acanticone (Gr.

acantlia,

a prickle),

An

all

but obsolete synonyme

for pistacite, a sub-species of prismatic augite spar or epidote, which see. Acaridae or Acarea (Lat, acdrus, a mite), The mite family (so called from the typical genus acarus), to which the mite, the tick, the watermite, and other minute arachnidans belong. They are chiefly of geological

interest

from the experiments of Crosse, who imagined he could produce species {acarus C'rossei, &c,) at will, bypassing long-continued currents of electricity through certain siliceous solutions,

some

Accipenseridse (I^at. aecipenser, the sturgeon), The sturgeon family, a well-known but limited group of ganoid fishes belonging to the sub-order Chondrostea or Loricata, and especially characterised by the almost total absence of an osseous vertebral column, and by the presence, in most species, of a strong dermal covering or exo-skeleton consisting of large bony tuberculated plates arranged in rows on the upper siu'face of the body, and shielding the head as if in solid piece. The existing stvu-geons

56

ACC:

ACI

are chiefly of large size, and inhabit the sea, but ascend the larger rivers for the purpose of spawning the fossil species seem to have been governed by a similar habit, and are found from the lower Tertiaries upwards, Accipitres (Lat, accijnter, a hawk from accipere, to seize), The ornithological term for the rapacious birds, such as the eagles, falcons, hawks, There are two subdivisions, &c., which seize their prey with their talons. the diurnal and the nocturnal. Their remains occur, though very sparingly, from the lower Tertiaries upwards. Acclimatise (Fr. acclimater). To accustom a plant or animal to a climate not natural to it to accustom to the temperature of a new climate. Plants and animals may, within certain limits, become acclimatised, and flourish and increase in a new country, though not indigenous to it. Accretion (Lat. accretio), Increase by external addition of new matter applied strictly to mineral or inorganic increase. Plants and animals grow by alimentation, or the assimilation of additional matter minerals enlarge;

;

;

;

by

accretion.

in dceous denote resemblance to, or partaking of the qualities of, a substance, as argillaceous, less or more clayey carbonaceous, partaking of the qualities or appearance of carbon. Acephalous (Gr, a, without, and hephaU, the head). Applied to those mollusca which, like the oyster and scallop, have no distinct head, in conThe tradistinction from the EncepJialons, or those with a distinct head. division A cepliala comprehends most of the bivalve molluscs, and several that ar6 destitute of shells in other words, the brachiopoda, conchifera,;

Aceous, Terminations

;

and

tu'iiicata.

Acescent (Lat, acesco, to become sour), Slightly acid applied to substances which, like vegetable and animal juices, become sour spontaneously that is, on exposure to the oxygen of the atmosphere,; ;

Acetahulifera (Lat, acetalmlum, a sucker, and fero, I bear), Literally sucker-bearers ;" that section of the cephalopodous molluscs whose arms or tentacles are furnished with rows of little cups or suckers, a characteristic peculiar to Neozoic genera. Acetabulum (Lat, a sucker). Applied to such organs as the cup-like sucking-discs (acetabula) with which the arms of the cuttle-fish are provided. So far as yet known, the arms of the Palaeozoic cephalopods were void of sucking-discs organs abundantly common to Mesozoic and Neozoic''

genera.

Achmite (Gr. acm^, a sharp point). One of the hornblende family occurring in the granites and syenites of Norway in long greenish-black prismatic crystals, which terminate very acutely hence the name. It consists of 55.6 silica, 32 iron peroxide, and 12.4 soda. A term employed by A'chroite (Gr. a, without, and chroa, colour). Hermann to designate the colourless varieties of tourmaline, as distinguished from the dark-coloured varieties (Schorl), and from the red;

(Rubeliite).

Acicular (Lat. acicula, a little needle). Mineral crystals occurring in slender, needle-like prisms or prickles as actynolite, are said to be acicular. Irregular aggregations of these slender prisms constitute the ''aciculartexture" of actynolite-rock and actynolite-slate, Aciculite (Lat, acicula, a needle). Needle ore;

a plumbo-cupreous

sulphuret of bismuth occurring imbedded in quartz in long, thin, steel67

ACI

ACT

grey crystals, strongly marked with vertical

striae, and apparently in four or six-sided prisms. It consists of 35.8 lead, 11 copper, 36.7 bismuth, and 16.5 sulphur, and usually accompanies native gold.

Acidaspis (Gr. akis, spear-point, and aspis, buckler). A genus of trinamed by Murchison from the central lobe of the head-plate or cephalic shield projecting over the body in the form of a pointed stomacher. Acidulous and Acidulated. Slightly acid or sub-acid. Applied to certain waters and springs that hold in solution a small per-centage of sulphuric or other acid. Acin6se (Lat. acinus, a seed or germ). Granulated ; applied to mineral textures and surfaces which have a granulated appearance like the fruit of the raspberry.lobites, so

Acotyledonous (Gr. a, without, and cotyledon, seed-lobe). Plants whose embryos have no seed-lobes or seminal leaves are so termed, in contradistinction to Monocotyledons and DicotyUdons. See tabulations, " Vegetable Scheme." A'crita (Gr. aJcritos, indistinct). In some zoological classifications, a primary division of the animal kingdom, comprising the lowest classes of radiata which are characterised by an indistinct, diffused, or molecular condition of the nervous system. The Acrita constitute the Protozoa, the Cryptoneura, the Oozoa, and Globular zoophytes of other systematists. A'crodont (Gr. aJcros, the summit, and odous, tooth). A term applied by Professor Owen to those squamate or loricated saurians whose teeth are anchylosed to the summit of the alveolar ridge. See Thecodont. A'crodus (Gr. akros, the ridge, and odous, tooth). Literally "ridge-tooth;" a genus of Cestraciont fish-teeth occurring abundantly in the oolitic and chalk formations, and characterised by their enamelled siuiace being covered with fine grooves and striae which diverge from a central longitudinal ridge. They are known to collectors as fossil leeches, from a fancied

I am formed). Applied to those cryptogamic plants which increase by growth at the summit, or " growing point," as the tree-ferns. Acrogens are therefore separated as a great botanical division from Thallogens, Endogens, and Exogens. See

resemblance to a contracted leech. Acrogenous (Gr. akros, the top, and ginomai,

Vegetable Scheme." Acrognathus ( Gr. akros, high, and gnathis, the jaw). Literally "deepjaw;" a genus of fishes from the Lower Chalk, and arranged by Agassiz under the Salmonidce, or Salmon-family. Acrosaurus (Gr. akros, the point or summit, and saurus, lizard). One of the extraordinary fossil reptiles discovered by Mr Bain in the supposed Triassic sandstones of South Africa. It has thirty or forty teeth on the alveolar ridge (hence the name), and a broad process of the cheekbone extending downwards over the side of the lower jaw. Actinia (Gr. aktin, a ray). The sea-anemone so called from the ray-like arrangement of its tentacles, which surround the mouth like the petals of The Actinice belong to the class Polypi, or true polypes, and a flower. from their structxire are sometimes named " Fleshy Polypes." It has been suggested by Dr Mantell that some of the minute siliceous spicules so abundant in Chalk, and commonly ascribed to sponges, may have belonged to Actiniae, in whose structure such organisms also occur. Actinociinus, Actindcrinite (Gr. actin, a ray or thorn). A genus oftabulations,

"

;

58

ACT

^CA

encrinites found chiefly in the Carboniferous limestone, and distingfuished by the thorn-like side-arms which project from the main column or stalk

at irreg'ular distances. See Encrinite. Act^^olite, Actm6te (Gr. alt in, a ray or thorn, and lithos, stone). mineral and rock of the granitic group, composed of radiating or thornlike crystals of a dark or greenish hue, and in composition closely allied to

hornblende. Actynolite-rock and actynolite-slate are the common forms in which the mineral appears the latter consisting of a basis of felspar with intermingled crystals of actynolite. According to Bonsdorf, specimens from Taberg consist of 59.75 silica, 21.10 magnesia, 14.25 lime, 3.95 protoxide of iron, with traces of manganese and fluoric acid. Adamant (Gr. adamas, adamantos, unsubdued, strong). An old term given to several minerals having the property of excessive hardness, as to the diamond. Adaviantine and adamanteati, hard as adamant ; excessively hard having the lustre of diamond.

;

Adamdntine Spar.colour,

The diamond spar of Wernerwith verylustre,

occurring in rough crystals,

a variety of corundum ; distinct cleavage, hair-brown";

and adamantine

a name A'dapis (Gr. a, not, and dapis, a carpet). Literally '^no-carpet given in allusion to its rough or prickly skin. An extinct Tertiary pachyderm, somewhat resembling a hedgehog, but three times the size of that animal. It seems, according to Cuvier, to have formed a link connecting the Pachyderms with the Iiiseciivora. Adhesion (Lat. ad, and hoiro, to stick together). The force of cohesion acting between solid masses which come in contact at many points ; the more intimate the contact the greater the force. Adiantites. A genus of fossil ferns found in the Coal-measures, and so termed from their resemblance to the existing adiantwm or maiden-hair. (Gr. adiantos, of a dry nature ; membranaceous). Adipocere (Lat. adeps, fat, and cera, wax). A light, waxy, fatty substance into which animal muscle is converted when buried in moist earth, or when It is occasionally found in gravesubjected to long immersion in water. yards, in peat-bogs, and other similar situations ; and is frequently cast up in lumps on the shores of tidal estuaries. A fatty unctuous matter found in Adipocerite, or Adipocere mineral. certain peat-mosses (the "creeshy clods" of the Scotch peat-digger) in connection with ironstone of the Coal-measures, as at Merthyr ; and with sandstone strata, as at Binny in Linlithgowshire. Adit (Lat. adMm, an approach or entrance). underground horizontal gallery or tunnel, generally opening from the lower level of a ravine or hillside into a mine for the purpose of carrying off its waters, or for the purposes of entrance, and removal of the ores.

;

An

Aduldria (Gr. adularos, sweetly-fair, in allusion to

its soft lustre).

A

transparent or translucent variety of felspar, known also as ice-spar, with splendent lustre, and either colourless and white, or slightly tinged with gJ^ey? green, or yellowish-brown. Specimens with a bluish opalescence are

termed moonstones. 5)'chmodus (Gr. cechmi, a point, and odous, tooth). A genus of ganoid fishes belonging to the Lepidoid family, and so named from their small,sharp-pointed teeth. They are almost exclusively confined to the Lias formation, and are readily distinguished by their deeply oval contour their bodies being about as deep as long, and covered with transversely

59

^Parranged four-cornered oblongtetragonolepis, or''

AEEFormerly ranked under the genus

scales.

four-cornered scale."

iEpyornis, ^pi6rnis (Gr. aljms, immense, and ornis, bird). An extinct cursorial bird of gigantic dimensions, the eggs and a few scattered bones of which have been recently discovered in the alluvial deposits of Madagascar.

The egg has six times the capacity of that of the ostrich but judging from the large size of the egg of the New Zealand Ai^teryx, Professor Owen does not believe that the ^-Epiornis exceeded, if indeed it equalled, the Dinornis in stature. The bones would seem to indicate a bird at least double the size of the ostrich and from their recentness, it appears not improbable that the creature may still be in existence in the interior of the island, which is almost unknown to Europeans. Aeriform (Lat. aer, the air, and forma). Air-like ; applied to gaseous fluids, from their resemblance to common air ; hence we hear of solid, liquid, and aeriform bodies.;

;

iEriigo (Lat. ces, ceris, copper). Literally copper-rust ; verdigris ; a subacetate of copper formed by the action of weak acids on its surface. iEstuary or Estuary, which see..ffitMops (Gr. aitho, I burn, and o;w, the eye or countenance). Applied to various chemical compounds in allusion to their black appearance, resembling that of the Ethiop. Thus we have jEthiops mineral, the black sulphuret of mercury ^thiojjs per se, the grey oxide of mercury, &c. .ffitites or .ffitites Lapis (Gr. cetos, an eagle). A variety of nodular ironore, said to derive its name from a popular notion that it was found in;

where it was supposed to prevent the eggs from becoming rotten. See Eagle-Stone. Aerolite (Gr. aer, air, and lithos, stone). a meteoric Literally air-stone stone or mineral mass, which falls through the air, emitting light in its passage as if red hot, generally accompanied with a hissing or crackling sound, and occasionally with a report like thunder. Aerolites are by noeagles' nests,

;

means uncommon and according to Schroebers, the greater number of them have always the same general form, which is that of an oblique or;

slanting pyramid and they are also alike in external appearance, presenting to view a black shining crust, as if the body had been coated with This crust or film is extremely thin, and is of the same composition pitch. with the mass, which, when broken, displays a semi-metallic ash-grey So like are they to one another in colour and in external appearcolour. ance, that Berzelius remarks, "We might believe them to have been In composition they are also remarkable for struck out of one piece." containing malleable metallic iron, nickel, and chrome, metals which, in a Besides native state, are rarely if ever found in terrestrial substances. these ingredients, they contain upwards of a dozen others (silica, magnesia,;

potash, cobalt, &c.)

;

and

These

common

characteristics

ingenious argumentsterrestrial production.tions,

their specific gravities range from 3.35 to 4.28. seem to indicate a common origin, and many have been advanced to prove that they are not of

This is not the place to enter upon such speculabut we may indicate briefly the leading hypotheses that have been advanced to account for the origin of these extraordinary bodies, which cannot in the mean time be associated with any known terrestrial minerals. It has been supposed 1st, That they are ejected from terrestrial volcanoes 2d, That they are produced in the atmosphere, being formed from the gases exhaled from the earth ; 3d, That they are thrown from lunar volcanoes

;

;

GO

AFT

AIG

and 4th, That they are celestial bodies, revolving either about the earth or the sun, in the manner of planets. See Meteorite. " choke-damp," or carbonic acid, as After-Damp. Another name for " fire-damp," or light caroccurring in coal mines after an explosion ofburetted hydrogen.

term Affinity (Lat. affinis, neighbouring, bordering on, related to). frequently, but often very loosely, used by writers on natural history. "Affinity," as first defined by Macleay in contradistinction from "analogy," signifies the relationship which one animal bears to another in its structure,the closer as the similarity of structure is greater. Swainson illusby comparing a goatsucker with a swallow and with a bat with the one its relation is intimate, with the other remote; the goatsucker has affinity with the swallow, inasmuch as the structural organisation of " the one bird is intimately related to the other but it has only analogy" to the bat, inasmuch as bird and mammal, though differing in structure, have the common function of feeding in the same manner on insects, and See Analogy and Homology. flying at the same hour of the day.

A

and

is

trates this idea

:

;

Agalmdtolite (Gr. agahna, an image, and lithos, stone). A variety of steatite or talc-mica so called from its being carved into images and other figures. See Figure-Stone. Agdric Mineral (Lat. agaricus, a species of fungus). A soft variefy of carbonate of lime found in clefts and on other surfaces of rocks, in light and loosely-cohering incrustations. It is so light as almost to swim on water, and obtains its name from its resemblance to a fungus in texture and colour. Agate (said to be from the river Achates in Sicily, where fine varieties A mixed, siliceous, semi-pellucid mineral usually found in veins, occiu-).;

in nodules, and in geodes within igneous rocks. The geodes often consist of alternating bands or deposits of carnelian, calcedony, jasper, opal, quartz, &c. ; hence the varieties of the mineral are known by such names as ribbon-

agate, fortification agate, brecciated agate, moss agate, and the like. When cut and polished, the ribbon-agates exhibit the calcedony, jasper, quartz, &c. in parallel stripes the fortification agates show the alternating bands in zigzag arrangements like the plan of a modern fortification the brecciated consist of irregular fragments of the two former imbedded in a matrix of amethyst and the moss-agates exhibit minute dendritic ramifications re; ;

;

Agglomerate. A term employed by Sir Charles Lyell to designate those accumulations of angular fragments of rock which are thrown up by volcanic eruptions, and showered to greater or less distances around the cone or crater of eruption. When they are carried to a distance by running

sembling fragments of moss, confervae, &c., hence their respective names. The finer varieties of agate are termed oriental ; the Arabian moss-agates are known to the jeweller as mocha-stones ; and the most beautiful British varieties, being found in the traps of Scotland, are termed Scotch ^jebhles.

worn and rounded, they become conglomerates. unknown, obscure). A genus of minute trilobites supposed to be characteristic of, and peculiar to, the lowest silvirian zones. Little, however, is known of them either as to their zoologicalAgn6stus(Gr. agnostos,

water, and get

characteristics or geological distribution. needle ; applied in physical Aiguille (Fr.)

A geography and geology to the sharp serrated peaks of lofty mountains. It is generally the crystalline rocks, such as gneiss, quartz, and the like, which weather into the aiguille or needle-top.61

AIR

ALC

In coal-mining, a general name for the air-traversing workAir-course. ings where ventilation is going on. The fresh air descending into the mine is termed the " intake ;" and that which ascends after having passed " through the workings is the return." A town in Provence, situated in the lowest part of a deep valley, Aix. the immediate flanks of which are composed of a thick fresh- water Tertiaryformation, consisting of greyish-white calcareous marls, calcareo-siliceous grits, and beds of gypsum ; the whole being a perfect storehouse of fossil

and insects. A'knmite Series (Gr. aMmos, tranquil). According to Dr Fleming {Lithology of Edinburgh), the modern epoch, from the commencement of the Boulder-clay upwards, may be divided into three series, viz.^ the Taragmite, the Ahumite, and the Plmnerite. The first embraces the Boulder- drift, or period of disturbance ; the second, those laminated clays and sands which immediately overlie the Boulder-clay, and seem to indicate the assorting power of water under circumstances of comparative tranqmllity ; and the third, all those more superficial deposits whose modes and causes of formation are sufficiently evident. See Modern or Post-Tertiary Epoch.fishes, plants,

manganese or hexahedral glance-blende. It occurs crystalline, but usually massive, granular, and disseminated, of an iron-black colour and semi-metallic lustre. It is found in veins withoffoliated tellurium, blende, and quartz, in Saxony, Mexico, consists of 63.6 manganese, and 36.4 sulphur.

Alabdndine. Sulphuret

and Brazil

;

and

marble-like mineral

Alabaster (Gr. alabastron). There are two well-known varieties of this the gypseous and the calcareous. The former is a

semi-transparent, granular-crystalline variety of gypsum, or sulphate of lime, of various colours, but most esteemed when of a pure snow-white, and usually compact enough to stand the turning-lathe the latter is a carbonate of lime, usually white or yellowish-white, and found as a stalactite or stalagmite. Alabaster is a mineral of common occurrence in secondary and tertiary formations (Cheshire, Montmartre near Paris, Volterra in Tuscany, &c.) and being soft and readily turned by the lathe, is manufactured into statuettes, vases, and other domestic ornaments hence, Others derive perhaps, the term alabastron, an ink or perfume vase. it from Alabastron, a town in Egypt famous for the manufacture of such; ;;

Albite (Lat. alba, white). A variety of felspar of a greyish- white or milky- white colour, composed of silex 70.5, alumina 19.5, soda 9.5, and traces of lime and manganese. It is also known as Cleavlandite and soda felspar. Album Grsecum. The whitish hardened excrement of dogs, wolves, It consists of the hyaenas, and other carnivora partially feeding on bones. earth-of-bones or lime, in combination with phosphoric acid. Dr Buckland {Reliq. Diluv., &c.) detected the substance in a fossil state in ossiferous caverns, such as those of Kirk dale and Kent's Hole, which are therefore concluded to have been the dens of Tertiary carnivora. More recently, Dr Falconer has found it abundantly in the bone-caves near Palermo, and indicative of animals of greater size than any of the existing hyaenas. A general term for the spongiferous fossils so common in the Alcyonite. Chalk formation. They are fossil alcyonia, and very frequently form the It has also basis or organic nucleus round which flints have collected. been surmised by Dr Mantell that some of the minute siliceous spicules so common in the chalk may have belonged to alcyonia.

62

ALE

ALM

One of Sternberg's genera Alethdpteris (Gr. alethos, true ; pteris, fern), of fossil ferns, closely allied to pecopteris, and merged by Lindley into that It abounds particularly in the lower coal-formation, but some of genus.See Pecopteris. the species range up through the Oolite and Wealden, Algae (Lat. alga, sea- weed), Cellular aquatic plants, mostly of marine habitat. They are found fossil, less or more, in every formation from the and are known by such terms as fucites, chondrites, Silurian upwards palceochorda, &c., from their resemblance to the living fucus, chondrus,

;

al, the, and l:ali, the name of a plant yielding the alkali). In chemistry a class of bodies which possess a strong acrid and caustic taste exercise a corrosive action upon all animal matter turn vegetable blues (jreen, and vegetable yellows broicn ; and which neutralise the acids by combining with them in definite proportions, and forming com; ;

chorda, &c, A'Ikalies (Arabic,

pounds called

salts.

baryta, lime, magnesia, and strontia, in consequence of their possessing alkaline properties, as caus-

Alkaline Earths.

A principal term appliedcolo\irs,

The

alkalies are potass, soda,

and ammonia.

to

ticity, action

AUanite.

vegetable A silico-aluminate

on

and the

like.

and magnesia. burgh, and is closely allied of other mineralogists.of iron, lime,

of cerium, containing varying proportions It is named after the late Mr Allan, of Edin-

to, if

not identical with, the cerin and

orthiie

The generic term for the crocodilians of the American conwhich have a broad, obtuse snout, and the canine teeth of the lower jaw rece