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Chapter 4: Research Methods

Chapter 4

Research Methods

Prepared by Group 3

Intrepid Probe

Chapter nos. Topics Page nos.

4. Research Methods

Observations Survey Method

Experimentation

Secondary Data

02

05

08

11

Group 3: Intrepid Probe - Ajit, Kamakshi, Heena, Sohil (VES College, Chembut) Page 1

Submitted By Group 3

Intrepid Probe

Ajit. B (04)Kamakshi.B (05)Heena.B (06)Sohil. D (11)


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OBSERVATION

Definition

It is the process of recognizing people, objects and occurrences rather than

asking for information.

Instead of asking consumers what brand they buy the researchers arrange to

observe what products are brought.

E.g. a large food retailer tested a new slot-type shelf arrangement for canned

foods by observing shoppers as they used the new shelves.

Advantages of observation method

1. When the researcher observes and records events, it is not necessary to relyon the willingness and ability of respondents to report accurately.

2. The biasing effects of interviewers or their phrasing of the questions is eithereliminated or reduced.

3. Data collection by observation is more objective and hence more accurate.

Disadvantages of observation method

1. Researchers have recognized the merits of observations opposed toquestioning, yet the vast majority of researchers continue to rely on the use ofa questionnaire.

2. The most limiting factor in the use of observation is the inability to observethings such as attitudes, motivation, etc.

3. Events of more than short-term duration such as a familys use of leisure timeand personal activities such as brushing of teeth are better discussed withquestionnaires.

4. In some observational studies it is impractical to keep the respondent fromknowing that they are being observed. This results in a biasing effect.

5. Cost is another major disadvantage.E.g. To observe the customers who come in to buy canned milk, an observer hasto wait for the customers to come in and buy the milk. The unproductive time isan increased cost.



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METHODS OF OBSERVATION

Observational studies can be classified on five bases:

1. Whether the situation in which the observation is made is natural or contrived2. Whether the observation is obtrusive or unobtrusive.3. Whether the observation is structured or unstructured4. Whether the factor of interest is observed directly or indirectly5. Whether observers or mechanical means makes observations.

Direct observations

When an observer is stationed in a grocery store to note how many

different brands of canned soup each shopper picks up before

selecting one, there is unobtrusive, direct observation in a naturalsituation.

If a camera is positioned to record shopping actions, observation is by

mechanical means

If the observer counts the specific cans picked up, the observation is

structured.

If the observer has to go about observing how shoppers go about

selecting a brand of soup, the situation is unstructured.

Structured direct observation

It is used when the problem at hand has been formulated precisely enough

to enable researchers to define specifically the observations to be made

E.g. Observers in a supermarket might note the number of soup cans

picked up by each customer. A form can easily be printed for simplerecordings of such observations.

Not all observations are as simple as the above but experiments have

shown that even observers with a different viewpoint on a given questiontend to make similar observations under structured conditions.

Unstructured, direct observation

Observers are placed in situations and observe whatever they deem

significant.

E.g. In an effort to find ways of improving the service of a store, observers

may mingle with customers in the store and look for activities that suggestservice problems. No one can observe everything that is going on, hencethe observer must select certain things which he can make a note of.Customers standing at a counter with annoyed faces may be observed as

irritated because of the service or lack of it.Group 3: Intrepid Probe - Ajit, Kamakshi, Heena, Sohil (VES College, Chembut) Page 3


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They allow the respondent to fill it out at their own convenience.

Disadvantages:

Response rates from mail surveys are often very low. Mail questionnaires are not the best vehicles for asking for detailed written

responses.

Group-administered questionnaire

A sample of respondents is brought together and asked to respond to a

structured sequence of questions.

Traditionally, questionnaires were administered in-group settings for

convenience. The researcher could give the questionnaire to those who were present

and be fairly sure that there would be a high response rate

If the respondents were unclear about the meaning of a question they

could ask for clarification.

And, there were often organizational settings where it was relatively easy

to assemble the group (in a company or business, for instance).

Interviews

Interviews are a far more personal form of research than questionnaires

Personal interviewThe interviewer works directly with the respondent

Advantages

The interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask follow-up questions.

Interviews are generally easier for the respondent, especially if what is

sought is opinions or impressions

Disadvantages Interviews can be very time consuming and they are resource intensive.

The interviewer is considered as a part of the measurement instrument

and interviewers have to be well trained in how to respond to anycontingency.

Telephone Interview

Telephone interviews enable a researcher to gather information rapidly.



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Advantages

They allow for some personal contact between the interviewer and the

respondent.

They allow the interviewer to ask follow-up questions

Disadvantages

Many people don't have publicly-listed telephone numbers. Some don't

have telephones.

People often don't like the intrusion of a call to their homes.

Telephone interviews have to be relatively short or people will feel

imposed upon.

Selecting the survey method

Selecting the type of survey you are going to use is one of the most criticaldecisions in many social research contexts. You have to use your judgment tobalance the advantages and disadvantages of different survey types.

Following are the issues that the researcher must look into before conducting aresearch.

Sampling issues

What data is available? What information do you have about your

sample? Do you know their current addresses? Their current phonenumbers? Are your contact lists up to date?

Can your respondents be located?

Who is the respondent in your study? If the specific individual is unavailable is

the researcher willing to interview another?

Are response rates likely to be a problem?

Questions

What types of questions can be asked? Are they personal or require a

detailed answer?

Can question sequence be controlled?

Your survey is one where you can construct in advance a reasonable

sequence of questions? Or, are you doing an initial exploratory studywhere you may need to ask lots of follow-up questions that you can'teasily anticipate



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Cost is often the major determining factor in selecting survey type. You

might prefer to do personal interviews, but can't justify the high cost oftraining and paying for the interviewers. You may prefer to send out an

extensive mailing but can't afford the postage to do so.

Do you have the facilities (or access to them) to process and manage your

study? In phone interviews, do you have well-equipped phone surveyingfacilities? For focus groups, do you have a comfortable and accessible roomto host the group? Do you have the equipment needed to record andtranscribe responses

Some types of surveys take longer than others. Do you need

responses immediately (as in an overnight public opinion poll)? Haveyou budgeted enough time for your study to send out mail surveys andfollow-up reminders, and to get the responses back by mail? Have youallowed for enough time to get enough personal interviews to justify

Types of questions

Survey questions can be divided into two broad types: structured and unstructured

Dichotomous QuestionsWhen a question has two possible responses, we consider it dichotomous.Surveys often use dichotomous questions that ask for a Yes/No, True/Falseor Agree/Disagree response

Eg please enter your gender

Male female

Likert response scaleAn opinion question is asked on a 1-to-5 bipolar scale (it's called bipolarbecause there is a neutral point and the two ends of the scale are at oppositepositions of the opinion):

The batting order of the Indian team shold be changed

1 2 3 4 5Strongly agree disagree neutral agree strongly disagree

Semantic differentialHere, an object is assessed by the respondent on a set of bipolar adjectivepairs (using 5-point rating scale).

EXPERIMENTATION



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Experiments are frequently conducted to determine what effect advertising of anundesirable fact would have on consumer awareness of that fact. Advertising wasconducted, and a measurement of consumer awareness was made. More

advertising was followed by another measurement. As a consistent growth inconsumer awareness took place, one would have confidence in the conclusion thatthe advertising was effective. Experiments are much more effective than descriptivetechniques in establishing cause-effect relationships.

Definition of Experiment

It refers to that research process in which one or more variables are manipulatedunder conditions that permits the collection of data that show the effects, if any, ofsuch variables in unconfused fashion.

Under most circumstances, experiments must create artificial situations. Artificialityin general is the essence of the experimental method, for it gives researchers morecontrol over the factors they are studying. If they can control the factors present in agiven situation, they can obtain more conclusive evidence of cause and effectrelationships between any two of them. Thus, the ability to set up a situation for theexpress purpose of observing and recording accurately the effect on one factor whenanother is deliberately changed permits researchers to prove or disprove hypothesesthat they otherwise could only partially test.

Selected Experimental Designs

The researcher has an hypothesis that if an experimental variable (e.g. advertising,shell display, training) is applied to an experimental unit (e.g. a group of consumers,a store, some sales representatives), it will have a measurable effect (e.g. thenumber remembering the brand name, units sold, calls made). The following aremost of the common designs for marketing experiments.

After Only Design.

This is the simplest of all experimental designs. As the after only name suggests,this design consists of applying the experimental variable (e.g. advertising) to anexperimental group (e.g. consumers) and measuring the dependent variable (e.g.recall of brand name) after, and only after, the application of the experimentalvariable.

Before-After Design

In this design, the experiments measure the dependent variable before exposing thesubjects to the experimental variable and again after exposure to the experimentalvariable. The difference between the two is considered to be a measurement of the

effect of the experimental variable.Group 3: Intrepid Probe - Ajit, Kamakshi, Heena, Sohil (VES College, Chembut) Page 9


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Four-GroupSix Study Design

In this case, when the investigator is obtaining information in an undisguised mannerdirectly from persons, the before-after with control group design is inadequate. Both

the experimental and control groups are apt to be influenced, and in different ways,by the before measurement. To over these difficulties, this design is established asthe ideal where there is interaction between the respondent and the questioningprocess. This design helps the researchers measure the size of the interactioneffect.

The design has little practical value and the use of before measurements alsocreates statistical difficulties in testing the significance of results.

After only with Control Group Design

In the four groupsix study design, it is possible to determine the effect of the

experimental variable from only two groups i.e. experimental group 2 and controlgroup 2. The difference between the before and after measurements of controlgroup 2 is the result of uncontrolled variables.

The before-after design permits an analysis of the process of change, whereas theafter only design does not. . Thus, individual respondents can be identified andtheir reactions noted in a before-after study]

The after only with control group design fits many marketing problems and is easyto use. Many promotional devices can be tested this way. Frequently, product testsare also of the after only with control group design e.g. General Motors ran suchan experiment to determine the desirability of nylon cord tyres as compared to the

traditional rayon cord tyres.

Ex Post Facto Design

One variation of the after-only design is called the ex post facto design. This differsfrom the after only design because the experimental and control groups areselected afterthe experimental variables is introduced instead ofbefore.

One advantage is that the test subjects cannot be influenced, pro or con, toward theobject be knowing they are being tested, since they are exposed to the experimentalvariable before being selected for the sample.

Another advantage of this method is that it permits the experimenter to let the

experimental variable be introduced realistically and to control only observations.This is useful in advertising tests, which use commercial media.

E.g. A T.V public service announcement designed to inform consumers about thepro and cons of nuclear energy. This could be broadcast over cable T.V only, andinterviewers could then determine with some objective accuracy whether a homehad a cable TV or not.

Continuous Diary Panel Design

In most marketing research experiments, the subjects (individuals, dealers) fromwhom information is to be obtained are selected by some sampling procedure. After

the information required by the product is obtained, these subjects are not usedGroup 3: Intrepid Probe - Ajit, Kamakshi, Heena, Sohil (VES College, Chembut) Page 10


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again. In some instances, however, a sample is recruited, and information isobtained from the members continuously or at intervals over a period of time. Apermanent or fixed sample of this type is called a panel. Panels are used for both

exploratory and conclusive studies.Factorial Designs

In the above designs, a single experimental variable with usually one variable wasconsidered. It is possible to test several levels of the experimental variable

For example several different ads could be tested, each with a separateexperimental group. All but one group alternatively could be considered as controlgroups against which to compare the experimental group, or an additional controlgroup not exposed to any advertising could be used to protect against possiblenegative effects of all ads.

Factorial designs permit the experimenter to test two or more variables at the sametime and not only determine the main effects of each of the variables, but also tomeasure the interaction effects of variables.

SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data are data that were developed for some purpose other than helpingto solve the problem at hand. Secondary data can be gathered quickly and isinexpensive as compared to primary data. Even when reports or publications areordered, the time involved is generally less than the time required to collect original

data.

A thorough search on secondary data will often provide sufficient information toresolve the problem. In some cases where the secondary data cannot solve theproblem, they can often help to structure the problem and eliminate some variablesfrom consideration. Or, it may be possible to utilize the secondary data in conjunctionwith primary data. Secondary data can provide a complete or partial solution to manyproblems and help in structuring other problems. They tend to cost substantially lessthan primary data and can be collected in less time also.

Problems Encountered with Secondary Data

Before secondary data are applied to a particular marketing problem, their relevanceand accuracy must be assessed.

Relevancy refers to the extent to which the data fits the information needs ofresearch problem. Even when the data covers the same general topic as thatrequired by the research problem, they may not fit the requirements of the problem.Three general problems reduces the relevance of data that would otherwise beuseful. They are:

1) There is often a difference in the units of measurement. E.g. many retaildecisions require detailed information on the characteristics of the population



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within their trade area. However, the available population statistics may focuson countries, cities or census tracts that do not match the trade area of theretail outlet.

2) The second general problem that can reduce relevancy of secondary data isthe definition of classes. E.g. a manufacturer may have a product that appealsto children 8 to 12 years old. If available secondary data are based on agecategories 5 to 9 and 10 to 14, the firm will have a hard time utilizing it.

3) The final major factor that is affecting relevancy is time. Generally, researchproblems require current, if not future, data. Most secondary data, on theother hand, have been in existence for some time. E.g. complete censusreports are not available for several years. Data are frequently collected oneto three years prior to its publication.

Accuracy is the second major concern of the user of secondary data. The real

problem is not inaccuracy, it is the difficulty of determining how inaccurate the data islikely to be.

While using secondary data, the original source should be used if possible. This isimportant because, the original report is generally more complete than the second orthird reports. Secondly using original source allows the data to be examined incontext and may provide a better basis for assessing the competence and motivationof the collector.

Sources of Secondary Data

There are two general sources of secondary data internalsources and externalsources. Internal data are available within the firm whereas external sources providedata that are developed outside the firm.

Internal Sources

Internal sources include sales record, sales force reports, operating statements,budgets, previous research reports and the likes. The most useful type of internal

information is generally sales data. But, unfortunately many companies do not collector maintain sales data in the manner that allows the researcher to tap their fullpotential. Such records, if properly utilized, allows the researcher to isolate profitableand unprofitable customers, territories, and product lines, to identify developingtrends and perhaps to measure the effects of manipulations of marketing mixvariables.

Internal data must be collected in a usable format and must be analyzed to be ofvalue. Many firms have useful but unutilized data. By changing the format ofcollection forms (sales invoices, salesman call reports, etc) other useful data can beoften collected. They are available and inexpensive; internal data are the best

information buy.Group 3: Intrepid Probe - Ajit, Kamakshi, Heena, Sohil (VES College, Chembut) Page 12


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External Sources

Numerous sources external to the firm may produce data relevant to the firmsrequirements. There are four types of general external secondary information, theyare:

1) Trade associations2) Government Agencies3) Other published sources, and4) Syndicated services

a) Trade AssociationsTrade associations frequently publish or maintain detailed information on industrysales, operating characteristics, growth patterns and the like. They may also conductspecial studies of factors relevant to their industry. Since trade associations havegood reputation for not revealing data on individual firms as well as good workingrelationships with the firms in the industry, they may be able to secure informationthat may be unavailable to other researchers. These materials may be published inthe form of annual reports or as special reports.

b) Government agencies

Federal, state and local government agencies produce a massive amount of datathat is of relevance to marketers. The federal government maintains five majoragencies whose primary function is the collection and dissemination of statisticaldata, they are:

a) Bureau of Censusb) Bureau of Labor Statisticsc) National Center for Educational Statisticsd) National Center for Health Statistics, ande) Statistical Reporting Service, Department of Agriculture

There are also a number of specialized analytic and research agencies, numerousadministrative and regulatory agencies.

These sources produce two types of dataa) Statistics focused on people are produced. These include demographics, vital

and health statistics, labor and social conditions.b) The second broad category focuses on economic activity commerce,

finance, agriculture and the like.Both types of data are widely used by business firms as an aid in decision-making.

The data available may be standardized, such as census data, or it may be in theform of special reports. Census publications are one of the most widely used sources

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c) Other published SourcesThere is virtually endless array of periodicals, books, dissertations, newspapers and

the like, that contain information relevant to marketing decisions.

d) Syndicated ServicesA number of firms regularly collect data of relevance to marketers that they sell on asubscription basis. Two types of syndicated services are widely used by marketingresearchers channel information and omnibus surveys.

Channel information is available to the firm at four levels manufacturers,intermediaries, retailers and consumers.A manufacturers sales and shipment are generally available only through the firmsown internal records. Therefore, although a firm can monitor its own activities at this

level, it can only infer the output of other manufacturing firms.At the intermediary or wholesale level, several syndicated firms provideinformation on the flow of products and brands to retail outlets.Store audits provide data on the movement of brands through retail outlets.At the consumer level, consumer panels provide data on both purchasing patternand media habits.

Omnibus surveys collect data that are useful to a number of subscribers from aseries of independent samples.


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