Green Roads Manual v1 5

8/4/2019 Green Roads Manual v1 5

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© 2011

MANUAL

v1.5



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Table of Contents

© 2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword............................................................................................................................................................1

Acknowledgements.............................................................................................................................................3

IntroductionIntroduction......................................................................................................................................................7

Background.....................................................................................................................................................17

ProjectRequirements

PR1EnvironmentalReviewProcess...............................................................................................................29

PR2LifecycleCostAnalysis............................................................................................................................39

PR3LifecycleInventory..................................................................................................................................47

PR4QualityControlPlan................................................................................................................................65

PR5NoiseMitigationPlan..............................................................................................................................69

PR6WasteManagementPlan.......................................................................................................................79

PR7PollutionPreventionPlan.......................................................................................................................91

PR8LowImpactDevelopment.......................................................................................................................95

PR9PavementManagementSystem........................................................................................................... 107PR10SiteMaintenancePlan........................................................................................................................117

PR11EducationalOutreach.........................................................................................................................123

Environment&Water

EW1EnvironmentalManagementSystem..................................................................................................129

EW2RunoffFlowControl............................................................................................................................. 135

EW3RunoffQuality......................................................................................................................................153

EW4StormwaterCostAnalysis....................................................................................................................173

EW5SiteVegetation....................................................................................................................................177

EW6HabitatRestoration.............................................................................................................................183

EW7EcologicalConnectivity........................................................................................................................193

EW8LightPollution............................................................................................................................... .......201

Access&Equity

AE1SafetyAudit..........................................................................................................................................207

AE2IntelligentTransportationSystem........................................................................................................211

AE3ContextSensitiveSolutions..................................................................................................................219

AE4TrafficEmissionsReduction..................................................................................................................231

AE5PedestrianAccess.................................................................................................................................241

AE6BicycleAccess.......................................................................................................................................245

AE7Transit&HOVAccess............................................................................................................................251

AE8ScenicViews..........................................................................................................................................259

AE9CulturalOutreach.................................................................................................................................267

ConstructionActivities

CA1QualityManagementSystem...............................................................................................................279

CA2EnvironmentalTraining........................................................................................................................285

CA3SiteRecyclingPlan................................................................................................................................291

CA4FossilFuelReduction............................................................................................................................303

CA5EquipmentEmissionReduction............................................................................................................309

CA6PavingEmissionsReduction.................................................................................................................315

CA7WaterUseTracking..............................................................................................................................321

CA8ContractorWarranty............................................................................................................................327



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Table of Contents

© 2011

Materials&Resources

MR1LifecycleAssessment...........................................................................................................................339

MR2PavementReuse..................................................................................................................................357

MR3EarthworkBalance...............................................................................................................................375

MR4RecycledMaterials..............................................................................................................................385

MR5RegionalMaterials...............................................................................................................................403

MR6EnergyEfficiency.................................................................................................................................411

PavementTechnologies

PT1LongLifePavement..............................................................................................................................419

PT2PermeablePavement............................................................................................................................429

PT3WarmMixAsphalt................................................................................................................................441

PT4CoolPavement......................................................................................................................................447

PT5QuietPavement....................................................................................................................................455

PT6PavementPerformanceTracking..........................................................................................................465

CustomCredit

CCX[YourTitleHere]...................................................................................................................................471



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Foreword

University of Washington © 20112



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Acknowledgements Greenroads™ Manual v1.5

©2011

SPECIAL THANKS

The editors would also like to thank the following people at the University of Washington, CH2M HILL, Inc. and other organizations for their work in reviewing, collaboration, case studies, coordination and other efforts. University of Washington CH2M HILL, Inc. Joe Mahoney, PhD. Tim Larson, PhD. Russell Torgesen, P.E., LEED®AP Joyce Nuesca, M.D.

Sabine Eisma

Rosslyn Luke Christopher Croft Ancelmo McCarthy

Tim Neuman, P.E.

Kirsten Pennington Mark Bastasch, P.E., Mike Paddock, P.E., P.L.S. Bill Derry Canisius Chan, P.Eng.

Alex Chan, P.Eng.

John Willis, P.E. Kevin Murphy, P.E. Thomas Cahill, P.E. Grahm Satterwhite

Others Amit Armstrong, Ph.D., P.E., Western Federal Lands Highway

Division (WFLHD)

Lyn Cornell, ODOT Kim Willoughby, P.E., Washington Department of

Transportation (WSDOT)

Jeff Uhlmeyer, P.E., WSDOT

Jim Weston, P.E., WSDOT

Freeman Anthony, City of Bellingham, WA

Maureen Jensen, Minnesota Department of Transportation

Angela Brady, P.E., PMP Seattle Department of

Transportation (SDOT)

Mark Mazzola, SDOT

Erin Moxon, British Columbia Ministry of Transportation

Daniel Medina, Ph.D., P.E., PBS&J Michael Booth, P.E., Perteet, Inc. Jesse Thomsen, Perteet, Inc.

Travis Rauscher, Perteet, Inc. Debra T. Johnson, Eco‐Edge, LLC

Mike Hutchinson, GeoEngineers, Inc. Kiva Lints, AECOM, USA, Inc.

Kara Swanson, Parsons Brinckerhoff, Inc.

Steve Carter, TriCar, Ltd.

Tom Wheeler, Transportation Corridor Agencies

Volunteer Manual Reviewers Bob Gansauer, National Park Service Bob Holzheimer, National Park Service Darin

Thacker,

National

Park

Service

Dennis Nagao, National Park Service Ginger Molitor, National Park Service Jan Burton, National Park Service Jesse Van Horne, National Park Service Jessica Hendryx, National Park Service Karen Vaage , National Park Service

Lee Terzis, National Park Service Margaret McRoberts, National Park Service Robin Gregory, National Park Service Steven Culver, National Park Service Treff Alexander, National Park Service

Dean Potts, Caterpillar Gary Aamold, Consultant Skip

Stothert,

Green

Roads

Recycling,

Ltd.

Jonathan Braadvedt, KOA Corporation Lionel Lemay, National Ready Mixed Concrete

Association Tarek Eweida, Parsons International Ryan Westrom, Patrick Engineering, Inc. Mike Hendrix, Perteet, Inc. Fares Abdo, Portland Cement Association

Donna DeNinno, UNI‐GROUP, USA

Judith Rochat, US DOT / RITA / Volpe Center

4



Greenroads Manual v1.5 © 2011

6



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Introduction


INTRODUCTIONWHY GREENROADS™?

Didyouknowthatinordertomakeonelaneofroad,onemilelong,youwouldneedtousethesameamountof

energyusedinoneyearbyabout50averageAmericanhouseholds?In2008,theUnitedStateshadalmost8.5

millionlanemilesofpavementsand600,000bridges.So,theenergywehavealreadyusedtomakeourtransportationnetworkisover25%ofthatusedbytheentireU.S.intheentireyearin2005.Withthenationalcall

toenergyefficiencystandardsforourbuiltenvironment,whynotalsolooktoimprovehowwegetfromplaceto

placeeverydaybyrethinkingwhatweuse,howweuseit,whereitcomesfrom,andhowitallfitstogether?

Roadsandbridgesareacriticalpartofournation’seconomicprosperityandlocalcommunitywellbeing.Itmaybe

hardtobelievethatoutofthetotal100hoursAmericansspendontheroadcommutingtoworkeveryyear,almost

onewholeworkweek(36hours)islostjustwaitingforroadconstructionprojectstobefinished.Youmighteven

besurprisedtolearnthatconstructiondelayscostregularAmericansalmost$80billioninlostproductivity,

benefits,andwagesannually.Thesedelaysalsorepresent2.9billiongallonsofwastedfuelandcountlesscarbon

dioxideemissions,aswellasotherharmfulenvironmentalexhauststhatcancauseacidrainandsmog.Inbusy

cities,manypeoplemayagreethattheirlocalcongestionproblemscanbeevenworse(insomecases,theyare)!

Peopleobviouslysufferfrustrations,butournaturalenvironmentprobablysuffersevenmore.Wealldependonhowwelltheenvironmentfunctionsforourownhealth,livelihoods,andcultures.Sadly,eventheconvenientstreettoandfromyourlocalgrocerystorecouldbetoblameforlossanddestructionofsensitivehabitatsand

wetlands,undrinkablewater,collisionswithinnocentanimals,andlotsofloudnoiseandunpleasantodors.

Thegoodnewsisthatthereisnowawaytoaddressandsolvesomeoftheseproblems,oratleastawaytohelpus

managethembetterandtomaketherightdecisionswhenwearethinkingaboutbuildingnewroadsinour

communities:theGreenroads™RatingSystem.Greenroadsisatool(http://www.greenroads.us)thatcanhelp

roadbuildersworktomakebettertransportationprojectseveryday,oneprojectatatime.

FigureI.1:GreenroadsPilotProjectatNorthshoreDriveinBellingham,Washington.

PhotobyFreemanAnthony,CityofBellinghamPublicWorks

7



Background Greenroads™ Manual v1.5


WHAT IS GREENROADS™?

Greenroadsisavoluntarythirdpartyratingsystemforroadprojects.Aratingsystemcanbeusefulformany

reasons.Ultimately,Greenroadsseekstorecognizeandrewardroadwayprojectsthatexceedpublicexpectations

forenvironmental,economicandsocialperformance.

Fundamentally,Greenroadshelpsquantifythesustainableattributesofaroadwayproject.Thisquantificationcanbeusedto:

x Definewhatfeaturescontributetosustainabilityontheproject.

x Provideaccountabilityforsustainabilityonroadwayprojects.

x Measureandtrackspecificsustainabilitygoalsovertime.

x Manageandimproveroadwaysustainability.

x Encouragenewandinnovativepractices.

x Promotecompetitiveadvantageandothereconomicormarketincentivesforsustainability.

x Communicatesustainablefeaturestostakeholdersinanunderstandableway,especiallytothegeneralpublic.

Greenroadsisanawardbased,flexibleratingsystem(sometimescalleda“performancemetric”)thatcanbeused

torank,scoreandcomparedifferentroadprojectsfortheiroverallperformancetowardbeingmoresustainable

thananaverageroadproject.EarningaGreenroadsaward,called“certification”islikewinningtheOlympicGamesforroads:projectsearnpointsforspecialactivities.Uponsuccessfulcompletion,adistinctivesigncanbeusedon

roadprojectsthatgoaboveandbeyondcurrentstandardsforenvironmentalcompliance,roadwaydesignand

constructionpractice.Theseprojectsdemonstratealevelofexcellenceinsustainabilitybeyondtheaverage

roadwayprojectandcommunicatesubstantialachievementtoprojectstakeholders.

FigureI.2:YellowstoneEastEntrancePilotProject,WesternFederalLandsHighwayDivision.

PhotobyChrisCroft

A NOTE ON COPYRIGHT AND TRADEMARK USE

Greenroadsisapubliclyavailablesystemthatcanbeusedbyanyone.However,theGreenroadslogoandname

remainthepropertyoftheUniversityofWashingtonandmayonlybeusedwithexpresspermissionoftheUWora

licensedagent.AnyuseofideasorreferencestoGreenroadsrequirespropercitationofGreenroadsastheorigin

oftheseideasandrecognitionthatUWownsthetrademark.

WHAT IS A GREENROAD?

AGreenroadisdefinedasa

roadwayprojectthathasbeen

designedandconstructedtoa

levelofsustainabilitythatis

substantiallyhigherthancurrent

commonpractice.

8





HOW GREENROADS™ WORKS

Greenroadsisacollectionofsustainabilitybestpracticesthatapplytoroadwaydesignandconstruction.These

bestpracticesaredividedintotwogeneraltypes:requiredandvoluntary.Greenroadsactivitiesarenotintended

tosupersedelocal,state,orfederalregulationorotherjurisdictionalordinances.

WHAT IS REQUIREDAtminimum,everyGreenroadsprojectmustcomplete11specificactivitiesinordertoqualifyforanyaward.No

exceptions.TheseactivitiesarestraightforwardlycalledProjectRequirements(PRs)andaregroupedtogetheras

thefirstcategoryintheManual .

ThePRsareintendedtocapturesomeofthemostcriticalideasof

sustainabilityforanyroadwayprojectfromplanning,design,

constructionandoperationsandmaintenance,suchas:

x Environmentalandeconomicdecisionmaking

x Publicengagement

x Designforlongtermenvironmentalperformance

x Constructionplanningx Planningforlifetimemonitoringandmaintenance

Notethatmany,butnotall,projectswillmeetseveralofthePR

outrightwithlittleornoadditionaleffort.Thisisbecauseunderlying

manyofthesecreditsareideasthatareoftenregulatedbybothfederal

andstatelaws.However,becausestatescarryasignificantamountof

autonomyformanylaws,someofthestandardsinthePRsmaybe

somewhatstricterorpossiblylessstrictthantheproject’sactualstate

laws.PRscarrynopointvalue.

WHAT IS OPTIONAL

Voluntarybestpracticesarethosethatmayoptionallybeincludedinaroadwayproject.Thesearecalled“VoluntaryCredits”.EachVoluntaryCreditisassignedapointvalue(15points)dependinguponitsimpacton

sustainability.Currently,thereare37VoluntaryCreditstotaling108points.Greenroadsalsoallowsaprojector

organizationtocreateanduseitsownVoluntaryCredits(called“CustomCredits”),subjecttoapprovalof

Greenroads,foratotalof10morepoints,whichbringsthetotalavailablepointsto118.

ProjectteamsapplyforpointsbysubmittingspecificdocumentationinsupportoftheProjectRequirementor

VoluntaryCredittheyarepursuing.Thesedocuments,whichcanrangefromprojectspecificationstofield

documentation,areverifiedbyanindependentreviewteam.Onceaprojectiscomplete,theGreenroadsteam

verifiestheapplicationandassignsaGreenroadsscorebasedonachievingall11oftheProjectRequirementsand

thenumberofpointsearnedfromtheVoluntaryCredits.Thisscoremaythenbeusedattheowner’sdiscretion

andmayalsobetranslatedtoastandardachievementlevelor“certification”ifsodesired:themorepointsearned,

thehighertherecognition.IfaprojectreachesacertificationlevelitwillbeabletodisplaytheGreenroadslogo

andappropriatecertificationgraphiconcepermissionfromtheGreenroadsteamisgiven.TheGreenroads

certificationlevelsaredetailedinasubsequentsectionofthisdocument.

Owneragencies,developers,designconsultantsandcontractorsmaywishtopursueofficialcertificationoruseGreenroadsinotherwaysthatareeithervoluntaryorprescriptive.Forinstance,developersanddesignersmay

wishtouseGreenroadsasalistofpotentialideasforimprovingthesustainabilityofaroadwayproject.Or,owners

maywishtouseGreenroadspointvaluesorcertificationlevelsasgoalsorbenchmarksfornewroadwayprojects

ormetricsbywhichtheycanmeasureandmanagetheirroadwaysustainabilityefforts.

FigureI.3:FernanLakeRoadPilotProject,

FernanLake,ID.WesternFederalLands

HighwayDivision.

PhotobyChrisCroft

9





IS GREENROADS RIGHT FOR ME?

Thereareanumberofstakeholderswhomayhaveinterestinaroadwaysustainabilityratingsystem.Each

stakeholderislikelytohaveopinionsonhowGreenroadsshouldwork;howeveritshouldbenotedthatnotall

pointsofviewcanbefullyaccommodated.Stakeholdersinclude:

x Roadowners:federal,state,countyandcityagenciesaswellasthegeneralpublic.

x Fundingagencies:federal,state,county,cityandotherregionalauthorities

x Designconsultants:thoseinvolvedwithcorridor,roadorevenparkinglotdesign

x Contractors:heavyconstruction,roadandpavingcontractors

x Regulatoryagencies:U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency

x Sustainabilityorganizations:U.S.GreenBuildingCouncil(USGBC),GreenHighwaysPartnership,SierraClub,etc.

x Researchorganizations:universitiesandotherresearchorganizationsthatparticipateininvestigatingtransportationrelatedsustainabletechnologies.

GENERAL PHILOSOPHY OF THE RATING SYSTEM

ThefundamentaltenetsthatguidethedevelopmentandwritingofGreenroadsare:

x Straightforwardandunderstandable.Nonexpertsshouldbeabletounderstandthesystem.Simplicityisvaluedoverexcessivedetailbecauseitismoreunderstandable.ProjectRequirementsandVoluntaryCredits

areoftensimplisticinterpretationsofcomplexideas;theyareboundtocontainsomecontroversyhoweverthe

interpretationshouldholdtruetothefundamentalidea.

x Empiricalevidenceandexistingevaluativetechniques.ProjectRequirementsandVoluntaryCreditsarebased

onapreponderanceofempiricalevidenceand,totheextentpossible,shouldbeevaluatedusingexistingtools

andtechniques.

x Pointscommensuratewithimpact. Itemsthathavehigheconomic,environmentalorsocialimpactare

assignedmorepointsthanlowimpactitems.

x Flexible.Greenroadsshouldbeabletoaccommodateabroadrangeofbothurbanandruralroadwayprojectsfrompreservationoverlaystomajornewcorridordevelopment.ProjectRequirementsandVoluntaryCredits

shouldbeapplicableanywhereintheU.S.Internationalversionsmayneedfurtherdevelopmentinthefuture.

x

Continualevolution.Overtime,betterideas,morecompleteknowledgeandtechnologyadvanceswillrequire

Greenroadstobeupdatedandchanged.

x Minimalbureaucracy.Pursuingcertificationrequiresdocumentationbutdocumentsshouldeithercomefrom

existingdocuments(e.g.plansandspecifications)orbesimpleandinexpensivetoproducefromexisting

documents.

x Beyondminimumrequirements.Greenroadsshouldspurinnovationandencouragedesignandconstruction

decisionsbasedonsustainabilityconsiderationsthatgobeyondregulatoryrequirements.Whileregulatory

requirementsanddesignstandardscontributetosustainability,aratingsystemthatawardscreditforthese

itemsaloneessentiallybecomesamarketingtoolthatistechnicallyredundantandadministratively

burdensome.

WHO DEVELOPED GREENROADS?

GreenroadsisaresearchprojectthatoriginatedattheUniversityofWashingtonandhasdevelopedinseveralversionssincetheinitialbeginningsofresearchworkin2007.Version0.95(2009)wasdevelopedjointlybythe

UniversityofWashington(UW)andCH2MHILL,withfurtherworkonv1.0,v1.0.1andthisversionoftheRating

SystemandManual weremanagedthroughtheUniversityofWashington,withhelpfulcollaborationfromCH2M

HILLandanumberofotherindustrygroupsandconsultantswhohavecontributeddataandcommentarybymeansofpilotprojects,casestudiesandpubliccomments.

CurrentresearchattheUniversityofWashingtonisheadedbySteveMuench,anAssociateProfessorinthe

DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering.Workontheoriginal0.95versionofGreenroadsatCH2MHILL

10





wasledbyTimBevan,MountainWestRegionTechnologyandQualityManager,TransportationBusinessGroup.

Importantly,althoughUWandCH2MHILLaredevelopingthissystem,thebrandassociatedwithanyratedproject

willonlybetheGreenroadsbrand,whichisapendingtrademarkoftheUniversityofWashington.TheGreenroads

Foundation,athirdpartyindependentnonprofitorganizationincorporatedin2010,isintendedtobethesole

licenseeoftheratingsystemandwillmanagefutureupdatestomaintainandcontinuallyimproveGreenroads.

GREENROADS WEBSITEAllGreenroadswork,includingthisManual andallofitscredits,isdocumentedontheofficialwebsite:

www.greenroads.us

Pleasevisitthiswebsitetoseethelatestnews,copiesofpresentationsgiven,ratedprojectsandotherGreenroads

relatedinformation.YoucanalsocontactGreenroadsFoundationstaffdirectlyviatheContactUsform,register

yourprojectsorvolunteertoreviewtheManual .

FigureI.4:HomepageoftheGreenroadsWebsite:http://www.greenroads.us

FUTURE CHANGES

Greenroadswillchangeinthefutureasmoreinformationisgatheredandnewindustrystandardpractices/rules

aredeveloped.Thismeansthatnewcreditscouldbeadded,oldonesremoved,pointvalueschanged,certification

levelsadjustedandmore.NomatterwhatthecurrentGreenroadsversionis,wearealreadyworkingonthenext.

Therefore,usercommentsarewelcomedandmightverywellbeincorporatedintothenextversion.Ifyouare

gettingpursuingcertificationunderoneversionoftheratingsystemwhileanothercomesout,youwillbegiven

theopportunitytoupgradetothelatestversion.

11





SCOPE OF THE GREENROADS RATING SYSTEM

Thissectiondescribestheunderlyingideas,scopeandlimitsofGreenroads.Itisexpectedthatthebasicsystemwill

growandchangeassustainabilitythought,technologiesandregulationschange.However,thefundamental

conceptsaddressedhereareexpectedtoremainrelativelyconstant.

HOW DOES GREENROADS FIT WITH REGULATORY STANDARDS?Greenroadsisdesignedtopromotesustainabilitybestpracticeswithinandbeyondexistingfederal,stateandlocal

regulations.Specifically,Greenroadscreditsaredesignedtoinfluencedecisionsregardingsustainabilityoptions

wheretheyarenotprecludedbyregulationorwhereregulationallowsachoicebetweenoptionsthatcouldhave

sustainabilityimpacts.

AnimportantcorollarytothisisthatGreenroadsisnotanabsolutemeasureofsustainabilitybecauseitdoesnot

includesustainabilityitemsthatarecoveredbycurrentU.S.regulation(e.g.,CleanWaterAct,CleanAirAct,

NationalHistoricalPreservationAct,AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct,etc.).However,giventhatallU.S.agenciesare

governedbythesamesetoffederalregulations,GreenroadscanbeconsideredasustainabilitymetricbuiltonU.S.

standardpractice.

Greenroadsisalsomeanttoencourageorganizationstoincludesustainablepracticesintheircompanywidestrategyanddailyworkpractices.Importantly,Greenroadsisnotmeanttodictatedesignortradeoffdecisions.

Ratheritprovidesatooltohelpwithsuchdecisions.

WHAT ARE THE SYSTEM BOUNDARIES?

Greenroads,initscurrentversion,isaprojectbasedratingsystem.Thismeansthatitisapplicabletothedesign

andconstructionofneworrehabilitatedroadways,includingexpansionorredesign.Thereareshortcomingstoa

projectbasedsystemwhicharehighlightedmorebrieflybelow.Specificallythough,Greenroadsbestappliestothe

designprocessandconstructionactivitieswithintheworkzoneaswellasmaterialhaulingactivities,productionof

portlandcementconcrete(PCC)andhotmixasphalt(HMA).

IfyouarewonderingifyourprojectfitswithasystemlikeGreenroads,contactusdirectlyoryoucanalsobrowse

the AbridgedManual withachecklistinhandtohelpyoumakethatdeterminationyourself.Chancesarethatyouwillbeabletoincorporatemanyoftheideasintoyourproject.Actually,youmayfindthatyouarealreadythinking

aboutmanyofthem,butmayhavehadtroubleseeinghowtheywouldfittogether,orhelpachieveyour

sustainabilitygoals.

WealsothinktransportationplannersandpublicworksagenciescanuseGreenroadsasahandytoolduringearly

projectdecisionmaking,internalaccountabilityprogramsorevenasapartofhighlevelplanningorlongterm

maintenanceandoperationsdecisions.However,themajorityofthecreditsintheRatingSystemdonotaddress

planningandoperationsindepth.Werecognizetheconcernthatthisappearstocreateapiecemealapproachtosustainabilitybutalsothatanenormousenvironmentalimpacthappensimmediatelyupongroundbreakingduring

roadwayconstruction.Ourlongtermgoalistobeabletodevelopprojectspecificcreditsthathelproadwayprojectssupportandinterconnectwithmanyofthenetworkleveldecisionsforsustainabilityatanyowneragency.

How Do Greenroads Projects Relate To Transportation Planning?

Decisionsregardingthelocation,type,timing,feasibilityorotherplanninglevelideasforroadwayprojectsare

excluded.Forexample,Greenroadsdoesnotanswerthequestion“shouldwebuildaroadornot?”While

planningisfundamentaltoroadwayandcommunitysustainability,thesedecisionsareoftentoocomplexor

politicaltobeadequatelydefinedbyapointbasedsystem.Projectlevelplanninghowever,intermsofproject

developmentand/orprojectdelivery,isincludedandmanyoftheProjectRequirementsandVoluntaryCredits

canbeusedduringdesignanddevelopmenttohelpshapedecisionsontheproject.

13





WhatIsNotIncluded.ActivitiesthatareperformedaspartoftheSiteMaintenancePlan(seePR10),usuallyby

PublicWorksAgenciesandtheircontractors.

Maintenanceandpreservationactivitiesareakeypartinthelongtermsustainabilityofaroadway,sothere

areanumberofProjectRequirementsandVoluntaryCreditsthatreflecttheseactivitiesandrequirethataplan

isinplaceforthesetobeperformedsometimeinthefuture.However,aratingsystemlikeGreenroadscannot

beusedtomonitortheseactivitiesoverthelongtermeffectively.ThismeansthatoncetheGreenroadsscoreiscalculated,essentiallythesemaintenanceandpreservationplansbecomepromisestoperform.

Thecurrentreviewprocessforcertificationdoesnotallowforensuringthatthesepromisesarekept.Ideally,

onceaprojectbecomesaGreenroad,themaintenanceandpreservationactivitieswillalsocontinuetofollow

thisframeworkwhethercertificationfortheseactivitiesispursuedornot.Werealizethisisaweaknessofthe

ratingsystemingeneralandwouldappreciatefeedbackonhowtoincorporatetheseideasinameaningful,

effectiveway.Wehavebeenthinkingaboutthisideabuthavenotbeenabletodetermineoridentifya

standardized,acceptedwaythatcurrentlymeetsalltherequirementsofourratingsystemphilosophy.Ifyou

haveideasonhowwecandothisataroadwayprojectlevel,weencourageyoutosubmitforaCustomCredit

onyourproject.

Does Greenroads Fit Pathway and Trail Projects?

PathsandtrailsmaybeabletouseGreenroadstoo.Wethinkthatthereisroomforincludingthesedesignand

constructionprojectsandthatmanyoftheideasinGreenroadswouldworkwell.Someofthecreditsmayrequiremodificationtobeapplicablethough,andearningenoughpointstobecomeCertifiedmightbedifficult

dependingonthesizeandscaleoftheproject.However,ifthereisapathwayortraildirectlyassociatedwitha

roadwayproject,itisdefinitelyincluded.Ifyouhaveapathwayprojectthatyouwanttotestoutwith

Greenroads,youcanalwayscontactGreenroadsFoundationtoinquireaboutpilotprojectopportunities.

15



GREENROADS RATING SYSTEM

LIST OF CREDITS (v1.5) No. Title Pts. Description Project Requirements (PR) – Mandatory for all projects PR‐1 Environmental Review Process Req Complete a comprehensive environmental review

PR‐2 Lifecycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) Req Perform LCCA for pavement section

PR‐3 Lifecycle Inventory (LCI) Req Perform LCI of pavement section

PR‐

4

Quality

Control

Plan

Req Have

a

formal

contractor

quality

control

plan

PR‐5 Noise Mitigation Plan Req Have a construction noise mitigation plan

PR‐6 Waste Management Plan Req Have a plan to divert C&D waste from landfill

PR‐7 Pollution Prevention Plan Req Have a TESC/SWPPP

PR‐8 Low Impact Development (LID) Req Complete a LID feasibility study

PR‐9 Pavement Management System Req Have a pavement management system

PR‐10 Site Maintenance Plan Req Have a roadside maintenance plan

PR‐11 Educational Outreach Req Publicize sustainability information for project

Environment & Water (EW) – Up to 21 Points EW‐1 Environmental Management System 2 ISO 14001 certification for general contractor

EW‐2 Runff Flow Control 1‐3 Reduce runoff quantity

EW‐3 Runoff Quality 1‐3 Treat stormwater to a higher level of quality

EW‐4 Stormwater Cost Analysis 1 Conduct an LCCA for stormwater elements

EW‐5 Site Vegetation 1‐3 Use native low/no water vegetation

EW‐6 Habitat Restoration 3 Restore habitat beyond what is required

EW‐7 Ecological Connectivity 1‐3 Connect habitat across roadways

EW‐8 Light Pollution 3 Discourage light pollution

Access & Equity (AE) – Up to 30 Points AE‐1 Safety Audit 1‐2 Perform roadway safety audit

AE‐2 Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) 2‐5 Implement ITS solutions

AE‐3 Context Sensitive Solutions 5 Plan for context sensitive solutions

AE‐4 Traffic Emissions Reduction 5 Reduce emissions with quantifiable methods

AE‐5 Pedestrian Access 1‐2 Provide/improve pedestrian accessibility

AE‐6 Bicycle Access 1‐2 Provide/improve bicycle accessibility

AE‐7 Transit Access 1‐5 Provide/improve transit accessibility

AE‐8 Scenic Views 1‐2 Provide views of scenery or vistas

AE‐9 Cultural Outreach 1‐2 Promote art/culture/community values

Construction Activities (CA) – Up to 14 Points CA‐1 Quality Management System 2 ISO 9001 certification for general contractor

CA‐2 Environmental Training 1 Provide environmental training

CA‐3 Site Recycling Plan 1 Have a plan to divert waste from landfill

CA‐4 Fossil Fuel Reduction 1‐2 Use alternative fuels in construction equipment

CA‐5 Equipment Emissions Reduction 1‐2 Meet EPA Tier 4 standards for non‐road equip.

CA‐6 Paving Emissions Reduction 1 Use pavers that meet NIOSH requirements

CA‐7 Water Tracking 2 Develop data on water use in construction

CA‐8 Contractor Warranty 3 Warranty on the constructed pavement

Materials & Resources (MR) – Up to 23 Points MR‐1 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 2 Conduct a detailed LCA of the entire project

MR‐2 Pavement Reuse 1‐5 Reuse existing pavement sections

MR‐3 Earthwork Balance 1 Use native soil rather than import fill

MR‐4 Recycled Materials 1‐5 Use recycled materials for new pavement

MR‐5 Regional Materials 1‐5 Use regional materials to reduce transportation

MR‐6 Energy Efficiency 1‐5 Improve energy efficiency of operational systems

Pavement Technologies (PT) – Up to 20 Points PT‐1 Long‐Life Pavement 5 Design pavements for long‐life

PT‐2 Permeable Pavement 3 Use permeable pavement as a LID technique

PT‐3 Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) 3 Use WMA in place of HMA

PT‐4 Cool Pavement 5 Contribute less to urban heat island effect (UHI)

PT‐5 Quiet Pavement 2‐3 Use a quiet pavement to reduce noise

PT‐6 Pavement Performance Tracking 1 Relate construction to performance data

Custom Credits (CC) – Available for all projects based on context and innovation, subject to approval CC‐1 Custom Credit 1 1‐5 Design a new voluntary credit

CC‐2 Custom Credit 2 1‐5 Design a new voluntary credit

Greenroads Total Points: 118



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Background


BACKGROUND

WHAT WE MEAN BY “SUSTAINABILITY”

While many of the definitions offered by other authors or political groups address the three central and well‐

recognized themes of sustainability (ecology, economy and equity, a.k.a. the “triple bottom line”), none of these

definitions are directly actionable at a project level and are of little utility when considering sustainability from the

perspective of a transportation designer or contractor. This is for two particular reasons: 1) lack of project‐level

context and specific tangible constraints, and 2) lack of incentive or drivers to progress sustainability in a

meaningful way.

However, three key broader ideas are consistent in most of the definitions: physical constraints or laws of Nature

(natural laws), satisfaction of basic human needs and desires (human values), and the idea that roadway projects

are best perceived as systems of varying degrees of complexity, interdependence, scale and context. These three

terms are clarified in detail below.

A useful, implementable definition of sustainability for roadway projects must feature these three terms because

these ideas are simple to understand and explain to project stakeholders. Importantly, how well a particular

project fits these project‐specific natural law and human value constraints is

a characteristic or trait of that system that is measurable (in terms of

quantity and/or quality). This means sustainability on one roadway project

can be compared to other roadway projects, and ultimately, sustainability

becomes manageable on both short‐ and long‐term time scales. Therefore,

sustainability is a characteristic of a system that reflects its capacity to

support natural laws and human values.1

This definition is essentially compatible with other definitions of sustainability or sustainable development, such as

that provided by the Brundtland Commission2 and ideas featured in reports and international policy documents

such as the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment3 and “Agenda 21”

4. Note that processes (practices) are part of

systems as well; that they are inclusive in the above definition of sustainability, but are not explicitly included in

the definition for brevity and simplicity.

NATURAL LAWS

“Natural laws” encompass the essential idea of Ecology, which is the study of ecosystems. These concepts are

illustrated by the simple, but oxymoronic idea that ecosystems are too complex to be fully controlled or

understood by humans, and that our best control and understanding comes from basic sciences like physics,

chemistry and biology. Effectively, mathematics and sciences are the tools by which we measure the limits and

current status of our environment. These natural laws form the physical constraints within which all projects must

fit, regardless of how much control we think we may have over our own environment as humans or how complete

or certain the science is perceived to be.

1 Anderson, J. L. (2008). Sustainability in civil engineering. Thesis (M.S.C.E.)‐‐University of Washington, 2008. 2 United Nations General Assembly, 42nd Session. (1987, August 4). Report of the World Commission on

Environment and Development (WCED): “Our Common Future.” (A/42/427). Annex to Official Record. Geneva,

Switzerland, 1987. (Masthead). 3 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well‐being: Synthesis. Island Press,

Washington, DC. 4 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Rio de Janeiro, 3‐14 June 1992. (1993,

January 1). Report on the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development: “Agenda 21.”

(A/CONF.151/26/REV.1[VOL.I] and Corrigendum). Vol. I., Annex II to Resolutions Adopted by the Conference. New

York, 1993. (Masthead).

WHAT IS SUSTAINABILITY?

Sustainability is a characteristic of a system that reflects its

capacity to support natural laws and human values.

17





SYSTEMS AND SUSTAINABILITY

Clearly,asystemsbasedapproachtosustainabilityrendersadefinitionthatincludesonlyEcology,Equity,andEconomyincomplete.Inadditiontothesecomponents,sustainabilityiscontextsensitive.Specifically,aroadway

projectsystem’scontextissensitivetowhateverhumanneedsandvalues

aredefinedbythemanagementteamandstakeholdersandits

environmentalsetting.Thesearetheconstraints,orboundaries,withinwhichprojectdecisionsmustbemade.Therefore,twomorecritical

sustainabilitycomponents,extentandexpectations,areidentified.12

These

twocomponentsactasthesystemboundaries,providingscopeandcontext

tosustainability.

Extentrepresentstheideathataprojectsystemhaswelldefinedconstraints

andlimitswithinwhichsustainabilitycanbemeasured.Extentrefersto

spatialandtemporalconstraintsofcivilprojects(suchascenterlinelength,

rightofwaydimensions,footprint,andservicelife,respectively)oftenexplicitlydefinedbynaturallaws(suchas

howgravityultimatelydefinesloadlimits).Someotherpracticalexamplesofextentareheightrestrictionsand

constructionworkinghours.

Performancecriteria,orExpectations,arethekeyhumanvalueconstraintsidentifiedfortheproject.Expectationsprovidetheequityandeconomiccontextwithinwhichtheoverallperformanceofthesystemismosteffectively

judged.Expectationsvarybyprojectandmayincludepracticalperformanceoftheindividualdesignelements,

overallqualityoftheconstructionprocessesofaproject,orsystemwideoutcomeslikereducedaccidentsor

improvedworkerproductivity.

WhiletheideasofExtentandExpectationsmaybeimplicit(orpresumedtobeunderstood)inthepreceding

descriptionsofnaturallawsandhumanvalues,thereisnoreasonforthemnottobeexplicitlystatedinworking

definitionofsustainability.Infact,withoutexplicitlystatingthesecomponents,itismorelikelythat

misunderstandingsofthesecriticallimits,boundaries,andconstraintswouldoccur,orthattheirimpactsand

importancewouldbeignoredordownplayed.

Furthermore,itisnotenoughtobelievethattheideaofsustainabilitywillselfpropagateandimplementitsown

paradigmshifttowardmoresustainablesystemsandpractices.Thus,thefinaltwoimportantcomponentsof

sustainability,ExperienceandExposure,translatethephilosophicalconceptofsustainabilityintoimplementable

practices.Experiencerepresentsbothwhathasbeenlearnedandthelearningprocessitself,whichisongoing.So,

experienceincludestechnicalexpertise,innovation,andknowledgeofapplicablehistoricalinformation,whichis

criticalindecisionmakingprocesses.Forexample,mostsuccessfulprojectteamsarecomprisedofinterdisciplinary

expertsthatcanbringspecializedexperiencetodesignorconstruction.

Finally,iftheconceptofsustainabilityistocauseaparadigmshiftinindividual,communityandsocietalbehavior

thenitmustincludeanactiveeducationalcomponent;ormorespecifically,ateachingoroutreachcomponent.

Exposurerepresentstheideathatimplementingsustainabilityinpracticerequiresongoingeducationaland

awarenessprogramsforthegeneralpublic,professionals,agencies,andstakeholders.Therefore,experienceand

exposuredrivetheprogressandimplementationofsustainabilitywithinaprojectsystem.Withoutthesetwo

drivingcomponents,civilengineeringsystemswouldremainstatic,andsustainabilitywouldbeabsent,unmanageableorsimplyunrecognized.

12

Anderson,J.L.(2008).Sustainabilityincivilengineering.Thesis(M.S.C.E.)UniversityofWashington,2008.

7 E’S OF SUSTAINABILITY

Ecology

Equity

Economy

Extent

Expectations

Experience

Exposure

19





GREENROADS BENEFITS

ThereareparticularsustainabilityrelatedbenefitsassociatedwithProjectRequirementsandVoluntaryCredits.

Theseroughlycorrelatewiththeideasof“naturallaws”and“humanvalues”thatwereoutlinedinthepreceding

sections.GreenroadsidentifiesthesebenefitsforeachProjectRequirementsandVoluntaryCreditmakingiteasier

toatleastlist,ifnotexactlyquantify,thebenefitsassociatedwithGreenroadscertification.Thesebenefitsare:

PrimarilyEcocentricBenefits

9 ReducesRawMaterialsUse

9 ReducesFossilFuelUse

9 CreatesEnergy

9 ReducesWaterUse

9 ReducesAirEmissions

9 ReducesGreenhouseGases

9 ReducesWaterPollution

9 ReducesSolidWaste

9 RestoresHabitat

9 CreatesHabitat

9 ReducesManmadeFootprint

Primarily AnthropocentricBenefits

9 ImprovesAccess

9 ImprovesMobility

9 IncreasesServiceLife9 ImprovesHumanHealth&Safety

9 ImprovesLocalEconomies9 ReducesFirstCosts

9 ReducesLifecycleCosts9 ImprovesAccountability

9 IncreasesAwareness

9 IncreasesAesthetics

9 CreatesNewInformation

Wehavelistedthese,alongwitheachofthesustainabilitycomponentsaddressed,onthefrontpageofeachPR

andVC,sothatitiseasytoidentifywhatisbeingaddressedbyactingonthatPRorVC.ThisfeatureoftheManual

maybeparticularlyhelpfulforagenciesorprojectteamsthathavepredefinedsustainabilitygoals,valuesor

internalbenchmarkstomeet.

NotethatinthepreviousversionoftheGreenroadsManual wehadmade16benefitsexplicit:nowthereare22.

BasedonfeedbackfromusersandalsoourstudentsattheUniversityofWashington,webrokeapartthese16

benefitssomewhatandchangedthewordingusedtobetterreflectwhatwemeanby“sustainabilitybenefit”in

termsthataremorecommonlyunderstoodtotransportationprofessionals.Wealsohavetriedtoidentifythemasbeingprimarilyecocentricoranthropocentricbutwerecognizethismaybedebatableinsome,ifnotall,

instances.(SeeOtherNotesonthefollowingpagesformorecommentary.)

TRACING GREENROADS PRACTICES TO SUSTAINABILITY AND BENEFITS

EachGreenroadsProjectRequirementandVoluntaryCreditcanbetracedbacktoatleastonerelevant

sustainabilitycomponentandonerelevantbenefit;mostcanbetracedtoseveral.Wecallthis“mapping”,andbelieveitisimportantbecauseitprovidesthebasisbywhichaGreenroadsProjectRequirementorVoluntary

Creditcanbeconsideredtocontributeto“sustainability”andprovidebenefitsasGreenroadsdefinesthem.Thismappinginvolvessubjectivejudgmentastowhichcomponentsandwhichbenefitsmaptowhichitems.While

eliminationofthissubjectivitywouldbeideal,morecomplexsystemsformappingwouldlikelyjustconcealrather

thaneliminatethissubjectivity.

Mappingofanitembacktosustainabilityandbenefitsisdone,wherepractical,usingempiricalevidencewith

propercitations.ThegoalistocreateametricwhereeachProjectRequirementandVoluntaryCreditis,totheextentpossible,shownthroughexistingresearchtohaveanimpactonsustainability.

ThismappingcanassistinselectingVoluntaryCreditstopursuebasedonuservaluesordesiredbenefits.

Importantly,thenatureofsustainabilityrequiresuserstomaketradeoffsbetweendifferentaspectsof

sustainability.Forinstance,onemighthavetoselectbetweenusingrecycledmaterialthatmustbetruckedovera

longdistanceorusinglocallyprovidedvirginmaterial.Bothconcepts(recycledmaterial,localmaterial)relateto

sustainability(e.g.,ecologyandeconomy)howeveronlyonecanbechosen.

20





Decisionsregardingthesetypesoftradeoffsarelikelytobeatleastpartly,ifnotwholly,basedonthevaluesheld

byaproject,whichisaconglomerationofvaluesheldbyitsstakeholders,owners,designersandconstructors.

Sincethesevaluesarenotlikelytobeidenticalbetweenprojects,overtimeorbetweenstakeholders,one

predeterminedsetofvaluesincludedinaperformancemetricisprobablynotwise.Rather,Greenroadsallows

userstochoosefromalonglistofVoluntaryCreditsbasedontheirvalues.Mappingtosustainabilitycomponents

isdonebecauseusersmayfinditmorestraightforwardtochoosebetweenresourcesratherthanGreenroads

VoluntaryCredits.Forinstance,itmaybedifficulttochoosebetweenwarmmixasphaltandporouspavementunlessatechnicalexpertisconsultedtofullyexplaineachitem.However,itmaybeeasiertochoosebetweenthe

benefitstheyoffer.

OTHER NOTES

1. Additionally,itisusefultonotethatseveralbenefitsmaybedirectlyquantifiablewhileothersaremorelikelytobeindirectbenefits.Wherepossible,thisisdiscussedinthesupportingresearchforeachcreditinthe

Manual.Werecognizethatthisstillpresentsanincompletepictureofthebenefitsofsustainability,butourintentistoprovideassistanceinunderstandingarelativelynewandsometimescomplexidea.

2. Also,itwouldberemissofusnottonotethatanyecologicalbenefitisalsoahumanbenefitsinceour

environmentisfundamentallywhatsupportsusaslivingbeingsandimpactsourqualityoflife.Similarly,

sometimesthereisbeneficialinteractionbetweenthesebenefitswherehumanscanimpactthequalityofnon

humanlifeinapositiveway.Forexample,pursuingCreditEW7EcologicalConnectivitycanimprovemobilityandaccessforbothhumansandwildlifesimultaneously,whileachievinganumberoftheotherbenefitsalso

listedabove.

3. Finally,werecognizethatreductionofgreenhousegasesisakeygoalofmanyagencies.Thislevelofspecificity,

sincetheyareatypeofairpollution,correlatesdirectlywiththebenefitof“reducedairemissions”and

“reducedfossilfueluse.”Wefeltitwasusefultoprovidethisaddedspecificityinlightofcurrentstateand

federalpolicygoals.

21





HOW GREENROADS IS WEIGHTED

TheoverallgoalofweightingistomakeeachVoluntaryCredit’spointvaluecommensuratewithitsimpacton

sustainability.Thiscannotbeachievedbyastrictlyobjectiveorempiricalapproachbecause:

x Somesustainabilitycomponentsaredifficulttodirectlycomparebecausethereisnogenerallyacceptedmetric

ofcomparison(e.g.,comparingscenicviewstostormwatertreatment).x Traditionallyacceptedquantitativemethods,e.g.,lifecycleassessment(LCA),lifecyclecostanalysis(LCCA),

benefitcostanalysis,donotadequatelyaddressallsustainabilitycomponents.

x GreenroadsisdesignedtofunctionasasupplementtocurrentU.S.regulations.Therefore,someareasthat

mightotherwisehavebeenheavilyweightedreceivelessemphasisinGreenroadsbecausecurrentU.S.

regulationalreadyrequiresmanymandatoryactionsleavinglittleroomforsupplementalvoluntaryactions.

x Therearesomeactionsforwhichthedirectimpactonsustainabilitymaybedifficultorimpossibletomeasure,

howevertheirexecutionmayprovidevaluableinformationonwhichtobasefuturedecisions.

Weightingfollowsthegeneralframeworkdescribedhere.Asabeginningpoint,weestablishedaminimumvalueof

onepointandamaximumvalueoffivepoints.Thisrangeallowsweightstoreflectarangeofsustainabilityimpact

butlimitstheimpactofpotentialmissteps.Individualconstructionactivitiesduringinitialconstructionhavethe

lowestimpact(seediscussionlater)onsustainabilitysowestartbyassigningtheseVoluntaryCreditsonepoint

each.FromhereVoluntaryCreditpointvaluesaremodifiedbasedonthelogicpresentednext.Importantly,weightsarebasedontherelationshipoftheirassociatedprevailingbroadconceptswhiletheactuallevelof

achievementnecessarytoqualifyforaVoluntaryCreditisbasedonanassessmentofwhatispracticallyachievable

givencurrenttechnologyandpractice.Thegoalistomakethelevelofachievementbeyondcurrentpracticebut

enticinglyattainableusingcurrenttechnology.Usingthislogic,itfollowsthatastheindustry’ssustainabilitysavvy

growsandtechnologyadvancesVoluntaryCreditrequirementsmustchange.Thefollowingsectionsdiscuss

weightingdetailsforthesystem.Thefigurebelowshowstheweightsofthecategories(withoutCustomCredits).

FigureI.5:GraphshowingthedistributionofVoluntaryCreditpoints(bypercentageofthetotal)

ineachofthe5categories.

22





ECOLOGY WEIGHTING

Whileitisdifficulttoplaceavalueonecosystemservices,someresearchershavetried.Oneeffort13

valuedthematUS$1654trillion/yrwithameanofUS$33trillion/yrfor17ecosystemservices(in1994USdollars).This

comparestoaworldgrossnationalproduct(GNP)ofUS$18trillion(1994USdollars)makingecosystemservices

about1.8timestheglobalGNPifthemeanvalueisassumed.Thiseffortacknowledgesthattheestimateisonthe

lowside,incompleteandflawedbutreasonthatsomeestimateisbetterthannone.Basedonthis,weestimatethevalueofecosystemsasaboutthreetimesthevalueofhumaneconomicsystems(representedbythebaseline

valueofonepoint)forthepurposesofweightingVoluntaryCredits.Thisusesthehighendestimate(US$54

trillion)toatleastpartiallyaccountfortheiradmittedunderestimation.Fromthis,weassignEW2,EW3,EW5,

EW6,EW7,EW8andPT2threepointseachbecausetheyareprimarilyconcernedwithecosystemservices.

EQUITY WEIGHTING

Equity,asitisreflectedinGreenroadscanprimarilybeaddressedbyportionsofwhatiscommonlycalledcontext

sensitivedesign(CSD)orcontextsensitivesolutions(CSS).Toourknowledge,nobodyhasattemptedtoplacea

monetaryvalueonCSD/CSShowever,thereissubstantialevidencesuggestingthatithascometobeviewedasan

importantifnottheessentialcomponentinU.S.roadwaydesignoverthelastdecade.WhileCSD/CSSalsoincludes

ecologicalelements,itsstrengthliesinitsapproachtoidentifyingandinvolvingstakeholdersandreflecting

communityvaluesinaproject(theequitycomponentofsustainability).WhileCSD/CSSprovidesevidenceofequity’simportanceitdoesnotprovideanyinsightregardingitslevelofimportanceinrelationtoother

sustainabilitycomponents.Infact,itarguesthatsuchvalueiscontextsensitive.WebelievethattheU.S.move

towardsCSD/CSSanditsemphasisonacollaborativecommunitybasedapproachtodesign(versusastrictlylowcoststandardsbasedapproach)showsthatequityissuesoughttobevaluedmorethantheminimumofonepoint.

Asafirstorderapproximation,weassignequityVoluntaryCreditstwopoints.BasedonthisweassignAE1,AE5,

AE6,AE8,AE9twopointseachbecausetheyareprimarilyconcernedwithequityissues.WeassignAE3the

maximumoffivepointsbecauseitactuallygivescreditforaCSD/CSSapproach,whiletheotherAEVoluntary

CreditsaddressoutcomesofaCSD/CSSapproach.

LIFECYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA) BASED WEIGHTING

ForVoluntaryCreditsdealingwithmaterialsproduction,construction,transportationassociatedwiththe

constructionprocessandtrafficuse,weightingisbasedonlifecycleassessment(LCA)resultstothegreatestpossibleextent.SinceGreenroadsismeanttoapplytoanyroadwayproject,LCAresultsspecifictoaparticularprojectcannotbeusedalonebecausetheyareprojectspecificandnotentirelytransferrable.However,examining

arangeofspecificLCAsmayprovideinsightintosomegeneraltrendsthatcouldbeusedtoweightVoluntaryCredits.Weidentified12roadwayLCApeerreviewedjournalpapersconsistingof43assessmentsofeitheractual

orhypotheticalroadways.14

FivepapersaddressedPCCpavements(10assessments),whileall12addressHMA

pavements(34assessments).Somegeneraltrendsobservedwere:

13

Costanza,R.,d’Arge,R.,deGroot,R.,Farber,S.,Grasso,M.,Hannon,B.,Limburg,K.,Naeem,S.,O’Neill,R.V.,

Paruelo,J.,Raskin,R.G.,Sutton,P.,vandenBelt,M.,(1997).Thevalueoftheworld’secosystemservicesand

naturalcapital.Nat.,387,253260.14Thesepapersare:

Stripple,H.LifeCycleInventoryofAsphaltPavements.IVLSwedishEnvironmentalresearchInstituteLtdreportfor

theEuropeanAsphaltPavementAssociation(EAPA)andEurobitume,2000.

Stripple,H.LifeCycleAssessmentofRoad:APilotStudyforInventoryAnalysis,SecondRevisedEdition.IVLSwedish

EnvironmentalResearchInstituteLtdreportfortheSwedishNationalRoadAdministration,2001.

Mroueh,UM,Eskola,P.,LaineYlijoki,J.,Lifecycleimpactsoftheuseofindustrialbyproductsinroadandearth

construction.WasteManagement 21,2001,pp.271277.

Treloar,G.J.;Love,P.E.D.andCrawford,R.H.HybridLifeCycleInventoryforRoadConstructionandUse, J.ofConst.

Engr.andMgmt.130(1),2004,pp.4349.

23





x Energyuseandemissionsforconstructionfollowedthesamebasictrendsinmoststudies.Somegeneral

rulesofthumbwefoundwere:

9 Materialsproductionhas20timestheimpactofconstruction.

9 Transportation(ofmaterials)has5timestheimpactofconstruction.

9 Maintenancehas1/3theimpactofinitialconstruction.

x Fortheonestudythatquantifiedthem,roadwayoperations(e.g.,lighting,signals,etc.)over40yearshad

aboutthesameenergyuseasallconstructionactivities(initialconstructionplusmaintenance).

x Forthetwostudiesthatrelatedthem,theenergyexpendedininitialconstructionofanewroadwayis

roughlyequivalenttotheenergyusedbytrafficonthefacilityover12years.

Basedontheseideas,thefollowingweightingisused:

x Operationsvs.construction:MR6isassigned5points.

x Trafficusevs.initialconstruction:AE2,AE4,andAE7areassigned5pointseach.

x Transportationassociatedwithconstruction:MR5isassigned5points.

x Materialsproduction:MR2andMR4areassignedupto5pointseach.MR3isassigned1pointandPT3

isassigned3points.

INCENTIVE-BASED WEIGHTING

SomeVoluntaryCreditsareassignedadditionalpointstoprovideincentivetocollectdata,undertakeorganization

wideeffortsandobtainhighachievementlevels.Generally,higherlevelsofachievementwillcorrelateto

incorporatinganumberofothervoluntaryactivitiesthatmaybereflectedinothercreditstoo.Thefollowing

VoluntaryCreditsuseincentivebasedweighting:EW1,EW2,EW3,EW5,AE1,AE2,AE5,AE6,AE7,CA1,CA

4,CA5,CA7,MR1,MR2,MR4,MR5andPT5.

DEVELOPED AREA WEIGHTING

TheUrbanHeatIsland(UHI)effectis“…ameasurableincreaseinambienturbanairtemperaturesresulting

primarilyfromthereplacementofvegetationwithbuildings,roads,andotherheatabsorbinginfrastructure.”15

UHIcanimpactsustainabilitybyincreasingenergyconsumption,andrelatedemissionsandaffectinghumanhealth

13

(cont.)

Zapata,P.,Gambatese,J.A.,EnergyConsumptionofAsphaltandReinforcedConcretePavementMaterialsandConstruction. J.ofInfrastructureSystems11(1),2005,pp.920.

Rajendran,S.,Gambatese,J.A.SolidWasteGenerationinAsphaltandReinforcedConcreteRoadwayLifeCycles. J.

ofInfrastructureSystems13(2),2005,pp.8896.

AthenaInstitute. ALifeCyclePerspectiveonConcreteandAsphaltRoadways:EmbodiedPrimaryEnergyandGlobal

WarmingPotential .ReporttotheCementAssociationofCanada,2006.

TramoreHouseRegionalDesignOffice.IntegrationoftheMeasurementofEnergyUsageintoRoadDesign.Rept.to

theCommissionoftheEuropeanDGforEnergyandTransport.ProjectNumber4.1031/Z/02091/2002,2006.

Weiland,C.D.LifeCycleAssessmentofPortlandCementConcreteInterstateHighwayRehabilitationand

Replacement .Master’sThesis,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,WA,2008.

Chui,CT.,Hsu,TH.,Yang,WF.Lifecycleassessmentonusingrecycledmaterialsforrehabilitatingasphalt

pavements.Resources,ConservationandRecycling52,2008,pp.545556.

Huang,Y.,Bird,R.,Bell,M.Acomparativestudyoftheemissionsbyroadmaintenanceworksandthedisrupted

trafficusinglifecycleassessmentandmicrosimulation.TransportationResearchPartD14,2009,pp.197204.

Huang,Y.,Bird,R.,Heidrich,O.Developmentofalifecycleassessmenttoolforconstructionandmaintenanceof

asphaltpavements. J.ofCleanerProduction17,2009,pp.283296.15

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).HeatIslandEffectwebsite.[http://www.epa.gov/hiri]Accessed9

June2009.

24





andwaterquality.BasedonresearchfromtheLawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory16

agrossapproximationis

thatroadpavementsconstituteaboutonequarterthetotalsurfaceareacontributingtotheUHI.FromthisPT4is

assigned5points.Thisweightingisalsoconsistentwithotherconcernsthatarerelevantinurbanareas:AE4and

MR6.

DURABILITY WEIGHTING

Longlifepavementgenerallyresultsinlowerlifecyclecosts,lessmaterialandfewertrafficinterruptionsoverthe

lifecycleofapavement.Whilemoreworkneedstobedoneinquantifyingthesereductions,avalueforPT1canbe

attemptedbydrawingthelinkbetweenlessmaterialandfewertrafficinterruptionstolessenergyandlower

emissions.PT1isassigned5points.

AESTHETIC WEIGHTING

Onestudy17

investigateddifferentmonetizationapproachesforthehealthimpactsfromroadnoise.Fromtheir

workweassignnoiseonethirdtheimpactoftrafficrelatedemissions.Sincetirepavementnoiseisthe

predominantsourceorroadnoiseaboveabout50km/hr(forautomobiles)achangeintirepavementnoise

resultingfromsocalled“quieterpavement”useisaboutonethirdasimpactfulasactionsresultingintraffic

relatedemissionsreduction.Noisereductioncharacteristicsofquieterpavementstendtodiminishovertime.PT5

isassigned2to3points.ThiscorrelateswithEW8,whichisalsoassigned3pointsandaddressesglareotherunwantedlightemissions.

16

Rose,L.S.,H.Akbari,andH.Taha.2003.CharacterizingtheFabricoftheUrbanEnvironment:ACaseStudyof

GreaterHouston,Texas.PaperLBNL51448.LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory,Berkeley,CA.17

Hofstetter,P.,MüllerWenk,R.,2005.Monetizationofhealthdamagesfromroadnoisewithimplicationsfor

monetizinghealthimpactsinlifecycleassessment. J.ofClean.Production13,12351245.

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PROJECT REQUIREMENTS

27




28



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Project Requirements

PR-1 Environmental Review Process

ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEW PROCESSGOAL

Evaluateimpactsofroadwayprojectsthroughaninformeddecisionmakingprocess.

REQUIREMENTS

Performanddocumentacomprehensiveenvironmentalreviewoftheroadway

project.Thisreviewshouldclearlyandconciselydocument:

1. Projectnameandlocation.

2. Namesandcontactinformationofkeyplayersinthedecisionmakingprocess,

including(butnotlimitedto):theowneragency,agencyrepresentatives

responsibleforcompletingtheenvironmentalreviewprocess,otherstakeholders,

andrelevantprofessionalsinvolved.

3. Intentandpurposeoftheroadwayproject.

4. Descriptionsofpotentialenvironmental,economicandsocialimpactsofthe

intendedroadwayproject.

5. Detaileddescriptionsoftheextentofthesignificanceoftheseimpactswithrespecttothedecisionmakingprocessandfeasibleperformanceexpectations.

6. Descriptionofthepublicinvolvementopportunityintheenvironmentalreview

process;documentthisopportunityandtheresultsofinputinthefinaldecisions.

7. Anyjurisdictionalrequirementsformoredetailedenvironmentalreviewdocuments

suchasenvironmentalimpactstatements(EIS)orenvironmentalassessments(EA)

todeterminethesignificanceofenvironmentalimpacts.

8. Descriptionofthefinalenvironmentaldecisionsmade.

Details

Anenvironmentalreviewprocessisamethodofdecisionmakingusedinproject

development.Thebasicintentoftheprocessistopromoteinformeddecision

makingbyexplainingtheprojectinacomprehensive,conciseandunderstandableway.Thisexplanationinvolvesanevaluationofenvironmental,socialandeconomic

impactsinordertomeetexistingregulationsandpublicstakeholderneeds.These

impacts,regulations,andneedsshapebasicdecisioncriteria,varysignificantlyin

complexitybetweenprojects,anddictatetheeffortrequiredduringthereview

processandprojectimplementation.TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)

providesformalguidelinesforfederallyfundedroadwayprojects,andmanystates

haveenvironmentalreviewprocessessimilartoNEPA.

DOCUMENTATION

x Copyofthefinaldecisiondocumentthatdemonstratesanenvironmentalreview

processhasbeencompletedfortheproject,withallappropriateagencyor

jurisdictionrepresentativesignatures.Anyofthefollowingdocumentswillsuffice:

x ExecutivesummaryoftheEAorEIS,theRecordofDecision(ROD)orFindingof

NoSignificantImpact(FONSI),orjurisdictionequivalentofthesedocuments.

x CompletedcopyoftheWashingtonStateDepartmentofEcologyState

EnvironmentalPolicyAct(SEPA)Checklist(orlocalequivalent).Note:Dothisif

theprojectisexemptfromaformalenvironmentalrevieworisclassifiedasa

“categoricalexclusion”(CE).

PR-1

REQUIRED

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR2LifecycleCost

Analysis

9 PR3Lifecycle

Inventory

9 AE3Context

SensitiveSolutions

9 MR1LifecycleAssessment

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Expectations

9 Exposure

BENEFITS

9 ReducesAir

Emissions9 ReducesWater

Pollution

9 ReducesSolidWaste

9 ImprovesHuman

Health&Safety

9 Improves

Accountability



29



Project Requirements Greenroads™ Manual v1.5

Environmental Review Process PR-1

APPROACHES & STRATEGIES

x Checkifyourstatehasexistingproceduresthatstreamlinetheenvironmentalreviewprocessspecificallyfor

roadwayprojects.TheCouncilonEnvironmentalQuality(CEQ)maintainsanupdatedlistofstatesthatare

complianthere:http://nepa.gov/nepa/regs/states/states.cfm

x Identifyopportunitiestoinvolvethepublicearlyintheenvironmentalreviewprocess.Usuallythisstepismost

effectiveduringprojectplanning.x Recognizethattheenvironmentalreviewprocesscanoftenbeiterative,especiallyduringplanninganddesign

stageswhenalternativesarestillsubjecttochange.

x Conductadetailed,multidisciplinaryliteraturereviewatthestartofaproject.Thisreviewcanhelpidentify

existingextraordinarycircumstances,suchasspecialwildlifeandplantconcernsandsocioeconomicissues.

x UsethechecklistprovidedbytheWashingtonstateDepartmentofEcologyStateEnvironmentalPolicyAct

(SEPA)asaguidelineforanenvironmentalreviewprocessinjurisdictionsnotsubjecttoNEPAorsimilarlocalor

staterequirements.Thischecklistiseasyandstraightforwardandmaybecompletedtomeettheintentofthis

ProjectRequirement.NotethatmanystatesalsooffercheckliststhatcoverthesametopicsastheWashington

SEPAchecklist,andwillalsomeettheintentofthisProjectRequirement.TheWashingtonstatechecklistis

readilyavailableanddownloadableforimmediateusehere:http://www.ecy.wa.gov/biblio/ecy05045.html.

x Maketheenvironmentalreviewdocumentationasconciseandcomprehensiveaspossible,whilealsolimiting

useofprofessionaljargon.Thiswillcreateaneasytoreadandunderstandableenvironmentalreview

documentfordecisionmakers.ThereareanumberofguidancedocumentsavailablefromtheCEQforNEPAdocuments,andindividualstatesmayalsohavehelpfulresourcesavailable.TheseareavailablefromtheCEQ

here:http://ceq.hss.doe.gov/nepa/regs/guidance.html

x Forprojectstypicallyconsideredcategoricallyexempt,wherejurisdictionalprecedenthasbeenestablishedfor

similarroadwayprojectsinpreviousenvironmentalreviewprocesses,completetheWashingtonstateSEPA

checklistforpurposesofthisrequirement.Thisprocesswillalsodemonstrate1)thatthereviewprocesshas

beencompletedandallimpactshavebeenaddressed,and2)whyyourprojecthasbeendetermineda

categoricalexclusion.

x FollowFederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)andFederalTransitAuthority(FTA)guidelinesforcomplex,

detailedandlargerprojectsthatneedtoproduceEISreports.Theseguidelinesarecompiledinastraightforwardguidancedocumentlocatedhere:http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/hep/section6002/.Thisdocument

includesstepsrequiredfortheNEPAprocessandalsoexemplaryprojectcasestudiesthatmeetthe

requirementsfortheenvironmentalreviewprocess.

Example: SEPA Checklists

ProjectsnotsubjecttoNEPAoranequivalentlocalorstatepolicyforenvironmentalreviewwillneedtosubmit

acompletedenvironmentalreviewprocesschecklistforpurposesofthisrequirement.Therearemany

availablefromvariousstateagenciesorDepartmentsofTransportation(DOT),checkwithyourowner/agency.

SeveralexamplesofcompletedchecklistsareprovidedinTablePR1.1.

TablePR1.1:SampleCompletedSEPAChecklists

ProjectName Owner Type WheretoFindChecklist

SR509/SR518Interchange

SafetyImprovementProject

Washington

StateDOT

Highway

improvement

http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/NR/rdonlyres/62

4594AC5B814D62BA042D926347628C/

0/SR518SafetySEPAChecklist.pdf 2009AACProgram–

FauntleroyWaySWbetween

SWAlaskaStandSWHollySt

SeattleDOT

(SDOT)

Resurfacing http://www.seattle.gov/transportation/docs

/SEPAFAUNTLEROY.pdf

RevisedAuroraAvenueNorth

Transit,PedestrianandSafety

Improvements

SDOT,

WSDOT,

FHWA

Multipurpose

urbanarterial

improvements

http://www.seattle.gov/Transportation/doc

s/aurora/RevAurora_SEPAchecklist_

SigOnFile.pdf

EagleCreekRoadImprovement

Project

Chelan

County

Ruralroad

improvements

http://www.co.chelan.wa.us/pw/data/sepa_

checklist.pdf

30





Example: Federally Funded Projects and the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)

FederallyfundedroadwayprojectsarerequiredtousetheNEPA(NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct)

environmentalreviewprocess(CEQ,2007).ThisincludesallroadwayprojectsmanagedbytheFederalHighway

Administration(FHWA).

NOTE:NEPAclearlystatesthattheenvironmentalreviewprocessdoesnot requirethatagenciesorproject

teamsmakefinalprojectdecisionsbasedonanyoftheenvironmentalimpactsthatarestudiedordiscovered.

Rather,theintentoftheNEPAprocessistoinformdecisionmakersofthepotentialeffectsoftheiractions

(Caldwell,1999;CEQ,2007).

TheFHWA,AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)andtheAmericanCouncil

ofEngineeringCompanies(ACEC)havecompiledaguidancedocumentcalledImprovingtheQualityof

EnvironmentalDocumentsthathighlightsseveralcasestudiesofexemplary,easytoreadandcomprehensive

NEPAdocuments.Afewofthoseprojectsarelistedbelow:

x AlaskanWayViaductandSeawallReplacementProject(WashingtonStateDOT)

x Mon/FayetteTransportationProject,PARoute51toI376(PennsylvaniaTurnpikeCommission)

x RoutePost13(I15)Interchange(UtahDOT)x SouthernCorridor(I15)(UtahDOT)

x US93SomerstoWhitefish(MontanaDOT)

x I69EvansvilletoIndianapolis(IndianaDOT)

x MidCurrituckSoundBridge(NorthCarolinaDOT)

Detailedinformationoneachproject(andothernonroadwaytransportationprojects)isincludedinthe

completedreportfortheNationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)2525Task1(2005).This

NCHRPreportalsocontainsdescriptionsofwhythesereportsareexemplaryofasuccessfulNEPAprocess.

Accordingtoregulationsupdatedin2001fromtheFHWA,manytransportationprojectsforbothroadwaysand

bridges,specificallyrehabilitationactivities,areconsideredtobecategoricallyexempt(CEs)becausetheyhavebeendeemedtomeet40CFR§1508.4basedonpastprecedent.Accordingly,thesecertainprojecttypes:

x Donothavesignificantenvironmental,plannedgrowthorlanduseimpacts

x Donotneedrelocationofmanypeople

x Donothaveimpactonnatural,cultural,recreational,orhistoricresources

x Donothaveair,noise,orwaterqualityimpacts

x Donothavesignificantimpactsontravelpatterns

x Donot,eitherindividuallyorcumulatively,haveanysignificantenvironmentalimpacts

See40CFR§1508.4and23CFR§771.117.Forpurposesofthisrequirement,projectsthatqualifyasNEPACEsmustcompleteachecklistequivalenttothoseshowninTablePR1.1.

Example: States with Environmental Review Processes

Somestates,regionsandterritoriesoftheUnitedStatesrequireanenvironmentalreviewprocessthatis

similartoNEPA.TheselocationsarelistedinTablePR1.2.Additionally,somelocalandregionaldepartmentsof

transportation(DOT),orprojectsfundedbythoseagencies,mayalsorequireanenvironmentalreviewprocess

thatisgenerallybasedontheNEPA.Completingsuchanowner/agencyprocessmeetsthisrequirement,

providedthatitaddressesallthestepsnoted.Notethatsomeowners/agenciesmayhavestrictercriteriathan

NEPA.Also,guidancedocumentsandexamplesatthefederallevelcanoftenprovideahelpfulresourceor

templateforstateleveldocumentation.

31





TablePR1.2:U.S.LocationswithExistingEnvironmentalReviewProcesses1

California Montana

Connecticut Nevada/California–Tahoe

DistrictofColumbia NewJersey

Georgia NewYork

Guam NorthCarolina

Hawaii PuertoRico

Indiana SouthDakota

Maryland Virginia

Massachusetts Washington

Minnesota Wisconsin1http://nepa.gov/nepa/regs/states/states.cfm

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Projectsthataretypicallyclassifiedas“categoricalexclusions”underNEPA(orequivalent)mayneedtoexpend

extraefforttoachievetheintentofthisrequirement.2. Inadequateorineffectivepublic,stakeholder,andagencyinvolvementduringprojectscoping,leadingtoa

poorlydefinedorincompletesolution.3. Leadagenciesareresponsibleforthescopeoftheenvironmentalreview,butconsultantsordevelopersare

oftenrequiredtopayforandperformtheworkinvolved(CEQ,2007).4. Climatechangeisnotoftenadequatelyaddressedbytheenvironmentalreviewprocess,whichhasoccasionally

resultedinlitigation(Clark,1994;Lemons,1998).5. Inadequatemitigationofindirectandcumulativeeffectsbecauseofjurisdictionallimitationsorlackofscientific

data(Clark,1994;Lemons,1998).

RESEARCH

Anenvironmentalreviewprocesshastwomainpurposes:providinganavenueformoreinformeddecisionmaking

andallowingpublicinvolvementinagencyprojectsthatmayhaveadverseimpactsontheenvironment(CEQ,

2007).Generallyspeaking,itisthefirststeptowardachievingageneralmarkofroadwaysustainability;thisstep,

whentakenattheoutsetofdesignandconstruction,allowscomprehensiveconsiderationofelementsthatcontributetooverallsustainabilityatthemostbasiclevelofprojectdecisionmaking.

Completionofanenvironmentalreviewprocessensuresthattheprojecthasreceivedearlyscrutinyandguidance

fromthepublic,stakeholders,andappropriateagenciesandjurisdictionsbeforeitisdesignedandbuilt.However,

importantly,theprocessdoesnotdictatethefinaldecisionsmade.Inotherwords,someimpactsthatare

consideredadversemayactuallybeimplementedbasedonweighinganumberoftradeoffs.Thisway,stakeholder

valuesandlocalregulationsprovidetheenvironmental,social,economicandotherpoliticalparameterswithin

whichaprojectmustfit.

WhyistheenvironmentalreviewprocessarequirementinGreenroads?

Nomatterhowsmalltheroadwayprojectis,itstillhasanimpact,evenifitisconsideredatsomeregulatorylevel

tobean“insignificant”one.Greenroadsseekstorecognizethoseprojectsthathavebeensubjecttotherobust

publicandregulatoryagencyreviewprocessimposedbytheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)orastate

levelequivalentprocedure.Toclarify,inparticular,manyroadwayprojectshavebeenclassifiedasCategorical

Exclusions.Suchregularexclusionofthisprocessrequirementdetachestheimpactsthatareperceivedas

insignificantonaprojectbasisandatapracticallevelactuallyhasapotentiallylargeaggregateenvironmental

impact.Passingoffinsignificantimpactsdoesnotprecludethevalueoftheprocessinadecisionmakingsituation,

especiallyforthebroadrangeofimpactthatroadwayprojectshave.Also,byconsideringusingametriclike

Greenroadsinprojectlevelplanning,wefeelthattheenvironmentalreviewprocessmaybeaugmentedby

considerationofsomeoftheideasattheprojectconception.

32





Whyisenvironmentalreviewimportantforroadways?

Roadwayconstructionandmaintenanceactivitiesplaceanincredibledemandonnationalenvironmentaland

financialresources.However,currentroadwaydesignandconstructionpracticedoesnotalwayssystematicallyor

holisticallyaddressenvironmentalimpactsorenvironmentalquality.Formanyprojects,oftenitisdifficultto

conceptualizetheenvironmentalimpactsorinfluencethataroadwayhasonitssurroundings.Thiscouldbedueto

threegeneralproblems:1)decisionmakersareunabletounderstandthecomplexityofecosystemsandhow

manmaderoadwaysfitwithinthiscontext;2)thedecisionrequiresthoughtfulnessthatgoesbeyondconventionalwisdomortraditionalassumptions3)decisionmakersfailtounderstandthelimitsofcontrolthathumanshaveon

ecosystemmanagement(Caldwell,1999).Also,notallprojectsarecoveredbyNEPAoranequivalentstateorlocal

policy;sometimesexistingpoliciesrequirenomorethanacursoryevaluationofenvironmental,socialand

economicimpacts.Inthesecases,manycriticalimpactsareunintentionallyoverlookedorignoredandthese

impactsmayhavelongtermconsequencesfortheenvironmentandlocalcommunities.Approachesthatdonot

addressdirect,indirectandcumulativeeffectsofroadwaydesignandconstructiondemonstrate,atbest,weak

stewardshipefforts,andareinadequatetowardachievingsustainabilityduetotheirlackofcomprehensiveness.

Forexample,evaluationofprojectairemissions,totalenergyuse,orsurroundingecosystemsisrarelyextended

outsideofregulatorycompliance,suchasmeetingrequirementsforacumulativeeffectsassessmentinNational

EnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)documents.TheBureauofTransportationStatistics(2007)reportsthat

approximately$54billionwasspentonpavementmaterialsalonein2006.Production,transportandplacement

ofcommonpavementmaterials,suchashotmixasphalt(HMA)andportlandcementconcrete(PCC),representthemajorityoflifecyclegreenhousegasemissionsandenergyusageassociatedwithroadways(Zapataand

Gambatese,2005).Additionally,theU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)hasattributedseveraldirect,

cumulativeandlongtermenvironmentalimpacts,suchasecosystemdegradation,fragmentationandhabitatloss,

duetothelinearanddecentralizednatureofthefourmillionmilenetworkofroadwaysintheU.S.(1994)

Performinganenvironmentalreviewonaroadwayprojectprovidesameansofinvestigatingthesespecial

environmentalimpactsinamoredetailedmannerinordertomakebetterenvironmentaldecisionsforroadway

development.

Whatarethestepsintheenvironmentalreviewprocess?

Generally,therearethreegenericstepsintheenvironmentalreviewprocess.Forprojectswithnoenvironmental

reviewprocesswithintheirjurisdiction,theseareguidelinesprovideageneralideaoftheprocess.

1. Completetheinitialpermittingprocessforthegoverningjurisdiction.Usuallythisinvolvessomereviewof

historicaldocumentationfortheareawheretheprojectwillbelocated.2. Determineifanenvironmentalreviewisneeded.Usually,aprojectfallsintoacertainclassificationwhichhas

specificenvironmentalreviewrequirements.

3. Ifneeded,performanenvironmentalreviewandsubmitforapprovalbythegoverningagency.

Thesethreestepsmaybeiterativedependingonthecomplexityoftheproject.TheeightstepsofthisProject

Requirementmatchthisgeneralframework,inslightlymoredetail,andwithouttheagencypermits.

Howistheenvironmentalreviewprocessusedfordecisionmaking?

Roadwaydesignandconstructionisacomplexprocessthatrequiresexperiencedprofessionalsandclearly

definedexpectationsandvalues.Theenvironmentalreviewprocessisanimportantpartofdecisionmakingin

roadwayprojectsbecauseultimately,ithelpstellthewholeprojectstoryinaneffectivemanner.Determiningstakeholderexpectationsandneeds,spatialandtemporalbounds(Clark,1994),feasibleoptionsandtheir

environmentalimpacts,andwhichchoicesaremostsensiblebasedonallknowncostsandbenefitsarecritical

stepsinapproachingtheprojectinameaningfulandcomprehensiveway.Further,withoutdefiningthesesame

values,effortstowardprojectsustainabilitywouldbeineffective.

Whatisthepublicinvolvementrole?

Publicinvolvementplaysakeyroleinacomprehensiveenvironmentalreviewprocessbecausethepublicisone

ofthelargeststakeholdersinmostroadwayandtransportationrelatedprojects.Itplaysacomplementaryrole

33





tothetechnicalknowledgeandexperienceoftheinterdisciplinaryprofessionalsinvolvedinthedesignand

constructionoftheroadway.Openconsensusbasedpublicparticipationstrategiesprovideacriticalavenuefor

exchangeofimportantinformationaboutneeds,opinions,expectationsandlocalvaluesbetweenthepublic

andprojectdecisionmakers.Essentially,thispartoftheenvironmentalreviewprocessengagesthepeople

whowillbemostlikelytobeimpactedbythedecisionsmade.

TheFHWAprovidesseveralpublicationsandguidancematerialsoncreatingandimplementingsuccessfulpublicinvolvementcampaignsforroadwayprojects.http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/pi_pubs.htm

Whatisconsideredinanenvironmentalreviewprocess?

TheWashingtonstateDepartmentofEcology(DOE)SEPAchecklistprovidesacomprehensiveexampleofwhatis

typicallyincludedinanenvironmentalreviewprocess.BasictopicscoveredincludethoseshowninTablePR1.3.

TablePR1.3:TopicsAddressedbyanEnvironmentalReviewProcess

Earthenmaterials Sitetopography,soilconditions,gradingquantities,erosionpotential,impervioussurfaces

Air Expectedonsiteandrelevant offsiteairemissions

Water Waterbodiesinvicinity,inwatergradingquantities,surfaceandgroundwaterconditions,

floodplainstatus,expectedpointandnonpointdischarges,stormwatermanagement

Plants Nativevegetation,vegetationmanagement,landscapingplan,endangeredspecies

Animals Nativewildlife,migratoryhabits,endangeredspecies

Energy Energytypesneededandused,renewableenergysources,conservationefforts(ifany)

Humanhealth

andsafety

Exposuretotoxicchemicals,riskoffireandexplosion,spill,or hazardouswaste,emergency

servicesneeded,hazardcontrolsinplace,safetyissuesandneedsbeingaddressed.

Noise Traffic,equipment,operation (shortterm,longterm),timesofexpectednoise,

Landand

shorelineuse

Currentuse,existingstructures(anyplanneddemolition),agriculturalstatus,zoningand

masterplan,currentanddisplacedpopulations,environmentalsensitivity,

Housing Additionorlossofhousingunits

Aesthetics Structureheight,viewsinarea

Lightandglare Timeofdayforexpectedglare,safetyconsiderations,offsiteglare,

Recreational,

historic,cultural

resources

Typesofopportunitiesinvicinity,existingregistrations(ifany),anydisplacementofrecreational,historical,orculturalopportunitiesasaresultofproject

Transportation Accessfromotherpublicstreetsandhighways,transitfacilities,parking,typeofconstruction

expected,nearnesstoairandrailmodes,peaktrafficvolumes,tripgeneration

Publicservices

andutilities

Typesofpublicservicesandutilitiesneededorimpacted,newservicesorutilitiesproposed

Generally,documentationoftheenvironmentalreviewprocessforroadwayprojectsrequiresthatsourcesofall

potentialenvironmental,economicandsocialimpacts,expectednatureandextentoftheseimpacts,andthefinal

decisionsmadeinlightoftheseimpactsarestatedconciselyandclearly.

WhatisNEPA?

TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)isabroaddeclarationofenvironmentalvaluesintendedto

encouragechangesinattitudesandsocialbehaviorsatanationallevel(Caldwell,1999).NEPAwasinstitutedasfederallawintheUnitedStatesin1969andpublishedintheFederalRegisterinJanuary1970.(CFR42§4321)The

fulltextoftheactisavailableonlineathttp://ceq.hss.doe.gov/nepa/nepanet.htm.CompliancewithNEPAis

managedbytheCouncilofEnvironmentalQuality(CEQ,2007).Asalaw,NEPAmandatesthataninterdisciplinary

andtransparentapproachistakenduringalternativeselectioninthedecisionmakingprocess.Projectsare

requiredtostateallknowndirect,indirect,andcumulativeenvironmental,socialandeconomicimpactsthatmight

resultfromimplementingtheproject(CEQ,2007).

34





NEPAappliestoallfederallyfundedprojects,whichcommonlyincludesprojectssuchasroadwaysmanagedbythe

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA),environmentalremediationeffortsthroughtheEPA,government

buildingsandotherinfrastructureprojectsreceivingfederalfunding.Becausemanyroadwayprojectsareatleast

partlyfundedbyfederalmoney,manyagenciesandconsultantsarelikelytobeexperiencedwiththelevelofdetail

expectedduringtheNEPAprocess.Additionally,manystatesmayhaveregulationsthatmapdirectlybacktoNEPA

orhavemorestringentenvironmentalreviewexpectationsduetolocalorstatewidepolicyorotherspecial

environmentalconditions.

Ingeneral,therearefiveclassificationsofprojectsthataresubjecttoenvironmentalreviewunderNEPA.Theseare

shownwithabriefdescriptionofthedocumentationneededandproducedtomeettherequirementsofNEPAprocessinTablePR1.4.SignificantlymoredetailregardingeachtypeofreportinthetextoftheActitselfandfrom

CEQathttp://ceq.hss.doe.gov/nepa/nepanet.htm.

TablePR1.4:TypesofNEPAEnvironmentalReviews

NEPAClassification DocumentationNeeds HowtoMeetNeeds

SignificantEffects

Identified

EnvironmentalImpactStatement (EIS)

RecordofDecision(ROD)

FollowNEPAProcessguidelinesforgenerating

anEIS.EPAreviewsEIS.

EffectsUncertain EnvironmentalAssessment(EA)

FindingofNoSignificantImpact

(FONSI)orfollowEISprocedure


anEA.ResultsofEAmaydictateamoredetailed

EISisrequiredfortheroadwayproject.

ListedCategorical

Exclusion(CE)

Letterfromthegoverningjurisdiction

statingtheexistingCEforproject.

FHWAlistsCEsin23CFR§771.117

Providecopyofexistingstatementof

CategoricalExclusion(CE)

NoCElistedbyAgency EnvironmentalAssessment(EA)


(FONSI)orEISandROD


anEA.ResultsofEAmaydictateamoredetailed


Extraordinary

circumstancefora

listedCE

EnvironmentalAssessment(EA)


(FONSI)orEISandROD

FollowNEPAProcessguidelinesforgeneratinganEA.ResultsofEAmaydictateamoredetailed


CriticismsofNEPA

SomeofthecommoncriticismsofNEPAareoutlinedbyNCHRPReport2525(01) (TransTechetal.,2005).Mostcomplaintsarisefromlossofmeaningfulnessintheenvironmentalreviewprocessduetotwocoupledissues,

thevaguenessofthelanguageusedintheActandthebureaucraticapprovalprocessrequiredoftheNEPA

documentation.

ThelanguageintheActisverybroadcomparedtootherU.S.regulations,andoftentherequirementsforNEPA

areconsideredunclearbycomparison.IntervieweesintheNCHRP2525initialsurveycitedtheneedforclearer

language,lessjargon,consistentstylesandformats,andtheneedtobesuccinct(TransTechetal.,2005).

However,themeaningoftheprocessisnotlikelylostintheprocessitself,butratherintheunnecessarily

verbosedocumentsthataregenerated.Manysectionsoftencontainduplicateinformation.Thisproblemhas

spurredtheguidancedocumentsavailablefromFHWA,AASHTO,andACEC(notedintheprecedingExamples

section)whichstressbrevityandclarityinfinalNEPAdocuments.

Historically,documentationoftheNEPAprocesshasalsobeenconsideredunwieldyandarduousbecauseprojectteamsoftentrytopresentasmuchinformationinasbroadoflanguageaspossible,inordertoaddress

thelackofspecificityintheActandavoidpossiblelitigationforerrorsandomissions(Clark,1994;Lemons,

1998).Intervieweesfrequentlymentionedthatdemonstratinglegalsufficiencyisthemainreasondocuments

byDOTsaresolong(TransTechetal.,2005).Consequently,theselengthydocumentsrequirelengthyreviews.ThereviewprocessiscomplicatedfurtherifaprojectdoesnotbegintheNEPAenvironmentalreviewinearly

stagesofdecisionmakingorifdocumentationisnotproperlytracked.

35





Athirdcomplaintthathasactuallyresultedinrecent(andcomplicated)litigationistheNEPArequirementfor

cumulativeenvironmentaleffectassessment,specificallyrelatedtoglobalclimatechange.Smith(2008)notes

thattheNEPAhastraditionallynotincludedanyclimatechangeanalysesintheenvironmentalimpact

assessmentprocess.Recentlythough,climatechangehasappearedasacommentfromtheleadagencyon

reviewsofenvironmentalimpactstatementsandenvironmentalassessments.However,Lemons(1998,p.89)

states“Becauseofthesignificantamountofscientificuncertaintyinpredictiontheenvironmentalimpactsof

humanactivities[suchasclimatechange],opponentsofagencydecisionshaveoftenbeensuccessfulinchallengingagencydecisionsiftheycandemonstratethattheagencydidnotrigorouslyconsidercertain

impactsoriftheycandemonstratethatanagencydidnotfollowprescribedstepsindealingwithscientific

uncertainty.Alternatively,ifanagencyhasfollowedtheseprescribedsteps,thenopponentsofanagency’s

decisionwillhaveadifficulttimefulfillingtheburdenofproofrequirementstooverturnthatdecision.”For

example,Smith(2008,p.76)identifiesthelandmarkcase,CenterforBiologicalDiversityv.NationalHighway

TrafficSafetyAdministration,asthe“mostsignificantNEPAclimatechangecourtdecisiontodate”relatedto

NEPAandtransportation.Inthisdecision,theNationalHighwayTrafficSafetyAdministrationfailedtoidentify

thecumulativeeffectofincrementalemissionsonclimatechangeintheEAprocess.However,inthisand

similarcases,eventhebestscientificknowledgeforecosystemrelatedconsequencescanbetoovariableand

uncertaintobeconsideredsignificantevidenceinacourtoflaw.Statisticalsignificanceinscienceand

engineering,unfortunately,doesnottranslatetobeyondareasonabledoubtinlaw.

Clark(1994,p.322)echoesthisdifficultyandstatesthatthe“lackofconsensusconcerningtheapplicationofcumulativeimpactanalysismethodologyisprimarilyassociatedwithissuesoftemporalandspatialboundsand

thedifficultyofreachingagreementuponthegeographicalboundariesofthestudyareaandhowfarintothe

futureandhowfarintothepastonemustlooktoadequatelyassessthecumulativeimpacts.”Inessence,the

realissueisthatmostprojectteamsareunabletodefineregionalandglobalproblemsinacontextrelevantto

projectleveldecisions.Mostofthecumulativeeffectassessmentsfortransportationprojectsmissthepoint(if

completedatall),andmoredata(easytocollect)isoftenprovidedwithoutcompletelysynthesizingthe

informationinameaningfulway(becauseanalysisismoredifficult)(TransTechetal.,2005).Guidelinesforthe

levelofdetailrequiredandprocesssuggestionsforcumulativeeffectsstudiesoftransportationprojectsare

providedinNCHRP2525(01).

AmericanRecoveryandReinvestmentActof2009andNEPA

TheNEPAprocessisrequiredforanytransportationinfrastructureimprovementprojectapplyingfororgrantedfundsundertheAmericanRecoveryandReinvestmentActof2009(ARRA).AccordingtotheCEQ

(2009c),NEPAreviewsarerepresentativeofthesustainabilityandenvironmentalstewardshipgoalsembedded

inARRA.AsofSeptember2009,infrastructureprojectsthroughtheUnitedStatesDOTamountedto9%ofthe

totalfundedprojectsinARRA.NEPAwasnotapplicableforonlytwooftheseprojectsfundedforUSDOTin

2009(CEQ,2009c).

ResourcesforProjectEnvironmentalReviews

x BlankcopiesoftheWashingtonstateDepartmentofEcologySEPAchecklistareavailableanddownloadablefor

usehere:http://www.ecy.wa.gov/biblio/ecy05045.html.

x InformationforhighwayproposalsandSAFETEALUrequirementsisavailablefromtheFHWAat

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/safetealu.

x A“Citizen’sGuidetoTransportationDecisionMaking”and“TheMetropolitanTransportationPlanningProcess:

KeyIssues.ABriefingNotebookforTransportationDecisionmakers,Officials,andStaff”areavailablefromthe

FHWAathttp://www.fhwa.gov/planning/citizen/index.htm.

x TheFHWAprovidesanEnvironmentalReviewToolkitthatisausefulresourceformanyprojects:http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/metro/index.htm

x DetailedquestionsandanswersforenvironmentalreviewprocessesarespelledoutintheSAFETEALUFinalGuidance,availablehere:http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/hep/section6002/

36





x TheFHWAalsohasguidanceforcreatingeffectivepublicInvolvementprograms.AusefulresourceisPublic

InvolvementTechniquesforTransportationDecisionmaking,availableonthewebat:

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/REPORTS/PITTD/cover.htm

x TheTransportationResearchBoard(TRB)hasacommitteefocusedonpublicinvolvementwithseveraluseful

resources:http://www.trbpi.com/

x TheAASHTOCenterforEnvironmentalExcellencehasmanyguidelinesandresourcesforaddressingNEPA

compliance,includingaguidebookforSAFETEALUEnvironmentalReviewProcesses.http://environment.transportation.org/center/products_programs/practitioners_handbooks.aspx

GLOSSARY

ACEC AmericanCouncilofEngineeringCompanies

AASHTO AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials

ARRA AmericanRecoveryandReinvestmentActof2009

CategoricalExclusion(CE) Adecision,project,oractivitythathasnosignificantsingleorcumulative

outcomethatunderminesthequalityoftheenvironmentandrequiresno

environmentalassessmentorenvironmentalimpactstatement.(40CFR

§1508.4and23CFR§771.117)

Categoricallyexempt SeeCategoricalExclusion(CE)

CEQ CouncilonEnvironmentalQuality

EA EnvironmentalAssessment(40CFR§1508.9)

EIS EnvironmentalImpactStatement(40CFR§1508.11)

Environmentalreviewprocess Amethodofinformeddecisionmakingusedinprojectdevelopment

Extraordinarycircumstance Anyspecialsituationthatmayindicateaneedforamoredetailed

environmentalassessment(EA),including(butnotlimitedto):impactsto

habitatforendangeredspecies,archaeologicallysensitiveareas,wetlands,

lowincomecommunities,etc.

FHWA FederalHighwayAdministration

FONSI FindingofNoSignificantImpact(40CFR§1508.13)

Leadagency TheagencyheldresponsibleforNEPAcompliance (40CFR§1508.16)

NCHRP NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgramNEPA NationalEnvironmentalPolicyActof1969

NHTSA NationalHighwayTransportationSafetyAgency

ROD RecordofDecision

SEPA StateEnvironmentalPolicyAct.Notethatsomestateshavedifferent

acronymsfortheirenvironmentalpolicies.

REFERENCES

AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials.(2006,May)ImprovingtheQualityof

EnvironmentalDocuments:AReportoftheJointAASHTO/ACECCommitteeinCooperationwiththeFederal

HighwayAdministration.RetrievedAugust24,2009from

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Caldwell,L.K.(1999).TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct:anagendaforthefuture.Bloomington:IndianaUniv.

Press.209pp.

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Clark,R.(1994.)Cumulativeeffectsassessment:atoolforsustainabledevelopment.ImpactAssessment.12(3):

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YourVoiceHeard .RetrievedAugust24,2009fromhttp://nepa.gov/nepa/Citizens_Guide_Dec07.pdf .

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CouncilonEnvironmentalQuality,OfficeofthePresident.(2009b,November1)NEPAnetCEQTaskForce.Availableathttp://ceq.hss.doe.gov/nepa/nepanet.htm

CouncilonEnvironmentalQuality,OfficeofthePresident.(2009c,November2)TheThirdReportontheNational

EnvironmentalPolicyActandProgressforAmericanRecoveryandReinvestmentActof2009Activitiesand

Projects.Availableat:http://ceq.hss.doe.gov/nepa/reports_congress_Nov2009.htm

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development.(EPAPublicationNo.300B94006.)Washington,DC:EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2008).EnvironmentalReviewToolkit.FHWA,USDepartmentofTransportation.AccessedJuly25,2008.Availableathttp://www.environment.fhwa.dot.gov

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LegacyforUsers.FHWA,USDepartmentofTransportation.AccessedAugust24,2009.Availableat

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Lemons,J.(1998.)BurdenofProofRequirementandEnvironmentalSustainability.Chap.6,pp.75103,in:J.

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38




PR-2 Lifecycle Cost Analysis

LIFECYCLE COST ANALYSISGOAL

Determinethelifecyclecostfortheroadwayprojecttoaidindecisionmaking.

REQUIREMENTS

Performalifecyclecostanalysis(LCCA)oftheroadwayproject.LCCAmustcontainat

leastagencycosts(listedbelow)andworkzoneusercosts.

LCCAcanbeperformedwithmanualcalculationsorbyusingrecommendedsoftware

(notedbelowforpavementsandbridges).Initialvaluesforcalculationsshouldbe

consistentwithexistingowneragencypoliciesandsoftwareshouldreport

probabilisticratherthandeterministicresults.Wherenoowneragencypolicyexists

forLCCA,dooneormoreofthefollowingtodetermineinputvaluesforsoftware:

x Justifytheuseofanydefaultinputs

x Usehistoricaldataasrepresentativevalueswhereavailable

x Useengineeringestimatesx Usevaluesrecommendedforselectsoftwarewherenotedbelow

Forprojectswithpavements:

PerformaLCCAoftheproject’spavementstructure(comparisonofmultipledesign

alternativesisencouragedbutnotrequired)inaccordancewiththemethoddescribed

intheFHWA’sInterimTechnicalbulletin,LifeCycleCostAnalysisinPavementDesign

(1998,currentlybeingrevised).Thismaybecompletedmanuallyorbyusingthe

FHWA’sRealCostsoftwareavailableforfreeat:

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/asstmgmt/lccasoft.cfm

UseparametersfortheLCCAthatareconsistentwithexistingowneragencypolicies.If

noowneragencypolicyexists,userecommendedvaluesshowninTablePR2.1fortheFHWA’sRealCost software.

Forprojectswithbridges:

PerformaLCCAoftheproject’sbridges(comparisonofmultipledesignalternativesis

encouragedbutnotrequired)accordingtotheguidanceintheNationalCooperative

HighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)Report483(Hawk,2003)andthesoftware(called

BLCCA)developedforthisstudy.Thereportprovidesstandardinputvaluesforawide

rangeofpotentialbridgeprojectsandreferencedsourcesforotherinputdata.Other

lifecyclecostanalysissoftwaremayalsobeusedatthediscretionoftheproject

manager,includingRealCost,withsomeminoradjustmentstothespreadsheet.A

BLCCAmayalsobecompletedbyhand.TablePR2.1mayprovidesomeusefulinputs

forusercostsandtrafficdata.

x Useagencyandusercostparametersthatareconsistentwithagencypolicy,ifone

exists(thoughaccordingtothebodyofresearchsuchpoliciesforbridgesarerare.)

x Usethesamenumberofyearsforservicelifethatisusedfordesignofstructural

memberssubjecttolongtermloadingeffects.

PR-2

REQUIRED

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR3Lifecycle

Inventory

9 EW4Stormwater

CostAnalysis

9 MR1Lifecycle

Assessment

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Economy

9 Extent

9 Expectations

BENEFITS

9 ReducesLifecycle

Cost

9 Improves

Accountability

39




Lifecycle Cost Analysis PR-2

Forprojectswithadditionalfeatures:

PerformaLCCAoftheproject’smajorfeatures(comparisonofmultipledesignalternativesisencouragedbutnot

required)inaccordancewithgenerallyacceptedengineeringeconomicspractices.Majorfeaturesmayinclude

tunnels,retainingwallsandotheritems.

Details

TypicalLCCAsandBLCCAsincludeagencyandusercosts,definedbelow.Occasionally,thirdpartycosts(suchas

monetizedenvironmentaldamagesorhazards)areincluded,butarenotrequiredforthisProjectRequirement.

Acostbenefitanalysis(CBA)thatincludestheminimumcomponentsbelowisacceptable.Assumptionsused

foragencyandusercostsshouldbeconsistentineachanalysisforprojectswithmultiplemajorfeatures.

AgencyCosts.Costsfromtheplanning,constructionandoperationoftheroadwayandstructures.

x PreliminaryEngineering.Planninganddesigncosts.

x ContractAdministration.Biddingandcontractoversight.

x Initialconstruction.Costsincurredduringtheinitialconstruction.

x ConstructionSupervision.Constructionmanagement,inspections,and

x Maintenance.Potholepatching,cracksealing,restriping,etc.

x Rehabilitation.Coststomaintainandrehabilitateorretrofitanassetthroughoutitsservicelife.x AdministrativeCosts.Costofpavementmanagementandotheradministrativecosts.

x Salvagevalue.Expectedvalueofmaterialsandequipmentatendofservicelife.

UserCosts.Thosewhousethefacilityincurcostsduringnormaloperationandduringconstructionperiods

(e.g.,time,safety,fuelandothervehicleoperatingcosts).

x NormalOperation.OftenignoredinLCCA,astheymaybethesamebetweenalternatives.

x WorkZone.Costsincurredbytheuserfromworkzonedelays.

TheFederalgovernmentmandatedLCCAintheNationalHighwaySystemDesignationActof1995butthen

changedittoavoluntarystandardinTEA21.Section1305(c)statesthatLCCAisnotrequiredbuttasksthe

“…SecretaryshalldeveloprecommendationsfortheStatestoconductlifecyclecostanalyses.”Mostrecently,theSafe,Accountable,Flexible,EfficientTransportationEquityAct:ALegacyforUsers(SAFETEALU)seta

fundingthresholdthatmandatestheuseofLCCAorothervalueengineeringtoolsforbridgeprojectsUS$20

millionormore.AnothermandatethresholdissetatUS$25millionforanyfederalaidproject(FederalHighwayAdministration,n.d).

Manyroadwayprojectshavebothpavementsandstructuresincludedinthescopeofwork.Forsuchprojects,

thelifecyclecostanalysispreparedforthiscreditmustreflecteachsubstantialprojectfeatureforitsentire

servicelife.Itmayalsobedesirabletoperf ormaLCCAontheentireroadwayproject(e.g.,includeall

earthwork,traffichardware,structures,etc.)butcurrentlynostraightforwardmeansofdoingthisexists.

Manystatedepartmentsoftransportations(DOTs)alreadyincorporateLCCAintoaformalpavementtype

selectionprocessorprojectalternativeselectionprocess,andthusalreadyhaveaformalLCCAprocessinplace

forpavements.However,aformalizedalternativeselectionprocessusingBLCCAdoesnotappeartobeinwidespreaduseforbridgeorotherstructuralprojects(Özbayetal.2004;Thompson,2004).

DOCUMENTATION

x AcopyoftheLCCAand/orBLCCAcalculations(ifdonebyhand)orthereportproducedbytheanalysissoftware,includingasummaryofinputsandoutputs.

x AlinktoorcopyofagencypolicyonLCCAand/orBLCCAifoneexists.

x Ashort1paragraphnarrativedescribingwhichalternativewasselectedandtheprincipalreasonsforselection.

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TablePR2.1:RecommendedLCCAInputValuesforRealCostifNoStandardAgencyPolicyExists

AnalysisOptions Probability Distribution Value

Analysisperiod NA 40years

DiscountRate† Triangular min=1.7%,mostlikely=2.7%,max=3.7%

Includeagencycostresidualvalue NA Yes

Includeusercostsinanalysis NA Yes

Usercostcomparisonmethod NA CalculatedTrafficdirection NA BothorInboundorOutbound

Includeusercostresidualvalue NA Yes

TrafficData

AADT NA Bestestimate

Singleunittrucksas%ofAADT NA Bestestimate

Combounittrucksas%ofAADT NA Bestestimate

Annualgrowthrateoftraffic Normal Bestestimate

Speedlimitundernormalconditions NA PredominatespeedlimitinprojectLanesopenineachdirectionunder

normaloperation

NA Bestestimate

Freeflowcapacity NA Calculatedbysoftware

Queuedissipationcapacity Normal average=1818vphpl,st.dev.=144vphplMaximumAADTbothdirections NA Bestestimate

Maximumqueuelength NA Bestestimate

Rural/Urban NA Bestestimate

ValueofUserTime††

Valueoftimeforpassengercars Triangular min=$10,mostlikely=$11.50, max=$13

Valueoftimeforsingleunittrucks Triangular min=$17,mostlikely=$18.50,max=$20

Valueoftimeforcombinationtrucks Triangular min=$21,mostlikely=$22.50,max=$24

HourlyTrafficDistribution

Usedefaultvaluesifnoregionorprojectspecificinformationavailable.

AddedVehicleTimeandCost

Usedefaultvaluesifnoregionorprojectspecificinformationavailable.

Alternatives

Alternativedescription NA Fillin

Activitydescription NA Fillin

Agencyconstructioncost Normal average=bestestimateofcost

st.dev.=10%oftheaverage

Activityservicelife Triangular Bestestimate

Maintenancefrequency Triangular BestestimateWorkzonelength NA Bestestimate

Workzonecapacity NA Bestestimate,ifnodataconsiderusingFigure3.4inWallsandSmith(1998)

Workzoneduration NA BestestimateWorkzonespeedlimit NA Postedvalue

Numberoflanesopenineachdirection

duringworkzone

NA Best estimate

Workzonehours NA Plannedhours†DiscountrateshouldbedeterminedfrommostrecentOMBCircularA94.AppendixCcontainsrealinterestratesfortreasurynotesandbondsofvariouslengths.Treasurynotematuritythatmostcloselymatchestheprojectanalysisperiodshouldbeused.Useminimumandmaximumvaluesof±1%.††DollarvaluesinthistablearetakendirectlyfromWallsandSmith(1998)andaregiveninAugust1996dollars.ThesevaluesMUSTbeinflatedtodollarvaluesintheyearthatconstructionisscheduledtostartusingtheU.S.BureauofLaborStatistics(BLS)ConsumerPriceIndex(CPI)U.S.

cityaverageforallurbanconsumers(notseasonallyadjusted).Thevalueforthisindexin1996was156.9.TheBLSCPIInflationCalculator(http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm)canbeusedtodothisconversionquickly.

41






x CompletetheLCCAearlyenoughintheprojectsothatitsresultscanbeconsideredinselectingbetween

projectalternatives.Thisgenerallymeansitshouldhappenduringtheplanningstageandnotthedesignor

constructionstage.

x NotethatRealCostandBLCCAsoftwarearenotrequiredforthiscredit;howeveranyothermethodusedmust

conformtotheFHWA’sInterimTechnicalbulletinforpavements,LifeCycleCostAnalysisinPavementDesign(Walls&Smith,1998)andNCHRP483forbridges.

x IncludeLCCAconsiderationsinthetechnicalscoreofbiddersforpavementprojectsinorderforittobe

consideredinselectingadesignalternativeforDesignBuildcontractdeliverymethods.Thisisbecausethe

actualpavementdesignisoftenusedaspartofadesignbuildteam’stechnicalscoreindeterminingcontract

award,aLCCAofalternativedesignscannotbeperformedbytheagencyuntilafterthebidcompetitionis

complete.Whilethiscanbedone,LCCAresultsshouldbeproperlyweightedsothattheyinfluencecontract

awardinamannerconsistentwithownerwishes.Unfortunately,GransbergandMolenaar(2004)showedthat

designbuildawardalgorithmsoftendonotweightLCCAconcernsheavilyenoughforthemtobeasignificantfactorincontractaward.

x IncorporateresultsofotherRelatedCredits,suchasProjectDevelopment:EconomyandCostBenefitAnalysis,

intotheLCCAforconsistencyacrossthewholeproject.

Example: Case Studies of LCCA

Rangarajuetal.(2008)reportonLCCAeffortsoftheSouthCarolinaDOTandlistseveralcasestudiesin

AppendixE(page117)thatdealwiththeinfluenceofdiscountrateandanalysisperiodonLCCAoutcomes.

Theentirereport,LifeCycleCostAnalysisforPavement (Rangarajuetal.2008)canbedownloadedat:

http://www.clemson.edu/t3s/scdot/pdf/projects/SPR656Final.pdf .

Example: Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) LCCA Protocol

WSDOTfollowsastandardLCCAprotocolwhenselectingpavementtypefornewfacilities.Thisprotocolis

basedontheFHWA’sLifeCycleCostAnalysisinPavementDesign(WallsandSmith,1998)andusesRealCost

softwareforcalculations.ItincludesspecifiedinputsforWSDOTanalysisandhowtoconsiderresults.Ofnote,

costdifferencebetweencompetingalternativesthatarelessthan15percentareconsideredequalbasedontheuncertaintyofinputvalues.

TheWSDOTPavementTypeSelectionProtocol (2005)isavailablefordownloadhere:

http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/biz/mats/Pavement/Technotes/PTSP_Jan2005.pdf .

Example: Caltrans LCCA Procedures Manual

Caltranshasdevelopedamanual(Caltrans2007)thatdescribesLCCAproceduresforuseinCaltrans.The

manualisbasedonRealCostsoftwareandprovidesstandardinputvaluesforawiderangeofpotential

projects.CaltranshasadoptedanaggressivepolicytowardsusingLCCAmandatingthatitbeused“…forall

projectswithincludepavementworkontheStateHighwaySystemregardlessoffundingsource…”(Land2007)

Themanualcanbedownloadedat:http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/Translab/ope/LCCA.html.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. WhileLCCAisafairlystandardeconomicanalysistool,thepotentialexiststoinputincorrectorirrelevant

numbersandmisuseitsresults.UsersshouldbefamiliarwiththeFHWA’sLifeCycleCostAnalysisinPavement

DesignInterimTechnicalBulletin(WallsandSmith1998,currentlybeingrevised)beforeconductinganLCCA

withRealCost orBLCCA.2. ALCCAassumesthatthebenefitsassociatedwithprojectalternativesareequal.Thus,itonlyanalyzescosts.

Projectswithdifferentbenefitsbetweenalternativesmaydesireamorecomprehensivecostbenefitanalysis.

42





3. ThemeaningfulnessofLCCAoutputsreliesheavilyongoodestimatesoffuturepavementlife,rehabilitation

costsandtheintervalbetweenfuturerehabilitationefforts.Theseallrelyongoodengineeringjudgmentand

pasthistoryratherthaneconomictheoryorprincipals.

4. LCCAisbasedonestimatedoftotalcostandcanbeeasilymanipulatedbychangingassumptionsandinput

values.Forthisreasontheresultsshouldnotbeweightedtooheavilyinthechoiceofdesignalternatives.

5. Thiscreditdoesnotcontainarequirementtouseorimplementthelowestlifecyclecostprojectalternative.

Therefore,itshouldbeviewedasacreditthatcreatesinformationthatisusefulindecisionmakingratherthanadecisionmakingtool.Itdoesnotguaranteealowestlifecyclecostdecision.

6. ThiscreditdoesnotrequiretheLCCAtobedoneduringtheplanningstagewhereitwouldbemostlikelyto

influenceprojectdecisions.Therefore,itcouldbedonelateindesign,orevenduringconstruction,meaningit

wouldbeundertakenfornootherreasonthantomeetthiscredit,whichmissesthepoint.

7. Somerehabilitationeffortsandevenothereffortsthattakeasystematicapproachtochoosingtheproper

projectfeatures(e.g.,apavementmanagementsystem),theremaynotbeachoicebetweentwoormore

alternatives.ThismaybebecausesuchasystemalreadyincorporatesaformofLCCA,oritmaybebecauseno

otheralternativeisreasonablyfeasible.

8. Otherprototypesoftwareprogramsforbridgelifecyclecostanalyseshavebeendevelopedbutdonotappear

tobeinwidespreaduse,suchastheNationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnology’sBridgeLCC software

whichwaslastupdatedin2003(availableathttp://www.bfrl.nist.gov/bridgelcc/welcome.html).Forpurposes

ofthiscredit,anysoftwarecanbeusedsolongastheinputsandresultsarejustifiable,reasonable,and

validatedbytheprofessionalsworkingontheproject.

RESEARCH

Lifecyclecostanalysis(LCCA)isaprocessforevaluatingthetotalcostofaproject,facilityorproductoveritsuseful

lifetime.Forroadwayprojects,thismeansaccountingforinitialconstructioncosts,maintenanceandrehabilitation

costs,roadwayusercostsandthirdpartycosts.LCCAcancontributetothesustainabilityofaroadwayprojectby

allowingprojectpersonneltoaccountfortotallifecyclecostswhenmakingkeyprojectdecisions.

AnimportantdistinctionmustbemadebetweenLCCAandlifecycleassessment(LCA)asthesetermsuse

confusinglysimilaracronyms.Bothhavesimilarutilityinthedecisionmakingprocess,buttheunderlyingpurpose,scopeandmathematicalmodelforeacharedifferent.Forthisreason,LCAisdiscussedindetailinothercreditsin

theGreenroadsManual (seePR3LifecycleInventoryandMR1LifecycleAssessment)whileLCCAisdiscussedhere.

LifecycleCostAnalysisMethod

LCCAissimplyamathematicalaccountingtoolthatcanbeusedtocomparethevalueofmoneyatdifferenttimes.

UnderlyingtheLCCAprocessarebasicprinciplesofbusinessfinance,whichusescompoundinterestformulas(and

tables)andreasonableassumptionsaboutthefuturetotranslatedifferenteconomicvaluestoanequalreference

pointintime.LCCAmaybequitefamiliartomanytransportationprofessionalsintheformofcostbenefitanalysis(CBA)orcommonlyjust“engineeringeconomics.”Thehowtoofbusinessfinanceandengineeringeconomicscan

befoundinaplethoraoftextbooksandwillnotbediscussedindepthhere.

LCCAisausefulprocessinroadwaydesignbecausetheresultsquantifythetotallongtermvalueofproject

alternatives.Thisprocessallowsforstraightforwardcomparisons,usuallyintermsofatotallifetimecostoratotal

lifetimebenefits.ThekeyroleofthedecisionmakerinLCCAisdeterminingappropriateassumptionsandscopefor

thecomparison,aswellasinterpretingandactingonthequantifiedresults.

Forabasicexample,consideraroadwayprojectwithtwodesignalternatives;oneisathinpavementsectionand

theotherhasthickersection.Theinitialconstructioncostofthefirstalternativeislowerthanthesecond,butthe

firstalternativerequiresadditional,morefrequentexpendituresformaintenancethroughoutitslifetime.The

projectmanagercompletesanLCCAoneachalternative.Theresultsshowthatwhilefirstalternativeisless

expensiveforinitialconstruction,thesecondalternativeactuallyhasamuchlowerlongtermcost.Thesecond

alternativehasahigherupfrontcostforinitialconstruction,butsavestheprojectownermoremoneyovertime.

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Becausethiscomparisonisnotlimitedtoupfrontcostsalone,aprojectmanagercanbetterunderstandhowtheir

designandconstructionchoicescontributetotheoveralleconomicimpactoftheproject.

LifecycleCosting,RoadwaysandSustainability

ThereissubstantialwritingtosuggestthatLCCAcontributestosustainability.Mosteffortsarecenteredon

buildings;however,theFHWAdoescontributesomeusefulinformation.Consideringbuildings,theFederal

FacilitiesCouncilrecognizedtherelationshipbetweenlifecyclecostingandsustainabledevelopmentbystating:

“Guidancerelatedtolifecyclecostingandvalueengineeringwasrecognizedasbeingsupportiveof

sustainabledevelopment,inparticularwhenusedintheconceptualplanninganddesignphasesof

acquisition,wheredecisionsaremadethatsubstantiallyaffecttheultimateperformanceofa

buildingoveritslifecycle(FederalFacilitiesCouncil,2001).”

Inessence,theywereconcernedthatfeaturesthatenhancedsustainabilitywouldbeexcludedtosaveoninitialcostswithoutconsideringlifecyclecoststhatcouldshowsuchfeaturestobewarranted.TheFHWAbelievesLCCA

shouldbeusedbecause“…transportationinvestmentdecisionsshouldconsiderallofthecostsincurredduringthe

periodoverwhichalternativesarecompared(FHWA,2002).”Thismeansconsideringthetotalcosttotheowner,

usersandexternalitiesratherthanjustthefirst,orconstruction,cost.

x Initialconstruction.Costsincurredduringtheinitialdesignandconstruction.

x Preservation.Coststomaintainandrehabilitateanasset.

x Users.Thosewhousethefacilityincurcostsduringnormaloperationandduringconstructionperiods(e.g.,

time,safety,fuelandothervehicleoperatingcosts).

x Externalities.Coststhatindirectlyimpacttheusersortheenvironmentdueto,forexample,airemissionsora

naturalhazard.

PrevalenceofLCCAandBLCCA

Accordingtothecomprehensivestateofthepracticereviewoftheapplicationsoflifecyclecostinginpracticeby

Özbayetal.(2004),LCCAhasbeeninusetosomeextentforalmost40yearsforpavementselection.Theauthors

completedathreeyearstudythatsurveyedthedivisionat39statedepartmentsoftransportation(DOTs)which

usedLCCAthemost.ThemajorityofrespondentsinthesurveyindicatedthatLCCAisappliedby:

x Researchanddesigndivision(68%)

x Materialsandpavementsdivision(37.5%)

x Bridgeoffices(12.5%)

Additionally,theauthorsfoundthatallagenciessurveyeduseLCCAonsomeformofpavementprojects.Infact,

60%oftherespondingagencieshaveadoptedformalguidelinesforpavementLCCA.However,only25%ofthose

surveyedbyOzbayetal.(2004)indicatedthatBLCCAmightbeusedonbridgeprojectsattheirstateagencieswhile

100%indicatedthatitmightbeusedonpavementprojects.

StateofthePracticePavements

AmorerecentstudyfortheSouthCarolinaDepartmentofTransportation(Rangarajuetal.,2008)foundthat

moststates(i.e.statedepartmentsoftransportation)conductLCCAbuttovaryingdegrees.Theirsurvey,

completedin2005,hadresponsesfrom33statesand2CanadianProvincesandfound:

x 94%(33of35)oftheagenciesuseLCCAaspartoftheirdecisionmakingprocess.Thisappearstobean

increaseinpercentageoveranearlierlimited2001surveythatfound8of16respondingstatesusedLCCA.

x 69%(24of35)ofrespondentsincludeorareplanningtoincludeusercostsinLCCA.Typicallythisisdoneby

quantifyinguserdelaycostsduringconstructiononly.

x Few(only2outof32)usedafullyprobabilisticapproachtocalculatinglifecyclecostswhileothersdid

conductsensitivityanalysestodeterminehowchangesinassumedparametersaffectedanalysisoutcome.

44





StateofthePracticeBridges

Ehlen(1997)providesastrong,practicalargumentfortheutilityofsystematicapplicationofBLCCAand

Thompson(2004)alsoprovidesagoodsummaryofthestateofBLCCAinbridgepractice.Henotesthat

streamlinedtoolswillexpandapplicationopportunitiesforBLCCA,especiallyintermsofnetworklevelbridge

managementsystems,butmuchmorerefinementmaybenecessaryforuncertaintiesandassumptionstobe

unifiedfromprojecttoproject.Muchofthelifecycleliteratureforbridgesappearstoberelevantto

optimizationoftheprojectandnetworklevelbridgemanagementsystems.ThesereferencesarediscussedinmoredetailinPR9PavementManagementSystem.

However,todate,themostcomprehensiveworkonBLCCAwascompletedaspartoftheNationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgramReport483:BridgeLifecycleCostAnalysis(Hawk,2003).Thisreportcontains

detailsonspecificmethodologiesthatmayberelevanttobridgedesigners,aswellaslimitations,assumptions,examples,andasoftwaretoolcalledBLCCA.

SomeofthemostrecentworkthatisrelevanttosustainabilityincludesearlyBLCCAworkbyEhlen(1999),who

attemptstoaccountforthirdpartycosts(whichhedefinesascostsofenvironmentaldamages)duetothe

lifecycleofbridgeprojects.However,valuesofzerowereusedforthesecostsinhismodel.Lately,BLCCA

literaturehasfocusedmoreonreliabilitystudiesforcatastrophicandlongtermenvironmentalstressors

includingworkbyLee,Cho,andCha(2006),Hosseretal.(2008)andPadgett,Dennemann,andGhosh(2010).

ThelatterauthorsappliedLCCAprinciplesusingariskbasedanalysisofseveralbridgeretrofitoptionssubjecttoseismichazards.Thestudymaybeparticularlyrelevanttopractitionerstryingtomodeltheirbridgeto

determineanappropriateretrofitsolutionandmaintenanceschedule.

ImpactofLCCA

GiventhatmoststatesuseLCCAinsomeformalreadythiscreditmayhavethelargesteffectinthreeareas:

1. LocalagenciesorotherownerswhodonottypicallyconductLCCAs.RealCost andBLCCAarefairly

straightforwardfreesoftwaretoolsthatshouldbeabletoprovideanswerswithreasonableeffort.

2. StateorfederalprojectsconsideredtoosmallforLCCA.Someprojects(e.g.,overlaysorotherpreservation

efforts)aregenerallydeemedtoosmallforLCCAandhavehistoricallyomittedthisprocessindecisionmaking.

3. Nonpavementprojects.Thiscreditmayencouragethewideradoptionoflifecyclecostingonnonpavement

projectssuchasbridgesandothermajorstructures,intelligenttransportationsystems,orothertypesofassetswhereLCCAapplicationsarenotcommonpractice.

GLOSSARY

REFERENCES

CaliforniaDepartmentofTransportation(Caltrans).(2007).LifeCycleCostAnalysisProceduresManual .Stateof

CaliforniaDepartmentofTransportation,PavementStandardsTeam&DivisionofDesign.

http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/Translab/ope/LCCA.html.Accessed11November2008.

Agencycost Acostincurredbytheagencyofaroadwaysuchasmaintenance,repair,

rehabilitation,improvement,andreplacement(Thompson,2004)

BLCCA BridgeLifeCycleCostAnalysis

Externality Anindirectcostincurredbyanypartyduetotheproject,suchasdamageto

theenvironment,whichishardtoquantifyusingtraditionalaccounting.

LCCA LifeCycleCostAnalysis

Salvagevalue Theestimatedmonetaryvalueofanassetattheendofitsusefullife.

Thirdpartycost SeeExternality.

Usercost Acostincurredbytheusersofaroadwaysuchascollisionrisk,detours,andtimedelay(Thompson,2004)

45





Ehlen,M.A.(1997).LifeCycleCostsofNewConstructionMaterials. JournalofInfrastructureSystems.3(4),129

133.

Ehlen,M.A.(1999).“Lifecyclecostsoffiberreinforcedpolymerbridgedecks.”J.Mater.Civ.Eng.113,224–230.

FederalFacilitiesCouncil.(2001).SustainableFederalFacilities:AGuidetoIntegratingValueEngineering,LifeCycle

Costing,andSustainableDevelopment .FederalFacilitiesCouncilTechnicalReportNo.142,NationalAcademyPress,Washington,D.C.

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2002).LifeCycleCostAnalysisPrimer .OfficeofAssetManagement,FHWA,U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,WashingtonD.C.

FederalHighwayAdmnistration(n.d).“FactSheetsonHighwayProvisions,”SAFETEALUFactSheets–Stewardship

andOversight.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/safetealu/factsheets/stewardover.htmAccessed31

December31,2010.

Gransberg,D.D.&Molenaar,K.R.(2004).LifeCycleCostAwardAlgorithmsforDesign/BuildHighwayPavement

Projects. JournalofInfrastructureSystems,Vol.10,Issue4,pp.167175.

Hawk,H.(2003).Bridgelifecyclecostanalysis.NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgramReport483.Washington,D.C:TransportationResearchBoard,NationalResearchCouncil.

Hosser,D.,Klinzmann,C.,&Schnetgoke,R.(2008).Aframeworkforreliabilitybasedsystemassessmentbasedon

structuralhealthmonitoring.StructureandInfrastructureEngineering,4,4,271285.

Land,R.D.(2007).UseofLifeCycleCostAnalysisforPavements.MemorandumtoDistrictDirectorsfromtheState

ofCaliforniaDepartmentofTransportationChiefEngineer.Availableat

http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/Translab/ope/UseofLCCAforPavements.pdf .Accessed11November2008.

Lee,K.M.,Cho,H.N.,&Cha,C.J.(2006).Lifecyclecosteffectiveoptimumdesignofsteelbridgesconsidering

environmentalstressors.EngineeringStructures,28,9,12521265.

Özbay,K.etal.(2004).Lifecyclecostanalysis:Stateofthepracticeversusstateoftheart.TransportationResearch

Record,1864,6270.

Padgett,J.E.,Dennemann,K.,&Ghosh,J.(2010).Riskbasedseismiclifecyclecostbenefit(LCCB)analysisfor

bridgeretrofitassessment.StructuralSafety.32(3),165.

Rangaraju,P.R.;Amirkhanian,S.&Zeynep,G.(2008).LifeCycleCostAnalysisforPavement .ReportbyClemsonUniversityfortheSouthCarolinaDepartmentofTransportation,Columbia,SC.Availableat

http://www.clemson.edu/t3s/scdot/pdf/projects/SPR656Final.pdf .Accessed17October2008.

Thompson,P.D.(2004).BridgelifecyclecostinginIntegratedEnvironmentofDesign,RatingandManagement.

TransportationResearchRecord.

Walls,J.&Smith,M.R.(1998).LifeCycleCostAnalysisinPavementDesign.InterimTechnicalBulletin.ReportNo.

FHWASA98079.FHWA,U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,Washington,D.C.

WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2005).PavementTypeSelectionProtocol .EnvironmentalandEngineeringProgramsDivision,MaterialsLaboratory,WSDOT,Olympia,WA.

http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/biz/mats/Pavement/Technotes/PTSP_Jan2005.pdf .Accessed11November2008.

46




PR-3 Lifecycle Inventory

LIFECYCLE INVENTORYGOAL

Incorporateenergyandemissionsinformationintothedecisionmakingprocessfor

pavementdesignalternatives.

REQUIREMENTS

Completealifecycleinventoryforthefinalpavementdesignalternativefortheproject

usingthesoftwaretool,PaLATEv2.2asmodifiedforGreenroads,orapprovedequal.

Reportonlyresultsfortotalenergyuseandglobalwarmingpotential(GWP)(incarbon

dioxideequivalentemissions,CO2e)forthefinalpavementdesignalternative.The

followinginputvaluesarerequiredforPaLATEv2.2:

x Totalweightandtypesofvirginmaterials.Thisincludesaggregates,binders,base

materials,andstructures.Theseamountscanbedesignestimatesorconstructed

totals.

x Totalweightandtypesofrecycledmaterials.PaLATEv2.2modelsemissionsand

energyforseveraltypesofmaterials.x Expectedtransportationdistancesforallmaterials.Thismeansdistancesfrom

sourcetoproductionaswellasfromproductiontosite.Transportationofwasteto

disposalisalsoincluded.

x Expectedconstructionvehicletypes.Theseinclude,butarenotlimitedto,pavers,

mixers,haulingvehicles,excavators,rollers,andfinishingequipment.

x Estimateddesignlife.UsethesameinputdataasusedinthePR2LifecycleCost

Analysis.

x Scheduledyearsandexpectedtypeofmaintenance.Usethesameinputdataas

usedinthePR2LifecycleCostAnalysis.Thisinformationshouldalsomatchthe

projectspecificationsprovidedtomeettherequirementsforPR9Pavement

MaintenancePlanandPR10SiteMaintenancePlan.

Details

ThereareseveralbuiltinlimitationstothePaLATEtool,whicharediscussedin

detailinthemodifiedtooldocumentation.Werecommenduseofthistoolbecause

weareawareoftheselimitations,wehavechecked(ormodified)thedatasources,

weknowthatthesoftwarereportsthetworequestedpiecesofinformationreliably

forbothasphaltandconcretepavements(evenwithavarietyofrecycled

materials),wefinditrelativelyeasytouse,andwehavemodifiedthetooltomeet

Greenroadsinformationalneeds.ThetoolisavailableontheGreenroadswebsite

(http://www.greenroads.us)fordownload.

Thereareafewothersoftwaretoolsthatareavailablefordevelopinglifecycle

inventories,bothfreeandproprietary.ThesetoolsarealsoacceptableiftheyareabletoproduceenergyuseandGWPoutputsanduseatransparentinterfacethat

clearlyreferencesdatasourcesusedtocomputethesevalues.

DOCUMENTATION

x Acopyoftheinput/outputpageforPaLATEv2.2forGreenroads.Ifothersoftware

isused,providealistofdatasourcesinadditiontotheinputlistandoutputvalues

fortotalenergyuseandGWP.

PR-3

REQUIRED

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR2LifecycleCost

Analysis

9 PR9Pavement

ManagementSystem

9 PR10Site

MaintenancePlan

9 MR1LifecycleAssessment

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Equity

9 Extent

9 Expectations

9 Exposure

BENEFITS9 Improves

Accountability


9 CreatesNew

Information

47




Lifecycle Inventory PR-3


x UsePaLATEv2.2forGreenroadsasmodifiedbytheUniversityofWashington.ThetoolisavailableinMicrosoft

Excel2003and2007formatontheGreenroadswebsiteat:http://www.greenroads.us.Alllimitationsand

modificationsmadebyGreenroadshavebeendetailedinthesupportingworksheetswithinthetoolitself.

x ProvidealistofdatasourcesifnotusingPaLATEv2.2asmodifiedforGreenroads.

x

DownloadacopyoftheoriginalversionofPaLATEandmodifyitforuseonyourprojectandfutureprojects.TheoriginalPaLATEtool,createdin2003bytheConsortiumofGreenDesignattheUniversityofCalifornia,

Berkeley,isavailableinMicrosoft2003formatfromtheRecycledMaterialsResourceCenterattheUniversity

ofNewHampshirehere:http://www.recycledmaterials.org/Resources/CD/PaLATE/PaLATE.xls.Weknowthe

limitationsofthistoolandknowhowitworks,andmaybeabletoassistyouinmodifyingthetooltocorrect

someoftheknownerrorsthatcouldimpacttheoutcomeofyourprojectLCI(suchasdoublecountingandmaterialdensities).

x UseprocessbaseddatafromthefreeNationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory(NREL)LCIdatabase,emissions

factorandfuelusedatafromtheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)andtheDepartmentofEnergy(DOE),

andfollowtheLCIprocessmethodologyoutlinedbytheInternationalStandardsOrganization(ISO)14040and

14044tocompleteaprocessbasedLCIforthefinalpavementsection.

x Useeconomicinputoutputdatainthecustomizable,freetoolforEconomicInput/OutputLifeCycle

Assessment(EIOLCA)fromtheGreenDesignInstituteatCarnegieMellonUniversity.However,thistooldoes

notallowforinclusionofprojectspecificprocessdata.TheEIOLCAtool,includingguidanceonhowtousethetool,isavailableathttp://www.eiolca.net.EIOLCAisthebasisofthePaLATEtool,sotheguidancedocument

maybehelpfulindevelopinganinitialunderstandingofhowthemodelworks.

x UsenewsoftwaretoolCHANGER(CalculatorforHarmonisedAssessmentandNormalisationofGreenhousegas

EmissionsforRoads),whichhasbeenspecificallydesignedforroadwaysbytheInternationalRoadFederation

(IRF).Thissoftwareisnotfree,butisavailablefordownloadfromtheIRFat:http://www.irfnet.org/.

x DonotuselifecycleassessmenttoolsthatareavailableforbuildingstoconstructtheprojectLCImodelforthe

roadwayproject.Thereareseveralofthesetoolsavailable,howevertheydonotincludeenoughprocessdata

aboutroadwaymaterialsorassociatedconstructionequipmenttopresentresultsthataremeaningfulto

roadwaysandareoftenofquestionablevalidityandrelevance.

x Considerhiringaconsultantwithexperienceinlifecycleassessment(LCA)andinvolvetheminproject

development.ThisapproachmaybeusefulinsimultaneouslymeetingthecreditrequirementsforCreditMR1

LifecycleAssessment.Thebenefitsofthisapproachincludeafull,projectspecificreviewofenvironmentalemissionsimpactsthatextendsthescopepastreportingCO2eandenergy,allofwhichmaybeusedtomakea

moreinformeddecisionaboutprojectdesignalternatives.LCAexpertsorfirmsmayalsohaveaccessto

proprietarydataandsoftwarewhichmayproduceamoreaccurate,comprehensive,andprojectbasedmodels

duetohigheroveralldataqualityandfewerdatagaps.Additionally,thereislesslikelihoodofdoublecounting.

Example: Sample PaLATE v2.2 Results

Thisexamplerepresentsafictitious12inch,12footwidelaneofasphaltpavementsectionwitha12inchdeep

and14footwidegravelsubbase,comprised(byvolume)of80%graveland20%sandwithanassumeddesign

lifeof15years.Thisexampleusestypicalproductionprocessandconstructionequipmentandthedefault

densitiesforallmaterials.Itisalsoassumedthatasphaltis5%byweightofthefinalHMAmixture.Notethat

thisisanunrealisticexampleofanLCIbecauseitdoesnotincludetransportation,maintenanceordemolition

forsimplicity.Itisonlyrepresentativeoftheconstructionphaseoftheroadway.

TablePR3.1showstheinputvaluesusedforPaLATEv2.2onthe“Construction”worksheetpage.Output

values,fromthe“Results”worksheetpage,areshowninTablePR3.2.

48





thesameeventhoughtheamountofprocessing(andthusenergyandemissions)requiredtomakethese

materialsisrealisticallyslightlydifferent.Also,HMAplantproductionprocessdatahasbeenmodifiedfromthe

originalPaLATEtobeprocessbasedondatafromtheEPAAP42.

TheEIOLCAdatabaseappearstousetheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)2nd

Assessment

Report(SAR)in1996tocomputetheindexforGlobalWarmingPotentialbasedonCO2e,thoughthisisnot

explicitlystated.NotethattheIPCCpublishedrevisedvaluesforgreenhousegasemissionsin2007(seeSolomonetal.).ItisunclearifandwhenthesenewvalueswillbeincorporatedintotheEIOLCAdatabase;

however,thisdetailisirrelevanttotheintentofthisProjectRequirementandislikelytobeonlyslightlyhigher

orlowerthanthevaluecomputed.

Additionally,thereareseverallimitationsbuiltintoamodelthatusesapreexistingframework.Ofparticular

importanceisthepotentialformissingdatawhereCO2eorenergyuseisnotrecordedorotherwisemeasured,

especiallywhentakenasrepresentativeofanentireeconomicsector,becausethesemissingdataarehiddenin

theaggregatedtotalsandaredifficulttoidentifyonaprocesslevel.TheEIOLCAassumptionsandlimitations

regardingtheeconomicsectorenergyandemissionsmodelarecitedindetailat:

x EIOLCAAssumptionsandUncertainty:http://www.eiolca.net/Method/assumptionsanduncertainty.html

x EIOLCAModelLimitations:http://www.eiolca.net/Method/Limitations.html

ReferencesusedfortheoriginalPaLATEdatasources,aswellasthedataandmodificationsthathavebeen

madetothetoolbytheUniversityofWashington,aredocumentedinthetoolitself.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. AsimplifiedLCI,suchastheonerequiredhere,isnotintendedtodictatefinalprojectdecisionsmade.Instead,

itisintendedtoinformthedecisionmakingprocessthroughuseofbasicenvironmentalaccounting.

2. ThisProjectRequirementrequiresreportingonlytwovaluesforonlyonedesignalternative.Thereasonforthis

isthatthesetwovaluesarenotgenerallyconsideredintraditionalroadwayprojectplanningordecision

making.However,ingeneral,morethanonealternativemaybeconsidered(andcompared),andseveraltypes

ofemissionsmayalsobepertinenttothedecisionmakingprocess.Wefeelthatrequiringonlythefinaldesign

optionisasasmallsteptowardthiscomparisonprocess,butcouldleadtomorethoughtfulaccountingfor

multipledecisionoptionsinthefuture.

3. PaLATEinvestigationsarelimitedtothepavementsectionandstructuresonly.Thisincludesbaseandsubbase

materials,andalsorecycledmaterialoptions,butdoesnotincludeotherelementsoftheroadway

environment.

4. OperationalemissionsduetovehiculartrafficarealsonotconsideredineitherversionofPaLATE.Theseare,

however,addressedelsewhereinGreenroads,becauseadifferentsoftwaretoolisrecommendedforthis

modeling.SeeCreditAE4TrafficEmissionsReduction.

5. WebelievethattheEIOLCAsectormodelusedinthemodifiedPaLATEv2.2forGreenroadsreportsGWPbased

onoutdatedvaluesassignedbytheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)in1996,insteadofthe

morecurrent2007values.Documentationregardingthisissueisunclear.Thismeansvaluesoutputfrom

PaLATEv2.2canonlybecomparedtoothervaluesoutputfromPaLATEv2.2.Directcomparisonstoother

softwaretools,withoutathoroughinvestigationorreviewoftheirunderlyingassumptionsoruncertainties,are

thereforenotvalid.6. SectoremissionsandenergyreportedfortheEIOLCAdatausedinthemodifiedversionofPaLATEinclude

feedstockemissionsandenergyfromtheextractionprocessofpetroleumproductsandcementproducts

(representedasapercentageofthetotalcontributiontothecostforthestreamlinedprocessesmodeled).7. Technically,afulllifecycleassessment(LCA)isamuchmoreinvolvedanddetailedprocessthanasimple

softwarebasedlifecycleinventory(LCI)modelcaninclude.LCAinvolvesadditionalconsiderationsoutsidethepavementsectionaloneandishighlydependentonquality,availabilityandrelevanceofdata.Additionally,an

impactassessmentstepisincludedinLCAwhichisnotnecessaryforLCI.Impactassessmentinvolvesassigning

50





valuationsandweightstocertainoutputsfromtheLCI.Forthisreason,creditisawardedforafullLCAinCredit

MR1LifecycleAssessment.

8. Economiclifecycleassessmentmodelsbasedoncapitalandlifetimemaintenancecostsdonottypicallyinclude

considerationsofenergyoremissions.However,lifecyclecostmodelsareequallyimportantandarecovered

underProjectRequirementPR2LifecycleCostAnalysis.

9. Similarly,socialimpactscanbemeasuredusingcertaincommonmetricsandindicesthatareintendedto

representqualityoflife,health,orotherequityrelated,humancentricissues(suchasbirthanddeathratesorproductivityrates).Thesearenotwellresearchedandfewsystematicapproacheshavebeenrefinedwell

enoughforincorporationintothelifecycledecisionmakingprocessrequirementsforGreenroadsprojects.The

utilityofapplyingtheseglobalmetricsandindicesonaprojectlevelarealsonotwellunderstoodor

documented.However,theenvironmentalreviewprocess(seePR1EnvironmentalReviewProcess)addresses

socialimpactsonaprojectlevel.

10. Theexampleleavesouttransportationandmaintenanceonpurpose.Itshouldbeunderstoodthatitssimplicity

ismeanttodemonstrateaprocesstask;itisclearlynotmeanttobescaledbysimplemultiplicationbythetotal

mileageoftheproject.Eachprojectwill,andshouldbe,differentandnonewillmatchthisexample.Thisisalso

whyboththeinputandoutputvaluesarerequiredforreview.

RESEARCH

Lifecycleassessment(LCA)canbeausefuldecisionmakingtoolforbenchmarkingroadwayenvironmentalperformance(Schenck,2000;Keoleian&Spitzley,2006;Cooper&Fava,2006)andasamethodofenvironmental

accountingforroadwaysystems.ThisparticularrequirementisthelastpartofaseriesofthreerelatedProjectRequirements,whichalsoincludePR1EnvironmentalReviewProcessandPR2LifecycleCostAnalysis.This

requirementfocusesondevelopingaprojectspecificenvironmentalaccountinginventory(alifecycleinventory:

LCI)toaidinthedecisionmakingprocessandalsoestablishesbaselineenvironmentalperformance(specifically

energyuseandcarbondioxideemissions)fortheroadwaypavementsection.Projectcostsandsocialimplications

areaddressedinpriorrequirementsPR1andPR2.Adiagramofthemainprocessesinagenericpavement

lifecycleisprovidedinFigurePR3.1(nextpage).

AmoredetaileddiscussionofsomeofthefinerdetailsandtypesofLCAmethodologyisprovidedintheResearchsectionofCreditMR1LifecycleAssessment.ThissectionintroducesLCAandLCIandprovidesareviewofexisting

literatureforroads.

WhatisLifecycleAssessment?

Lifecycleassessment(LCA)isastandardized,comprehensivetoolthatcanbeusedforanalyzingandquantifying

theenvironmentalimpactsandsustainabilityofaproduct,system,and/orprocess.TheInternationalStandards

Organization(ISO:2006a)statesthatLCAisaprocessthat“addressestheenvironmentalaspectsandpotential

environmentalimpacts(e.g.useofresourcesandtheenvironmentalconsequencesofreleases)throughouta

product’slifecyclefromrawmaterialacquisition,throughproduction,use,endoflifetreatment,recyclingand

finaldisposal(i.e.cradletograve).”Effectively,the“product”forthisGreenroadsrequirementistheentireroadwayprojectsystem.

LCAisatoolthatcanprovideperspectiveonmanyelementsofasystem,effectivelylinkingtheproductionofa

materialtoitsuse(Keoleian&Spitzley,2006).Inengineeringapplications,LCAoffersaholistic,systemsbased

approachtoprojectdevelopmentandprojectmanagement.Itisoftenemployedasamethodofdevelopingprocessalternatives.Alifecycleperspectivenecessitatesaunique,andoftenunconventional,management

strategytooptimizeperformanceofmaterials,supplychains,andtominimizeoreliminatepollutingactivities.

51





FigurePR3.1:Basiclifecycleactivitiesandsystemdiagramfortypicalpavements.(Weiland,2008)

Lifecycleassessmentshavefourstages(orphases)whichareofteniterative.TheseareshowngraphicallyinFigure

PR3.2anddescribedbelow.

FigurePR3.2:StagesofLifecycleAssessment(AdaptedfromISO,2006a;ISO,2006b)

x GoalandScope.SpecifyingthegoaloftheprojectLCAdocumentstheintendedapplication,referenced

literaturefortheproject,intendedaudience(heretheGreenroadsreviewteam),andproprietarystatusoffinal

results.Italsodefineswhatthingorprocesswillbestudiedandhowmuchwillbeproducedbythemodel.The

mostimportantpartofthisstepcomeswithdefiningthesystemboundariesandidentifyingtheprocessesandemissionstobeincludedinthefinaloutcome.Additionally,thissectionidentifiessomekeylimitationsand

assumptionsofthemodel(specifically,whatwasscopedout,whatprocessesweresimplifiedandhowthey

wereestimated).SincetheLCAprocessisiterative,itiscrucialfortheprojectteamtodevelopawelldefined

goalandscopeinordertohaveameaningfulendproduct.

x LifecycleInventoryAnalysis(LCI).The2006ISO14044StandardSection4.3providesthebasicbackgroundand

proceduresrequiredforlifecycleinventoryanalysesbasedonthefunctionalunitsandreferenceflowsdefined

intheGoalandScope.Afunctionalunitisdefinedasthe“quantifiedperformanceofaproductsystemforuse

asareferenceunit.”Areferenceflowisthe“measureoftheoutputsfromprocessesinagivenproductsystem

52





x Settinglifecycleboundariesatasystemlevelallowsforcomprehensiveenvironmental,socialandeconomic

accountingmetricstobeusedinameaningfulwaytomeasureandmonitorperformance.

x Lifecyclemetricsinformdecisionmakersandcanbeusedbystakeholderstomanageandassessthesystem

orproduct(Keoleian&Spitzey,2006).

x LCAcanhelpidentify“opportunitiestoimproveenvironmentalperformanceofproductsatvariouspoints

intheirlifecycle.”(ISO,2006a)

x LCAcanhelpinformtheindustrydecisionmakers,governmentagenciesandpolicymakersforstrategicplanning,performancebenchmarking,orproductdevelopmentandredesign.(ISO,2006a)

x LCAcanhelpevaluatetherelevanceofvariousindicatorsforenvironmentalperformance(ISO,2006a).

x LCAprovidesamarketingopportunitysuchasecolabelinganddeclarationsofenvironmentalperformance

(ISO,2006a).

AsurveycompletedbyCooperandFavain2006showsthatLCAiswidelyusedforanumberofapplications.

TablePR3.3summarizestheresults,bypercentageofrespondents.

TablePR3.3:PrevalenceLCAUsebyPractioners(AdaptedfromCooper&Fava,2006)

UseofLCA Response

Businessstrategyandplanning 63%

Productandsystemresearchanddevelopment 62%Inputsfordesign(productsorprocesses) 52%

Education 46%

Policydevelopment 43%

Marketingschemes(labeling,environmentaldeclarations) 37%

Sales 26%

Procurement 20%

Other(includingbiddingortenderpackages) 8%

TypesofLCAs

Ingeneral,therearethreeorfourtypesofLCAmodelsdependingonthesourceofinformation.Onetypeisthe

EconomicInputOutputmodel(EIO)forLifeCycleAssessment(EIOLCA).Forexample,thisProjectRequirementisbasedonanEIOLCAmodel(http://www.eiolca.net).SecondisaprocessbasedLCA,whichfollowsa

standardmethodologysetforthbytheInternationalStandardsOrganization(ISO)14040and14044forLifecycleAssessment.Thismethod,alsocalledISOLCA(Cooper&Fava,2006),oftenproducesmoredetailed

resultsthantheEIOLCAmodel(Hendrickson,Lave&Matthews,2006).ProcessbasedLCAsinvolveproject

specificprocessdataandgenerallyuseacomputationaltoolormatrixanalysistoformamodelandcomplete

theassessmentofdata,suchthemethodoutlinedbyHeijungsandSuh(2002).Therealsoisathirdmethodof

lifecycleassessment,whichisrecentlybecomingmoreprevalentcalledHybridLCA,whereanEIOmodelis

supplementedbyorintegratedwithprocessbaseddatatoproduceamorecomprehensiverepresentationof

theenvironmentaleffectsofthesystemprocesses.ThesearediscussedinfurtherdetailinCreditMR1

LifecycleAssessment.

ModifyinganyofthesethreeLCAmethodologiesmayresultinwhatiscalleda“streamlinedLCA;”whilenotaspecificclassortypeofLCA,astreamlinedLCAstrategicallyomitsorsimplifiestheLCAmethodtomakeitless

computationallyintensive,suchasthroughthecreationofasoftwaretool(Weitz,Todd,Curran&Malkin,

1996)thatdeliberatelyleavesoutcollectionofsometypesofdataoraparticularimpactassessment.The

PaLATEv2.0forGreenroadsisanexampleofastreamlinedEIOLCAtool.Thereareanumberofdifferent

streamlinedtoolsavailableforroadswhichvaryinLCAmethodology(i.e.streamlinedISOLCAtools).In

additiontothePaLATEtoolsoriginallydevelopedbyHorvathetal.(2003):

x Huangetal.(2008,2009)hasdevelopedaMicrosoftExceltoolforstreamliningpavementLCAsandsystemmodeling(basedintheUnitedKingdom)

54





x Birgisdór(2005),ChristensenandBirgisdór(2006),Birgisdóretal.(2007)describethedevelopmentof

theDanishROADRESsoftwaretoolforthatincorporatesmunicipalsolidwasteincineratorresiduesin

pavementLCAs.

x Apuletal.(n.d.;Apul,2007)attheUniversityofToledodevelopedawebbasedtoolforLCAcalled

BenReModLCA(BeneficialReuseModules).Anextensionofthistool,asamulticriteriadecisionmaking

tool,BenReModMCDA,iscurrentlyunderdevelopmentbythesameauthors.Bothtoolsareavailableat:

http://benremod.eng.utoledo.edu/BenReMod/x CHANGER(theCalculatorforHarmonisedAssessmentandNormalisationofGreenhousegasEmissionsfor

Roads),apaidsoftwaretool,recentlybecameavailableformodelinggreenhousegasemissionsfrom

pavementsforfromtheInternationalRoadFederation(IRF,2010).CHANGERincludesdatasourcesfor188

countriesandglobalandregionalincomegroups(IRF,2010).

Eachofthesestreamlinedtoolshasdrawbacksduetovariousbuiltinassumptionsandlimitations.Most

commonlythesetoolssufferfromdoublecountingerrors,poororverypoordataquality,lackoftransparency,

dataomissionsandgeneraluserunfriendliness.Thismeanstheymaynotproducereliableormeaningful

resultsthataccuratelyorpreciselyreflectroadwaylifecycleimpacts.

ItisunlikelyaprocessbasedLCIwillproduceresultsthatmatchofastreamlinedLCImodeloranEIOLCA

model.ThisisduetoissueswithdataqualityandthescopeoftheEIOmodelsandtheirgenerallackofprocess

specificitytoparticularprocesseswithinasystem.Thus,itisalsounlikelythattheinventorydataproducedfor

PR3willmatchtheresultsoftheProcessBasedLCAorHybridLCArequiredfortheCreditMR1.

ExistingRoadwayLCAs

TheweightofanyVoluntaryCreditinGreenroadsv1.5thatinvolvesmaterials,construction,transportationfrom

constructionandtrafficuse,wasdeterminedbyathoroughreviewofexistinglifecycleassessmentliteraturefor

roads.WeusedtheliteraturereviewprocessinattempttoidentifypatternsfortypicalLCAresultsforLCAsthat

usedatransparent,systematicapproachtoevaluatethepavementsectionandreportedthetotalenergyuseortotalCO2(orCO2e).Eachdocumentreviewed(thereare,todate13paperswith45differentrealorhypothetical

roadtypes).(AthenaInstitute,2006;Carpenteretal.,2007;Chuietal.,2008;Horvath,2003;Huangetal.,2009a;

Huangetal.,2009b;Mrouehetal.,2001;Rajendran&Gambatese,2007;Schenck,2000;Stripple,2000;Stripple,

2001;Weiland,2008;Zapata&Gambatese,2005)Formoreinformationonhowtheweightingdecisionswere

made,pleaserefertotheintroductionofthismanualortoMuench&Anderson(submittedforpublication).Weusedasystematic,lifecyclebasedapproachtodeterminetheiroverallcreditweightonafivepointscale,with

someconcessions,whichareexplainedinMuench&Anderson.

TypesofInvestigations

FivepapersaddressedPCCpavements(10assessments),whileall13addressHMApavements(36assessments).NotethatSchenck(2000)addressedresurfacingmaintenanceonly,andherresultsarenot

includedinthefollowingfiguresortables.FigurePR3.3(nextpage)showsthedescribedpavementstructure

foreachstudiedassessment(12papers,43total).Eachauthoruseddifferentdatasourcesanddefinedtheir

systemboundariesdifferently.However,abasicstatisticalanalysisshowsthattherearesomenoticeable

generaltrendsonaperlanekilometerbasisofthe43LCAstudies.Thesetrendsincludesimilaritiesinthescope

ofthestudy(pavementsectiononly),resultsonenergyuseandCO2production,andacontributionanalysisof

theenergyandCO2attributableaccordingtoeachlifecyclephaseoftheroadway.Weusedmedianvaluesto

limitinfluenceofextremeoutliersinthedata.

Thescopeandboundariesofmostpapers(10assessments)examineonlythepavementstructureandexclude

otherelementsoftheroadway.Stripple(2001),however,completedtheonlyfulllifecycleinventorythatincludedotherroadwayactivitiesandmaterialneeds,likelandclearing,electricutilities,andsigns.Thispaper

isdiscussedinfurtherdetailinCreditMR1.Thephasestypicallyconsideredinthescopeoftheassessments

areinitialconstructionandpavementrelatedmaintenanceactivitiesoverageneralrangeofassumeddesignlivesbetween40to50years.Twopapersalsoincludedvehicleemissionsfromtrafficduringtheoperationand

useofthecompletedroadway(Stripple,2001;Kennedy,2006).

55





FigurePR3.3:LCAassessmentsandtheirstudiedpavementstructures.(Muench&Anderson,Submitted)

56





EnergyUse

Totalenergyusewasreportedby35assessments,andthedistributionin

rangesofterajoules(TJ)isshowninFigurePR3.4.Themedianresultis

approximately3.17TJperlanekm.ThestudybyHorvath(2003)

representedtheextremeoutlier,reportinganenergyuseof17.25TJper

lanekm(10.72TJperlanemile).ThisistheonlystudythatusestheEIO

LCAmodelandtheoriginalversionofthePaLATEsoftware,whichisrecommendedinmodifiedformforcompletingthisGreenroadsProject

Requirement.AreviewoftheoriginalPaLATEsoftwareindicatedthat

thereareseveralerrorsinkeycostandemissionsvalues,whichinour

opinionrendersthisnumber(butnotthemethod)suspect.Areasonable

approximationofthetotalenergyexpenditureattributabletoonetypical

lanekmofpavementis24TJ,whichvariesslightlydependinguponthe

pavementstructureandmaterial.In2005,theaverageannualAmerican

residentialhouseholdenergyusewas0.1TJ(94.9millionBTU:Energy

InformationAdministration,2009).Thismeansonelanekmofroadwayusesthesameenergyas2040

householdsdoinoneyear.ToputthisinmorefamiliarU.S.measuresofroads:themedianenergyuseofone

mileofroadrepresentstheaverageenergyuseof51homesinoneyear,withtherangeofenergyconsumption

representingthatusedbybetween3264homesayear.

FigurePR3.4.Distributionofenergyuseinpavementsfor34assessmentsin9pavementLCApapers.

Eachsymbolrepresentsoneassessment.(Muench,Anderson,Submitted)

CarbonDioxide(CO2)Emissions

SixpapersreportedtotalCO2emissionsfromatotalof19assessmentsandonepaperreportedglobalwarming

potential(expressedinCO2e)ratherthanCO2onlyemissionsonanother12assessments(31total).Itisunclear

ifthefirstsixpaperswerereportingCO2eoronlyCO2;however,thiswouldnotsignificantlyinfluencethe

statisticalresultseitherway.Theresultsshowamedianvalueof243metrictons(MT)perlanekm,thoughthe

distributionhadhighervariabilitythantheresultsforenergyuse.ThehistogramisshowninFigurePR3.5.The

highestvalueswerecitedinthepapersbyStripple(2000and2001)whichincludedaspectsofroad

DID YOU KNOW?

Themedianenergyusebyone

lane,onemilelong,ofroad

pavementrepresentsthesameenergyusethatabout51

averageU.S.householdsusein

onewholeyear.

Howmanyhouseholdsdoesit

takeyoutodrivetowork?

57





constructionoutsidetheprimaryroadstructuralmaterialsandconstructionactivities.Therefore,areasonable

approximaterangeofthetotalCO2emissionsthatisattributabletoonetypicallanekmofpavementis100

500MT,whichvariesslightlydependinguponthepavementstructureandmaterial,andalsothescopeofthe

LCA.OnemetrictonneofCO2,atstandardtemperatureandpressure,hasavolumeofabout729cubicmeters

(FigurePR3.6).

FigurePR3.5.DistributionofCO2emissionsinpavementfor32assessmentsin7pavementLCApapers.Each

symbolrepresentsoneassessment.(Muench,Anderson,Submitted)

FigurePR3.6:Onemetricton(MT)ofCO2asmodeledbyaMassachusettshighschoolphysicsclass.Thecube

is27feetperside.(http://www.energyrace.com/images/uploads/commentary/co2cube4.jpg)

58





ContributionAnalysisofLifecycleStages

Severalpapers,asshowninTablePR3.4andTablePR3.5,analyzedenergyuseandCO2emissionsaccordingto

fourmajorlifecyclestagesoractivities:materialsproduction,pavementconstruction(initialandmaintenance),

andtransportationassociatedwithconstruction.Therelativecontributionsofeachstageoractivityare

reasonablyconsistentacrossthesmallnumberofstudies.Ingeneral,materialsproductionaccountsforabout

75%ofenergyuseand6070%ofCO2emissions;constructionaccountsforlessthan5%ofbothenergyuseand

CO2emissions;andtransportofmaterialsforproductionandduringconstructionaccountsforabout20%ofenergyuseandabout10%ofCO2emissions.Maintenanceactivitiesseemtoaccountforabout25%ofenergy

useandabout1020%ofCO2emissionswhencomparedtoinitialconstruction.

TablePR3.4:RelativeEnergyContributionsofRoadConstructionLifecycleStages

(AdaptedfromMuench&Anderson,Submitted)

LifecycleStage No.Papers No. LCAs Average(%) Median (%) St.Dev(%) Range(%)

MaterialsProduction 5 14 74 73 13 6098

Construction 5 14 3 2 2 210

Transportation 4 12 21 21 11 738

InitialConstruction 4 8 74 73 21 4597

Maintenance 4 8 26 27 21 355

TablePR3.5:RelativeCO2EmissionContributionsofRoadConstructionLifecycleStages(ibid.)

LifecycleStage No.Papers No.LCAs Average(%) Median(%) St.Dev(%) Range(%)

MaterialsProduction 1 3 69 61 15 6087

Construction 1 3 4 4 2 16

Transportation 1 3 8 9 3 410

InitialConstruction 3 16 78 86 20 45100

Maintenance 3 16 22 14 20 055

Basedontheseresults,therearesomegeneralrulesofthumbwhichareshowninTablePR3.6.

TablePR3.6:Generalrulesofthumbforpavementenergyandemissions(ibid.)

Comparison EnergyUse CO2Emissions

MaterialsProductiontoConstructionProcesses 25to1 16to1

TransportationtoConstruction 8 to1 3to1

MaintenanceActivitiestoInitialConstruction 1to3 1to4

ANoteonDisposal,Use,andOperationsLifecycleStages

Notincludedinthefiguresortablesabovearethreeverycriticallifecyclestagesoractivities:use(vehiculartraffic),

operations(suchaslightingandsignals),andthewastedisposalprocessfromdemolishedpavements.RajendranandGambatese(2007)attemptedtoquantifywasteproductionprocessesthroughouttheroadwaylifecycle,

especiallyinconstruction.However,thisistheonlystudythathasdoneso.AsnotedinPR6ConstructionWasteManagementPlanandbyRajendranandGambetese(2007),thereisverylittleinformationavailableaboutthe

generationordisposalofroadwaywasteproducts.Also,severalauthorsinvestigatedeitherabyweightorby

volumeapproachtoreplacingpavementmaterialsinkindwithdifferentrecycledmaterials(suchascoalflyashinsteadofcement)inordertoreducethelifecycleenergyuseorCO2emissions.Theseassessments,ingeneral,are

complicatedtomodelbecauserecycledmaterialsgenerallycamefromanothersystemthatisoutsidethescopeor

theboundariesoftheassessment.Introducingrecycledmaterialsintoanewroadwayprojectsystemoreven

reusingwastematerialsgeneratedfromtheprojectitselfrepresentsafeedbackloop,becausethematerialsare

reintroducedsomewhereintoapreviouslifecyclestagealongthesystemsupplychain.Itisthereforeoftendifficult

todisaggregatetheenvironmentalaccountabilityandassignittoaresponsiblepartywhenusingrecycledmaterial.

Thereareavarietyofmethodsused,andagain,eachhasitsownassumptions,limitations,uncertainties,

advantagesanddisadvantages.

59





Further,onlyonestudy(Stripple,2001)investigatedoperations.Ingeneral,electricalequipmentsuchasthatused

forsignalsandlightingcontributedthemosttoenergyuseandCO2emissionsofalltheoperationalcomponents

studied,(1)forruralenvironments,operationscontributedalmostnegligiblyforbothenergyandCO2,and(2)the

energymixusedwasbasedonSwedishpowersources,whicharemostlyhydropowerandnuclearenergy.

Trafficuseisrarelyconsideredinpavementbasedlifecycleassessments.However,twostudies(Stripple,2001and

Kennedy,2006)modeltheimpactsduetotrafficuse.IftrafficisconsideredinthescopeoftheLCA,thenvehicularemissionsdominatethetotalenergyconsumptionandcarbondioxideemissions.However,thisiswidelyvariableanddependsanumberoffactorsincluding(butnotlimitedto)vehiclemix,modalaccess,fuelefficiencyandtype

offuel.Generally,theenergyexpendedinconstructionisaboutthesameasthatexpendedbyroadwayusersinthefirsttwoyearsofservice.Typicalpavementmaintenanceactivities(overlays)generallyuselowervolumesof

materialsandthiswouldrepresentashortertimelinethanonetotwoyears.

CaveatsofLCIs

Clearly,existingroadwayLCIsandLCAsvaryinmethod.Sometimesthisvarietylendstoreportingcontradictoryor

mixedresults,whichcanbeconfusing,especiallyinadecisionmakingcontext.TheeffectivenessofLCIorLCA

studiesarehighlydependentonthegoalandscopedefinition,datasourcesandquality,modellimitationsand

uncertainties.Additionally,manypubliclyavailabledatabasesorcompletedLCIsoftenuseorcontainaverage

informationthatcannotbeeasilyappliedinprojectspecificcontexts.Theconverseisalsotrue;projectspecific

LCIsshouldnotnecessarilybecomebaselinemodelsforotherprojectswithoutthoroughreviewofthevariablesthatwereconsidered.Thusresultsoftheinventoryarebestusedasatoolorabenchmarkingmethod,butnotasa

baselinevalue.Anotherpointthatmustbemadeexpresslyclear:completingalifecycleinventoryoralifecycleassessmentofyourprojectdoesnot,byvirtueoftheprocessormethodalone,makeaprojectmoreorless

sustainablethananotherproject.

AdditionalResources

x TheCarnegieMellonGreenDesignInstitutedatabaseispubliclyavailableandfreetousenoncommercially.It

alsoprovidesaverythoroughexplanationofthefinerpointsoftheEIOLCAmethodologyaswellasdiscussion

andexamplesofthemethodology.EIOLCAisavailableathttp://www.eiolca.net.

x TheSocietyofEnvironmentalToxicologyandChemistry(SETAC)providesathoroughandconcisedescriptionoftheISOLCAmethodologyaswellaslinkstootherprofessionalLCAresourcesandorganizations.More

informationisavailableathttp://www.setac.org/.

GLOSSARY

BenReMod BeneficialReuseModule

CHANGER CalculatorforHarmonisedAssessmentandNormalisationofGreenhousegas

EmissionsforRoads

CO2 Carbondioxide

CO2e Carbondioxideequivalentemission

EIO EconomicInputOutput

EIOLCA EconomicInputOutputforLifeCycleAssessment

EOL Endoflife

Feedbackloop Aprocesswithinasystemwhereoutputsofaprocessarereintroducedasinputsintoapreviouslifecyclestagesomewherealongthesamesystem

supplychain

Functionalunit Thequantifiedperformanceofaproductsystemforuseasareferenceunit

(ISO,2006a)

ISO InternationalStandardsOrganization

ISOLCA ProcessbasedLCA

LCA Lifecycleassessment

LCCA Lifecyclecostanalysis

60





LCI Lifecycleinventoryanalysis

LCIA Lifecycleimpactassessment

Lifecycle consecutiveandinterlinkedstagesofaproduct[orproject]system,fromraw

materialacquisitionorgenerationfromnaturalresourcestofinaldisposalor

[endoflife:EOL](ISO,2006a)

Lifecycleassessment Compilationandevaluationoftheinputs,outputsandthepotential

environmentalimpactsofaproductsystemthroughoutitslifecycle(ISO,2006a)

Maintenance Routineconstructionactivitieswhicharepreservativeinnature,suchas

patchingandrepair.Typicallymaintenanceinvolvesadditionalproductionof

materialaswellasadditionaltransportandconstructionactivities.Seealso

operations.

MCDA MultiCriteriaDecisionAnalysis

Operations Equipment,componentsoractivitiesthatareneededonaroutinebasistoensurepropersafetyduringuseofaroad,e.g.luminaires,signals,deicing,

striping,sanding,drawbridgemechanicalequipment,tollbooths,etc.

(Muench&Anderson,submitted)Seealsomaintenance.

PaLATE PavementLifecycleAssessmentToolforEnvironmentalandEconomicEffects

Referenceflow Themeasureoftheoutputsfromprocessesinagivenproductsystemrequiredtofulfil[sic]thefunctionexpressedbythefunctionalunit(ISO,

2006a)

SETAC SocietyofEnviornmentalToxicologyandChemistry

Systemboundary Setofcriteriadefiningwhichunitprocessesarepartofasystem(ISO,2006a)

Unitprocess Smallestunitconsideredinthelifecycleinventoryanalysisforwhichinput

andoutputdataarequantified(ISO,2006a)

REFERENCES

Apul,D.S.etal.(n.d.).MCDABenReMod.AccessedJanuary6,2010.Availableat

http://benremod.eng.utoledo.edu/BenReMod/

Apul,D.S.(2007)DevelopmentofaBeneficialReuseToolforManagingIndustrialByproducts:BenReModLCAand

BenReModMCDAWebBasedTools,FinalreportsubmittedtoUSEPA'sOfficeofSolidWasteandEmergency

Response(OSWER).

AthenaInstitute.(2006) ALifeCyclePerspectiveonConcreteandAsphaltRoadways:EmbodiedPrimaryEnergyand

GlobalWarmingPotential .ReporttotheCementAssociationofCanada.Availableat

http://www.cement.ca/index.php/en/Newsroom/A_Life_Cycle_Perspective_on_Concrete_and_Asphalt_Road

ways.html

Birgisdór,H.(2005).Lifecycleassessmentmodelforroadconstructionanduseofresiduesfromwaste

incineration.Dissertation.TechnicalUniversityofDenmark.InstituteofEnvironment&Resources.Kongens

Lyngby,Denmark.

Birgisdór,H.,Bhander,G.,Hauschild,M.Z.,&Christensen,T.H.(2007).Lifecycleassessmentofdisposalof

residuesfrommunicipalsolidwasteincineration:recyclingofbottomashinroadconstructionorlandfillingin

DenmarkevaluatedintheROADRESmodel.WasteManagement. 27(8),7584.

CarnegieMellonGreenDesignInstitute.(2008).EconomicInputOutputLifeCycleAssessmentCarnegieMellon

University(EIOLCA).US2002IndustryBenchmarkmodel[Internet].AccessedJanuary2,2010.Availableat

http://www.eiolca.net/.

61





Carpenter,A.C.,Gardner,K.H.,Fopiano,J.,Benson,C.H.,&Edil,T.B.(2007).LifeCyclebasedriskassessmentof

recycledmaterialsinroadwayconstruction.WasteManagement 27,14581464.

Christensen,T.H.&Birgisdottir,H.(2006).Lifecycleassessmentofresidueuseinroadconstruction(ROADRES).In

Ilic,M.(2006).Environmentalandtechnicalimplicationsofconstructionwithalternativematerials.

[Proceedings].6th

AnnualWASCONConference:Scienceandengineeringofrecyclingforenvironmental

protection.May,2006.Belgrade.

Cooper,J.S.&Fava,J.A.(2006).LifeCycleAssessmentPractitionerSurvey:SummaryofResults. Journalof

IndustrialEcology.10(4),1214.

Chui,CT.,Hsu,TH.,&Yang,WF.(2008).Lifecycleassessmentonusingrecycledmaterialsforrehabilitating

asphaltpavements.Resources,ConservationandRecycling52,545556.

EnergyInformationAdministration.(2009,January).2005ResidentialEnergyConsumptionSurveyDetailed

Tables.SummaryStatistics(revisedJanuary2009).TotalEnergyConsumption,Expenditures,andIntensities.HousingUnitCharacteristicsandEnergyUsageIndicators(US1:Part1).AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableat

http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/recs/recs2005/c&e/detailed_tables2005c&e.html

Heijungs,R.&Suh,S.(2002).Thecomputationalstructureoflifecycleassessment.Dordrecht;Boston:KluwerAcademicPublishers.

Hendrickson,C.T.,Lave,L.B.,&Matthews,H.S.(2006).EnvironmentalLifeCycleAssessmentofGoodsand

Services:AnInputOutputApproach.ResourcesfortheFuturePress.

Horvath,A.&UniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.(2007,5June)PaLATE:PavementLifeCycleTool.RetrievedMay

20,2008fromhttp://www.ce.berkeley.edu/~horvath/palate.html.

Horvath,A.(2003).Lifecycleenvironmentalandeconomicassessmentofusingrecycledmaterialsforasphalt

pavements.Berkeley,Calif:UniversityofCaliforniaTransportationCenter.http://www.uctc.net/papers/683.pdf

Huang,Y.,Bird,R.,&Bell,M.(2009a).Acomparativestudyoftheemissionsbyroadmaintenanceworksandthedisruptedtrafficusinglifecycleassessmentandmicrosimulation.TransportationResearch.PartD,Transport

andEnvironment.14(3),197.

Huang,Y.,Bird,R.,&Heidrich,O.(2009b).Developmentofalifecycleassessmenttoolforconstructionand

maintenanceofasphaltpavements. JournalofCleanerProduction.17(2),283296.

InternationalOrganizationforStandardization.(2006a).ISO14040:2006(E)EnvironmentalManagement—Life

CycleAssessment—PrinciplesandFramework.2nded.2006:IHS.

InternationalOrganizationforStandardization.(2006b).ISO14044:2006(E)EnvironmentalManagement—Life

CycleAssessment—RequirementsandGuidelines.1sted.2006:IHS.

InternationalRoadFederation.(2010).FeaturesofCHANGERGreenHouseGasCalculator–InternationalRoadFederation.AccessedDecember15,2009.Availableathttp://www.irfghg.org/features.php

Kennedy,E.(2006).IntegrationoftheMeasurementofEnergyUsageintoRoadDesign,FinalReport.Commission

oftheEuropeanCommunitiesDirectorateGeneralforEnergyandTransport.(ContractNo.:4.1031/Z/02

091/2002).

Keoleian,G.A.&Spitzley,D.V.(2006).LifeCycleBasedSustainabilityMetrics.InAbraham,M.A.(2006).

SustainabilityScienceandEngineering:DefiningPrinciples.pp.127159.

62





Mroueh,U.M.,Eskola,P.,&LaineYlijoki,J.(2001).Lifecycleimpactsoftheuseofindustrialbyproductsinroad

andearthconstruction.WasteManagement. 21(3),271.

Muench,S.T.&Anderson,J.L.(n.d).Weightingasustainabilityperformancemetricforroadways:Greenroads.

JournalofGreenBuilding.Submittedforpublication.

Rajendran,S.&Gambatese,J.A.(2007).SolidWasteGenerationinAsphaltandReinforcedConcreteRoadwayLifeCycles. JournalofInfrastructureSystems.13(2),88.

Schenck,R.(2000).UsingLCAforProcurementDecisions:ACaseStudyPerformedfortheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.EnvironmentalProgress.19,110116.

Solomon,S.etal.(2007)SynthesisReport.ClimateChange2007:SynthesisReport.FourthAssessmentReportof

theIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Stripple,H.(2000).LifeCycleInventoryofAsphaltPavements.IVLSwedishEnvironmentalResearchInstituteLtd.

ReportfortheEuropeanAsphaltPavementAssociation(EAPA)andEurobitume.

Stripple,H.,(2001).LifeCycleAssessmentofRoad:APilotStudyforInventoryAnalysis,SecondRevisedEdition.IVL

SwedishEnvironmentalResearchInstituteLtd.ReportfortheSwedishNationalRoadAdministration.

Weiland,C.D.(2008).LifecycleassessmentofPortlandcementconcreteinterstatehighwayrehabilitationand

replacement .Thesis(M.S.C.E.)UniversityofWashington,2008.

Weitz,K.,Todd,J.A.,Curran,M.A.,&Malkin,M.(1996).StreamliningLifeCycleAssessmentConsiderationsanda

reportontheStateofthePractice.InternationalJournalofLifeCycleAssessment .1(2):7985.

Zapata,P.&Gambatese,J.A.(2005).EnergyConsumptionofAsphaltandReinforcedConcretePavementMaterials

andConstruction. JournalofInfrastructureSystems.11(1),920.

63





64




PR-4 Quality Control Plan

QUALITY CONTROL PLANGOAL

Haveaprocessinplacetomonitorandimproveconstructionquality.

REQUIREMENTS

Theprimecontractorshallestablish,implement,andmaintainaformalconstruction

QualityControlPlan(QCP).TheQCPmustaddressthefollowingqualitycontrol

elements:

1. Keyqualitycontrolpersonnel,theirresponsibilitiesandtheirqualifications

(résumés,certifications,etc.).

2. Proceduresusedtocontrolqualityduringconstructionincluding(asaminimum):

a. Itemstobemonitored(includingpavementmixdesigns)

b. Testingtobedone(includingtestingstandardsandfrequency)

c. Whencorrectiveactionisrequired(actionlimits)

d. Procedurestoimplementcorrectiveactione. ProcedurestomodifyQCPifineffectiveorwhenmodificationsarenecessary

Details

Somestateandlocalowneragenciesalreadyhaverequirementsforsuchplans

writtenintotheirstandardspecifications.Suchexistingrequirementsshouldbe

abletomeettherequirementsabove,howeversomeonlyaddressconstruction

qualityforhotmixasphalt(HMA)orPortlandcementconcrete(PCC)pavingand

notconstructionoftheoverallproject.Testingfrequencyandtestprocedures

shouldnotbebasedonminimumownerrequirementsforacceptance.

Somestatehighwayagenciesusecontractortestingintheiracceptanceprocess.In

thesecasestheindependentassurancetestsmustbeperformedonsamplesthataretakenindependentlyofqualitycontrolsamples.Qualitycontrolplansare

requiredinthesecases,asdefinedinCFR637,Title23.

TheQualityControlPlanshouldcoverallprojectconstruction;notjustthe

pavement.Subcontractorsneedtobeincludedinthisplan,whichtypicallymeans

identifyingaresponsiblepartyandobtainingaqualitycontrolprocedurefromthe

subcontractor.

Alargedocumentthatrepeatslanguagefromthecontractspecificationsshouldnot

begeneratedforthisProjectRequirement.Rather,thedocumentshouldclearly

identifythemajoraspectsoftheprimecontractor’splantocontrolproject

constructionqualityandwhoisresponsibleforimplementingthoseaspects.A

reasonableQualityControlPlanforatypicalroadwayproject(i.e.,lessthan$10

millioncontractprice)canbewritteninabout6to12pages(FLHD,1998).AQuality

ControlPlanshouldbeapprovedbytheownerbeforeconstructionbegins.

DOCUMENTATION

x CopyofthecontractorQualityControlPlan.

PR-4

REQUIRED

RELATED CREDITS

9 CA1Quality

ManagementSystem

9 CA8Contractor

Warranty

9 PT1LongLife

Pavement

9 PT6PavementPerformance

Tracking

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Economy

9 Extent

9 Expectations

BENEFITS

9 IncreasesServiceLife9 ImprovesHuman

Health&Safety

9 ReducesLifecycle

Costs

9 Improves

Accountability

65




Quality Control Plan PR-4


x WriteaQualityControlPlan.Oftenthiscanbeaccomplishedbyhavingaprimecontractorwithanestablished

qualitycontrolmanualandthenwritingaplanthatreferstothatmanualforproceduresandidentifieskey

personnel,materialsandprocessesassociatedwiththeparticularprojectinquestion.

Example: Agencies with Quality Control PlansManyownersalreadyrequireQCPsintheirstandardspecifications.Followingareexamplesofboth

comprehensiveQCPsthatcoverallofconstructionandsomethatjustrefertopavingoperations.

QCPsCoveringAllofConstruction

TheseplansdomeettherequirementsforPR4.

x FederalLandsHighwayDivision.ThisdocumentdiscussesaQCPthatcoversallconstructionaspectsand

providesafictitiousexample:http://www.wfl.fhwa.dot.gov/resources/construction/field

notes/documents/d0215.pdf .

x FloridaDepartmentofTransportation(FDOT).FDOT’sConstructionProjectAdministrationManual(2007)

describesFDOTrequirementsandhowtouseacontractor’squalitycontrolmanualtosupplementaQCPin

Section3.3.Section68oftheFDOT2007StandardSpecificationsforRoadandBridgeConstructionrequiresacontractorqualitycontrolprogram:

http://www.dot.state.fl.us/construction/manuals/cpam/CPAMManual.shtm

x SaskatchewanHighwaysandTransportation:TheStandardTestProcedureManual(1994)StandardTest

400(lastupdatedin1994)describeswhataqualitycontrolplandoesanditsminimumelements:

http://www.highways.gov.sk.ca/standardtest

QCPsCoveringPavingOperationsOnly

TheseplansdonotmeettherequirementsforPR4.

x AlabamaDOT(ALDOT)ALDOT37591:http://www.dot.state.al.us/NR/rdonlyres/A1E8B299F51841BFB0A92326C1177C91/0/ALDOT375ApprovedFHWAOctober202008_.pdf

x IllinoisDOTHMAQCPtemplate:

http://www.dot.state.il.us/aero/PDF/HMA%20QC%20plan%20template.pdf x NorthCarolinaDOTSection609oftheStandardSpecifications:

http://www.ncdot.org/doh/preconstruct/ps/specifications/english/s609.html

x UnifiedFacilitiesGuideSpecifications,Section3.10:

http://www.wbdg.org/ccb/DOD/UFGS/UFGS%2032%2012%2016.pdf

ManyotherorganizationsalsohaveguidesandspecificationsforcontractorQualityControlPlans.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. ItisnotpossibletodeterminefromthecontentoftheQCPwhetherqualityconstructionwillresult.Therefore,

thiscreditdoesnotguaranteequalityconstructioninanyway.2. AcontractorQualityControlPlanthatonlyaddressespavingoperationsisnotsufficienttomeettheintentof

thiscredit.Forsomeowners,standardspecificationlanguagemayonlyrequireaQualityControlPlanforthepavingoperation.WhilepavingneedstobecoveredintheQualityControlPlan,allothermajorcomponentsof

construction(e.g.,structures,earthwork,drainage,trafficcontrolitems,etc.)mustalsobecovered.

3. TheQualityControlPlanshouldnotbearepeatofthetechnicalspecifications.Rather,theplanshouldaddress

whoisresponsibleforqualitycontrolforaparticularitemorprocess,whenkeyinspectionsaremade,when

correctiveactionsaretobetakenandhowtheyaretobetaken.

4. Aformalprocessformonitoringandimprovingconstructionqualityshouldnotconflictwithminimumquality

standardsthataremaintainedbytheroadwayowner.

66




PR-4 Quality Control Plan

RESEARCH

Constructionqualitycansignificantlyinfluencefinalprojectqualityandperformance.Poorconstructioncanleadto

earlyandexcessivemaintenanceand/orearlyreplacement.Thiscostsmoremoneyandusesmoreresources

leadingtoalesssustainableproject.Unfortunately,thereisagenerallackofempiricalevidencetodocument

theseitemsastheyareoftentakentobeintuitivelyobvious.Thissection,therefore,presentsadiscussionof

severalpavementitemssincefortheseitemsthereissubstantialevidencethatconstructionqualityimpactsperformanceandcost.

SubgradeandBaseCompaction

Subgradeorbasematerialthatisnotadequatelycompactedmaysettleovertime,whichinturncausesthe

overlyingpavementtosettleandcrack.Thiscanleadtoroughnessandearlypavementfailure.Oftenadequate

subgradedensityisdescribedintermsofrelativedensity(e.g.,90or95percentofmaximumdensity).

HotMixAsphalt(HMA)Density

Compactionisthegreatestdeterminingfactorindensegradedhotmixasphaltperformance(Scherocman&

Martenson,1984;Scherocman,1984;Geller,1984;Brown,1984;Bellet.al.,1984;Hughes,1984;Hughes,1989).

Inadequatecompactionresultsinapavementwithdecreasedstiffness,reducedfatiguelife,accelerated

aging/decreaseddurability,rutting,raveling,andmoisturedamage(Hughes,1984;Hughes,1989).

HMAAggregateSegregation

Basedonseveralarticles(Kennedyetal.,1987;Brown&Brownfield,1988;Williamsetal.,1996aand1996b;

Khedaywi&White,1996;AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials:AASHTO,1997)the

commonlyacceptedqualitativedefinitionofaggregatesegregationis“thenonuniformdistributionofcoarseand

fineaggregatecomponentswithintheasphaltmixture.”ThechiefdetrimentaleffectsofsegregationonHMA

performanceare:reducedfatiguelife,rutting,raveling,andmoisturedamage.Theseeffectscancauseasevere

reductioninpavementlife.MoreinformationonsegregationcausesandcurescanbefoundinSegregationCauses

andCuresforHotMixAsphalt(QIP110)byAASHTOandtheNationalAsphaltPavementAssociation(NAPA).

HMATemperatureDifferentials

HMAtemperaturedifferentialsarelargemattemperaturedifferencesresultingfromplacementofasignificantly

coolerportionofHMAmassintothemat.Thiscoolermasscomesfromthesurfacelayer(orcrust)typicallydevelopedduringHMAtransportfromthemixingplanttothejobsite.Thesecoolerareaswillreachcessation

temperaturemorequicklythanthesurroundingmat.Rollerpatternsdevelopedbasedongeneralmat

temperaturesmaynotbeadequatetocompactthesecoolerareasbeforetheycooltocessationtemperature

resultinginisolatedspotsofinadequatecompaction.Thus,temperaturedifferentialscancauseisolatedareasof

inadequatecompactionresultingindecreasedstrength,reducedfatiguelife,acceleratedaging/decreased

durability,rutting,raveling,andmoisturedamage(Hughes,1984;Hughes,1989).

PortlandCementConcrete(PCC)Consolidation

ConsolidationistheprocessofmakingthefreshlyplacedPCCintoamoreuniformandcompactmassby

eliminatingundesirableairvoidsandcausingittomovearoundpotentialobstructions(suchasreinforcingsteel).Thisisusuallyaccomplishedusingvibrators.Inadequateconsolidationcanleadtoundesirableairvoidsthatcan

weakenPCCorbeunsightly.

PavementRoughness

Pavementroughnessisanexpressionofirregularitiesinthepavementsurfacethatadverselyaffecttheride

qualityofavehicle(andthustheuser).Roughnessaffectsnotonlyridequalitybutalsovehicledelaycosts,fuel

consumptionandmaintenancecosts.TheWorldBankfoundroadroughnesstobeaprimaryfactorintheanalyses

andtradeoffsinvolvingroadqualityvs.usercost(UMTRI,1998).Otherstudies(e.g.,Papagiannakis&Delwar,

2001;Barnes&Langworthy,2003)haveattemptedtoquantifythecostofvehicleoperationinrelationto

pavementroughness.

67




Quality Control Plan PR-4

GLOSSARY


Aggregatesegregation thenonuniformdistributionofcoarseandfineaggregatecomponentswithin

theasphaltmixture(Kennedyet.al.,1987;BrownandBrownfield,1988;

Williamset.al.,1996aand1996b;KhedaywiandWhite,1996;American

AssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials:AASHTO,1997)Consolidation theprocessofmakingthefreshlyplacedportlandcementconcreteintoa

moreuniformandcompactmassbyeliminatingundesirableairvoids

HMA Hotmixasphalt

NAPA NationalAsphalt PavingAssociation

Pavementroughness anexpressionofirregularitiesinthepavementsurfacethatadverselyaffect

theridequalityofavehicle(andthustheuser)

PCC Portlandcementconcrete

REFERENCES

AlabamaDepartmentofTransportation(ALDOT).(2008).ALDOT37591:ContractorQualityControlSystemfor

HotMixAsphalt.Revision10/20/2008.FromtheALDOTBureauofMaterialsandTestsTestingManual.

Accessed11November2008.Availableathttp://www.dot.state.al.us/NR/rdonlyres/A1E8B299F51841BF

B0A92326C1177C91/0/ALDOT375ApprovedFHWAOctober202008_.pdf .

FederalLandsHighwayDivision(FLHD).(1998).ContractorQualityControlPlans:ContractorGuidelinesand

ExampleQualityControlPlan.FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA),FederalLandsHighwayOffice,

EngineeringandOperationsDivision(HFL20),Washington,D.C.Accessed11November2008.Availableat

http://www.cflhd.gov/resources/construction/documents/qc_plans.pdf .

FloridaDepartmentofTransportation(FDOT).(2007).ConstructionProjectAdministrationManual(CPAM).700

000000.OfficeofConstruction,FDOT.Accessed11November2008.Availableat

http://www.dot.state.fl.us/construction/manuals/cpam/CPAMManual.shtm.

FloridaDepartmentofTransportation(FDOT).(2007).StandardSpecificationsforRoadandBridgeConstruction2007.Accessed11November2008.Availableat

http://www2.dot.state.fl.us/SpecificationsEstimates/Implemented/CurrentBK/Default.aspx.

IllinoisDepartmentofTransportation(IDOT).(nodate).HotMixAsphalt(HMA)QualityControlPlantemplate.

IDOTDivisionofAeronautics.Accessed11November2008.Availableat

http://www.dot.state.il.us/aero/PDF/HMA%20QC%20plan%20template.pdf .

SaskatchewanHighwaysandTransportation.(1994).ContractorQualityControlPlan.StandardTestProcedure400

fromtheStandardTestProceduresManual,QualityAssurancesection.Accessed11November2008.Available

athttp://www.highways.gov.sk.ca/standardtest.

U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers(USACE).(2008).UnifiedFacilitiesGuideSpecifications.UFGS321216.Accessed11

November2008.Availableathttp://www.wbdg.org/ccb/DOD/UFGS/UFGS%2032%2012%2016.pdf .

68




PR-5 Noise Mitigation Plan

NOISE MITIGATION PLANGOAL

Reduceoreliminateannoyanceordisturbancetosurroundingneighborhoodsand

environmentsfromroadconstructionnoise.

REQUIREMENTS

Establish,implement,andmaintainaformalNoiseMitigationPlan(NMP)during

constructionfortheprimecontractor.TheNMPmustaddress,atminimum,the

followingelements:

1. Responsiblepartyfornoisemitigationactivities,contactinformation,their

responsibilitiesandtheirqualifications.IncludeinformationforNMPpreparer,if

applicableorcompletedbyanoutsideparty.

2. Projectlocationanddistancetoclosestreceptorofnoise.Includeadescriptionof

thesurroundingzoningandparcelinformation(i.e.,commercial,residential,

hospitals,schools,parks,sensitivehabitat).

3. Alistofproposedconstructionactivities(e.g.demolition,excavation,paving,bridgefoundations,finishing).

4. Datesandworkinghoursofproposedconstructionactivities.

5. Alistofnoisegeneratingdevicesusedduringeachconstructionactivitylistedin#3.

6. Alistofnoisemitigatingdevicesusedduringeachconstructionactivitylistedin#3,

includingpersonalsafetyequipmentrequirementsforallsiteemployees.

7. Noisepermitnumbers,agencyorlocalauthoritypoliciesassociatedwith

constructionwork,asapplicable.

8. Descriptionofnoisemonitoringstandards,methods,andacceptablelevels.

9. Descriptionofcorrectionproceduresfornoncompliantnoiselevels.

10. Signatureofresponsibleparty.

DetailsTheNMPshouldcoverallofconstruction,includingsubcontractorworkactivities.

Somestateandlocalowneragenciesalreadyhaverequirementsforsuchplans

writtenintheirstandardspecifications.However,awrittenspecificationrequiring

theprimecontractortohaveaNoiseMitigationPlanisinsufficient,especially

becausemanylocalauthoritiesandowneragenciesoffercertainexemptionsto

theirpolicies,suchasdaylightworkschedulesorprojectswithminimalareasof

landdisturbingactivities.

Alargedocumentneednotbegeneratedforthisrequirement.Forprojectsthatare

deemedlocallyexempt(asnotedabove),showthattheprimecontractorhas

completedareviewofnoiseaspartofprojectplanning.TheNewYorkDepartment

ofEnvironmentalProtection(NYDEP2008)offersa4pagecheckliststyleNMPthat

addressesalloftheelementsabove,exceptforitems9and10,whichcanbeeasily

addressedin1page:http://nyc.gov/html/dep/pdf/noise_mitigation.pdf .

DOCUMENTATION

x CopyoftheNoiseMitigationPlan.

x Acopyofanyapplicablenoisepermits,oragencyorlocalauthoritynoisepolicies(a

livehyperlinktoanylargepolicydocumentsissufficient).

PR-5

REQUIRED

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR1Environmental

ReviewProcess

9 PT5QuietPavement

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS9 Equity

9 Expectations

9 Experience

9 Exposure

BENEFITS

9 ImprovesHuman

Health&Safety

9 Improves

Accountability



69




Noise Mitigation Plan PR-5


x ReadtheFederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)HighwayConstructionNoiseHandbook(Knaueretal.,2006)

tounderstandtheaspectsofconstructionnoisethatcouldberelevanttoyourproject.TheHighway

ConstructionNoiseHandbook isavailableasawebdocumentat:

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/handbook/index.htm.TheHandbookisarelativelyshortread—

Chapters58maybeespeciallyhelpfulforprimecontractorsorprojectleadsnotfamiliarwithNMPs.

x CompletetheNMPduringtheenvironmentalreviewprocess,whentheenvironmentaldocumentationisbeing

generated.Mostenvironmentalreviewregulationsatfederalandstatelevels,includingtheNational

EnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA),includeaninvestigationofnoiserelatedprojectimpactstosurrounding

communities,andtheseimpactsoftencanbeaddressedinshortnarrativeform(Knaueretal.,2006).

x UsethecheckliststyleNMPavailablefromtheNYDEPasatemplatetocreateandassemblecustomowner

agencyNMPsforuseonfutureprojects.TheNYDEPchecklistisavailablehere:http://nyc.gov/html/dep/pdf/noise_mitigation.pdf

x EstimatenoiselevelsfromyourconstructionprojectbyusingtheRoadwayConstructionNoiseModel(RCNM)

softwareavailablefromtheFHWA(Rehemanetal.,2006).Auser’sguideforthesoftwareprogramisalso

availableaspartoftheHighwayConstructionNoiseHandbookasanAppendix.Mostprojectswillnotneed

comprehensiveordetailednoisemodelingandsimplifiedmanualnoiseanalysiswillbeadequate(Knaueretal.,

2006).However,localnoiseordinancesmaybemorestringentthanwhatiscalledforintheenvironmental

reviewrequirementsandmayneedmoredetailedanalysis.(Knaueretal.,2006)TheRCNMsoftwaretoolisavailableforfreedownloadhere:http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/cnstr_ns.htm.

x Communicatetostakeholdersthatnoisemitigationisactivelybeinginvestigatedonyourprojectandthata

planisbeingdeveloped.Thismayhelpquellthepotential“politicalnoise”thatoftenstemsfromtoomuch

“constructionnoise”(Thalheimer,2000),especiallyforhighimpact,highdollar,orsensitivepublicprojects.

x HireanacousticalengineeringfirmorotherqualifiedprofessionaltocompletetheNMP.

x Delivernoiseawarenesstrainingregardingthenoisemitigationstrategiesandnoisesafetyeffortsemployedon

theprojecttoallconstructionprojectemployees,includingsubcontractoremployees.ThistrainingwillhelpensurethattheNMPisimplementedeffectively.

x Reviewindividualstateandlocaljurisdictionnoiseordinancesandanypermitsoragencycoordinationeffortsduringtheprojectdevelopmentprocess.Sometimestheseordinancescontainrestrictionsassociatedwith

constructionnoiselevels,eventhoughtherearecurrentlynofederalregulationsfornoiselevels.

x Identifynoiseabatementopportunitiesduringprojectdesign.Suchthingsaslocatingstorageareas,stationaryequipment,haulroadsanddetoursawayfromsensitivereceivers,planningforconcurrentconstruction,

maintainingexistingnoisebarriersforuseduringconstructionandschedulingtheconstructionofnewnoise

barriersearlyonintheproject,canreducenoiseimpacts.

x Achievemitigationofnoiseatthesourcebyspecifyinguseoflessnoisyequipment,requiringmufflersystems

onequipment,employingshieldsandmodifyingvehiclesandequipmenttoreducenoiselevels.

x Achievepathmitigationbybuildingnoisebarriers,usingtieredorlayeredvegetativebarriers(Anderson,

Mulligan&Goodman,1984),orusingexistingbarrierswhereappropriate.

x Achievereceivermitigationbysealingintakesofsensitivereceivers,acousticwindowtreatments(Thalheimer,2000)or,wherefeasible,bytemporarilyrelocatingresidents.

Example: Noise Mitigation Plan Sample Forms – City of New York, NY

TheNewYorkCityDepartmentoftheEnvironmentalProtection(NYDEP,2008)enactednewnoiserulesin2007forconstructionactivitiesrequiringthatuniquenoisemitigationplansareadopted,posted,applied,and

monitoredonconstructionprojectswhenspecificdevicesareusedorcertainactivitiesareperformedwithin

citylimits.Theirmunicipalcoderuleslisttypicalequipment,activities,andotherdevicesthatproducenoise,

andalsoestablishminimumnoiselevelsallowedforconstructionactivities.Theintentofthenoise

requirementsis“toinformtheuseroftherequiredplanelementsthataresponsiblepartymustincludewhen

thelisteddevicesarebeingusedonsite,andthemitigationstrategiesandbestmanagementpracticesthatare

beingemployed”(NYDEP,2008).Alternativenoisemitigationplans(ANMPs)mayalsobefilediftheproject

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cannotcomplywiththesoundlevelcriteriawithoutunduehardshipandcanreduceorexemptcertainactivities

fromnoncompliancepenalties.

x TheNYDEPSampleNoiseMitigationPlanisavailablehere:http://nyc.gov/html/dep/pdf/noise_mitigation.pdf

x TheNYDEPSampleAlternativeNoiseMitigationPlanisavailablehere:

http://nyc.gov/html/dep/pdf/noise_alternative_mitigation.pdf

AdditionalinformationaboutNYDEP’snoisecodeandnoisemitigationplanningrulesforconstructionprojectsare

availableat:http://nyc.gov/html/dep/html/noise/index.shtml

Example: Case Study — Central Artery/Tunnel (“The Big Dig”) in Boston, MA

ThiscasestudysummarizesthearticlebyThalheimer(2000),whichdescribesthenoisecontrolprogramforthe

CentralArtery/Tunnel(CA/T)projectinBoston,Massachusetts.TheCA/Tmaybemorecommonlyrecognizedbythepublicasthe“BigDig,”anditwasanengineeringmegaprojectwith“themostcomprehensiveand

stringentconstructionnoisecontrolspecificationofanypublicworksprojectinthecountry.”ThesheersizeanddurationofitsconstructionimpactsontheBoston’sresidentsandbusinessesmadenoisemitigationa

crucialaspectoftheproject.NotethatmostprojectswillnotneedtoprovidenearlythelevelofdetailasthatrequiredfornoisemitigationontheCentralArtery/Tunnel(CA/T),howevertheapproachesandstrategiesused

forthisprojecthelpeddevelopmanyoftheguidancedocumentsthatareavailableonconstructionnoise,suchastheFHWAHighwayConstructionNoiseHandbook (Knaueretal.,2006).

TheprojectwaschampionedbytheformerMassachusettsTurnpikeAuthority(MTA),whichiscurrently

managedbytheMassachusettsDepartmentofTransportation(MassDOT)HighwayDivision.Constructionbeganin1991andwasconsideredcompletein2006,withamultibilliondollarpricetag.Moreinformation

abouttheBigDigprojectcanbefoundatthefollowingsite:

http://www.massdot.state.ma.us/Highway/bigdig/bigdigmain.aspx.

Theproject’snoisecontrolprogramhadtwomaingoals:1)meetthecommitmentsformitigating

environmentalnoiseasstatedintheenvironmentalimpactreportand2)controlconstructionnoisewithout

posinghardshiptolocalcommunities,projectbudgetorconstructionscheduletothemaximumextent

feasible.Meetingthesegoalsposedasignificantchallengebecauseconstructionactivityoccurredatalltimes

ofdayinmanyareasofBoston,andsometimesinverycloseproximity(with10feet)ofresidencesandsensitivelocations.Additionally,theprojectwascriticalpolitically:functionofBoston’scoreinfrastructure

dependedontheoutcomeandthelevelofstakeholderinvolvementwasextraordinarilyhigh.

TheNoiseMitigationProgramfortheCA/Tinvolvedestablishinglotlineandequipmentemissionnoisecriteria

limits,definingoperationaland/orequipmentrestrictionsandalsorequiredthesubmissionofnoisecontrol

andmonitoringplans,baselineandcompliancenoisedata,equipmentnoisecertificationtests,anddesignsfor

proposednoisemitigationmeasures.“Mitigationmeasureswereimplementedonlywhenjustifiedbasedon

carefulconsiderationofallrelevanttechnical,costandpolicyissues.”

TheNMPprioritizedmitigationmeasuresasfollows:sourcecontrol,pathcontrol,andfinallyreceptorcontrol.

Sourcecontrolwasmosteffectiveandeasiesttomonitor,butwherethiswasnotpossible,pathcontrol

measureswereimplementedtoblocksounddirectedatreceptors.Pathcontroloptionswereconsideredcosteffectiveonlyiftheycouldpreventnoiseatmultiplereceptors.Receptorcontrolwasalsousedinsomecases,

suchaswindowtreatmentsonbuildings,andthesuccessofthisprogramwasduelargelytoaneffectivepublic

involvementprocessaswellaspartnershipsdevelopedduringprojectdesignandplanning.

NoisecontrollessonslearnedfromtheCA/Tprojectthatmaybeapplicabletoprojectsdevelopingtheirownnoisemitigationplansinclude:

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x Upholdingnoisepolicycommitmentsandgoals.Tobeeffective,itiscrucialthatnoisepoliciesare

communicatedfromthetoplayersoftheprojectteamandappliedprojectwide.

x Engagingthepublicforactivefeedback.Informingthepubliciscriticaltotheoverallsuccessoftheproject

noisemitigationplan,anda24hourhotlineforcommunicationwasusedsuccessfullyontheCA/Tproject.

x Establishinganambientlevelandmonitoringconstructionnoise.Equitablenoisepoliciescannotbe

createdwithoutfirstestablishingabaselinenoiselevel.Noisecontrolsarenotaseffectiveifnotmonitored

onacontinuousbasis.x Engagingprofessionals.Noisetechnicianscanoftenpreemptnoiseproblemsandcanquicklyrespondto

complaintsgivenproperauthority.

x Addressingthebiggestcomplaints.Thebiggestpubliccomplaintwasvehiclebackupalarmsduringnight

work,whichwasaddressedbymandatinginstallationofinvehiclecontrolsthatweremanuallyadjustableorambientsensitiveandprohibitingalarmuseinespeciallysensitiveareasatnightwithadditional

supervisionfromsafetypersonnel.

x Implementingcomprehensiveandconcisespecifications.Contractspecificationlanguageforcontractors

thatisclearandunambiguousisessentialformanagementofcontractorsandforimplementationofanoisecontrolplan.

x Usingmultiplecontrols.Noisemitigationmeasuresmustbeflexibleandincludemanyalternativesand

combinationsofmethodstomeetnoisepolicygoals.

x

Targetingreceptorcontrols.Preventionofnoiseatthereceptor,suchasacousticaltreatmentsforwindows,canbecosteffectivesolutions.

x Usingsoundbarriersasvisualbarriers.Publicperceptionsofconstructionnoiseandlevelofnuisanceor

annoyancedependonsoundlevelsoftheactivityaswellasvisibilityoftheactivity.Thalheimer(2000)

statesthatnoisebarrierswereeffectiveinreducingthelevelofannoyanceperceivedontheCA/Tproject.

However,AylorandMarks(1976)andAnderson,MulliganandGoodman(1984)demonstratethatthis

perceptionisextremelyvariablewithlocale,typicalambientnoiselevels,typeofbarrier,howmuchofthe

activityisobscuredbythebarrier,familiarityofsound,andpublicexpectations.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Itisnotfeasibletoeliminateallconstructionnoise,butitisoftenfeasibletocontrolmostorallofit.

2. Multipleworksitesmayrequireavarietyorcombinationofdifferentcontrols.Somespecialareasofworksites

mayrequirecloseranalysisormodeling,whichmaybecostandtimeintensive.3. Noisemitigationplansandprojectpoliciesapplytoallcontractorsandsubcontractorsonaconstructionsite.

Trainingmaybenecessaryforsomepartieswhoareotherwiseunfamiliarwithnoisemitigationorpolicies.

4. Thesubjectivityinvolvedwithperceptionsofsoundandnoisepresentsanissueformanagingpublicopinionandexpectations.

5. Mostjurisdictionsprovideanexemptionfromnoiseassociatedwithdaytimeconstructionactivities.ForGreenroadsallprojectsmustcreateanNMP,evenifexemptfromnoisepoliciesandlocalordinances.

RESEARCH

Noiseissuesonmostroadwayprojectsareinitiallyaddressedduringtheprojectenvironmentalreview(seePR1

EnvironmentalReviewProcess).ThisProjectRequirement(PR)focusesonplanningforandmanagementofnoise

generatedbytheroadwayprojectthroughoutitsconstructionandoperationphases.

WhatisNoise?

Noiseisdefinedasunwantedsound(EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,1973).Soundispartofthescienceof

acoustics,whichisacomplexfielddealingwithsoundgeneration,propagationandreception.Thiscreditdoesnot

gointodetailonsoundphysics.However,someterminologyisusefulforabasicunderstandingofnoise.

Asourceisthepointwhereasoundisgenerated.Sourcescanbemobileorstationary.Forexample,trafficnoise

sourcesaremobile,whileconstructionnoiseisgenerallyamixtureofstationaryandmobilesources.Thereceptor

(also,receiver)istheendpointwheresoundisobserved.Theroutealongwhichsoundpassesfromthesourceto

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thereceptorisknownasthepath.Thelengthofthepathisimportant,asistherateofchangeinlengthofthe

path.Generally,perceptionofsoundchangesalongapathaccordingtothe“inversesquarelaw”:asthedistance

betweensourceandreceiverincreases,thesounddecreasesinproportiontotheinversesquareofthepath

length.(NewYorkDivisionofEnvironmentalPermits,2001)Thepathlengthofsoundfrommobilesourceschanges

withtime(thisisperceivedbythehumanearaswhatiscommonlyknownastheDopplerEffect).

Thefollowingsoundtermsarebrieflydescribed(Sandberg&Ejsmont,2002):

x Soundpressure.Soundtravelsthroughthesurroundingmedium(oftenair)aspressurewaves.Measuring

soundinvolvesmeasuringthepressureofthesewaves.Thusacommonmeasureofsoundisinunitsof

pressure.Theperceivedloudnessofsoundvarieswithpressure.Higherpressuresaregenerallyassociatedwith

soundsweperceiveofaslouder.

x Soundpressurelevelandthedecibel(dB).Soundpressurevariesoversuchawiderangethatitiscommonly

measuredinalogarithmicunitcalledthedecibel(dB)soreportednumbersareeasiertoworkwith.Usingthe

dBscale,adifferencein10dBroughlycorrespondstoadoublingorhalvingofourhearingperceptionofthat

sound.Also,1dBisaboutthesmallestdifferenceinsoundpressurethathumanscanperceive.Finally,iftwo

incoherentsoundsofequalsoundpressurelevel(e.g.,70dB)areaddedtogether,theresultingoverallsoundis3dBgreater.Thus,70dB+70dB=73dB.

x Frequencyweighting.Soundcanoccuroverawiderangeoffrequencies.Thehumaneardoesnotperceiveall

ofthesefrequenciesequally.Generally,forsoundatagivenpressurelevel,lowandveryhighfrequenciesare

interpretedasquieterthanmidrangefrequencies.Therefore,forsoundmeasurementstobemostmeaningful

tohumanhearing,thefrequenciesofsoundneedtobefilteredsuchthatthesoundpressurelevelsoflowand

veryhighfrequenciescountlessthanthesoundpressurelevelsofmidrangefrequencies.Agood

approximationtohumanhearingisthe“Afilter,”thussoundisoftenreportedasan“Aweightedsound

pressurelevel,”dB(A)ordBA.

Itisimportanttoemphasizethecomplexityinanalyzingsoundandthedifferenceofsoundperceptioninhumanstothephysicalmeasurementsofsoundpressure.Theresponsetoanysoundisasubjectiveexperienceandcan

dependonage,health,familiarity,timeofdayandmoreinadditiontothecharacteristicofthesounditself.This

complexitymakesitsomewhatdifficulttoexpressandcomparesoundlevelsusingsimplifiednumbersoraverages

suchastheAweighteddecibelscale(dBA)thatistypicallyusedtodescribetransportationnoise.

UndesirableConsequencesofNoise

Noisecanhaveaneffectonhumanhealthandalsoonthegeneraldesirabilityofalocationbasedonitsexposure

tonoise.Noiseimpactshumanhealthandwellbeingbyincreasingstress,causinghearingloss(inthecaseofloud

noise),disruptingsleep,causingfatigue,hindersworkefficiency,interruptingactivities,andinterferingwith

speechcommunication(PasschierVermeer&Passchier,2000;EPA,1978).Noisecanalsoproduceunwantedvibrationsthatmaycausehumandiscomfort(sonicfatigue)ordisturbactivities(EPA,1973).Inadditiontothe

physiologicalandemotionalresponsesofnoise,transportationnoiseinparticularcanalsoimpactrealestate

valueshenceimpactingacommunity’ssocial,economicalanddevelopmentstatus.

Noiseimpactsfromhumanactivitiesdonotonlyaffecthumanpopulations.KaselooandTyson(2004)synthesized

theecologicalinformationonnoiseimpactstowildlifepopulationslivingnearroadwaysanddeterminedthereis

sufficientevidencethatnoiseeffectspopulations,breedinghabits,andbiodiversity.However,thereisverylittle

conclusivedatarelativetoroadnoiseandpopulationsoffish,amphibians,reptiles,andinvertebrates.Burrowing

speciesmaybeimpactedduetoroadnoiseandnoisevibrations,butthisareaalsorequiresfurtherstudy.Bird

populationsappeartobethemostnegativelyimpacted,withimpactsproportionaltothelevelsoftrafficnoiseand

volume.Inmanylocationsthereisclearevidenceofdecreasedbirdbreedingactivityandpopulationdeclinesnear

rightsofway(however,thismayberelatedtodisplacementofpreyorvegetationchange).Largeandsmall

mammalsmayalsoberepelledbyroadwaynoise.

Wildlifecanexperiencesimilaradversehealtheffectsandstressesbecausethestructureandfunctionofmost

animalearsissimilartothehumanear(EPA,1978).Notonlydosoundlevelrangesheardbyanimalsdifferfrom

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whatisheardbyhumans(EPA,1978),buttheirsensitivitytoandcorrespondinghealthimpactsfromsoundalso

vary.Physiologicaleffectsofnoiseonwildlifeincludestressestoendocrine,digestive,cardiovascular,andimmune

systemsaswellasreproductivefunction(Kaseloo&Tyson,2004).Roadwaynoisecanalsoimpactvocalizationand

communicationbetweenwildlifespecies,especiallywhereroadwaynoisemaycausebackgroundnoiseacross

distances(Kaseloo&Tyson,2004).

ConstructionNoiseConstructionnoiseistemporarybutmayadverselyaffectnearbypropertyowners,residentsandwildlife.The

FHWAprovidesguidanceinitsHighwayConstructionNoiseHandbook (Knaueretal.,2006).Manyofthe

recommendationsforthisguidancedocumentweregeneratedbytheCentralArtery/TunnelprojectinBoston(featuredintheExamplessectionabove),andweredocumentedbyThalheimer(2000)priortobeingpublishedby

theFHWA.

Roadconstructionnoiseistypicallygeneratedbythreesourcetypes:mobileequipment,stationaryequipmentand

blastingactivity.Noiselevelsforindividualequipmenttypicallyusedonroadconstructionprojectsarepresentedin

TablePR5.1.

TablePR5.1:MaximumSoundLevelofConstructionEquipmentActivityMeasuredat50feet.(Adaptedfrom

Thalheimer,2000;Knaueretal.,2006)

Equipment dBA Equipment dBA Equipment dBA

AugerDrillRig 85 FlatBedTruck 84 Rivetbuster/Chippinggun 85

Backhoe 80 FrontEndLoader 80 RockDrill 85

BarBender 80 Generator 82 Roller 85

Blasting 94 Gradall 85 SandBlasting(SingleNozzle) 85

BoringJackPowerUnit 80 Grader 85 Scraper 85

ChainSaw 85 Grapple(onbackhoe) 85 Shears(onbackhoe) 85

ClamShovel(dropping) 93 HorizontalBoringHydraulicJack 80 SlurryPlant 78

Compactor(ground) 80 HydraBreakRam 90 SlurryTrenchingMachine 82

Compressor(air) 80 ImpactPileDriver 95 SoilMixDrillRig 80

ConcreteBatchPlant 83 Jackhammer 85 Tractor 84

ConcreteMixerTruck 85 ManLift 85 VacuumExcavator 85

ConcreteSaw 90 MountedImpactHammer(hoeram) 90 VacuumStreetSweeper 80

Crane 85 PavementScarifier 85 VentilationFan 85

Dozer 85 Paver 85 VibratingHopper 85

DrillRigTruck 84 PickupTruck 55 VibratoryConcreteMixer 80

DrumMixer 80 PneumaticTools 85 VibratoryPileDriver 95

DumpTruck 84 Pumps 77 WarningHorn 85

Excavator 85 RefrigeratorUnit 82 Welder/Torch 73

TherelativeAweightednoiselevelsofcommonsoundsmeasuredintheenvironmentandindustryforvarious

qualitativesoundlevelsareprovidedinFigurePR5.1.

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NoiseSource(GivenDistance) SoundLevel(dbA) Qualitative Response Description

Carrierdeckjetoperation

Jettakeoff(200feet)

Danceclub

Autohorn(3feet)

Rivetingmachine

Jettakeoff(2000feet)

Shout(0.5feet)

NewYorksubwaystation

Heavytruck(50feet)

Pneumaticdrill(50feet)Freighttrain(50feet)

Freewaytraffic(50feet)

Airconditioningunit(20feet)

Lightautotraffic(50feet)

Livingroom

Bedroom

Library

Softwhisper(5feet)

Recordingstudio

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

PainfullyloudLimitofamplifiedspeech

Maximumvocaleffort

Veryannoying

Hearingdamage(8hr,continuousexposure)

Annoying

Telephoneusedifficult

Intrusive

Quiet

Veryquiet

Justaudible

Hearingthreshold

FigurePR5.1:TypicalSoundLevelsMeasuredintheEnvironmentandIndustry

(AdaptedfromBarksdale,1991 ).

TrafficNoise

AdiscussionontrafficnoisesourcesisprovidedinCreditPT5QuietPavement.

RegulationofNoise

In1981,theEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)OfficeofNoiseAbatementandControl(ONAC)wasabolishedandnoisemanagementauthoritywasgrantedtoindividualstatesandmunicipalities.However,the1972NoiseAct

andthe1978QuietCommunitiesActarestillvalidbutunfunded(EPA,2009).PriortothedisintegrationofONAC,EPAdidestablishbaselineguidancedBAlevelsforbothindoorandoutdoorreceiversandexposuretimecriteria

forpreventingorlimitinghearingloss(EPA,2009).Theselawswereprimarilyputinplacetoprotectnoisesensitive

receivers.Anoisesensitivereceiverisalocationwherepeopleorendangeredwildliferesideorwherethe

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presenceofunwantedsoundcouldadverselyaffectthedesignateduseofthelandorhabitat(Knaueretal.,2006).

Typically,noisesensitivereceiversincluderesidences,hospitals,placesofworship,libraries,schools,andmay

includenatureandwildlifepreservesandparks.Forexample,“Levelsof45decibelsareassociatedwithindoor

residentialareas,hospitalsandschools,whereas55decibelsisidentifiedforcertainoutdoorareaswherehuman

activitytakesplace.Thelevelof70decibelsisidentifiedforallareasinordertopreventhearingloss.”(EPA,2009).

Roadwayprojectsneartheselocationsmayberestrictedbymorestringentnoisepoliciesduringbothconstruction

andoperation(Knaueretal.,2006).

Therearecurrentlynofederallyregulatedlevelsofconstructionnoise;howevertheFHWAhassetsomestandards

fortrafficnoiselevels.“Theregulations[23CFR§772]containnoiseabatementcriteriawhichrepresenttheupperlimitofacceptablehighwaytrafficnoisefordifferenttypesoflandusesandhumanactivities.Theregulationsdo

notrequirethattheabatementcriteriabemetineveryinstance.Rather,theyrequirethateveryreasonableandfeasibleeffortbemadetoprovidenoisemitigationwhenthecriteriaareapproachedorexceeded.”(2006).In

general,federallyfundedhighwayprojectsarerequiredtofollowathreestepprocessduringprojectdevelopment

fornoiseabatementinvolvingidentificationandmitigationofnoiseimpacts,aswellaslanduseplanning

coordinationwithlocalofficials.Longtermnoisecontrolandmitigationmeasuresfortrafficnoisearecurrently

assessedviatheenvironmentalreviewprocessandassociateddocumentationfortheNationalEnvironmental

PolicyAct(NEPA)of1969under23CFR§772.However,inSeptember2009,theFHWApublishedaNoticeof

ProposedRulemaking(NPRM)toamendthecurrentfederalnoisepolicycontainedin23CFR§772whichcould

meanhighwayagencieswillneedtoreviewtheirexistingnoisepolicies,revisethem,andobtainapprovalbytheFHWA.(USDOT&FHWA,2009)

OccupationalexposurestonoiseforconstructionworkersarecloselyregulatedbytheOccupationalHealthand

SafetyAdministration(OSHA).FormoreinformationonOSHAnoiseandhearingsafetystandards,visit:

http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/noisehearingconservation/

ConsiderationsforMitigatingNoise

Manydesignandprojectplanningmethodscanreduceengineorblastrelatednoisefromconstructionprojects.

Also,certaintechniquesandroadwaysurfacingmaterialscanbeusedtoreducetirepavementnoise.TheFHWA

HighwayConstructionNoiseHandbook (Knaueretal.,2006)describesthefollowingelementsforeffectivecontrol

ofhighwayconstructionandoperationalnoisewhichareapplicabletoallroadwayprojects.

x Alternativedesignoptions.Avoidgenerationofnoisealtogether.Examplesaredesignatedconstructiontraffic

routes,speciallylocatingstorageareas,orpossiblyevenselectionofanentirelydifferentroadwayalignment.

Anotherdesignoptionwouldbeconsideringalternativeconstructionapproaches,suchasvibratorypiledriving

insteadofimpactpiledriving.Alternativedesignsareusuallyveryeffectiveapproaches,buttheyarenotalways

costeffectiveorpractical.

x Mitigationatthesource.Reduce,minimizeoreliminateinitialnoisegeneration.Anexamplewouldbe

installingmufflersorbafflesonconstructionequipmentoronamotorvehicleusingtheroadway.Contract

specificationsandspecialprovisionsareanexcellentmeansofsourcemitigation,suchasrequiringcontractorstousequieterequipmentorsettingstrictnoiselimitsforspecifictypesofequipment.Additionally,

constructionemployeetrainingisconsideredasourcemitigationtechnique.Quietpavements,wheretire

pavementnoiseisreducedatthesource,maybeaviablestrategyformitigatingoperationaltrafficnoise(see

CreditPT5QuietPavement).Sourcereductionisthemosteffectiveandoftenalsomostcosteffectivetypeof

mitigationstrategy,becauseitiseasiesttoobserveandinspect(Thalheimer,2000).

x Mitigationalongthepath.Reduceorminimizenoisepropagation.Noisebarriersandshieldscanbenatural

suchasgradechangesorpermanentsuchassoundwalls.Pathmitigationistheleasteffectivemitigation

strategy,andhasanumberofdisadvantages,especiallyifmanmade.Pathmitigationmethods,suchassound

barrierstructures,areonlyeffectiveatcertaindistancesandgeometriesinrelationtotheroadway.Commonly,

thesearepermanentmanmadestructuresthattendtoreducevisualquality,arehighcost,energyintensive,

materialsintensive,andmaypotentiallyfragmentorobstructnaturalhabitatsdependingontheirplacementin

therightofway.

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x Mitigationatthereceiver.Reduce,minimizeoravoidnoisereception.Someexamplesarenoise“masking”

whereunpleasantsoundiscovereduporinterferedbyamorepleasantsound,buildingenvelope

improvements,andtemporaryrelocationofresidents.Dependingonthescaleandlocationoftheproject,as

wellasthelevelofpublicandstakeholderinvolvementandprojectacceptability,receivermitigationmethods

varyincost.However,thesemethodsaremoreeffectiveatreducingnoisereceivedbythehumanearthan

pathmitigation,especiallyintargetedsensitivereceptors(Thalheimer,2000).

Mostnoisemitigationplanscreatedforroadwayprojectswillincludeacombinationofmanyofthesestrategies.

GLOSSARY

ANMP AlternativeNoiseMitigationPlan

CA/T CentralArtery/Tunnelproject.AlsoknownastheBigDig.

CFR CodeofFederalRegulations

dB Decibel

dBA Aweighteddecibels

EPA EnvironmentalProtectionAgency


HMA HotmixasphaltMasking usingacousticaltechniquestocoveruporinterferewithunpleasantsound

MassDOT MassachusettsDepartmentofTransportation

MTA MassachusettsTurnpikeAuthority

NMP NoiseMitigationPlan

Noise Unwantedsound,undesirablesound

Noisesensitivereceiver Alocationwherepeople orendangeredwildlife resideorwherethepresence

ofunwantedsoundcouldadverselyaffectthedesignateduseofthelandor

habitat(Knaueretal.,2006)

NYDEP NewYorkCityDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection

Path Theroutealongwhichsoundpassesfromthesourcetothereceptor


Receptor(receiver) AnendpointwheresoundisobservedSource Apointwhereasoundisgenerated

USDOT UnitedStatesDepartmentofTransportation

REFERENCES

Anderson,L.M.,Mulligan,B.E.,&Goodman,L.S.(1984).Effectsofvegetationonhumanresponsetosound. Journal

ofArboriculture.10(2),4549.

AylorDE,&MarksLE.(1976).Perceptionofnoisetransmittedthroughbarriers.TheJournaloftheAcoustical

SocietyofAmerica.59(2),397400.

Barksdale,R.D.(1991).TheAggregateHandbook .Washington,D.C.:NationalStoneAssociation.

CityofNewYork,DepartmentofEnvironment.(2009)DEPAir,Noise&Asbestos.AccessedDecember22,2009.

Availableathttp://nyc.gov/html/dep/html/air/index.shtml

CommonwealthofMassachusetts,DepartmentofTransportation(MassDOT),HighwayDivision.(2009).MassDOT

HighwayDivision:TheCentralArtery/TunnelProjectTheBigDig.AccessedDecember23,2009.Availableat

http://www.massdot.state.ma.us/Highway/bigdig/bigdigmain.aspx

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EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(1973,July)PublicHealthandWelfareCriteriaforNoise.(550/973002).

OfficeofNoiseAbatementandControl(ONAC).Washington,D.C.:EPA,ONAC.AccessedJanuary1,2010.

Availableathttp://www.nonoise.org/epa/Roll1/roll1doc3.pdf

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(1978).Noise:AHealthProblem.EPA,OfficeofNoiseAbatementand

Control,Washington,DC.OfficeofNoiseAbatementandControl(ONAC).Washington,D.C.:EPA,ONAC.

AccessedJanuary1,2010.Availableathttp://www.nonoise.org/epa/Roll15/roll15doc152.pdf

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2009,August12).EPAIdentifiesNoiseLevelsAffectingHealthand

Welfare|EPAHistory|USEPA.[PressRelease:April2,1974].AccessedJanuary1,2010.Availableat

http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/noise/01.htm

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2006,April).HighwayTrafficNoiseintheUnitedStates:Problemand

Response.(FHWAHEP06020).Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,FederalHighwayAdministration.AccessedJanuary2,2010.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/probresp.htm

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2008,December16).FHWARoadwayConstructionNoise.Accessed

December22,2009.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/cnstr_ns.htm

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2009,October1).NoiseRegulations,Policy,andGuidance.AccessedJanuary2,2010.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/mem_nois.htm

Kaseloo,P.A.&Tyson,K.O.(2004)SynthesisofNoiseEffectsonWildlifePopulations.(FHWAHEP06016)

Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,FederalHighwayAdministration.AccessedNovember25,

2008.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/effects/index.htm

Knauer,H.S.etal.(2006).FHWAhighwayconstructionnoisehandbook .(FHWAHEP06015)Washington,DC:U.S.

DepartmentofTransportation,FederalHighwayAdministration.AccessedNovember25,2008.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/handbook/index.htm

PasschierVermeer,W.&Passchier,W.F.(2000).Noiseexposureandpublichealth.EnvironmentalHealth

Perspectives.108,12331.

Reherman,C.N.etal.(2006).FHWARoadwayConstructionNoiseModel,Version1.0User’sGuide.(FHWAHEP05

054)Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,FederalHighwayAdministration.Accessed

November25,2008.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/rcnm/rcnm.pdf

Sandberg,U.andEjsmont,J.A.(2002).Tyre/RoadNoiseReferenceBook .InformexEjsmont&Sandberg

Handelsbolag,Sweden.

Thalheimer,E.(2000).ConstructionnoisecontrolprogramandmitigationstrategyattheCentralArtery/Tunnel

Project.NoiseControlEngineeringJournal.48(5),157165.

78



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79




Waste Management Plan PR-6


• Integrate the CWMP with a Site Recycling Plan to earn credit CA‐3 Site Recycling Plan.

• Modify, as appropriate for roads, versions of waste management plan specifications developed for building

contractors by the Construction Materials Recycling Association (CMRA). The California Integrated Waste

Management Board (CIWMB) provides Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) MasterFormat templates for

Sections

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download and project‐specific use at: http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/conDemo/specs/CMRA.htm.

• Keep accurate records and retain all waste handling invoices and receipts. The site listed above also includes

spreadsheet templates that contractors may use for tracking waste during construction.

• Specify a project diversion rate goal that may help establish appropriate waste handling procedures.

• The Construction Materials Recycling Association (CMRA) provides links to a variety of localities that offer

construction and demolition waste recycling services. The list can be accessed at http://www.cdrecycling.org/.

• Include the Waste Management Plan in agency contract documents, bid packages, and/or specifications.

• Set waste reduction goals and explicitly state them in the Waste Management Plan

• Locate receptacles in easily accessible or highly frequented locations on the jobsite. Receptacles should not be

placed in areas where they may cause harm to workers or the local environment. See Pollution Prevention Plan

for more information.

• Hire a contractor with an Environmental Management System (EMS) in place. See Credit EW‐1 Environmental

Management System. These employers already have internal office procedures established to reduce office‐

related pollution and may be familiar with local agency waste management efforts.

• Develop and deliver training to workers to educate them on waste recovery efforts being implemented onsite

and compliance with the general CWMP. This step will be critical to all projects. See Credit CA‐2 Environmental

Awareness Training for more approaches and strategies for education programs.

• Hire an experienced waste transport company to manage site waste and monitor waste streams for

unacceptable materials.

• Identify local facilities that accept recyclables or salvaged materials. This is important in designating type of

waste to separate, and in making arrangements for drop‐off or delivery of materials.

• The 2007 Contractor’s Guide by the King County Solid Waste Division and Seattle Public Utilities provides many

helpful waste management and reduction strategies for the entire project. A sample waste management plan

adapted from this guide is provided in the examples below.

Example: Sample CWMP Template with Materials Recovery

The following example content has been adapted from the 2007 Seattle/King County Contractor’s Guide, which

is available here: http://your.kingcounty.gov/solidwaste/greenbuilding/documents/ConGuide.pdf . Project

teams should consider customizing the CWMP information based on project goals and owner expectations.

80



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82




PR-6 Waste Management Plan

units of measure than mass. Some ingenuity may be required to determine an appropriate solution to account

for on‐site solid waste.

4. Careless behavior or lack of stewardship may be an issue that can result in recyclables being disposed in waste‐

only receptacles, or vice versa, especially if objectives of a WMP are not meaningful or communicated well to

workers. This behavior can contaminate the recyclables stream and make an entire receptacle unsuitable for

reprocessing or salvage, or accidentally send recyclables to a landfill.

5. Proper handling of recyclable materials is a key safety issue for new and unfamiliar recycling activities.

Communication and training is critical to minimize risk and preserve safety.

6. Safety and security considerations should be taken into account relative to storage on‐site of recoverable

materials of high value. Opportunities for theft may be increased, especially for some types of metals that are

commonly used in infrastructure or electrical utilities like copper wire.

7. At this time, points are not available for achieving waste reduction based on percentage of total waste. This is

due to lack of data regarding waste management for roadway construction activities.

RESEARCH

“Solid material waste generation is one of the many environmental burdens associated with the roadway life

cycle.” (Rajendran & Gambatese, 2007, p. 88). Waste management, especially as recycling, minimization or reuse,

is one of the cornerstone principles of sustainable development and pollution prevention programs. Both

municipal solid waste (MSW) and building industry construction and demolition (C&D) waste are well‐

characterized. These types of waste are monitored and measured by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

and many state agencies. Remarkably little is known about quantities and types of solid waste generated by the

transportation industry during road and bridge construction and rehabilitation activities (EPA, 2009a; Rajendran &

Gambetese, 2007; Rajendran & Gambetese, 2005; Aquino, 2003; Northeast Waste Management Officials’

Association, 2009). A key component is also very unclear: where the waste actually ends up.

This may be partly due to the relative ease with which hot mix asphalt, concrete, soil and cobble waste is

recovered and reprocessed. Facilities that manage C&D waste are relatively unregulated parts of the waste

management industry, even though they may receive a very large volume of materials from road and bridge

construction. Bloomquist et al. (1993; cited in Rajendran & Gambatese, 2007) state in their report to the U.S.

Department of Transportation (USDOT) and the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) that approximately 75%

of highway pavement materials are recovered. Note that this data is nearly 20 years old (or more) and no

significant progress on characterizing road construction waste has been made, except at very few local agencies

(see Examples noted above) where the focus is on cost‐reduction and the savings associated with incorporating

recycled materials into design standards.

What is Construction and Demolition (C&D) Waste?

The definition of what is considered construction and demolition (C&D) waste varies by state and local jurisdiction.

The EPA definition is just as broad: materials that consist of “debris generated during the construction, renovation,

and demolition of buildings, roads, and bridges” (EPA, 2009e). Construction debris is considered to be a specific

type of solid waste, which is clearly defined under the 1984 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) to

the United States 1972 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Title 40 CFR § 261.2 (EPA, 2009d; ICF,

1995b). It is also considered industrial waste to differentiate its origin in the commercial and institutional sectors

from MSW, which is mostly residential in origin (EPA, 2009b). Most of the waste is perceived as inert, however,

some can be considered hazardous, such as structural elements with lead‐based paint.

C&D waste is generated from “construction, renovation, repair, and demolition of structures such as residential

and commercial buildings, roads, and bridges” and in general is comprised of a variety of materials (ICF, 1995b).

The most common material in building C&D landfilled waste streams is waste wood, hot mix asphalt (from parking

lots), drywall and masonry (ICF, 1995b); clearly the waste stream from roads and bridges has a different

composition. For example, in Vancouver, British Columbia, earthen materials composed over half of the

infrastructure demolition of the waste stream, followed by concrete and hot mix asphalt pavement materials in

lesser quantities (Bremner, 2006). Franklin Associates (1998) justifies omitting roadway construction and

83





demolition debris from their report to the EPA on C&D waste because it was not easily characterized and no point‐

source data was available for their study. Generally, data for percent composition of roadway waste stream

materials is not available from any reliable source and it is clearly rarely tracked in a meaningful way. The waste

stream for every roadway project will be unique in both volume and composition and end point, due to many

factors such as: project size, location, material type, construction or demolition means, schedule, contractor site

waste management practices (ICF, 1995b).

How Much C&D Waste Is There?

In March 2009, the EPA released 2003 data on construction and demolition waste from the building industry,

which generated an estimated 170 million tons (EPA, 2009a), up from 136 million tons stated in 1996 (Franklin

Associates, 1998; EPA, 2008b) The EPA notes that “Significant additional quantities of C&D materials are generated

from the construction of roads and bridges, from land clearing at construction sites, and at military installations”

(EPA, 2008b). The most recent waste stream characterization study funded by the EPA and conducted by the

Northeast Waste Management Officials’ Association (NEWMOA, 2009) characterized the 2006 C&D waste stream

for several New England states. Interestingly, this study specifically excluded aggregated data relevant to the hot

mix asphalt, brick and concrete (ABC) waste generated from road, bridge and land clearing projects because “the

quantity of ABC material generated by road and bridge projects often dwarfs the quantity generated from other

sources and can significantly bias the data on overall management of C&D wastes.” (p. 2). This is, in part, due to

the variations between C&D facilities relative to waste handling practices and types and quantities of materials

that they receive, and the tendency to classify road ABC waste as “aggregate” in the waste stream reports. In

addition, the report justifies its exclusion of transportation waste because roadway project material is often

recycled into new aggregate for road base or pavement sections and processing often occurs on‐site or at

specialized facility (NEWMOA, 2009).

Gambetese and Rajendran (2005) note that little research is available on lifecycle impacts of roadway waste

material, especially at end‐of ‐life of the pavement sections, and have attempted to model this road waste. These

same authors (2007) provide a good summary of road C&D waste estimates from various agencies and authors,

and include what is known about waste quantities and percentages throughout the world for roadways. However,

importantly, they note that “no exact estimates of C&D waste from the transportation industry are available” and

that existing literature indicates road and bridge waste contributes significantly to the waste stream, more so than

the building industry. William Turley, Executive Director of the Construction Materials Recycling Association

(CMRA) estimated in 2003 that the annual C&D waste generated in the United States was roughly 320 million tons (Aquino, 2003). Following the publishing of the EPA 2009 report on 2003 building industry waste, Turley noted

(Johnson, 2009) that the total waste stream is more realistically estimated at 325 to 350 million tons (for 2003)

after infrastructure waste is accounted in the total. This would mean transportation‐related construction,

demolition, and rehabilitation activities generate and dispose of C&D waste at approximately the same rate as the

building industry.

Based on available lifecycle process data and their collected end‐of ‐life waste statistics for road waste, Rajendran

and Gambetese (2007) conducted a quantitative lifecycle inventory (LCI) model of typical hot mix asphalt and

concrete pavement sections from extraction of materials to end‐of ‐life to estimate the waste contributions from

each pavement type. Their model showed that over 50% of the lifecycle waste was generated from end‐of ‐life

waste disposal practices for both pavement models. However, their models did not include any recycling or

reprocessing activities because these processes are not well‐characterized. Waste generation rates at end‐of ‐life,

and during construction (scraps and refuse) are shown in Table PR‐6.1.

84





Table PR‐6.1: Roadway Material Waste Rates at End‐of ‐Life and Construction

(Adapted from Rajendran & Gambetese, 2007)

Pavement Material Type

Waste Rate at End‐of ‐Life

(% of Material)

Waste Rate during Placement of New Road

(% of Material)

Concrete Pavement 25 2.5

Concrete Pavement – Cement ‐ 2.45

Concrete Pavement – Aggregates ‐ 3.0

Steel Rebar 55 1.79

Asphalt Pavement 18 0.102

Asphalt Pavement – Asphalt ‐ 0.86

Crushed Stone Base 17.1 0.88

Crushed Gravel Base 18.5 0.88

Granular Subbase 23 0.80

Subgrade 12.8 ‐

The EPA (2009c) notes that Industrial processes contributed to a total of 7.6 billion tons of non‐hazardous solid

waste generated in the U.S. in 2006. These processes include pavement material production such as asphalt and

cement manufacturing. These wastes are outside the scope of Greenroads (at this time) because they occur earlier

in the supply chain than materials produced (mixed) after ground‐breaking for the roadway project. However, agencies and contractors are encouraged to work with industries that demonstrate responsible waste

management practices.

Where Does It Go?

Most roadway, bridge and land clearing debris is managed by the same C&D landfills and reprocessing facilities as

the building industry and represent a very large portion of the total C&D waste received by these facilities (Franklin

Associates, 1998). Approximately 1,500 C&D landfills were operational in the United States in 2004 (EPA, 2009a).

However, while building C&D waste composition and volume is monitored, the EPA admits that commercially

generated C&D waste, such as from transportation and industry, is not because it is typically collected and

disposed by the private sector. This makes managing these processes more difficult for municipalities, who have

been slow to target this waste stream (EPA, 2009b). Also, the EPA reports that “Unknown amounts of C&D

materials are also believed to go to combustion facilities or unpermitted landfills.” (2008c).

Many states also accept exported wastes from other states, which complicates tracking recovery activities

(NEWMOA, 2009). States also differ in waste management practices: in some cases the majority of C&D waste is

sent directly to landfill while other states will pre‐process the waste before it gets landfilled. “There is no common

standard as to how C&D wastes are processed at facilities in different states or even within a single state.”

(NEWMOA, 2009). The type of receiving facility varies and can be C&D only landfills, C&D recovery facilities (which

still dispose unrecoverable materials into landfills eventually), municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills, or combined

C&D and MSW facilities (EPA, 2008a; EPA, 2008c). The type of landfill where C&D waste might be received for your

project depends on local opportunity, and no federal regulation specifically dictates where it must go. Facilities in

the U.S. that accept C&D waste, sorted by EPA Regions, are provided by the Construction Industry Compliance

Assistance Center (CICA): http://www.cicacenter.org/.

Costs of Roadway Waste

Generally, road waste materials, like aggregate, asphalt and concrete, are heavy and, therefore, costly to

transport. Reprocessed inert waste products are often cost‐competitive with virgin aggregate because many waste

recovery facilities will crush and resell these wastes to avoid transport to landfill (NEWMOA, 2009), but this may

not be the case where there is open landfill space, low tipping fees, or other low‐cost or virtually‐free disposal

options available (William Turley qtd. in Aquino, 2003). Essentially, this likely makes waste management

commonplace in the transportation industry, because it is a cost‐effective best practice.

85





In 1995, the EPA issued a report (ICF, 1995a) on environmental damages associated with C&D landfills, specifically

to collect available data on groundwater or surface water pollution and ecosystem or habitat impacts, and to

determine if these impacts can be attributed to specific types of C&D waste, landfill operations and environmental

location. The study found that minimal data was available, many sites lacked basic environmental controls (like

liners), and focused on only 11 C&D landfill sites. On‐site groundwater contamination was present at several of

these sites that exceeded acceptable levels of inorganic contaminants for state secondary groundwater quality

standards (i.e. taste). Additionally, several sites were found to have inorganic surface water contamination that

exceeded either state levels or EPA Ambient Water Quality Criteria for freshwater aquatic life. Some of these

impacts were attributed to characteristics of the landfill location such as shallow groundwater or permeable soils

(ICF, 1995a). Notably, there are many other impacts associated with long‐term environmental degradation, using

open space or habitat for landfills, and social and economic impacts that are not easily quantifiable. Current data

on existing C&D landfill capacity in the United States is not available from any reliable source. Also, due to the high

variability of size, location, capacities, and facility types lumped in industry census statistics for waste management

does not adequately characterize the costs of landfilling large volumes of roadway waste.

How is C&D Waste Regulated?

While MSW regulations are a core part of the RCRA and governed at a federal level by the EPA, most of the

regulations regarding C&D waste are generally non‐specific and managed by states and local jurisdictions.

However, the 1995 draft report created for the EPA Office of Solid Waste, indicates that all 50 states have some

regulations for the C&D landfill facilities not located on private property, though many are not as strict as those for

MSW facilities, which are covered under RCRA Title 40 CFR § 257 and 258. Additionally, “Executive Order 13423

requires all federal construction, renovation, and demolition projects to achieve a 50% recycling rate where

markets or on‐site recycling opportunities exist.” (EPA, 2009a). The most detailed review for the EPA regarding the

variability of landfill regulatory requirements is given in the 1995 draft report from ICF Incorporated.

In Departments of Transportation across the U.S., the story is similar: regulations are varied and often vague or

non‐existent. In fact, most Departments of Transportation (DOTs) do not have any management control over the

waste and typically, road‐related waste is handled by a different state agency (environmental or ecology, for

example). The lack of consistency in characterizing and regulating this massive waste stream fundamentally

demonstrates a large opportunity for both source reduction and waste minimization management protocols for

roadway C&D waste.

Waste Management Planning

Waste management planning may be an unfamiliar consideration for roadway design agencies, engineers or

contractors because traditionally this is not one of their professional responsibilities. However, Kibert (2005) notes

that proper planning and quality assurance plans are imperative to the successful construction and continued

performance of building industry projects, and the same may be said for roadway projects. Poorly defined

parameters for C&D waste, including what it is and what it is not, are necessary for an effective waste

management plan. Another key part of waste management is measurement. Consistency in any measurement

program should include clear identification of where the waste is to be measured (i.e. leaving the construction

site) and by what unit of measure (volume or mass) (ICF, 1995b). Responsible treatment of waste materials, if the

wasteful practices themselves cannot be eliminated, is a necessity for reducing the long‐term need for landfill

space filled with inert, reusable materials.

Kibert (2005) also notes that with thoughtful planning and engineering, final contract documents can often

anticipate sources of construction waste and generally generate less of it (as well as having fewer errors and

change orders throughout the process). Specifications will also require a clear definition of what C&D waste means

for the project. He states that source reduction (reduced need for materials) is most effective in minimizing waste,

especially for new projects. Such success was demonstrated by the Examples from TxDOT and the City of

Vancouver (Bremner, 2006), which were achieved largely through contract language (including specific instructions

for recyclability, salvagability and special handling) and assignment of waste management responsibilities to

various parties. Since the pavement engineer is responsible for the main material components project, i.e. the

86





largest portion of the mass, there is an indirect responsibility to handle the selection process for these materials by

keeping the end of the design life in mind.

Additional Resources

• The report from the EPA called RCRA in Focus: Construction, Demolition and Renovation is a freely available

report that provides suggested strategies for inclusion in a waste management plan without violating

regulatory requirements and discusses special materials‐handling issues in C&D waste. It is available here:

http://www.epa.gov/waste/inforesources/pubs/infocus/rif ‐c&d.pdf

• Two organizations that compile information for waste management activities relevant to roadway design and

construction are the Construction Materials Recycling Association (http://www.cdrecycling.org) and the Green

Highways Partnership (http://www.greenhighwayspartnership.org/).

GLOSSARY

C&D Construction and demolition

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CMRA Construction Materials Recycling Association

Construction & demolition waste Material that must be hauled off ‐site for disposal or reprocessing, or, if

disposed within the project ROW, is not intended for engineered use on‐site

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

FHWA Federal Highway Administration

HSWA Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 to RCRA

MSW Municipal solid waste

MT Metric ton (tonne)

NEWMOA Northeast Waste Management Officials’ Association

RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1972)

ROW Right‐of ‐Way

TxDOT Texas Department of Transportation

USDOT United States Department of Transportation

REFERENCES

Aquino, J.T. (2003). C&D Waste: A Sometimes Bumpy Road to More Attention. MSW Management. July‐August

2003. Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.mswmanagement.com/july‐august‐2003/cd‐

waste‐recycle.aspx

Bloomquist, D., Diamond, G., Oden, M., Ruth, B., & Tia, M. (1993). Engineering and Environmental Aspects of

Recycled Materials for Highway Construction. FHWA‐RD‐93‐088, Federal Highway Administration, McLean, VA

and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.

Bremner, P. & City of Vancouver Engineering Services. (2006) Road construction waste: to landfill or recycle? There

is no question. In proceedings of Transportation Association of Canada 2006 Annual Conference and Exhibition.

Session: 2005 TAC Environmental Achievement Award Nominations. Accessed October 22, 2008. Available at

http://www.tac‐atc.ca/english/resourcecentre/readingroom/conference/conf2006/docs/s007/bremner.pdf

California Integrated Waste Management Board (CIWMB). (2009, October 27). Recycle: CIWMB. Accessed

December 21, 2009. Available at: http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/Recycle/

California Integrated Waste Management Board. (2009, June 22) C&D Recycling: CMRA Master Specifications.

Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/conDemo/specs/CMRA.htm.

87





Construction Industry Research and Information Association. (2004, April 28). CIRIA: Construction Waste and

Resources. Design and Construction Good Practice Pointers. Accessed December 21, 2009. Available at:

http://www.ciria.org.uk/cwr/good_practice_pointers.htm

Construction Materials Recycling Association. (2009a). CMRA: Home. Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at

http://www.cdrecycling.org/

Construction Materials Recycling Association. (2009b). 2009 C&D Recycling Excellence Honored By CMRA [Press

Release]. April 6, 2009. Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.cdrecycling.org/news

Davio, R. United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. (2000) Lessons Learned:

TxDOT’s Efforts to Increase the Use of Recycled Materials. Public Roads. 64(1). Accessed December 16, 2009.

Available at http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/julaug00/recyctx.htm

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2008, October 2) Landfills | C&D Materials | Wastes | US EPA. Accessed

December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/industrial/cd/cdlandfill.htm

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2008a, September 11) Landfills | Municipal Solid Waste | Wastes | US

EPA. Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/municipal/landfill.htm

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2008b, October 2) Basic Information | C&D Materials | Wastes | US EPA.

Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/osw/nonhaz/industrial/cd/basic.htm

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2009b, March 13) Industrial Wastes | Wastes | US EPA. Accessed

December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/osw/nonhaz/industrial/index.htm

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2009c, March 13) Non‐Hazardous Wastes | Wastes | US EPA. Accessed

December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/index.htm

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2009d, July 1) Definition of Solid Waste | Wastes | US EPA. Accessed

December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/dsw/index.htm

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2009e, November 16) C&D Materials | Wastes | US EPA. Accessed

December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/rrr/imr/cdm/index.htm

Environmental Protection Agency. (2004, September) RCRA in Focus: Construction, Demolition, and Renovation.

(EPA530‐K‐04‐005). Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at:

http://www.epa.gov/waste/inforesources/pubs/infocus/rif ‐c&d.pdf

Environmental Protection Agency. (2008b, September 30). Climate Change and Municipal Solid Waste Fact Sheet |

Pay‐As‐You‐Throw | US EPA. Accessed December 21, 2009. Available at

http://www.epa.gov/waste/conserve/tools/payt/tools/factfin.htm

Environmental Protection Agency. (2008c, November 13). Municipal Solid Waste | Wastes | US EPA. Accessed

December 21, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/municipal/index.htm

Environmental Protection Agency. (2008e, December 3). P2 Resource Exchange | Pollution Prevention | US EPA.

Accessed December 21, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/p2/pubs/p2rx.html.

Environmental Protection Agency. (2009a, March) Estimating 2003 Building‐Related Construction and Demolition

Materials Amounts. (EPA530‐R‐09‐002). Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at:

http://www.epa.gov/waste/conserve/rrr/imr/cdm/pubs/cd‐meas.pdf

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Environmental Protection Agency. (2009a, September 14). Waste Home | General Information on the Link

Between Solid Waste and Climate Change | Climate Change ‐ What You Can Do | US EPA. Accessed December

21, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/climate/climatechange/wycd/waste/generalinfo.html

Environmental Protection Agency. (2009c, November) Municipal Solid Waste Generation, Recycling, and Disposal

in the United States: Facts and Figures for 2008. (EPA‐530‐F‐009‐021) Available at

http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/pubs/msw2008rpt.pdf

Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery. (2009b, November). Municipal

Solid Waste Generation, Recycling, and Disposal in the United States: Detailed Tables and Figures for 2008.

Available at http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/pubs/msw2008data.pdf

Franklin Associates, Inc. (1998, June). Characterization of Building‐Related Construction and Demolition Debris in

the United States. Report prepared for Environmental Protection Agency Municipal and Industrial Solid Waste

Division, Office of Solid Waste. (EPA530‐R‐98‐010). Prairie Village, KS: TechLaw, Inc. Available at

http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/generation/sqg/c&d‐rpt.pdf

Gambatese, J. A., & Rajendran, S. (2005). Sustainable Roadway Construction: Energy Consumption and Material

Waste Generation of Roadways. In Proceedings of the ASCE Construction Research Congress 2005: Broadening

perspectives, April 5‐7, 2005 (San Diego, Ca). Reston, Va: American Society of Civil Engineers.

Green Highways Partnership, Global Environment & Technology Fund. (2008). Green Highways Partnership.

Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.greenhighwayspartnership.org/

ICF Incorporated. (1995a, May 18). Environmental Damages Cases from Construction and Demolition Waste

Landfills [DRAFT]. Report prepared for Environmental Protection Agency. Available at

http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/generation/sqg/damages/dam‐pdf/damage.pdf

ICF Incorporated. (1995b, May 18). Report on Construction and Demolition Waste Landfills [DRAFT]. Report

prepared for Environmental Protection Agency. Available at

http://www.epa.gov/waste/hazard/generation/sqg/const/cdrpt.pdf

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2007) Pachauri, R.K & Reisinger, A. eds. Climate Change 2007:

Synthesis Report. “Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment. Report of the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.” IPCC: Switzerland, 2007. 104 pp.

Johnson, J. (2009, March 30). EPA estimates C&D debris up 25%. Waste Recycling News. Accessed December 16,

2009. Available at http://wastenews.texterity.com/wastenews/20090330//Print_su#pg1

Kibert, C. (2005). Sustainable construction: green building design and delivery (1st ed.). Hoboken N.J.: John Wiley &

Sons.

King County Solid Waste Division & Seattle Public Utilties. (2007). 2007 Contractors Guide ‐ King County Solid

Waste Division. Available at: http://your.kingcounty.gov/solidwaste/greenbuilding/documents/ConGuide.pdf

King County Solid Waste Division. (2008, October 2). Design specifications and waste management plans for green

building projects in King County, WA. Accessed December 20, 2009. Available at:

http://your.kingcounty.gov/solidwaste/greenbuilding/construction‐recycling/specifications‐plans.asp

King County Solid Waste Division. (2009, October 20) Green Building ‐ King County Solid Waste Division. Accessed

December 20, 2009. Available at: http://www.greentools.us

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Kourmpanis, B., Papadopoulos, A., Moustakas, K., Stylianou, M., Haralambous, K., & Loizidou, M. (2008).

Preliminary study for the management of construction and demolition waste. Waste Management & Research.

26 (3), 267‐275.

McDonough, W. & Braungart, M. (2002). Cradle to cradle: Remaking the way we make things. New York: North

Point Press.

Northeast Waste Management Officials’ Association (NEWMOA). (2009, June 30). Construction & Demolition

WasteManagement in the Northeast in 2006. Boston, Ma: NEWMOA. Available at

http://www.newmoa.org/solidwaste/CDReport2006DataFinalJune302009.pdf

Poon, C. S., Yu, A. T. W. & Ng, L. H. (2001). On‐site sorting of construction and demolition waste in Hong Kong.

Resources, Conservation, and Recycling. 32 (2), 157.

Rajendran, S. & Gambatese, J. A. (2007). Solid Waste Generation in Asphalt and Reinforced Concrete Roadway Life

Cycles. Journal of Infrastructure Systems. 13 (2), 88.

Schultmann, F. & Sunke, N. (2007). Energy‐oriented deconstruction and recovery planning. Building Research &;

Information. 35 (6), 602‐615.

Seydel, A., Wilson, O. D. & Skitmore, R. M. (2002). Financial Evaluation of Waste Management Methods. Journal of

Construction Research. 3 (1), 167‐179.

Sustainable Sites Initiative. (2009) The Sustainable Sites Initiative: Guidelines and Performance Benchmarks 2009.

Available at http://www.sustainablesites.org/report/

United States Green Building Council (USGBC). (2009) LEED 2009 for New Construction and Major Renovations

Rating System. Available at http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=220

WasteCap Resource Solutions. WasteCap Resource Solutions ‐ Construction & Demolition. Accessed December 21,

2009. Available at http://www.wastecapwi.org/resources/construction‐demolition/

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PR-7 Pollution Prevention Plan

POLLUTION PREVENTION PLANGOAL

Reducepollutionandassociatedeffectsfromconstructionactivities.

REQUIREMENTS

CreateandimplementacomprehensiveStormwaterPollutionPreventionPlan

(SWPPP)orTemporaryErosionandSedimentationControl(TESC)planthatconforms

totherequirementsofthecurrentEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)

ConstructionGeneralPermitORthelocalorstateConstructionGeneralPermitinareas

thatmanagetheirownpermittingplan,whicheverismorestringent.TheSWPPP/TESC

mustaddresswaterqualitycontrolanddustcontrolactivitiesusedduringconstruction

oftheroadwayproject.

Details

Note:ASWPPPforconstructionactivitiesisalsosometimescalledaTemporary

ErosionandSedimentationControl(TESC)PlanorPollutionPreventionPlan(PPP)dependingonlocaljurisdictions.

ThisrequirementappliestoALLGreenroadsprojects,regardlessofsize.

DOCUMENTATION

x CopyoftheStormwaterPollutionPreventionPlan(SWPPP)orTemporaryErosion

andSedimentationControlPlan(TESC)signedbythecertifiedErosionand

SedimentControlinspectororauthorizedspecialistfortheprojectupon

completionofconstruction.

PR-7

REQUIRED

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR4QualityControl

Plan

9 PR6Waste

ManagementPlan

9 PR8LowImpact

Development

9 EW1EnvironmentalManagementSystem

9 EW2RunoffFlow

Control

9 EW3RunoffQuality

9 CA1Quality

ManagementSystem

9 CA2Environmental

Training

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Expectations

BENEFITS

9 ReducesAir

Emissions

9 ReducesWater

Pollution

9 ReducesSolidWaste

91




Pollution Prevention Plan PR-7


x Evaluatefederal,stateandlocalrequirementsformoststringentpollutionpreventionstandards

x Identifyanyhighriskpollutionrelatedelementsoftheprojectearlyindesign.

x Usedesignandconstructionstaffproperlytrainedinpollutionprevention.

x Considersitetopographycarefullyduringplanningforconstructionstagingareasandstorageareasfor

aggregates,wastesandothermaterials.x Createthepollutionpreventionplanduringprojectdevelopment.(USGBC,2009)

x Usemorethanonestrategytopreventpollutiononyourprojectsuchas(SustainableSitesInitiative,2009;USGBC,2009):

x Temporaryandpermanentseeding

x Mulching

x Earthdikes

x Sedimenttraps

x Sedimentbasins

x Filtersocks

x Compostbermsandblankets

x

Secondarycontainmentx Spillcontrolequipment

x Hazardouswastemanifests,and

x Overfillalarms.

x Siltfencing

x Sealpavementonlywhenweatherisnotrainy.(SustainableSitesInitiative,2009).

x Donotconductmassgradingoperationsbeforelargestormsareforecast(SustainableSitesInitiative,2009).

x Coordinatestagingactivitieswithacontractorduringdesignwherepossible.

x Usecarewhensequencingconstructionactivities,especiallyforinstallationoflowimpactdevelopment(LID)infiltrationsystems(SustainableSitesInitiative,2009).

x HaveanenvironmentalmonitoronsitetomakesurethattherequirementsoftheSWPPParebeingfollowed.

Example: EPA SWPPP Templates and Guidance

TheEPAprovidesasignificantamountofguidancetoaidindevelopingstormwaterpollutionpreventionplan

forconstructionactivities.Anumberoftoolsareavailable,suchas:

x SWPPPTemplateforstatesauthorizedtoimplementNPDES:

http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/sw_swppp_template_authstates.doc

x SWPPPTemplateforjurisdictionsnotauthorizedtoimplementNPDES(Alaska,Massachusetts,Idaho,New

Mexico,NewHampshire,theDistrictofColumbia,U.S.Territories,andIndianland):

http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/sw_swppp_template_unauthstates.doc

x HelpfulguidanceondevelopingSWPPPsforyourconstructionsite,DevelopingYourStormwaterPollution

PreventionPlan:aGuideforConstructionSites:http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/sw_swppp_guide.pdf .

Moretools,sampleplans,inspectiontemplatesandotherhelpfulinformationareavailableat

http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/Stormwater/swppp.cfm.(EPA,2008)

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. TheEPAonlyrequiresConstructionGeneralPermitsforlanddisturbingactivitiesgreaterthanoneacreinsize.

However,everyGreenroadsprojectmusthaveaplanforcontrollingconstructionstormwaterrunoff,

regardlessofsize,becausesizedoesnotdictategoodpracticeorinsignificanceofpollutiongeneratedbythese

constructionactivities.Theprecedenceforthisrequirementhasbeenestablishedbyothersustainabilityrating

92




PR-7 Pollution Prevention Plan

systems,suchasthe2009SustainableSitesInitiative(see“Prerequisite7.1Controlandretainconstruction

pollutants”)andtheLEED™2009GreenBuildingRatingSystem(see“Prerequisite1ConstructionActivity

PollutionPrevention”inthe“SustainableSites”creditcategory).

2. ForsmallprojectsthatdonotnormallyneedtocompleteaSWPPP,aSWPPPwillneedtobegenerated.This

couldrequireadditionalmanhoursfortheproject,especiallyiftheSWPPPdevelopmentprocessisunfamiliar.

3. SomejurisdictionsmayhavestormwaterrequirementsinplacethataresimilarbutnotidenticaltotheNPDES

requirements.Insuchcases,additionalsupportingdocumentationmayberequestedtodemonstratethattheprojectSWPPPinplaceisequaltoormorestringenttherequirementsfortheEPAConstructionGeneral

Permit.However,thisrequirementdoesnotintendtogenerateextrapaperwork,sowherepossible,linksto

currentagencypoliciesmaybeprovidedinsupportofthisProjectRequirement.

RESEARCH

Providinganerosionandsedimentcontrolplanduringtheconstructionofinfrastructureholdsbothcontractors

andownersaccountabletoprotectthesurroundingenvironmentfromnegativeeffectsofexcesssedimentand

pollutioninstormwater.

Providingerosionandsedimentationcontrolduringconstructionofroadwayinfrastructureprevents:

x Degradationofaquatichabitatsoffishandinsects(EPA,1999)aswellasotherwildlifecommunities.x Increasedsedimentloadinginnearbystreamsandoutfalls(EPA,1999).

Theincreaseinsedimentfoundinrunoffonconstructionsitescanbeattributedtolandthathasbeenclearedof

vegetationleavingexposedsoil.Increasedsedimentloadinginriversandstreamsisthemostcommonproblemforwaterquality(EPA,2009b).Ifraineventsoccur,thiscancauseerosion,andiferosionisnotcontainedusingthe

stormwaterbestmanagementpracticesoutlinedintheNPDES,sedimentcanthenbemixedwithstormwater.Atconstructionsites,thesehaveoftenbeenfoundtocontainmetalsandorganicmaterial,whichcancausedamage

towetlandhabitats(EPA,1999).Furthermore,excessivesedimentationdegradeshabitatsandcausesignificantdecreasestothefishandinsectpopulationsofawatershed.

TheUnitedStatesEPArecommendskeepingcurrentwaterhabitatstothesamequalityastheywerebefore

constructiontakesplace.Theintentofthisistoensurethewaterqualitypreconstructionisthesameasthewaterqualitypostconstruction,meaningitisimportanttoensurethesamevolumesofwaterarebeingdischarged

naturallybeforeandafterdevelopment(EPA,1999).IntheEPA’sreporttocongressin1999theagencyshowsa

clearmessagethattheintentofthesepermitsistopreventanyandallnegativeimpactstostreams:

”Inmanycases,considerationoftheincreasedflowrate,velocityandenergyofstormwater

dischargesfollowingdevelopmentunavoidablymustbetakenintoconsiderationinordertoreduce

thedischargeofpollutants,tomeetwaterqualitystandardsandtopreventdegradationofreceiving

streams.”(EPA,1999)

TheNPDESconstructiongeneralpermitisthegoverningpermitsetforthbytheUnitedStatesEPAforthe

dischargeofconstructionstormwater.Thispermitregulatestheeffluentlimitsforbothsedimentandpollution

andisavailableathttp://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/cgp2008_finalpermit.pdf .However,localorstateregulations

mayincludemorestringentrequirements.MoststatesareauthorizedbytheEPAtomanagetheirownstormwaterpollutioncontrolactivities(allbutfiveandtheDistrictofColumbia:Massachusetts,NewHampshire,NewMexico,

AlaskaandIdaho).TheEPAalsogovernstheseactivitiesinterritoriesandIndianCountry(EPA,2009a).

TheUnitedStatesEPAoutlinestheprovisionsnecessarytocomplywithPhaseIandPhaseIIoftheNational

PollutantDischargeEliminationSystem(NPDES)program.Themajordifferencebetweenthetwophasesisinthe

sizeofthefootprint.ThePhaseIIpermitappliestoallsitesinwhichbetweenoneandfiveacresoflanddisturbing

activityoccur(IllinoisEPA).WhilePhaseIencompassesallconstructionsitesdisturbingfiveacresormore(Illinois

93




Pollution Prevention Plan PR-7

EPA).InformationontheEPA’sNPDESprogramisavailableathttp://cfpub2.epa.gov/npdes/index.cfm(EPA,

2009b).

GLOSSARY

Effluent Outflowingwater

EPA EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyErosion Aphysicalprocessthatremovessolidmaterialsfromtheirsourceandtransportsthemtoanotherlocation

NPDES NationalPollutionDischargeEliminationSystem

Sedimentation Theaccumulationofsoilparticlesinwaterbodies

Stormwater Waterfromrainfallevents

SWPPP StormwaterPollutionPreventionPlan

TESC TemporaryErosionandSedimentationControlPlan

REFERENCES

IllinoisEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,(2002).WhatisPhaseIIoftheNPDESstormwatermanagement

program? Springfield,IL.Availableathttp://www.epa.state.il.us/smallbusiness/phasetwo/

SustainableSitesInitiative.(2009)TheSustainableSitesInitiative:GuidelinesandPerformanceBenchmarks2009.

Availableathttp://www.sustainablesites.org/report/

UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,(2008,November4).EPA|StormwaterPollutionPreventionfor

ConstructionActivities.Availableathttp://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/Stormwater/swppp.cfm

UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,(2009a,February26).EPA|AuthorizationStatusforEPA’s

StormwaterConstructionProgram.Availableat

http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/authorizationstatus.cfm

UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,(2009b,November4).EPA|GeneralConstructionPermit.

Availableathttp://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/cgp.cfm

UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,(1999).Nationalpollutantdischargeeliminationsystem—

regulationsforrevisionofthewaterpollutioncontrolprogramaddressingstormwaterdischarges(FRL6470

8).Washington,DC:FederalRegister.Availableathttp://yosemite.epa.gov/OPEI/Sbrefa.nsf/0728e3a1cc2339df85256cf4005020db/9762f1aedc3fbe4585256cef0

07b0599/$FILE/pnl03f.pdf

UnitedStatesGreenBuildingCouncil(USGBC).(2009)LEED2009forNewConstructionandMajorRenovations

RatingSystem.Availableathttp://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=220

94




PR-8 Low Impact Development

LOW IMPACT DEVELOPMENTGOAL

Uselowimpactdevelopment(LID)stormwatermanagementsolutionswhere

appropriatetobettermimicpredevelopmenthydrologicalconditions.

REQUIREMENTS

DeterminethefeasibilityofLIDbestmanagementpractices(BMPs)forstormwater

managementintherightofway(ROW).CompleteabasicLIDhydrologicevaluation

accordingtothestepsoutlinedinChapter3,“LIDHydrologicAnalysis,”ofthe1999

LowImpactDevelopmentDesignStrategies:AnIntegratedApproach(“LIDManual”)by

thePrinceGeorge’sCounty,Maryland,DepartmentofEnvironmentalResources,

ProgramsandPlanningDivision(PGC).Ifanalternativeapproachisusedtoinvestigate

LID,showthatitmeetsthegeneralstepsprovidedinthereferencedguideline.The

PGCguidelineisavailablehere:

http://www.lowimpactdevelopment.org/pubs/LID_Hydrology_National_Manual.pdf.

Details

Lowimpactdevelopment(LID)isatermthatdescribesabroadcollectionof

engineeredcontrols,stormwatermanagementfacilities,andotherland

developmentBMPsthatattempttomimicpredevelopmenthydrologicconditions

byemphasizinginfiltration,evapotranspiration,orstormwaterreuseforlongterm

flowcontrolandrunofftreatment.Hydrologicanalysisisasystematicwayto

evaluateexistingstormwatercontrolsandnewstormwatermanagementor

improvementopportunities.TheLIDManualstates:

Thepurposeofthehydrologicevaluationistodeterminethelevelofcontrol

requiredtoachievethestormwatermanagementgoalsforLIDsites.The

requiredlevelofcontrolmaybeachievedthroughapplicationofthevarious

hydrologictoolsduringthesiteplanningprocess,theuseofIMPs,andsupplementalcontrols.Thehydrologicevaluationisperformedusinghydrologic

modelingandanalysistechniques.Theoutputofthehydrologicanalysis

providesthebasisforcomparisonwiththefourevaluationmeasures(i.e.,runoff

volume,peakrunoff,frequency,andwaterqualitycontrol).(PGC,1999)

Note:ThisProjectRequirementdoesnotmandatetheuseofLIDtechniquesonthe

roadwayproject.Instead,itisintendedtoinformthedecisionmakingprocess.

Therefore,anypreexistingprocedurethatmeetsthestatedobjectiveswillsuffice.

Projectsthatarenotchangingthetotalexistingsurfaceareaoftheroadwayfacility

(i.e.mostrehabilitationorresurfacingprojects)mustalsocompletethis

requirement.ThisisdiscussedinfurtherdetailinlatersectionsofthisProject

Requirement.Also,forprojectswithonlyminorstormwaterimprovements,the

hydrologicanalysisorLIDevaluationmaybescaledaccordingly(i.e.simplified).

DOCUMENTATION

x CopyofthecompletedLIDhydrologicevaluation.Scopesofstandarddrainageor

geotechnicalreportsmayalreadymeettheseevaluationrequirementsorneedonly

minorchangestoincludeLID.AseparatedocumentisNOTrequiredinthiscase.

PR-8

REQUIRED

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR7Pollution

PreventionPlan

9 EW2RunoffFlow

Control

9 EW3RunoffQuality

9 EW4Stormwater

CostAnalysis9 EW5SiteVegetation

9 EW6Habitat

Restoration

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Expectations

9 Experience

9 Exposure

BENEFITS

9 ReducesWater

Pollution

9 ReducesSolidWaste

9 ReducesManmade

Footprint


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Low Impact Development PR-8


MeetingthisProjectRequirement

x EvaluatetheopportunitiesonsiteforusingLIDtechniques.Chancesarethattherearemanyopportunities

availableforeveryproject.Thisingeneralmeansthatfourstepsarecompletedaspartoftheevaluation:

a. Topographicalassessment(i.e.forests,floodplains,etc.)b. Soilsassessmentc. Hydrologyassessment

d. Existingvegetationandwaterfeatures(i.e.wetlands,riparianareas,etc.)

x Followthestatedguideline,orfollowanyotherguidelinethatusesasystematicsiteassessmenttoevaluate

geologicalandhydrologicalconditionsandmeetsthegoalofthisProjectRequirement.Forexample,thePrince

George’sCountyrecommendationshavebeenspecifiedinmoretechnicaldetailforthePugetSoundregionofWashingtoninthePugetSoundPartnership’sLowImpactDevelopmentTechnicalGuidanceManualforPuget

Sound(Hinman,2005).ThisProjectRequirementreliesontheformerbecauseLIDwaspioneeredinpracticeby

PrinceGeorge’sCountyandtheirLIDManualisthedefaultguideformanyorganizations(EPA,2000).

x Evaluatethesiteforpotentialstormwaterimprovementseveniftheprojectinvolvesbasicsurface

maintenanceactivitiesorisotherwiseconsideredtobecategoricallyexcludedfromstormwaterconsiderations.

Itmaybethataparticularprojectcannotfeasiblyimplementanystormwaterimprovements,eitherbycost,existingregulations,etc.Theintenthereisthat(1)stormwaterimprovementsareconsideredsystematicallyas

anopportunityforallroadwayprojectsand(2)thatanydecisionsmadenottoimplementstormwater

managementaredocumented.Allprojectshavesomeimpact,eveniftheyaredeterminedtobeinsignificant

orcategoricallyexcludedfromenvironmentalreview,orlocalpoliciesareconsidered“notapplicable”to

certainprojecttypes.Itmaybecosteffectiveforowneragenciestoimproveexistinginfrastructurein

conjunctionwiththeroadwayproject,evenifstormwatermanagementisnotintheinitialscope.

x UsedesignandconstructionstaffproperlytrainedinstormwaterLIDdesign.

x IdentifyopportunitiesforstormwaterrelatedBMPselementsearlyinprojectdevelopment.

SomePotentialLIDOpportunities

x Minimizeimpacttoexistingundisturbedsoilandvegetationthroughavoidance,reducedprojectfootprints

elements(e.g.lanewidths,shoulderwidths,slopes).x Usepermeablehardsurfaces(e.g.porousasphalt,porouspavers,porousconcrete)insteadofconventional

impervioussurfaces.

x Useamendedorengineeredsoilsinsteadofconventionalcompactedsoils.

x Incorporatedispersed,evapotranspiration(ET)andinfiltrationbasedpractices(e.g.dispersion,bioretention)

insteadofencloseddrainagesystems.

x TheFederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA),EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),theAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)CenterforEnvironmentalExcellence,and

theNationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)aswellasmanystateagenciesoutlineavariety

ofprovisionsincorporatingLIDmeasuresintoroadways.Avarietyofresourcesarelistedattheendofthis

creditforreference.

Example: Case Study — High Point Subdivision, Seattle, WATheHighPointsubdivisionintheWestSeattleneighborhoodofSeattle,Washingtonisoneofthefirst

comprehensiveinstallationsofaNaturalDrainageSystemsschemeforstormwatermanagementinalarge

scaleurbanenvironment.(InSeattle,streetsideLIDisreferredtoas“NaturalDrainageSystems”todistinguish

thesefacilitiesfrominlotinstallations.)HighPointwasajointeffortofSeattlePublicUtilitiesandtheSeattle

HousingAuthority(SPU,2009)andwasalargescalelowincomedevelopmentcommunitythatredeveloped

landfromaformermilitarybase.

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HighPointincorporatesasuiteofLIDtechniquesincludingbioswales,infiltrationbasinsandpermeable

pavements(sidewalksandheavilytraveledresidentialstreets).SeeFigurePR8.1.TheseLIDtechniqueshelped

theCityofSeattleachievesomeofitsstormwatermanagementgoals.Somehighlightsoftheprojectinclude:

x 10percentofthewatershedforLongfellowCreek(aprioritywatershedforCohosalmon)isaccommodated

bycontrolsinHighPoint.

x Predevelopmentconditionsweremimickedthroughbioswalesandlandscapedpondsthatbecameamenitiestothecommunity.

x Whilestandarddetentionbasinswerestillrequiredforemergencyandfirepurposesforthesubdivision,the

sizeofthedetentionfacilitywasscaleddownto25%ofwhatwouldhavebeenneededbyconventionally

designedcontrols.

x HighPointstormwaterfunctionssimilartothepredevelopedconditionsofaforestmeadow.

FigurePR8.1:ThreeLIDtechniquesarefeaturedinthisphototakenatHighPointSubdivisioninSeattle,WA.

Thegrassyarea(farleft)isactuallyturfplacedoveralargeinfiltrationbasin.Abioswale(center)isfeatured,

andstillinearlygrowth.Also,thesidewalk(left)andthestreet(right)arepavedwithpermeableconcrete.

(PhotobyJ.Anderson)

MoreinformationaboutHighPointLIDtechniquesareavailableat:

http://www.seattle.gov/util/About_SPU/Drainage_&_Sewer_System/GreenStormwaterInfrastructure/Natural

DrainageProjects/HighPointNaturalDrainageSystem/index.htm

Example: Case Study — SEA Street, Seattle, WashingtonAnotherexamplefromSeattle,“SEAStreet,”wasactuallyoneofthefirstpilotprojectsforlowimpactdevelopmentinfrastructureinSeattle.(Here,SEAstandsforStreetEdgeAlternatives)(SPU,2009).TheSEA

streetprogramfocusedonimprovingnaturaldrainageofexistingresidentialstreetareasthroughthreemain

LIDtechniques:

x Narrowerstreets(whichalsoprovideatrafficcalmingeffect).SeeFigurePR8.2.(Notethatnarrowstreets

aretypicallyconsideredtobeanapproachin“conservationdesign”)(EPA,2000).

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x Addedvegetation(forincreasedinfiltrationandpublicamenities).

x Vegetatedfilterstrips.Comparetheconventionalasphaltlinedchannel(FigurePR8.3)withthenew

vegetatedfiltersstripsinstalledalongthesidewalks(FigurePR8.4).

FigurePR8.2:Thisstreetwasdesignedtobenarrowerinordertoproduceatrafficcalmingeffectforthis

residentialarea.(PhotobyJ.Anderson)

FigurePR8.3:Aconventionalasphaltlinedchannel

nearSEAStreet.(PhotobyJ.Anderson)

FigurePR8.4:AbioswaleonSEAStreetbetweenthe

sidewalkandstreet.(PhotobyJ.Anderson)

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MoreinformationaboutSEAStreetisavailablefromSeattlePublicUtilitiesat:

http://www.seattle.gov/util/About_SPU/Drainage_&_Sewer_System/GreenStormwaterInfrastructure/Natural

DrainageProjects/StreetEdgeAlternatives/index.htm

Example: City of Kirkland, Washington Surface Water Low Impact Development

TheCityofKirklandrequirestheuseofsurfacewaterlowimpactdevelopment(LID)techniquesasfeasibleon

newdevelopment.TheCityhasadoptedtheKingCountySurfaceWaterDesignManual(KCSWDM),which

requiresthatdevelopmentprojectsperformasurfacewaterLIDfeasibilitystudyandinstallstormwaterLIDto

themaximumextentfeasibleandtoinstallatleastoneelementforsurfacewaterrunoffinallsituations(City

ofKirkland,2010).TheKCSWDMcanbefoundhere:

http://www.kingcounty.gov/environment/waterandland/stormwater/documents/surfacewaterdesign

manual.aspx.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. MostsiteswillbeabletoincorporatesomeLIDtechniques;however,soilconditionsineveryprojectwillbe

different.Ingeneral,therewillbeatradeoffbetweenfunctionandcostforimplementingLID.

2. Somesiteshaveexistingsoilorwaterpollutionissueswhereinfiltrationthroughsoilsandintogroundwater

tablesorotheraquifersmaynotbeallowedorisnotadvisable.

3. Someregulationsorurbanplanningpoliciesmaybeinplaceinsomeareasthatdictateanumberofurban

improvements,suchaswideningsidewalksoraddingwidthtolanes.Theseaddimpervioussurface,anddonot

allowmuchroomforLIDintherightofway.Oftentheseregulatoryimplicationswillbedifficulttoovercome

(EPA,2000).Ingeneral,areviewofexistingpolicyshouldbepartoftheLIDevaluation.

4. TheLIDManualreferencedinthiscreditreferstothe“HydrologicAnalysis”byPrinceGeorge’sCounty,Maryland.Asitturnsout,thisparticularprocessisoutlinedintwodifferentdocumentsbyPGC.Eitheris

acceptableforthisProjectRequirementbecausetheyareequivalent.TheLowImpactDevelopmentHydrologic

AnalysisisanabridgedversionoftheonespecifiedhereanditisavailablefromtheAASHTOviatheEPAat:

http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/lid/lid_hydr.pdf .5. ThisProjectRequirementappliestoallprojects,eventhosethattypicallydonotconsiderstormwaterasoneof

theirmainprojectobjectives.Thereisdocumentedevidencethatshowsconsiderationofstormwaterinproject

planningforurbanroadscanoftenresultinstrategicbenefitsforurbanenvironmentswherestormwatermanagementisincreasinglyaproblem(CityofSeattle,2009).Additionally,whereroadwaysarelocatedin

watershedswithtotalmaximumdailyload(TMDL)requirements,LIDtechniquesarebecomingonewaythata

roadwaystormwatermanagementsystemcanhelpreducethenonpointsourcewaterpollutionimpactonthe

receivingwatersfromstormwatergeneratedontheimpervioussurface(EPA,2008).Inessence,thisProject

RequirementisnotrequiringthatLIDisimplemented;instead,itisrequiringthatitisconsidered.Some

projectswillspecificallyavoidstormwaterissuesjusttosavecost,butthispracticedoesnotultimatelyagree

withthegoalsandintentsofGreenroads.

RESEARCH

Lowimpactdevelopment(LID)isawelldocumentedapproachtostormwatermanagement.Thebestwayto

describeLIDisasacollectionofdecentralized,smallscale,engineeredstormwatercontrolsthatcollectandtreat

stormwateratthesourceasitisgenerated(EPA,2000;Huberetal.,2006;Hinman,2005;CityofSeattle,2009).Anumberofhydrologicalobjectivesareachievedbythisapproach,becauseitreliesheavilyonthenatural

ecosystemprocessesinfiltration(IF)andevapotranspiration(ET).Surfaceflowsarereducedandalsoattenuated,

somelevelofwaterqualitytreatmentisoftenprovided,andgroundwatertablescanberecharged,whichhelpmaintainstreamflows:allofthesethingshelpan“unnatural”(i.e.manmade)systemsuchasabuildingora

roadwaymoreeffectivelymimicthenaturalecosystem’spreexistinghydrology(relativetoitsundevelopedcondition).LIDstrategiesthuscombinetobecomeaneffectiveandefficientstormwatermanagementschemethat

resultsinanoverallsmallerecosystemfootprint.

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Generally,thisiscontrarytothephilosophybehindmostconventionalstructuralstormwatersystems,which

collectandconveystormwatertomeetonlyanefficiencyobjective,i.e.removeitfromthesiteandtreatit

elsewhere(anendofpipeapproach)oftenusingalotofmaterialalongthewaytoconstructtheneeded

infrastructuretoperformthesetasks(EPA,2000).

Sometimes,LIDisalsocalled“greeninfrastructure”orGI(EPA,2009),oralso“NaturalDrainageSystems”(SPU,

2009)andalsousuallyincludessomeelementsofanotherdevelopmentapproachknownas“ConservationDesign”orCD(EPA,2000).

HowDoLIDTechniquesWork?

Putsimply,LIDworksbyminimizingtheamountofimperviousareaonasite,sometimescalledthe“effective

imperviousarea”(EIA)thoughthisnomenclaturevaries(EPA,2000).Animpervioussurfaceis“ahardsurfacearea

thateitherpreventsorretardstheentryofwaterintothesoilmantleorcauseswatertorunoffthesurfacein

greaterquantitiesoratanincreasedrate”(Tilley&Slonecker,2006).Developedareashavehighlevelsof

impervioussurfacescomparedtotheirotherwiseundevelopedconditions(i.e.“predevelopment”).Accordingtoa

recentstudyforFederalHighwayAdministrationbytheUnitedStatesGeologicalService(Tilley&Slonecker,2006),

roadsandsidewalksaccountedforanaverageofabout31.5percentofthetotalimpervioussurfaceinsixstudied

urbanandsuburbanwatersheds.

Becauseincreasedimpervioussurfacesleadtohighervolumesofsurfacerunoff(athighervelocitiesandfastertimestopeakflows),streamsandwatershedscanbedamagedwitherosionproducingflows.Erosiveflowsare

characterizedbyhighersedimentloadsthatdegradeaquatichabitats.Conventionalstormwatercontrol

techniquestendtodecoupletherainfalleventfromoneofitsmainhydrologicalfunctions:groundwaterrecharge

(EPA,2000).FigurePR8.5showsthisphenomenongraphically.

FigurePR8.5:Comparisonofpredevelopmenthydrologyanddevelopedhydrology.(FromSchuler,1987)

Stormwatermanagement,then,inanyenvironment(ruralandurban),playsanenormousroleinsustainabilityor

maintainingexistinghydrology.LIDtechniquescanhelprestorethepredevelopmenthydrologicalbalanceinareas

thathavebeenultraurbanized(CityofSeattle,2009;EPA,2009)andcanalsohelpmaintainaclosematchforexistinghydrologicalfunctioninareasthathavenotbeendeveloped.

Ingeneral,LIDtechniqueshavethefollowingcommonfeatures(Hinman,2005):

x Infiltrationandevapotranspirationaretheprimarymodesofrunoffcontrols

(Schueler, 1992)(Schueler, 1992)

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x Impermeablesurfacesareavoidedorsignificantlydecreased

x Naturalsoilsareused,oftenwithorganiccompositions(organics)insteadofengineeredoroffsitefill

x Nativevegetationisused(forsomeselecttechniques)

x Usuallytheyareusedincombination.

x Usuallynotallofthemareappropriateforeverysite.

Dependingonflowcontrolobjectives,thereareavarietyofLIDdesigntechniquestoincreaseretention,increasetimeofconcentrationandreducetotalvolume(primarilythroughIFandET).Consequently,beforeLIDisusedon

anysite,thatsitemustbeassessedforsuchthingsassoilproperties,existinghydrologicalInordertodetermineif

LIDisappropriate(PGC,1999).

WhatarethebenefitsofLID?

ThereisalaundrylistofbenefitsassociatedwithLID,includinghumanhealthandaestheticbenefitsthatgohandinhandwithanumberofenvironmentalbenefits.

x Flowcontrolforvolumeandtimeofconcentration(reducederosiveflows,andreducedloadonmunicipal

stormwaterfacilitiestoo)(EPA,2009)

x Groundwaterrechargethroughinfiltration(ibid.)

x

Improvedwaterquality(ibid.)x Reducedseweroverflow(ibid.)

x Increasedcarbonsequestrationthroughincreasedvegetation(ibid.)

x UrbanHeatIslandmitigationandreducedenergydemandsincitiesanddevelopedareas(ibid.)

x Improvedairqualityprimarilythroughincreaseduseofvegetation,alsoincludesacoolingeffect(ibid.)

x Creationofhabitatandrecreationalspace(ibid.)

x Improvedhumanhealththroughconnectiontoplaceandthenaturalenvironment(ibid.)

x Increasedpropertyvaluesduetoaddedaestheticsandperformance(ibid.)

x Reducedcostandsizeforsupplementalconventionalstormwaterinfrastructure(EPA,2000)

x Easilyincorporatedintoanumberofurbanizedfeatures,suchasparkingspacesandstreetsides(EPA,2000)

LIDLimitations

WhileLIDisabestmanagementpractice,itisthemeanstoanendforeverystormwatermanagementissue.Like

anypracticeortechnology,therearecertainlimitationstoLIDtechniquesthatmustbeunderstoodpriortoimplementingthemonaroadwayproject.

1. Someespeciallysensitivewatershedsmayhaveobjectives(i.e.qualityandflowcontrol)thatcannotbe

achievedviaLIDalone.Somelargerstructuralmeasuresmaybenecessaryforsomeprojects(EPA,2000).

2. TheoverallperformanceofLIDelementsonaprojectisverysitespecific(EPA,2000).Thismeansthata

comprehensivesiteevaluationisanextremelyimportantstepinaneffectivestormwatermanagementscheme.

3. LongtermmaintenanceofLIDelementscanbeanissue,usuallybecauseofcontractorunfamiliarity.Also

frequencyofmaintenanceactivitiesusuallyishigherthanforconventionalcontrols,whichcancauselongterm

fundingissues(EPA,2000).

4. LackofmaintenancecanoftenbeverydetrimentaltoLIDperformanceandfunction(Hinman,2005).

5. ConstructionofLIDelementsrequiresspecialcareforsomefacilities.Forexample,overcompactionof

infiltrationbasinsoilsoramendedsoilscanleadtopoorperformanceforflowcontrol(Hinman,2005).6. SomesitesmaybeidealcandidatesforLIDBMPs,butregulatorystandardsdisallowthemandrequirethat

impervioussurfacesareinstalledinstead.Thesecouldbesubdivisioncodes,zoningrules,parkingandstreetwidthsandsidewalkrequirements,andotherdevelopmentstandardsthatcanessentiallytrumpgood

stormwaterdesignopportunities(EPA,2000;Hinman,2005).7. LIDtechniquesarenotthebestforhandlinglargestormevents.Usually,theybehavemuchthesameasnatural

hydrologicalfeaturesinthesesituations.Sometimes,LIDmeasureswillneedtobesupplementedby

conventionalconveyanceasacontingency(Hinman,2005).

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8. Huberetal.(2006)notethattheroadrightofwaycanrestricttheabilityoftheengineertoincorporateLID

practicesdue,simply,tolackofspace.

WhyisaLIDevaluationarequirementforGreenroads?

Theenvironmentalimpactsofstormwatergeneratedfromroadwayfacilitiesarenottobeignored.The

decentralizednatureofLIDtechniquesfitswellwiththeenvironmentofmanyroads,eveninurbanenvironments.

However,manyroadwayfacilitiesdonottakeadvantageofthehydrologicalbenefitsofIFandETinstandarddesignpractice.ItistheintentofthisProjectRequirementtoprovideanopportunitytoevaluatethesedesignapproaches,whichrepresentahigherlevelofpracticeformanagingstormwater.

WhatHappensIfInfiltrationIsNotAppropriateForMyProject?

ForthisProjectRequirement(PGC,1999),themainstepsrequiredinthisstudyare:

a. Identifytheprojectwatershedandmicrowatershedareas

b. Definedesignstormsorlongtermperformancerequirements

c. Definemodelingtechniquestobeemployed

d. Compileinformationforpredevelopmentconditions

e. Evaluatepredevelopmentconditionsanddevelopbaselinemeasures

f. Evaluatesiteplanningbenefitsandcomparewithbaseline

g. EvaluateBMPsh. Evaluatesupplementalneeds

IfinfiltrationandETarenotappropriatefortheproject,orcannotbeusedinaneffectivecomprehensive

manner,thenclearlyconventionalstructuralstormwatercontrolswilllikelyrequireconsiderationforstormwatermanagement.ThisrequirementdoesnotdictatethatLIDmustbeused.However,othercreditsin

Greenroadsmaybecomemoredifficulttoearn,suchasEW2RunoffFlowControl,EW3RunoffQualityand

EW4StormwaterCostAnalysis.

HowMuchDoesLIDCost?

Ingeneral,costscanvaryforLIDstormwatercontrols.SeethediscussionincludedinCreditEW4StormwaterCostAnalysis.Manyprojectshavebeenshowntobecheaperconventionalconveyanceandtreatmentsystems.

However,thereislittlereliablecostinformationregardingperformanceofsuchLIDsystemsinahighwayenvironment.WhiletheideaofusingLIDiswelldocumentedforhighwayenvironments(seeHuberetal.,2006),

thelongtermperformanceofLIDonhighways,ifpracticed,isnot.However,manylocalagenciesinurbanareashavefoundthatroadmaintenanceandrehabilitationprojectsofferauniqueopportunitytoimprovestormwater

infrastructureinthesecities(e.g.Seattle,Washington;PrinceGeorge’sCountyMaryland).

SomeExamplesofLIDTechniques

ThereareanumberofLIDTechniquesthatarebecomingmorecommonplace.Manyofthem,however,aremore

appropriateforbuildingsoronparcelsinsteadofinroadways(i.e.greenroofsandrainwatercisterns).Therearestillseveraltechnologiesthatcaneasilybeimplementedinmostrightofwaysforroads.Also,theselectionof

BMPultimatelymustalignwithprojectobjectives,i.e.flowcontrol,waterqualitytreatment,aesthetics,thermaleffects,orairquality(Hinman,2005).Ashortlistisprovidedbelowwithabriefdescription(thislistisnot

exhaustive).

x Bioretentionswalesorponds.Thesefacilitiescanalsobeknownas“raingardens”(smallscale)or

“constructedwetlands”(verylargescale);sometimes“bioinfiltration”or“bioswale”isalsoused.Generally,the

purposeofbioretentionfacilitiesistoincorporateanumberofrunoffcontrolsintooneengineeredfacilityby

providingamixofvegetation,amendedsoils,anddifferentdrainageconfigurationstoachieveflowcontroland

qualityperformance(CityofSeattle,2009).

x Vegetatedorgrassedwetanddryswales.Wetanddryswalesarebasicallylinearizedbioretentionfacilities,

commonly“bioswales”asnotedaboveor“filterstrips”(EPA,1995b).The“wet”or“dry”notationindicatesthetypeofplantlifethatisincorporated(CityofSeattle,2009).Theyarenotquitethesameasaroadsideditch,as

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theyareusuallycomposedofamendedsoilsandaselectvarietyofplantstoachieveaspecificlevelof

infiltration.Theycanalsobedesignedtohaveweirsforaddedretentiononsomesteepergradesandslopes.

SeeEW2foraphoto.

x Permeablepavements. Thereareanumberofdifferentkindsofpermeablepavements.Thesearediscussedin

detailinCreditPT2PermeablePavement.

x Infiltrationbasins.Thesecanbefoundinanumberofforms,includingtrenches,fields,ordepressions.In

generaltheruleofthumbisthatthelargerthearea,themoreinfiltrationcantakeplace.InfiltrationbasedLIDBMPsoftensufferfromconstructabilityissuessuchasovercompaction(CityofSeattle,2009).

x Trees.Treesfunctionasastormwatercontrolbyincreasinginfiltrationdemand.Theyalsoprovidetranspiration

andparticipateactivelyinthehydrologiccycle.Theymayalsobeanaestheticamenity,especiallyinurban

environments.Generally,preservationoftreedareasisagoodpractice(CityofSeattle,2009).

x Dispersion.Someexamplesaresplashblocksorgraveltrenches.Generally,theseareameansofdistributing

theenergyinrunoffflowintoavegetatedinfiltrationarea(CityofSeattle,2009).Dependingontheirdesignandlevelofattenuation,checkdamsandterracingeffortsalsofithere(EPA,1995b).

BriefReviewofExistingRegulatoryRequirements

WhiletherearenospecificmandatesforusingLIDinroads,highwaysandbridges,thereareanumberoffederal

regulationsandpoliciesinplacetoaddressthenonpointsourcepollutiongeneratedbytheseentities(mostly

waterqualityrelated).Theseare,inbrief,theCoastalZoneManagementActof1972,theSafe,Accountable,

Flexible,EfficientTransportationEquityAct:ALegacyforUsers(SAFETEALU,currentlyexpiredandnotreplaced

legislativelyasofthiswriting),andseveralsectionsoftheCleanWaterAct.Additionally,boththeFederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)andtheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)have

policiesinplaceformanagingstormwaterrunoffandprovideguidancedocuments(EPA,1995b;Strecker,Mayo,Quigley&Howell,2001;AASHTO,2009).TheAASHTOguidancedocumentprovidesabriefreviewofstateswith

existingBMPmanualsforstormwaterrunoffandrecommendstheLIDhydrologicalevaluationfromPrinceGeorge’sCountythatisspecifiedinthisProjectRequirement(AASHTO,2009).

AdditionalResources

ThereisawidebodyofliteratureonLIDforstormwatermanagement.Afewselectdocumentsarehighlighted

here.MorespecifictechniquesforstormwatermanagementareaddressedinCreditsEW2RunoffFlowControl

andEW3RunoffQuality.

x FHWA(Shoemaker,Lahlou,Doll&Cazenas,2002)providesguidanceonultraurbanBMPselectionand

monitoringavailableat:http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/ultraurb/3fs10.htm

x AASHTOCenterforEnvironmentalExcellence’sEnvironmentalIssueConstructionandMaintenancePractices

Compendium,Chapter3,Section7providessomedesignguidanceonLIDavailableat:

http://environment.transportation.org/environmental_issues/construct_maint_prac/compendium/manual/3_

7.aspx

x Huberetal.(2006)compiledacomprehensivereviewofhighwayrunoffcontrolprogramsaspartofthe

NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)Report565:EvaluationofBestPracticesforHighway

RunoffControl.ThisreportisavailableinPDFformat,withsupplementalappendices,at:http://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_565.pdf

x TheCityofSeattlerecentlypublishedaBAS(BestAvailableScience)Reviewaspartoftheupdatestotheir

stormwatercode.ThisisavailableinWordFormatathttp://www.seattle.gov/dpd/static/BAS%20Review_FINAL_30JUN09_LatestReleased_DPDP017711.doc

x TheLowImpactDevelopmentTechnicalGuidanceManual(Hinman,2005)forPugetSoundisavailableand

offersasomewhatmorestructuredapproachtohydrologicanalysisthanthePrinceGeorge’sCountyLID

Manual,andincludesmanydifferentsiteconsiderations,primarilyusefulinurbanareasandforlot

development:www.psp.wa.gov/downloads/LID/LID_manual2005.pdf

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GLOSSARY

BMP Bestmanagementpractice

CD Conservationdesign

EIA Effectiveimperviousarea

Evapotranspiration thecombinedeffectsofevaporationandtranspirationinreducingthe

volumeofwaterinavegetatedareaduringaspecificperiodoftime(Huberetal.2006)

GI Greeninfrastructure

Impervioussurface ahardsurfaceareathateitherpreventsorretardstheentryofwaterintothesoilmantleorcauseswatertorunoffthesurfaceingreaterquantitiesorat

anincreasedrate(TilleyandSlonecker,2006)

Infiltration thedownwardmovementofwaterintothesoilaftersurficialentryand

percolationthroughporespaces(Huberetal.2006)

Lowimpactdevelopment abroadcollectionofengineeredcontrols,stormwatermanagementfacilities,

andotherlanddevelopmentBMPsthatattempttomimicpredevelopment

hydrologicconditionsbyemphasizinginfiltration,evapotranspiration,or

stormwaterreuseforlongtermflowcontrolandrunofftreatment

NDS NaturaldrainagesystemsSEA StreetEdgeAlternatives

REFERENCES

AASHTOCenterforEnvironmentalExcellence.(2009).CenterforEnvironmentalExcellencebyAASHTO

EnvironmentalIssueConstructionandMaintenancePracticesCompendium.AccessedJanuary13,2010.

Availableat

http://environment.transportation.org/environmental_issues/construct_maint_prac/compendium/manual/

CityofKirkland,Washington.(2010).SurfaceWaterLowImpactDevelopment.Availableat

http://www.ci.kirkland.wa.us/depart/Public_Works/Storm___Surface_Water/Surface_Water_Low_Impact_De

velopment.htm

CityofSeattle,SeattlePublicUtilities,DepartmentofPlanningandDevelopment.(2009,June30).Environmentally

CriticalAreas:BestAvailableScienceReview.AccessedNovember14,2009.Availableat

http://www.seattle.gov/dpd/static/BAS%20Review_FINAL_30JUN09_LatestReleased_DPDP017711.doc

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(1995,November).Erosion,SedimentandRunoffControlforRoadsand

Highways.(EPA841F95008d).OfficeofWater.Washington,DC:EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.Available

athttp://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/education/runoff.html

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(1995,November).PollutionControlProgramsforRoads,Highwaysand

Bridges.(EPA841F95008c).OfficeofWater.Washington,DC:EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.Availableat

http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/education/control.html

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2000,October).LowImpactDevelopment(LID):ALiteratureReview.(EPA841

B00005).OfficeofWater.Washington,DC:EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2008,March7).NPSCategories|Roads,HighwaysandBridges|Polluted

Runoff(NonpointSourcePollution)|USEPA.AccessedJanuary13,2010.Availableat

http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/roadshwys.html

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EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2009,April1).ManagingWetWeatherwithGreenInfrastructure|NPDES|US

EPA.AccessedJanuary13,2010.Availableathttp://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_id=298

Hinman,C.(2005).Lowimpactdevelopment:TechnicalguidancemanualforPugetSound .Olympia,WA:Puget

SoundActionTeam.Availableat

http://www.psparchives.com/publications/our_work/stormwater/lid/LID_manual2005.pdf

Huberetal.(2006).NCHRPSynthesis565:Evaluationofbestmanagementpracticesforhighwayrunoffcontrol.

NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP).Washington,D.C.:TransportationResearchBoard.

Availableathttp://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_565.pdf

KingCounty.(2010).2009KingCountyStormWaterDesignManual(SWDM).Availableathttp://www.kingcounty.gov/environment/waterandland/stormwater/documents/surfacewaterdesign

manual.aspx

PrinceGeorge’sCounty,Maryland,DepartmentofEnvironmentalResources.(1999,July).LowImpact

DevelopmentHydrologicAnalysis.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/lid/lid_hydr.pdf

PrinceGeorge’sCounty,Maryland,DepartmentofEnvironmentalResources.(1999,June).LowImpact

DevelopmentDesignStrategies:AnIntegratedApproach.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/lidnatl.pdf

Schueler,T.R.1987.ControllingUrbanRunoff:APracticalManualforPlanningandDesigningUrbanBest

ManagementPractices.MetropolitanWashingtonCouncilofGovernments,WashingtonD.C.

SeattlePublicUtilities.(2009).SeattlePublicUtilities–NaturalDrainageProjects.AccessedJanuary13,2010.

Availableat

http://www.seattle.gov/util/About_SPU/Drainage_&_Sewer_System/GreenStormwaterInfrastructure/

Shoemaker,L.,Lahlou,M.,Doll,A.&Cazenas,P.USDepartmentofTransportation.FederalHighway

Administration.(2002).StormwaterBestManagementPracticesinanUltraUrbanSetting:Selectionand

Monitoring.AccessedNovember30,2009.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/ultraurb/3fs10.htm

Strecker,E.,Mayo,L.,Quigley,M.&Howell,J.(2001,June).GuidanceManualforMonitoringWaterQuality.

(FHWAEP01022).UnitedStatesDepartmentofTransportation,FederalHighwayAdministration.Officeof

NaturalEnvironment.Washington,DC:UnitedStatesDepartmentofTransportation.

Tilley,J.S.&Slonecker,E.T.(2006).Quantifyingthecomponentsofimpervioussurfaces.Reston,Va:U.S.GeologicalSurvey.

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PR-9 Pavement Management System

PAVEMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMGOAL

Makeroadwaycapitalassetslastlongerandperformbetterbypreservingand

maintainingthem.

REQUIREMENTS

Haveassetmanagementsystemsineffectthatincludethepavementandcritical

structuralfeaturesonaproject,suchasbridges.Assetmanagementsystem(s)must

servetheroadwayprojectandinclude,atminimum,theseactivities:

1. Measureconditionsofpavementstructureandbridgestructuresatleastonce

everytwoyears.

2. Possessdocumenteddecisioncriteriafortimingpreservationactions.

3. Recordwhenpreservationeffortsoccur.

4. Storeinformationfrom#13inaretrievableformat.

5. Displayinformationfrom#13totheroadwayuser.

Generally,thismeanstheowneragencyoftheroadwayshouldhavepavement

managementsystems(PMS)andbridgemanagementsystems(BMS)inplaceforthe

extentoftheirroadwaynetwork.Projectswithbothpavementsandmajorstructures

mustdemonstratethatbothtypesofassetmanagementsystemsareinplaceand

operationalforallsuchfeatures.

Details

An“assetmanagementsystem”isaformalsystematicprocessofmaintaining,

upgradingandoperatingaparticularstructureornetworkofstructures.Asset

managementsystemstypicallyinvolvetheuseofoneormoredecisionsupport

tools(oftencomputerbased)toorganizethefiveactivitiesdetailedabove.For

purposesofthiscredit,wereferprimarilytopavementmanagementsystems(PMS)andbridgemanagementsystems(BMS).“Preservation”referstoasetof

maintenanceandrehabilitationpracticesusedtoimproveroadwayconditionand

extendroadwaylifeandalsoappliestobothpavementsandbridges.

Theoretically,any“asset”onaroadwayprojectcanbemanagedusingthe

principlesoutlinedhere.Whiletherearealsoseparateassetmanagementsystems

andtoolsforsiteinfrastructure,trafficcontrols,standaloneretainingwallsand

vegetation,forpurposesofthisProjectRequirementsuchmanagementsystems

arenotrequired.Projectsthathavesuchsystemsinplaceshoulddetermineifthe

systemsmeetthefivecriteriaaboveandapplyforaGreenroadsCustomCredit.

DOCUMENTATIONx Asignedletterfromanowner’srepresentativestatingthefollowing:

1. APMSandBMS(whereappropriate)iseitherinplaceorwillbeputinplaceforthe

projectpavementand/orbridges.

2. Theagencywillmanagetheprojectpavement(s)and/orbridge(s).

3. Theproposedmeansofaccomplishingthefiveactivities(e.g.thenamesofthe

consultantorsoftwaresysteminuse).

PR-9

REQUIRED

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR2LifecycleCost

Analysis

9 PR10Site

MaintenancePlan

9 MR2Pavement

Reuse

9 PT1LongLifePavement

9 PT6Pavement

Performance

Tracking

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Extent

9 Expectations

9 Experience

BENEFITS

9 IncreasesServiceLife

9 ImprovesHuman

Health&Safety

9 ReducesLifecycle

Costs

9 Improves

Accountability


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Pavement Management System PR-9


x Ensurethattheprojectroadwayispartofaneworexistingmanagementsystem.Itislikelythatthereis

alreadyasysteminusebytheroadwayowner,whichmeansthatprovisionsfortheprojectpavementtobe

includedneedtobemade.

x Forpavements,adoptapavementmanagementsystemthatincorporatestheprojectpavement.Thisis

generallynotpracticalunlessthepavementmanagementsystemincorporatesotherpavementsalsomanagedbytheowner.

Example: Pavement Management Systems

All50stateshavesomeformofpavementmanagementprograminplace(Finn,1998).Manylocalpavementowneragenciesalsohavepavementmanagementsystemsthatvaryincomplexity.Whilethereisno

requirementthattheybecomputerbased,mostcurrentsystemsare.Afewexamplesfollow.

x DynatestPavementManagementSystem. Anexampleofacommerciallyavailableproduct(thereare

many),thissystemisintegratedwiththeconditionassessmentequipmentthatDynatestalso

manufactures.

x StreetSaver.AnewonlineprogramdevelopedbytheBayAreaMetropolitanTransportationCommission

(MTC)forusebylocalgovernments.Itisusedbyanumberofowneragencies,manyofwhichareinCaliforniaandOregon.TheinterfaceiswebbasedandhasbeenintegratedwithArcGISbyFarallon

Geographics,Inc.AnexampleisChulaVista,CA:http://www.chulavistaca.gov/city_Services/Development_Services/engineering/pavementmgmtsystem.asp

x MicroPAVER.AdesktoppavementmanagementsystemfromtheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers.ItisavailableforfreeandiswidelyusedbytheU.S.militaryandotheragencyowners.Informationat:

http://owww.cecer.army.mil/paver/Paver.htm.

Example: Case Study – Washington State Pavement Management System (WSPMS)

TheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT)pavementmanagementsystem(WSPMS)isan

exampleofaninternallybuiltsystemandisoneoftheoldestsystemsintheU.S.WSDOTbegancollectingdata

in1963(Muenchetal.,2004)anddevelopedamanagementsystemin1982(FHWA,2008).Moredetailsare

giveninthecasestudyexamplebelow.Adescriptionofthesystemcanbefoundat:

http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/300/315.2.htm.

ArecentFederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)casestudy(2008)highlightedtheWashingtonState

PavementManagementSystem(WSPMS)anditscontributiontooverallconditionandlifecyclecostsofpavementsmanagedbytheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).Whilethecasestudy

doesnotseparatetheleveloffundingfromtheuseofWSPMS,itmakesacasethatWSPMShascontributedtoamarkedshifttowardspavementsingoodconditionsince1971(FigurePR9.1).

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WSDOTusesWSPMStonotonlytrackpavementconditionbutalsotochoosewhenandbywhatmeansthe

pavementshouldbepreservedand/orrehabilitated.WSPMShassimplebuiltinmodelsthatpredictfuture

pavementconditionbasedoncurrentandpastcondition.Thisway,WSDOTisabletopredictwithreasonable

accuracywhenpreservation/rehabilitationneedtooccur.In1993WSDOTreceivedlegislativemandatethat

theirprojectselectioncriteriashouldbebasedonlowestlifecyclecost,whichfurtherreinforcedtheir

pavementmanagementapproach.Overall,FigurePT9.2showstheconditionofWSDOTpavementsfrom1969

2005andgivesclearevidencethatpavementconditionhasimprovedmarkedlyoverthis36yearstretch.

FigurePR9.1:TrendsinpoorandgoodpavementconditionofWashingtonStatehighways,

1971–2005,followingadoptionofapavementconditionsurveyin1969andapavement

managementsystemin1982(FHWA,2008).

FigurePR9.2:TrendsinWashingtonStatepavementstructuralcondition,1969–2006(FHWA,2008).

Datasource:WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportationMaterialsLaboratory.

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Example: Michigan DOT Bridge Management System

MichiganDOT(MDOT)hasdevelopedaBridgeManagementSystem(BMS),oneofsixcomponentsoftheir

TransportationManagementSystem.TheBMSisthedecisionsupporttoolresponsibleformanagingthe

inspection,analysisandmaintenanceofthenumerouscomponentsthatmakeupabridge.MDOTutilizes

softwareAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)hasdevelopedcalled“Pontis” toaidtheirBMS.Adescriptionofthesystemcanbefoundat:

http://michigan.gov/documents/bridge_16549_7.pdf

Example: Virtis and Opis – Bridge Management System Tools

AASHTO’sBRIDGEWare,asoftwaredesignsystem,developedcomprehensivebridgeratinganddesigntools

calledVirtisandOpis.“TheOpisbridgedesignpackageandtheVirtisbridgeload–ratingpackagesharea

detaileddatabaseofstructuredescriptionsthatisintegratedwiththedatabaseofthePontisbridge

managementdata”(Thompson,2004).Moreinformationisavailableat:

http://aashto.bakerprojects.com/virtis/VirtisOpisBrochure0303.pdf

POTENTIAL ISSUES

ThisProjectRequirementasksforassetmanagementsystemsbutdoesnotverifyexecutionofthatmanagement

system.Therefore,thepossibilityexiststhatamanagementsystemcouldbepresentedandthennotexecuted.

RESEARCH

PavementManagementSystems

TheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)definespavementmanagement

as“…theeffectiveandefficientdirectingofthevariousactivitiesinvolvedinprovidingandsustainingpavementsinaconditionacceptabletothetravelingpublicattheleastlifecyclecost”(AASHTO,1985).Pavementmanagement

consistsof3ma jorcomponents(PavementManagement,2007):

1. Pavementlifecycle.Thisincludeshowpavementsarebuilt,howtheirconditionchangesovertime,andhow

thisprocesscanbeaffectedbydifferentformsofmaintenance,rehabilitationandreconstruction.

2. Costsassociatedwiththepavementlifecycle.Thisincludesthecostsofinitialconstruction,maintenanceand

rehabilitation,assessingendoflifepavementsalvagevalue,anddeterminingusercostsincurredthroughout

thelifecycle.

3. Pavementmanagementsystems. Thisincludesallthedifferentsystemsusedtodeterminethemost

appropriatetimetorehabilitatepavement,whatthemostcosteffectivemethodis,andhowmanydollarsit

willtaketomaintainaroadwaysystematadesirableconditionlevel(WSDOT,1994).

Thefundamentalideaisthatpavementmanagementwillleadtoloweroveralllifecyclecostsforapavementor

networkofpavementsandthusbeamoresustainableapproach.Thisideahasbeentheoreticallyshownmany

times(e.g.,Scrivneretal.,1968;Hudsonetal.,1979;MAPC,1986;Kayetal.,1993;Pierceetal.,2001)buthasnot

beenshownbydirectcomparisonofamanagedsystemandonethatisnot.Acorollary,thatsomebelieveistrue

buthasyettobeshownbyempiricalevidence,isthatpavementmanagementwillalsoleadtoloweruseofnatural

resources,lessenergyinputandfeweremissionsassociatedwithapavementnetwork.

Abasicassetmanagementsystemshouldincludethefollowing5components(Peterson,1987):

1. Roadwayconditionsurveys.Asurveyoftheroadwaystructuretoassesscurrentconditionandstrength

2. Databasecontainingallrelatedroadwaystructureinformation.Informationaboutotheraspectsofeachroadwaysectionincludingthingslikelocation,pavementthickness,ownership,datelastconstructed,etc.

3. Analysisscheme.Algorithmsusedtointerpretroadwayconditionandotherdatainameaningfulwayand

produceinformationsuchascostanddeteriorationmodelsthatassistinprogrammingroadway

preservation/rehabilitation/maintenanceefforts.Recentsoftwarecancombinethedatabase,analysisscheme

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anddecisioncriteriainonepackage.Recentresearchhasfocusedonadvancingorrefininglifecyclecosting

analysis,optimizationalgorithmsandperformanceprediction.

4. Decisioncriteria.Rulesdevelopedtoguideassetmanagementdecisions.Asassetmanagementsystemshave

evolved,decisioncriteriahavebecomemorecomplexandnowaccountforitemssuchasuserdelay,vehicle

operatingcostsand,inlimitedcases,environmentaleffects.Forbridges,thiswouldincludeoptimizationand

analysismodels.

5. Implementationprocedures.Methodsusedtoapplymanagementdecisionstoroadwaysections.Implementationisapolitical,budgetaryorproceduralissue.

PavementManagementLeadstoLowerLifeCycleCosts

Choosingtheoptimaltimingofpreservationeffortscanleadtolowerlifecyclecosts.Inturn,lowerlifecyclecosts

canbeoneoftheoutputsofamoresustainableroadway.Thus,thereisanindirectrelationshipbetweenapavementmanagementsystem,whichcanhelpindeterminingthebesttimingofpreservationefforts,and

sustainability.

Ingeneral,pavementdeterioratesaspicturedinFigurePR9.3.Deteriorationisslowatfirstandthenincreasesat

anincreasingrate.Preservationeffortsprovideastepincreaseinpavementconditionandessentiallyresetthe

deteriorationprocess.Preservationeffortsappliedtoosoondonotachievemuchimprovementinconditionfor

theircostwhilethoseappliedtoolate(FigurePR9.4)achieveanimprovementinconditionatsubstantialcost

(Stevens,1985;FHWA,2008).

FigurePR9.3:Pavementconditionillustration.

FigurePR9.4:Rehabilitationtimevs.cost(basedonanillustrationinStevens,1985).

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BridgeManagementSystems

TheFederalHighwayAdministrationrecognizestheimportanceofmaintenanceandpreservationofbridge

sturcturestoo.Forroadways,bridgesareconsideredcriticalpointsor“nodes”alonganotherwisecontinuous

networkofpavements.However,similartopavementmanagementsystems,agenciesusuallydevelopaBMSthat

istailoredtotheirorganizational,financial,managerial,political,andtechnicalmodesofoperation.

Currently,allstateDOTshaveabridgemanagementsystem(Özbayetal.,2004).EachBMSmayvarydueto(Markow&Hyman,2009):

1. Differentphilosophiesofbridgemanagement;

2. Differentapproachestoplanning,programming,andbudgeting;

3. thecharacteristicsofeachagency’stransportationsystemanditsinfrastructures;and

4. Thepolicy,financial,technical,andinstitutionalenvironmentinwhicheachagencyoperates.

AstudybytheTransportationResearchBoard(TRB)in1994,foundthatonly6of33statesrespondingtoasurvey

saidtheyweresatisfiedwiththecostdatatheyhadavailabletoprovidetotheirbridgemanagementsystems

(Thompson,2004).Thismaysuggestthatagenciesconsidertheaccuracyandavailabilityofcostandmanagement

dataandotherinformationrequiredtodevelopacomprehensiveassetmanagementsystemtobeinadequate.

In1994,a20pagequestionnairewasdistributedto52departmentsoftransportation(DOT)inthe50states,theDistrictofColumbia,andPuertoRico(Thompson&Markow,1996).Atotalof33stateDOTsprovidedusable

responses.

x 76%(25of33)oftheagenciesusePontisaspartoftheirbridgemanagementsystem;

x 12%(4of33)aredevelopingtheirownsystem;and

x 10%(3of33)areundecided.

ThepercentageofthoseusingPontisisdecreasingasnewtechnologiesemergeandbecomemoreaccurateand

reliable.Morerecentstudiesshowthatanincreasingnumberofagenciesareresortingtodevelopingtheirown

systeminconjunctionwithcurrentdesignsoftware.

In2009,MarkowandHymanpreparedadetailedsynthesisreportonBMSfortheNationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP),Report397 .Currently,thisisthemostuptodateandcomprehensiveinformationon

thestateofthepracticeofbridgemanagementsystemsandtheneed,utility,levelofimplementationandcost

implicationsatvariousstateagencies.ItalsoincludesasurveyofDOTsforprevalenceofuseofBMS,butthere

weresimilarresultstothe1994studymentionedaboveandfewerrespondentstothesurvey.

BridgeManagementSoftware

Duringtheearly1990s,FHWAandCambridgeSystematicsandOptima,Inc.developedabridgemanagement

systemcalledPontis.CambridgeSystematicsandOptima,Inc.(2010)describePontisasadecisionsupportsoftwaretoolthatincludesastructuralinventoryforuseinpreservationandmaintenanceactivities.Pontis

providesawayforbridgemanagerstodocumentinspectionsbystructuralelementanddevelopcosteffective

plansformaintenanceactivitiesinanexistingbridgenetwork.NewersoftwaresuiteslikeAASHTO’s

BridgeWARElineofproductsincorporateadditionaltoolslikeVirtisandOpiswhichcanassistinloadratingand

designthatutilizethePontisdatabase(TransportationResearchBoard,CommitteeonBridgeManagementSystems,2003;Thompson,2004).

BridgeManagementSystemsandLifecycleCostAnalysis

Bridgemanagementsystemsandlifecyclecostanalysis(seePR2LifecycleCostAnalysis)arecomplementary

toolsforlongtermdecisionmakinginbridgemaintenance,preservationandoperation.MuchofthecurrentliteratureoverlapsatoptimizationmodelsforintegratinglifecyclecostingintonetworklevelBMSaswellasat

thepro jectlevel(Morcous,2007;Frangopol&Liu,2007;Estes&Frangopol,2001;Frangopol,2004;Hegazy,

Elbeltagi,&ElBehairy,2004;Okasha&Frangopol,2009)aswellasforpreservationandmaintenancedecisions

112





(List,2007;Straussetal.2007;Naus&Johnston,2001).Morerecentresearchhasbeenintheareaofreliability

andriskanalysisforlifetimeweatheringandotherhazards,(Lee,Cho,&Cha,2006;Hosseretal.2008;Padgett,

Dennemann,&Ghosh,2010).Foracomprehensivereviewofbridgelifecyclecostanalysis(BLCCA)andits

potentialapplicationsatprojectandnetworklevelBMS,thereaderisreferredtoNCHRPReport483(Hawk,

2003),whichprovidesthemostcomprehensiveinformationonintegrativelifecyclethinkingforbridges.

OtherTypesofAssetManagementSystemsAncillarystructures.Currently,theFederalHighwayAdministrationisinvestigatingdevelopmentofdecision

supporttoolsfordatamanagementandpreservationeffortsforancillarystructuressuchasluminares,sign

trusses,andothernonbridgeandnonpavementfeatures.ThecurrentprogrameffortisledbytheOfficeofBridgeTechnology,whichprovidesafreehelpfulguidancemanualforthesefeaturescalledGuidelinesfortheInstallation,

Inspection,MaintenanceandRepairofStructuralSupportsforHighwaySigns,Luminaires,andTrafficSignals

(FHWA,2005).

Tunnelsandretainingwallstructures.Tunnelandwallstructuresareaverysmallpercentageofstructural

roadwayfeatures.Muchoftheresearchontunnelmaintenanceandpreservationismanagedunderthepurview

oftheFederalHighwayAdministration’sOfficeofBridgeTechnologyandintegrateswithhighwayandrailtransitin

theirwebbasedguidancedocumentfromthe2005Highway&RailTransitTunnelMaintenance&Rehabilitation

Manual(FHWA,2007).

Vegetation.Additionally,thereisawealthofinformationavailableonvegetationmanagementpracticessuchas

streettrees,nativevegetation,pesticideandherbicideuse,andmaintenanceofotherlandscapingfeatures,

especiallywithregardtomanagementofaboveandbelowgroundutilities.However,aconsensusdoesnotappear

toexistoncomputerizedtoolsforsystematicimplementationofsuchvegetationmanagementstrategiesand

practices.AASHTO’sCenteronEnvironmentalExcellenceprovidessomeguidanceonmanagementofthesetypes

oflivingassetsonroadsidesatthislinkunder“IntegratedRoadsideVegetationManagement:”

http://environment.transportation.org/environmental_issues/invasive_species(AASHTO,2011).

GLOSSARY

REFERENCES

AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO).(1985).GuidelinesonPavement

Management,AASHTOJointTaskForceonPavements,AASHTO,Washington,D.C.,1985.

AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO).(2011).CenterforEnvironmental

ExcellencebyAASHTO:InvasiveSpecies/VegetationManagement.Availableat:

http://environment.transportation.org/environmental_issues/invasive_species/AccessedJanuary31,2011.

CambridgeSystematics,Inc.(2010).PontisBridgeManagementSystemVersion4.4.Availableathttp://www.camsys.com/pro_inframan_pontis.htm.AccessedMay26,2010.

Estes,A.C.,andFrangopol,D.M.2001.“Minimumexpectedcostorientedoptimalmaintenanceplanningfor

deterioratingstructures:Applicationtoconcretebridgedecks.”Reliab.Eng.Syst.Saf.,73,281–291.

FederalHighwayAdministration.(2008).PavementManagementSystems:TheWashingtonStateExperience.

TransportationAssetManagementCaseStudies.FHWA,U.S.DOT.Availableat

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/asset/if08010/index.cfm.

Assetmanagementsystem aformalsystematicprocessofmaintaining,upgradingandoperatinga

particularassetornetworkofassets,suchaspavementsandbridges

Preservation asetofmaintenanceandrehabilitationpracticesusedtoimprovecondition

andextendlifeofastructure(s)

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FederalHighwayAdministration.(2010).MoreAboutPontis.Availableat

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/asstmgmt/pontmore.cfm.AccessedMay26,2010.

FederalHighwayAdministration.(2005).GuidelinesfortheInstallation,Inspection,MaintenanceandRepairof

StructuralSupportsforHighwaySigns,Luminaires,andTrafficSignals.[FHWANHI05036].FederalHighway

Administration.U.S.DOT.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/signinspection.pdf

FederalHighwayAdministration.(2007,June7).HighwayandRailTransitTunnelMaintenanceandRehabilitation

Manual:2005Edition.U.S.DepartmentofTransportation.Availableat

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/tunnel/maintman00.cfm.AccessedJune5,2010.

Finn,F.(1998).PavementManagementSystems–Past,Present,andFuture.PublicRoads,Vol.62,No.1.Availableathttp://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/julaug98/pavement.htm.

Frangopol,D.M.,&AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers.(2004).Lifecycleperformanceofdeterioratingstructures:

Assessment,design,andmanagement.Reston,VA:AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers.

Frangopol,D.M.,&Liu,M.(January01,2007).Maintenanceandmanagementofcivilinfrastructurebasedon

condition,safety,optimization,andlifecyclecost.Structure&InfrastructureEngineering:Maintenance,

Management,LifeCycleDesign&Performance,3,1,2941.

Hawk,H.(2003).NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram.NCHRPReport483:Bridgelifecyclecost

analysis.Washington,D.C:TransportationResearchBoard,NationalResearchCouncil.

Hegazy,T.,Elbeltagi,E.andElBehairy,H.(2004).BridgeDeckManagementSystemwithIntegratedLifeCycleCost

Optimization.TransportationResearchRecord ,1866,TransportationResearchBoard,NationalResearch

Council,44–50.

Hosser,D.,Klinzmann,C.,&Schnetgoke,R.(2008).Aframeworkforreliabilitybasedsystemassessmentbasedon

structuralhealthmonitoring.StructureandInfrastructureEngineering,4,4,271285.

Hudson,W.R.;Haas,R.andPedigo,R.D.(1979).NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgramReport215:PavementManagementSystemDevelopment.TRB,NationalResearchCouncil,Washington,D.C.

Kay,R.K.;Mahoney,J.P.andJackson,N.C.(1993).TheWSDOTPavementManagementSystem–A1993Update.

ReportNo.WARD274.1.WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation,Olympia,WA.

Lee,K.M.,Cho,H.N.,&Cha,C.J.(July01,2006).Lifecyclecosteffectiveoptimumdesignofsteelbridges

consideringenvironmentalstressors.EngineeringStructures,28,9,12521265.

List,G.(2007).Amodelforlifecycleevaluationofhighwayinvestments.Structure&InfrastructureEngineering:Maintenance,Management,LifeCycleDesign&Performance,3,2,95101.

Markow,M.J.&Hyman,W.A.(2009).BridgeManagementSystemsforTransportationAgencyDecisionMaking.

NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram.NCHRPSynthesis397.TransportationResearchBoard,NationalAcademyofSciences,WashingtonD.C.

MetropolitanAreaPlanningCouncil(MAPC).(1986).PavementManagement:AManualforCommunities.Contract

numberMDPW23892.FederalHighwayAdministrationandtheMassachusettsDepartmentofPublicWorks.

Availableathttp://ntl.bts.gov/DOCS/pave.html.

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Morcous,G.(2007)ParetoAnalysisforMulticriteriaOptimizationofBridgePreservationDecisionsTransportation

ResearchRecord:JournaloftheTransportationResearchBoard,1991,TransportationResearchBoardofthe

NationalAcademies,Washington,D.C.,62–68

Naus,D.J.andJohnston,M.W.(2001,October).InternationalRILEMWorkshoponLifePredictionandAging

ManagementofConcreteStructures.ProceedingsoftheInternationalRILEMWorkshopTechnicalCommittees,

Cannes,France,1617,October2000.MaterialsandStructures,RILEM,34,458466.

Okasha,N.M.,&Frangopol,D.M.(January01,2009).Lifetimeorientedmultiobjectiveoptimizationofstructural

maintenanceconsideringsystemreliability,redundancyandlifecyclecostusingGA.StructuralSafety,31,6,

460.

Ozbay,K.(2004).Lifecyclecostanalysis:Stateofthepracticeversusstateoftheart.TransportationResearch

Record,1864,6270.

Padgett,J.E.,Dennemann,K.,&Ghosh,J.(2010).Riskbasedseismiclifecyclecostbenefit(LCCB)analysisforbridgeretrofitassessment.StructuralSafety,32,3,165.

PavementManagement.(2007,August16).PavementInteractive.Availableat

http://pavementinteractive.org/index.php?title=Pavement_Management&oldid=11444.

Peterson,D.E.(1987).NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgramSynthesisofHighwayPractice135:

PavementManagementPractices.NCHRP,TRB,NationalResearchCouncil.Washington,D.C.

Pierce,L.M.,Mahoney,J.P.,&Sivaneswaran,N.(2001).AnAssessmentoftheBenefitsoftheWashingtonState

PavementManagementSystem.PaperpresentedattheFifthInternationalConferenceonManaging

Pavements,Seattle,Washington,August11–14,2001.

Scrivner,F.H.;McFarland,W.F.andCarey,G.R.(1968).ASystemsApproachtotheFlexiblePavementDesign

Problem.ResearchReport13211.TexasTransportationInstitute,TexasA&MUniversity.

Stevens,L.B.(1985).RoadSurfaceManagementforLocalGovernmentsResourceNotebook.PublicationNo.DOTI8537.FederalHighwayAdministration.Washington,D.C.

Strauss,A.,Bergmeister,K.,Hoffmann,S.,Pukl,R.,&Novak,D.(January01,2008).AdvancedLifeCycleAnalysisof

ExistingConcreteBridges.JournalofMaterialsinCivilEngineering,20,1,9.

Thompson,P.D.&Markow,M.J.(1996).CollectingandManagingCostDataforBridgeManagementSystems.

NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram,NationalResearchCouncil(U.S.).TransportationResearch

Board,AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials.

Thompson,P.D.(2004).BridgeLifeCycleCostinginIntegratedEnvironmentofDesign,Rating,andManagement.

TransportationResearchRecord:JournaloftheTransportationResearchBoard ,No.1866,51–58.

TransportationResearchBoard,CommitteeonBridgeManagementSystems.(2003).IntegrationofAASHTO’SBridgeWAREProducts.TransportationResearchCircularNumberEC049.9thInternationalBridgeManagement

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PR-10 Site Maintenance Plan

SITE MAINTENANCE PLANGOAL

Maintainenvironmentalqualityandaestheticsoftheroadwayprojectduringuse.

REQUIREMENTS

Haveandimplementacomprehensiveongoingsitemaintenanceplanthataddresses

(ataminimum)responsibleparties/organizations,standards,schedule,methodstobe

usedandfundingsource(s)forthefollowingitems(listedbymajortopics):

x Roadwaymaintenance

x Pavementpatching,repairandcracksealing

x Shoulder/sidewalkmaintenanceandrepair

x Stormwatersystemcleaningandrepair

x Roadsidevegetation

x Landscaping

x Controlofnoxiousweedsandnuisanceplants

x Snowandicecontrol

x Trafficcontrolinfrastructure

x Pavementmarkingmaintenanceandrepair

x Signmaintenanceandrepair

x Safetydevicemaintenanceandrepair

x Trafficsignalmaintenanceandrepair

x Roadwaylightingmaintenanceandrepair

x Intelligenttransportationsystemmaintenanceandrepair

x Cleaning

x Pavementsweepingandcleaning

x Littercontrol

x Trashcollection

Ifanyitemsarenotapplicabletheyshouldbelistedassuchandaccompaniedwitha

shortreasonforthe“notapplicable”listing.Thesitemaintenanceplanshouldcover

theexpectedlifetimeoftheroadwayfacility.

Details

Itislikelythatsomeoralloftherequiredactivitiesareaddressedbydifferent

documentsorbydifferentorganizations.Aseparatestandalonesitemaintenance

planisnotrequired;referencestorelevantexistingdocumentsaresufficient.

DOCUMENTATION

x Acopyofthestandalonesitemaintenanceplanorcopiesofexistingdocumentationorplansthataddresstheitemsnotedabove.

OR

x Alistofeachitemthataddressesresponsibleparties/organizations,schedule,

methodsandfundingsource(s).

PR-10

REQUIRED

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR9Pavement

ManagementSystem

9 EW2RunoffQuality

9 EW3RunoffFlow

Control

9 EW4Stormwater

CostAnalysis9 EW5SiteVegetation

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Extent

9 Expectations

9 Experience

BENEFITS

9ImprovesHumanHealth&Safety

9 ReducesLifecycle

Cost

9 Improves

Accountability


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Site Maintenance Plan PR-10


x Usestandardagencymaintenanceguidelinesandspecifications.

x Seekalongtermmaintenancecontractorpartnership.Longtermmaintenanceagreementscanbeaneffective

maintenancesolutionandimprovecostefficiencyoverthelifetimeofthefacility.

x Initiatediscussionsanddocumentthepublicinvolvementprocessofoutliningdesignelementsinrelationto

maintenancerequirementsduringprojectplanning.Discusshowmaintenancepartnershipsareformedandexplorethebenefitsofsuccessfulmaintenanceguidelines.(Thismayincludeinitiationofapublic

involvement/volunteerprogram.)

x Establishapublicinvolvementprogramandmarketingstrategy.Forexample,communitysupportedand

volunteerprogramslikeAdoptaHighwaycanbeaneffectiveapproachtolitterandgraffiticontroland

increasecommunityownershipoftheinfrastructure.

Example: Documentation

Thisisanexampleofdocumentationthatmeetstheintentofthisrequirement.Theexampleisforafictional2

laneroadbeingexpandedintoamultimodalfacility(e.g.,bicycles,pedestrians,newtwowayleftturnlane)in

thegreaterSeattle,WAareafortheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).Thissite

maintenancerequirementismetbyexistingprogramswithinWSDOT.Therefore,documentationneedonlycite

theseprogramsandtheirrelevantmanualsandprocedures.NotethatFiguresPR10.1andPR10.2showmore

thantherequiredinformationof“fundingsource(s)”becausetheybreakdownallfundingsourcesfortheentireWashingtonStateTransportationbudget(notjustthefundingsourceforsitemaintenance)andthe

entiredistributionofstatecollectedtransportationrevenuesandfunds(notrequired).

Documentation

Forthisparticularproject,WSDOTistheowneragencyandisresponsibleforsitemaintenance(asdefinedby

thisrequirement).Thisistrueinmanyjurisdictionsbutnotall.Insomejurisdictions,theowneragency

contractsouttoprivatecompaniesforportionsofsitemaintenance.Theoverarchingdocumentthatdescribes

WSDOTsitemaintenanceresponsibleparties,scheduleandmethodsistheWSDOTMaintenanceManual(M

5101)(http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Publications/Manuals/M5101.htm).TheWSDOTMaintenancePerformance

Measureswebsite(http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Maintenance/Accountability/default.htm)describesthe

standardsandtargetsforcurrentandpastyears.Additionalguidanceonroadsidevegetationisgiveninthe

NorthwestRegion,Area5:IntegratedRoadsideVegetationManagementPlan(http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Maintenance/Roadside/mgmt_plans.htm).Additionalguidanceonsnowandice

controlisgivenintheStatewideSnowandIcePlan:20092010

(http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/winter/SnowIcePlan.htm).InWSDOT’s20092011transportationbudget,“Highway

Maintenance”isfundedat$355.4million(about6.1%ofthetotalWSDOTbudget).FiguresPR10.1andPR10.2

describethecollectionanddistributionoffunds.

118





FigurePR10.1:TransportationRevenuesandFundsCollectedbytheState(WSDOT,2009).

FigurePR10.2:DistributionofStateCollectedTransportationRevenuesandFunds(WSDOT,2009).

119





MoreabouttheWSDOTMaintenanceAccountabilityProgram(MAP)

TheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT)hasdevelopedaMaintenanceAccountability

Program(MAP)designedtotrack,measure,andcommunicatetheresultsofmaintenanceactivitiesonstate

roadways(http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Maintenance/Accountability).Theprogramwasdevelopedin1996out

ofnecessityasaresponsetoimpendingbudgetcutsbytheWashingtonStatelegislatureforroadmaintenance.

TheMAPexiststocomprehensivelymeasuretheperformanceofroadmaintenancewithinthestatebyprovidingtoolsthatlinkstrategicplanning,thebudgetanddeliveryofservice,andanalyzingtheresultsquantitatively.TodothistheMAPisdividedinto33distinctcategoriesthataimtocomprehensivelycoverthe

scopeofroadmaintenance.Analysisisderivedfromdatacollectedbyrandomlysamplingroadwaystwiceayearviacomprehensivesamplingprocedures,andfromrecordsofaccomplishedwork.Thedataisthen

comparedwiththeestablishedstandardstoarriveatalevelofservice(LOS)designationforeachcategory.TheseLOSdesignationsarethencomparedwithWSDOTgoalsandtargetstoresponsiblytrackprogressand

maintainaccountabilityinallfacetsofmaintenanceoperations.

ThesuccessoftheMAPhasbeentothebenefitofWSDOTandtheirmaintenancedivisionasthemaintenance

budgetisnowperformancebased.ThoroughanalysisofprogramsuccessesandfailuresallowsWSDOTto

analyzebudgetproposalsandaccuratelyprojecttheconsequencesofbudgetdecisionsonroadmaintenance

performance,fromwhichtheycanlobbythelegislaturetosecureadequatefunding.Thus,bybeingcareful,

logical,anddoingtheirresearch,WSDOTisabletosecurethemoneynecessarytokeeptheirroadwayinvestmentsingoodworkingcondition,obviouslytothebenefitofallresidentsofthestate.Furthermore,ifthe

finalbudgetfallsshortoffundingeverythingthatWSDOTdesires,theycaneffectivelyscalebacktheirgoalsandtargetstoproduceonesthatmaximizetheproductivityoftheroadinfrastructureandaccuratelyevaluate

theperformanceofmaintenancebasedonthefundingprovided.

TheMAPisconsideredtobeasuccessfulprogram.Ithasbeenheavilyborrowedforuseinotherstates,andits

measurementtechniquesweresosuccessfulthatpartoftheprogramwasusedasthepilotforperformance

basedbudgetinginWashingtonState.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Someresponsibilities,standards,schedules,methodsandfundingsourcesmaynotbeknownorarenot

documented.Suchdocumentationmayneedtobecreatedabovetheindividualprojectlevel.

2. Fundingforsitemaintenancemaynotbesecuredlongterm.Whilethisiscertainlyrecommended,listingthe

currentfundingsourceisadequateforthisrequirement.

3. Thisrequirementonlyspecifiesthatasitemaintenanceplanexist.Itdoesnotensurethatsitemaintenanceisactuallydone.

4. Thisrequirementonlyspecifiesbroadcategoriesofsitemaintenance.Itdoesnotspecifyeffectiveness,costsorutilityofindividualefforts.

RESEARCH

Maintenancecanincreasetheusefullifeofmostinfrastructurecomponents,promotespublicsafety,andbenefits

bothpublicandecosystemhealth.Thefollowingisaseriesofbriefdiscussionsonthevalueandnatureof

infrastructuremaintenancebrokendownbygeneralcategory.

StreetCleaning&LitterRemoval

Streetcleaningandlitterremovalretainthevalueoftheroadwaybysustainingtheenvironmentalandaesthetic

benefitsoveritslifespan.Duringitsoperatingcycletheroadwaywill,duetouseandnature,necessarilyaccumulatevariousdebristhat,leftalone,willnegativelyimpacttheroadway’srelationshipwithitsenvironment.

Bothdirtanddangerouspollutants(e.g.phosphorus,nitrogen,lead)willcollectontheroadwayovertimeandposealegitimatethreattovegetationandwaterqualityinthearea(Hyman,1999).Streetsweepinghas

traditionallybeenviewedaseffectiveagainstdirtanddustcontrolonly,butadvancementsinsweepertechnology

120





haveshownittobeveryeffectiveinremovingsmallpollutantsaswell(James,1997).Removalofdirtanddust

fromtheroadwayalsoimprovessafetybymaximizingthesurfaceareaoftiresthemeettheroadsurfaceand

enhancestheaestheticsofthesiteforitsusers(Hyman,1999).Similarly,litteronthesitecanbeaneyesoreanda

gatewaytopollutionofearthandwater.Volunteerlitterremovalprograms,suchasAdoptahighway,havebeen

showntobethemosteffectivemethodofcombatinglitteraccumulation(Hyman,1999).

VegetationMaintenanceNativevegetationgrowthneartheroadwayisnecessaryfortheroadwaytomaintainagoodrelationshipwithitsenvironment,butuncheckedvegetationgrowthcannegativelyaffecttheperformanceandsafetyoftheroadway.

Maintainingvegetationlimitsimprovesafetyandtrafficflowbymaximizingsightdistancefordrivers,providingmoreaccessibleshouldersforemergencies,andpreventingdamagetoandinterferencewithroadsidestructures

andsigns(WSDOT,2009;MassTran,2003).Furthermore,keepingvegetationgrowthclearoftheedgeoftheroadwayhelpspreventthepoolingofwater,prolongingthelifeofthepavement(WSDOT,2009).Thekeyisto

maintainvegetation,sincerootsystemscanprovidenecessarysupportandstabilizationofembankments

supportingtheroad(MassTran,2003).Foranexamplediscussionofthemethodsofvegetationmaintenance

includingimportantsustainabilityaspects,seetheIntegratedRoadsideVegetationManagementProgramof

MassHighway(2003).

PavementRepair

Despiteourbestefforts,useoftheroadwayoveritslifetimewillcauseittobegintobreakdown,resultinginsmallpavementfailuresthatcannegativelyimpacttheperformanceofaroadway.Maintenanceontheroadwayhas

twomaineffects:itimmediatelyimprovestheconditionofthepavementandslowstherateoffuturedeterioration(Deighton,1997).Theseeffectsmaintainlifeoftheroadforalongerperiodoftime,maximizingthe

capitalinvestment.

Asidefromeconomicconcerns,unmaintainedpavedsurfacescanalsobecomeverydangeroussafetyrisksto

drivers,passengers,andpedestriansbydamagingvehiclesandrequiringadditionaldriverattention.Whilebest

managementpracticesforpavementmaintenancearewidespread,comprehensivesupportingresearchisnot.

However,theprocessofretainingthevalueandfunctionoftheroadwayovertimerepresentsasignificantportion

ofthatroadway’ssustainabilitybenefit,sowelldesignedmaintenanceproceduresmustbeconsidered(Wei,

2004).Foracomprehensivediscussionofpavementmaintenancebenefits,definitions,costs,methods,and

referencesseePavementInteractiveathttp://www.pavementinteractive.org.

StormDrainMaintenanceandCleaning

Drainagestructures,essentialforanenvironmentallysensitiveandfunctioningroadway,requireperiodic

maintenancetomaintainefficiency.Withoutmaintenance,significantdeclinesinperformanceandflowrateshave

beenwelldocumented(Hyman,1999).Bestmanagementpracticesarealsowelldocumented,andincluderoutine

maintenance(especiallyrightbeforearainyseason)anddatacollectiontotrackwhenandwherestormdrains

tendtofailinanefforttocleanand/orfixthembeforefailureoccurs.Hyman(1999)hasagoodbaselinesampling

ofsomeeffectivebestmanagementpractices.

CostAnalysis

Whilethebenefitsofsitemaintenanceonaroadwayhavebeenrelativelywelldocumented,costanalysesofthese

proceduresaremuchlessso.Sinceroadmaintenancecostsvaryconsiderablybyroadwaytype,roadusepatterns,

regionalweatherfactors,andchosenbestmanagementpracticesbylocalagencies,thereisnoeasydefinitionforthemaintenancecostofanyspecificroadway.However,therearesomecommonlycitedcostsofsitemaintenance

thatcanprovideanunderstandingoftheresourcesrequiredtomaintaintheasset.

TheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT)has$355.4millionallocatedinthe20092011

budgetforhighwaymaintenanceofroughly7,000centerlinemilesofroadway.Furthermore,theirMaintenance

AccountabilityProgramdividesthatmoneyinto33distinctactivitieswithinsitemaintenancetomeasureresource

distributionmoreaccurately.Subbudgetsinclude$137millionforroadwaymaintenance,includingpavement

patching&repair,shoulderrepair,andcleaning&sweeping;$27millionfordrainagemaintenanceandslope

121





repair;and$35millionforroadsideandvegetationmanagement,includinglitterpickupandcontrolofintrusive

andinterferingvegetation(WSDOT,2008).

REFERENCES

Deighton.(1997).PavementCondition,vol.3.VideotapefromthedTV(DeightonTelevision)Libraryvideoserieson

pavementmanagementsystemtopics.DeightonAssociated,Ltd.Bowmanville,Ontario.

Hyman,W.A.&Vary,D.(1999).NCHRPSynthesis272:BestManagementPracticesforEnvironmentalIssues

RelatedtoHighwayandStreetMaintenance.TransportationResearchBoard,Washington,D.C.

James,W.(Ed.).(1997). AdvancesinModelingtheManagementofStormwaterImpacts,Volume5.CRCPress.

MassachusettsHighwayDepartment(MassTran).(2003).VegetationManagementPlan20032007 .Accessed15

December2009.Availableathttp://www.mhd.state.ma.us/downloads/vmp/appendixE.pdf .

WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2008).MaintenanceManual .M5101.WSDOT,Olympia,WA.

WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2008).WSDOTMaintenancePerformanceMeasures.Accessed30December2009.Availableathttp://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Maintenance/Accountability/default.htm.

WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2009).NorthwestRegion,Area5:IntegratedRoadside

VegetationManagementPlan.Accessed30December2009.Availableat

http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Maintenance/Roadside/mgmt_plans.htm.

WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2009).Washington’s0911TransportationBudget .Accessed30December2009.Availableathttp://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Finance/budget/BudgetPieCharts.htm.

WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2009).WSDOTMaintenanceOperations.Accessed30

December2009.Availableathttp://www.wsdot.wa.gov/maintenance.

Wei,C.andTighe,S.(2004).DevelopmentofPreventativeMaintenanceDecisionTreesbasedonCostEffectiveness

Analysis:AnOntarioCaseStudy .TransportationResearchBoard,Washington,D.C.

122




PR-11 Educational Outreach

EDUCATIONAL OUTREACHGOAL

Increasepublic,agencyandstakeholderawarenessofroadwaysustainabilityactivities.

REQUIREMENTS

Incorporateacomprehensivepubliceducationaloutreachprogramintothe

operationalphaseoftheroadwayfacilityproject.

Aminimumofthreeoutofthefollowingeighteducationalelements,tobeinstalled

withintheroadwayprojectlimitsorwithinthepurviewoftheleadagency,mustbe

completedtomeettheintentofthisprojectrequirement:

1. Installandmaintainapermanentprojectorientedsignageprogramalongthe

roadwayrightofway.Duringconstructionregisteredprojectsmayusetemporary

signstodisplayfactualinformationabouttheGreenroads™certificationlevelbeing

pursued,asnotedintheGreenroadstrademarkpolicy(availableonthewebsite).

2. Installandmaintainatleastoneoffroad,permanentpointofinterestkioskthatdisplaystheGreenroadscertificationlevelpursued,projectinformation,andthe

certificationlevelactuallyachieved.

3. Provideapubliclyavailableandmaintainedinformationalprojectwebsitewith

capacityforsubmittingfeedbackandcomments.

4. Developanagencyand/orstakeholderguide,specification,orpolicythat

incorporatesorotherwiseclearlyreferencesandreflectstheidealsandintentsof

Greenroads.

5. Instituteaninternalagencycontinuingprofessionaleducationandtrainingprogram

relatedtoGreenroads.

6. Performatleasttwopresentationsabouttheprojectforprimaryandsecondary

schools.

7. Performoneprofessionaltechnicalpresentation.

8. DocumenttheprojectexperienceusingGreenroads(i.e.conductadetailedcase

studyfortheroadwayproject).

Details

NotethattheofficialGreenroadslogomayonlybeusedonprojectsigns,public

installationsorprojectdocumentsbypermissionofGreenroads.

DOCUMENTATION

Thefollowingcorrespondtothenumberedsequenceintheprecedingsection.

1. Providephotosoftemporaryandpermanentsignsinstalledintherightofway.

2. Provideatextorprintedcopyoftheinformationofferedatthekiosk(i.e.brochureorstaticinstallation)ANDaphotoofthekioskstructureandlocationasinstalled.

3. Providethewebsiteaddress.(Note:hyperlinksmustbelive.)

4. Provideacopyoftheagencyguide,manualorspecification.

5. Provideacopyofthelearningobjectivesandscheduleforthetrainingprogram.

6. Provideacopyofeachpresentationandthetimeanddateofthepresentation.

7. Provideacopyoftheabstractalongwiththetechnicalpaperand/orpresentation.

8. Provideacopyofthecompletedcasestudy.

PR-11

REQUIRED

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR1Environmental

ReviewProcess

9 CA2Environmental

Training

9 AE8ScenicViews

9 AE9Cultural

Outreach

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Equity

9 Expectations

9 Exposure

BENEFITS


123




Educational Outreach PR-11


x Usetheenvironmentalreviewprocess(seePR1)asastartingpointforestablishingpublicawarenessneeds.

x Involvebusinessdevelopmentpersonnel,marketingprofessionals,andpublicrelationsofficersearlyinthe

projectplanningprocess.

x ExpandconstructionteamhealthandsafetytrainingmeetingstoincorporateGreenroadsgoalsfortheproject

(seeCA2).x Identifypeoplewithintheprojectteam,agencyorcompanywhomaybeinterestedinleadingexternaland

internaleducationaleffortsrelativetoincorporatingGreenroadsandsustainabilityintheorganization.

x Considercollaborationwithprofessionalwebsitedevelopers.

x ContacttheGreenroadsTeamifinterestedinparticipatinginacasestudy.Resources,suchasreporttemplates

andscorecards,areavailablebyrequest.

x Followtheguidelinesforactiveoutreach(andrelatedpublicinteractiontopics)outlinedinthe“Public

InvolvementTechniquesforTransportationDecisionmaking”(FHWAPD96031).Thisdocumentcontainsa

numberofpotentialactivitiesthatcouldbeusedaloneorincombinationtomeettheintentofthisProject

Requirement,aswellasseveraladditionalusefulreferencesandresources.

Example: Kickinghorse Canyon Project — British Columbia Ministry of Transportation

TheKickinghorseCanyonProjectontheTransCanadaHighway(Highway1)bytheBritishColumbiaMinistryofTransportationoffersanexcellentexampleofacomprehensivepubliceducationaloutreachprogram.

Thisprojecthasadetailedwebsite(http://www.th.gov.bc.ca/kickinghorse/index.htm),aprintablefactsheet

(availablehttp://www.th.gov.bc.ca/kickinghorse/updates/KHCP_Fact_Sheet.pdf ),andhascompletedacase

study(availablebywrittenrequest).Additionally,thecompletedprojectincludesimprovementstoarestarea

whichwillincorporateprojectandhistoricalinformationforthesite.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Graffitioninstalledsignsorpublicinformationkiosks.

2. Potentiallyinflammatoryoroffensivecommentsorspamonprojectwebsites.

RESEARCH

AttheheartoftheGreenroadsprogramisencouragementofbroadsustainabilityeducationforpeoplewhouse,

design,andbuildtransportationinfrastructure.Publicoutreachprogramsareencouragedatmosttransportation

agenciesandoftenrequiredonmanyprojectsaspartoftheinitialplanningprocess(suchasduringenvironmental

review).However,mostoftheseopencommunicationorientedinitiativesarerelevantonlyduringthedecision

makingprocessandarenotdeliberatelyeducationaloverthelongtermlifeoftheproject.Greenroadsseeksto

supportroadwayprojectsthatofferbuiltineducationalresourcesforthebenefitofpublicinterestand

professionallearninganddevelopment.

Need&Opportunity

TheBrundtlandReportnotes“…thechangesinattitudes,insocialvalues,andinaspirations….willdependonvast

campaignsofeducation,debateandpublicparticipation”(WCED,1987,p.16).Sustainabilityhascertainlybecome

apopularliteraturetopic,butthevolumeofresearchoneducationistoovasttosummarizehere.Manyauthorsonsustainabilityaswellasotherenvironmentalorganizationssuggestorexplicitlystresstheimportanceof

sustainabilityeducation(Edwards,2005;Benyus,2002;WCED,1987;USGBC,2009;Wilson,2002;Daly,2005;

Robèrt,1997,2002;Kibert,2005),butfewofferactionablesolutionsorimplementation.Inmostcases,current

educationaleffortsoccurinternallywithincompaniesoragencies,oraredirectedtowardchildrenandyoung

adultsinelementaryschoolsthroughcollege.Specificacademicresearchoneitherthesuccessorfailureof

implementingroadwaybasedpublicoutreachprogramsforsustainabilityeducationisdifficulttofind(or,more

likely,itsimplydoesnotexistyet).

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PR-11 Educational Outreach

Roadwayspresentauniqueopportunitytointeractwiththeirmainstakeholder,thepublic,throughoutthelifeof

theproject.Over100hoursperpersonperyeararespentcommutingtoworkintheUnitedStates(Buckner&

Gonzales,2005).Thisexceedstheamountofpersonalvacationtimeformosttraditionalsalariedpositions,istwice

aslongasspringbreaksformostschools,andistwotofivetimestheamountoftimethatmoststatesrequirefor

ContinuingEducationUnits(CEU)forlicensedprofessionalslikeengineers,doctors,andlawyers.Clearly,time

spentonaroadwayprovidesampleopportunityforExposuretodifferentsustainabilitytopics,aswellastimefor

reflection,repetitionandreinforcementonanearlydailybasisformostcommuters.However,whentheprojectownershipchangesintothepublichands,oftenanylearningopportunitiespertainingtotheproject(suchashowa

newpavementtechnologywasimplemented,howenergyusewasreducedinthelighting,orwhattypesof

stormwatertreatmentswereused)arelost.

Inadditiontoinstitutionallearning,professionalandtechnicalorganizationsalsoplayavitalroleinfurtheringknowledgeofsustainabilitythroughouttheirmembership.OrganizationsliketheTransportationResearchBoard

(TRB),whosemissionstatementisorientedtowardpromotinginformationexchangeandinterdisciplinaryresearch

(TRB,2009),andothergovernmentbodiespromotecontinuingeducationofthetransportationprofessional

community.Conferencepresentations,technicalpapers,andpresentationstolocalschoolsareallconsideredtobe

worthwhileeffortsmadetoforwardsustainabilityeducationthroughoutreach.

Finally,ratingsystemslikeGreenroadsofferuniqueopportunitiesforagenciesandorganizationstotrackand

measureinternalprocesses.Usingasustainabilityratingsystemisasimplewaytomeasureprogressandimprovementsoverthelongtermandstimulateinnovationwithinanagency.Casestudiescanprovidevaluable

snapshotsofoverallperformanceontheprojectandbeusedtodevelopagencyspecificbenchmarksforsustainabilityforfutureprojects.

PrecedenceinBuildings

TheLEED®GreenBuildingRatingSystemawardsonepointinallofitsratingsystemprogramsforinstitutinga

projectorientedEducationalOutreachprogramthatmeetstheintentofthecreditcategorycalledInnovationin

Design,whichrewardssuperiorperformanceandcreativeimplementationofideasortechnologies(USGBC,2008).

Thiscreditawardedforthebuiltenvironmentestablishesprecedencefortheneed,validityandacceptanceofsuch

educationalprogramsandpublicawarenessprograms.Transportationandinfrastructurehaveasimilarneedfor

suchprecedence.

Further,thoughusingabuildingasamodelforcostofroadwaysisnotideal,theavailabilityofaneducational

opportunitysuchasaroadsidepointofinterestorsignsliningthestreetmaybeperceivedasalargevalueadded

benefitforthepublicataveryminimaladdedcosttothedesignbudget.Acostanalysisofsucheducational

programs,signageand/ordisplaysincorporatedinLEEDratedbuildings(usingagenericbuildingmodel)showed

onlyminoraddedcostsforimplementationtotheprojectbottomline(StevenWinterAssociates,2004).

Additionally,thisstudyshowedthatmostofthesecostsare“softcosts”thataretypicallyadministrativeinnature.

Theprimarymodeofestablishingandcommunicatingpublicvaluesintransportationandinfrastructureis

consensusbasedpoliticalmandateorotherregulatoryrulings.Also,afederalmandatewasrecentlyinstitutedfor

highperformanceandgreenbuildingsasExecutiveOrder(EO)13423:StrengtheningFederalEnvironmental,

Energy,andTransportationManagement(2007).EOSection3(c)makesfederalagencyleadsaccountablefor

establishmentofinternalagencyprogramsforenvironmentaltraining,includingmanagement,complianceand

audit,andleadershiprecognition.Thiscouldbeconsideredapremonitionformandatedsustainabilitytrainingandeducationinroadwaysystemprojectsandforinternalprogramsintransportationagenciesandorganizations.

Ongoingsustainabilityeducationprogramscanteachpeopletounderstandtheconsequencesoftheiractions,

suchastheimpactofpersonalresourceuse,andtorelatetheirvaluesandbehaviorstocurrentpoliticaland

environmentalconditions(Palmer,1998).Roadsarehighlyaccessibletothepublic;thus,roadscanofferacreative

meansofexposuretosustainabilityconceptswhichcanhelpusersmakemoreinformeddecisionsregarding

sustainabilityintheirdailylives,communitiesandcultures.Greenroadsaddseducationasanothersteptoward

establishingaconnectionbetweenpeopleandtheplacesthattheylive,travel,workandrecreate.

125




Educational Outreach PR-11

GLOSSARY

REFERENCES

Buckner,S.&Gonzales,J.UnitedStatesCensusBureauPublicInformationOffice.(2005,March30).Americans

spendmorethan100hourscommutingtoworkeachyear,CensusBureaureports.U.S.CensusNews[Press

Release].RetrievedSeptember29,2010from

http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/american_community_survey_acs/cb05ac02.html

Daly,H.E.(2005).Economicsinafullworld.ScientificAmerican.293(3),1007.

Edwards,A.R.(2005).Thesustainabilityrevolution:Portraitofaparadigmshift .Gabriola,BC:NewSociety.

Exec.OrderNo.13,42372Fed.Reg.(2007).(tobecodifiedat3C.F.R.§102)

Howard/SteinHudsonAssociates,Inc.andParsonsBrinckerhoffQuadeandDouglas.(1996,September).Public

involvementfortransportationdecisionmaking.(FHWAPD96031)Washington,DC:U.S.Dept.of

Transportation,FederalHighwayAdministration.PostedDecember1996.RetrievedOctober12,2009from

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/REPORTS/PITTD/contents.htm.

Kibert,C.(2005).Sustainableconstruction:greenbuildingdesignanddelivery (1sted.).HobokenN.J.:JohnWiley&

Sons.

Palmer,J.(1998).Environmentaled ucationinthe21stcentury:theory,practice,progressandpromise.London,UK;NewYork,NY:Routledge.

Robèrt,K.H.(2002).Thenaturalstepstory:seedingaquietrevolution.GabriolaIsland,BC:NewSociety

Publishers.

StevenWinterAssociates,Inc.(2004,October).GSALEEDCostStudy:FinalReport.U.S.GeneralServicesAdministrationDoc.No.GS11P99MAD0565/P0002CY0065.Washington,DC:U.S.GovernmentPrinting

Office.RetrievedOctober12,2009fromhttp://www.wbdg.org/ccb/GSAMAN/gsaleed.pdf

TransportationResearchBoard.(2009).EducationandTrainingResearchatTRB.EducationandTraining.Retrieved

October15,2009fromhttp://www.trb.org/EducationTraining/Public/EducationandTraining1.aspx

U.S.GreenBuildingCouncil.(2008b,March21).USGBC:LEEDReferenceDocuments.LEEDIDCreditCatalog.RetrievedDecember11,2008,fromhttp://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=3569

UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,42ndSession.(1987,August4).ReportoftheWorldCommissionon

EnvironmentandDevelopment(WCED):“OurCommonFuture.”(A/42/427).AnnextoOfficialRecord.Geneva,

Switzerland,1987.(Masthead).RetrievedNovember2,2008,fromhttp://www.worldinbalance.net/agreements/1987brundtland.php

Wilson,E.O.(2002).Thefutureoflife(1sted.).NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf.

EO UnitedStatesExecutiveOrder

Kiosk Asmallstructurethatcanbeusedtoaccessinformation,suchasanewsstand

orcomputerterminal

LEED LeadershipinEnergy&EnvironmentalDesign,aratingsystemforgreen

buildingsbytheUnitedStatesGreenBuildingCouncilTRB TransportationResearchBoard

USGBC UnitedStatesGreenBuildingCouncil

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ENVIRONMENT & WATER

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128



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Environment & Water

EW-1 Environmental Management System

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMGOAL

Improveenvironmentalstewardshipbyusingacontractorthathasaformal

environmentalmanagementprocess.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Theprimecontractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirmshallhavea

documentedenvironmentalmanagementsystem(EMS)fortheentirecompanyorat

leasttheportion(s)ofthecompanyparticipatingintheproject.TheEMSmustbein

placeforthedurationofprojectconstruction.Asaminimum,theEMSandits

documentationshallmeettherequirementsofInternationalStandardsOrganization

(ISO)14001:2004.

Details

Theprimecontractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirmis

consideredtohaveadocumentedEMSifithas:

x ISO14001:2004certification.

x AnEMSthatmeetsISO14001:2004requirementsbutisnotformallycertified.

DOCUMENTATION

Submitone(1)ofthefollowingitems:

1. DocumentationoftheISO14001:2004certificationfortheprimecontractor,

designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirm.

2. Acopyoftheprimecontractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirm’s

EMSdocumentationtoinclude:

x Environmentalpolicy

x Environmentalobjectivesandtargets

x Identifiedregulatoryrequirementsandcompliancewithrequirements

x Definedrolesandresponsibilities

x Employeetrainingplan

x Listingofdocumentedprocesses

x Preventiveactions

x Correctiveactions

x Emergencyprocedures

EW-1

2 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR1Environmental

ReviewProcess

9 PR10Site

MaintenancePlan

9 CA1Quality

ManagementSystem

9 CA2EnvironmentalTraining

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Extent

9 Expectations

9 Experience

9 Exposure

BENEFITS9 ReducesWaterUse

9 ReducesFossilFuel

Use

9 ReducesRaw

Materials

9 ReducesAir

Emissions

9 ReducesGreenhouse

Gases

9 ReducesWater

Pollution

9ReducesSolidWaste9 ImprovesHuman

Health&Safety

9 Improves

Accountability


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Environment & Water Greenroads™ Manual v1.5

Environmental Management System EW-1


x HaveaprimecontractorwithISO14001:2004.

x HaveaprimecontractorwithadocumentedEMSthatmeetstherequirementsofISO14001:2004.

Example: Environmental Management System (EMS) Manuals

WhileitisnotpossibletopresentanentireEMS,therearemanyexamplesofkeyEMSdocumentsavailableontheWebincludingthefollowingEMSmanuals:

x U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,PhiladelphiaOffice:

http://www.epa.gov/region03/ems/philly_manual.htm

x RobinsAirForceBase:http://205.153.241.230/ems/basics/emsrobins.pdf

x TheCityofSanDiego(containsPowerPointpresentationsonkeyISO14001facets):

http://www.sandiego.gov/environmentalservices/ems/emp_manual.shtml

x MassHighway:http://www.mhd.state.ma.us/downloads/projdev/emsmanual.pdf

x NorthCarolinaDepartmentofEnvironmentandNaturalResources(theyhaveagenericguideEMSmanualforusebythosewishingtocreateone):http://www.p2pays.org/ref/08/07378/0737829.pdf

x TheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)maintainsanEMS

implementationguidewebsiteat:http://environment.transportation.org/documents/ems_implementation_guide.asp.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. SmallerfirmsmaynotbeabletoaffordtheISOcertificationprocess.

2. DocumentationofanEMSisnotthesamehashavinganeffectiveEMS;howevercollectionofdocumentation(inlieuofanactualaudit)isanefficientwayofgatheringevidenceofaneffectiveEMS.

RESEARCH

AccordingtoISO(2009)anEMSisamanagementtoolthat“…providesaframeworkforaholistic,strategic

approachtotheorganization'senvironmentalpolicy,plansandactions.”Oneofthemorecomprehensive

descriptionsofsuchasystemcomesfromISOintheir14000familyofstandards.

ISO14000

TheISO14000familyofdocumentsaddressesvariousaspectsofenvironmentalmanagement.ISO14001andISO

14004specificallyaddressEMSrequirementsandguidelinesrespectively.Essentially,itisaformaldescriptionof

anEMSandallthatisinvolvedinitscreation,implementationanduse.TheISOisastandardpublishingbody

similartoASTMInternationalortheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO).

Certification:ISO14001

TherequirementsforcertificationarecontainedinISO14001.Therefore,organizationsarecertifiedin

accordancewithISO14001;thenumberisappendedwiththeyearofthestandardthatappliedwhentheorganizationwascertified.ThemostcurrentversionisISO14001:2004.

ISOdoesnotcertifyorganizationsitself.Mostcountrieshaveformedformalgroupsor“certificationbodies,”whichauditorganizationsapplyingforISO14001certification.Throughmutualagreementsthesebodies

ensurethatcertificationauditstandardsarerelativelythesameworldwide.Certification,oncegranted,must

berenewedatstandardintervals,oftenthreeyears.

ISOdoesnotrequirecertificationandmanyorganizationsjustchoosetofollowISO14000requirementsbut

foregocertification.However,itiscommonpracticeinmanypartsoftheworld(e.g.,WesternEurope,China,

India,etc.)torequireISOcertificationasaprerequisitefordoingbusiness.Therefore,countriesthatrequire

thisusuallyseethehighestcertificationrates.

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ArgumentsforCertification

Argumentsforcertificationtypicallycitethegeneralideathatproperandactivemanagementofacompany’s

impactontheenvironmentcanresultinbetterregulatorycompliance,betterbusinessopportunities,less

impactontheenvironmentandimprovedsafety.Typicallytheseitemsaremeasuredbycountingregulatory

violations,marketshare,salesgrowth,reducedinjuriesandothermetrics.

ArgumentsagainstCertificationOpponentsofcertificationarguethattheactualactofcertificationandexistenceofdocumentationdonot,inandofthemselves,guaranteeimprovedenvironmentalimpacts.Further,theypointoutthatISO14001

certificationcanbeanexpensiveandburdensomeprocessthatdoesnotnecessarilyproduceresults.

CertificationCost

AccordingtoChristinietal.(2004),itcostonemajorU.S.constructionfirmabout$1milliontoachieve

certification.Mostresearch(e.g.,Zengetal.2003;Oforietal.;2000)tendstoinvestigatereasonsforISO14000

adoptionandnottheactualcost.

WorldwideISO14001Certification

Datafrom2006showworldwideISO14001certificationsat129,199in140differentcountriesandgrowing(Figure

EW1.1).InDecember2006theU.S.had5,585certifications,whichrankedseventhworldwide(FigureEW1.2).ISO

14001certificationisfarmorecommoninEuropeandEasternAsiawith44%and41%ofworldwidecertificationsrespectively.NorthAmerica(consistingofonlytheU.S.,CanadaandMexico)comprisedalmost6%ofthe

worldwidetotal.

FigureEW1.1:ISO14001certificationworldwidegrowth20052006(datafromISO2006).

111,162

129,199

100,000

105,000

110,000

115,000

120,000

125,000

130,000

135,000

2005 2006

N u m b e r o f I S O 1 4 0 0 1 C e r t i f i c a t i o n s W o r l d w i d e

Year

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FigureEW1.2:Top10countriesintermsofnumberofISO14001certificationsin2006(datafromISO2006).

ISO14001CertificationintheU.S.ConstructionIndustry

ISO14000enjoysgrowingworldwidepopularity,howeverrelativelyfewU.S.constructionfirmsarecertified(Christinietal.2004).ReasonsforthelowpopularityintheU.S.aresomewhatnonspecificbutperhapscanbe

attributedtoalackofanygovernmentrequirement,noinsistencebyclients,implementationcosts,andasubcontractingsystemthatmakesitdifficulttouseanEMSonaparticularjob(Tse2001).

EvidencetosupportthepositiveoutcomesofISO14001certificationgenerallycomesfromsurveysorcasestudies

ofcontractorsthatarelargelyalreadyISOcertified(e.g.,Christinietal.2004;ValdezandChini2002;Oforietal.

2000)orsegregatethecertifiedfirmsandthenaskthemwhatthebenefitsweretheywereseekingincertification

(Zengetal.2003).ItisnotsurprisingthatresultsindicateageneralbenefittoISO14001certification.Evenso,thereisevidencetosuggestthatISO14000canreducelandfilledwasteandproducefinancialsavings(Christiniet

al.2004).

GLOSSARY

REFERENCES

Christini,G.,Fetsko,M.,andHendrickson,C.(2004).EnvironmentalManagementSystemsandISO14001

CertificationforConstructionFirms. JournalofConstructionEngineeringandManagement ,130(3),330336.

InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO).(2004).ISO14001:2004Environmentalmanagementsystems

Requirementswithguidanceforuse.ISO,Geneva,Switzerland.

InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO).(2009).ISO14000essentials.ISOwebsite.

http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_14000_essentials.Accessed11January2010.

22,593

18,842

11,125

9,825

6,070

5,893

5,585

5,415

4,411

3,047

5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000

Japan

China

Spain

Italy

UK

SouthKorea

USA

Germany

Sweden

France

NumberofISO14001CertificationsinDecember2006


EMS environmental managementsystem

132





Ofori,G.,Briffett,C.,Gang,G.,andRanasinghe,M.(2000).ImpactofISO14000onconstructionenterprisesin

Singapore.ConstructionManagementandEconomics,18,935–947.

Tse,R.Y.C.(2001).TheimplementationofEMSinconstructionfirms:casestudyinHongKong.J.Environ.

AssessmentPolicyManagement ,3(2),177194.

Valdez,H.E.andChini,A.R.(2002).ISO14000StandardsandtheUSConstructionIndustry.Commentary.EnvironmentalPractice,4,10–219.

Zeng,S.X.,Tam,C.M.,Deng,Z.M.andTam,V.W.Y.(2003).ISO14000andtheConstructionIndustry:SurveyinChina. JournalofManagementinEngineering,19(3),107115.

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EW-2 Runoff Flow Control

RUNOFF FLOW CONTROLGOAL

Mimicpredevelopmenthydrologicalconditionsintherightofway(ROW)andminimize

offsitestormwatercontrols.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

1. Developastormwatermanagementplanforthesiteusingstormwaterbest

managementpractices(BMPs)forflowcontrol.Explicitlystatethegoalsofthisplan

andhowperformancewillbemeasured.

2. Uselowimpactdevelopment(LID)BMPstothemaximumextentfeasibleas

determinedinProjectRequirementPR8byalicensedprofessional.

3. Computethe90th

percentileaverageannualrainfalleventvaluesforthefollowing

predevelopmentandpostconstructionconditions:

x VpreROW=insideROWpredevelopmentvolumeofrunoff

x Vpreout=outsideROWpredevelopmentvolumeofrunon

x Vtotalpre=VpreROW+Vpreout=totalpredevelopmentvolume

x Q pre=predevelopmentflowratemeasuredatwaterbodyreceivingeffluentfromthesite,basedonVtotalpre

x VpostROW=insideROWpostconstructionvolumeofrunoff

x Vpostout=outsideROWpostconstructionvolumeofrunon

x Vtotalpost=VpostROW+Vpostout=totalpostconstructionvolume

x Q post=postconstructionflowratemeasuredatthesamelocationasQ pre,based

onVtotalpost

4. ProvideBMPsforstormwaterflowcontrol.Listthetypes,manufacturers,total

volumesandflowratescontrolledbyBMPswithintheROWoroutsideoftheROW.

5. DemonstratethattheplannedBMPsmeetthefollowingflowcontrolcriteria:

x BMPsconformtoallapplicableminimumflowcontrolstandardsforall

effluentleavingtheROWsetbythegoverningjurisdictionforvolume,flow

controlandtimeofconcentration.Statetheminimumrequirements,includingcriticalerosiveflowcriteria,andprovidereferenceddocumentorpolicy.

x RV=RatioofVolumeAchieved=Vtotalpost/Vtotalpre1.20

x RF=RatioofFlowRateAchieved=Q post/Q pre1.20

x PointsareawardedperTableEW2.1basedontypeofalignment,locationof

BMPsandlevelofcontrolachieved.UseRVandRF,whicheverishigher,to

determineifpointshavebeenearned.

TableEW2.1:PointsforFlowControlAchievement

Typeof

Alignment

Locationof

BMPs

VtotalpostIncludes

Runon?

HigherofRV orRF

1.20 – 1.10 1.10 – 1.00 1.00

New WithinROW No 0 0 2

Yes 0 0 3OutofROW No 0 0 1

Yes 0 0 2

Existing WithinROW No 0 1 2

Yes 1 2 3

OutofROW No 0 0 1

Yes 0 1 2

EW-2

1-3 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR8LowImpact

Development

9 PR10Site

MaintenancePlan

9 EW3RunoffQuality

9 EW4Stormwater

CostAnalysis

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Extent

BENEFITS

9 ReducesWater

Pollution

9 ReducesSolidWaste

9 ReducesManmadeFootprint

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Runoff Flow Control EW-2

Details

Stormwaterflowsaremeasuredbyflowrate,timeofconcentration,andvolume.“Predevelopmentconditions”

aretheestimatedvaluesofthesethreevariablesthatexistedintheROWatapriortimerelativetoregional

historic,naturalorundevelopedconditionsasdefinedbythegoverninglocalwatershedauthority.Ifnolocal

authorityornoexistingdefinition,usethedefinitionforgreen,grayandbrownfieldsprovidedinthe2009SustainableSitesInitiative(SSI)Credit3.5“Managestormwateronsite.”Whilecontinuousstormwater

simulationmodelsaremostappropriateforthiscredit,themodifiedcurvenumbersprovidedinSSICredit3.5

maybeusedtosimplifycalculations.“Postconstruction”meanstheexpectedperformanceofthedesigned

BMPsinthestormwatermanagementplan.

DOCUMENTATION

Acopyoftheexecutivesummaryoftheprojectdrainagedesignreportthatincludes,atminimum,thefollowing:

x Shortnarrativethataddresseseachofthecreditrequirements.

Asneeded,supportingcalculationsforrunoffareas,runoffvolume(outputfromanyrainfallmodelingsoftware

usedisadequate),andtreatmentlevelsmayberequested.


x TheSustainableSitesInitiative(2009)modifiedcurvenumber(CN)approachisacceptableandmaybeusedto

achievethiscredit.Newalignmentsandrehabilitation(orwidening)ofruralroadswillfallunder“greenfield"

CNswhilealmostallotherprojectswilluse“grayfield”CNs.(Seeadditionalnotesinthe“PotentialIssues”

section.)TheguidelinesforSustainableSitesareavailablehere:http://www.sustainablesites.org/report/

x Preservenativevegetation.

x Protectsoilswithgoodinfiltrationcapacity.

x Minimizecompactionofsoilstopreservenaturalinfiltrationcapacity.

x Distributestormwatercontrolsthroughouttheprojectareainsteadofusingafewrelativelylargecentralizedfacilities.

x Assessthefeasibilityofinfiltrationandevapotranspirationtoreducetheneedfordetentionpondsoutsidethe

rightofway.x Reducelandareaimpactsbyavoidingtheuseoftraditionaldetentionponds.

Example: Northshore Drive, Bellingham, WA - Case Study

TheNorthshoreDriveprojectislocatedintheSilverBeachareaoftheCityofBellingham,Washingtononthe

northshoreofLakeWhatcom.TheprojectincludesallofNorthshoreDrivefromtheDakinStreetintersection

totheBrittonRoadintersection.ThedesignwaslooselybasedonarecentprojectbytheCityofOlympiacalled

RWJohnsonBoulevardthatusedporousbikelanesandsidewalksalongatraditionalroadway.Northshore

Drivereceivedanasphaltoverlayaftersurfacegrindingtheexistingroadwayandmakingminoralignment

modifications.Lanewidthswerereducedto11feettoaccommodatenewbikelanesandsidewalks.Anew

stormwaterdrainagesystemwasalsoinstalled.

1. CalculatePerviousandImperviousArea

AlabamaAvetoSilverBeachStore

Totalsegmentlength=2450ft

Totalwidthofcrosssection=37.5ft

Existing: 29ftimpervioushotmixasphalt(HMA) Area1=29ftx2,450ft=71,050sf

8.5ftofperviousgrass/gravel Area2=8.5ftx2,450ft=20,825sf

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Proposed: 22.5ftimperviousHMA,intersections,aprons,curb Area3=22.5ftx2,450ft=55,125sf

15ftperviousHMA Area4=15ftx2,450ft=36,750sf

Totalnewandreplacedimpervioussurfaceforsegment=Area3=55,125sf

Decreaseinimpervioussurfaceforsegment=Area1–Area3=15,925sf

SilverBeachStoretoBrittonRoad

Totalsegmentlength=1,550ftTotalwidthofcrosssection=29ft(excludesexistinggutterpan)

Existing: 27ftimperviousHMA Area5=29ftx1,550ft=41,850sf

2ftofperviousgrass/gravel Area6=2ftx1,550ft=3,100sf

Proposed: 29ftimperviousHMA Area7=29ftx1,550ft=44,950sf

Totalnewandreplacedimpervioussurfaceforsegment=Area7=44,950sfIncreaseinimpervioussurfaceforsegment=Area7–Area5=Area6=3,100sf

ProjectTotals

TotalExistingImperviousSurface=Area1+Area5=112,900sf

TotalNewandReplacedImperviousSurface=Area3+Area7=100,075sf9 NetChangeinImperviousSurface=112,900sf–100,075sf=12,825sf(Decrease)

TotalExistingPerviousSurface=23,925sf

TotalNewPerviousSurface=36,750sf

9 NetChangeinPerviousSurface=36,750sf–23,925sf=12,825sf(Increase)

2. MinimumRequirementsfrom2008WSDOTHighwayRunoffManual(HRM)

Figures3.1,3.2,and3.3oftheHRMareusedtodeterminetheminimumrequirementsapplicablefora

project.*Section32.2oftheHRMlistspossibleexceptionsforthisproject.**Nospecialexceptionsapplybuttheprojectdischargesdirectlyintoanexemptwaterbody(LakeWhatcom)whichdoesnothaveflowcontrol

requirements.However,WSDOTrequiresthatregardlessofanexemption,onsiteBMPsneedtobeusedtoinfiltrateasmuchrunoffasreasonablypossible.

3. DetermineFlowControlValues

Timeofconcentration,flowratesandrunoffvolumeswerenotrequiredtobecomputedforexemptprojects

forflowcontrol,norweretheycomputedforqualitytreatmentpurposesbecauseanetdecreaseinimpervious

surfaceoccurred.

4. ApplyStormwaterBestManagementPractices

Thisprojectusedpermeablepavementswithunderdrainsforbikelanesandsidewalks.Infiltrationratesare

showninTableEW2.2fromtheprojectgeotechnicalreport.

TableEW2.2:Estimatedlongtermdesigninfiltrationrates(NorthshoreGeotechnicalreport)

SampleDepthUSDATextural

Classification

InfiltrationRate

(in/hr)***

[email protected]’3.0’ Loam 0.13

[email protected]’2.5’ SandyLoam 0.25

5. DetermineFlowControlAchieved

SincetotalimpervioussurfaceontheprojectwasreducedfromexistingsurfaceareasandBMPs,greaterthan

137





100%ofpredevelopmentflowcontrolratesandvolumeswereachieved.Theprojectearns3points.

Notes:*Thesefiguresmakeupadecisiontreeusedtoguidetheengineerintheapplicableminimumrequirementswhendesigningastormwatermanagementfacilitybasedonknownsurfaceareas,relativeperviousness,andpollutiongeneratingcapacity.**Generally,iftheamountofimpervioussurfacesisgreaterthanaspecifiedminimumvalue,certainrequirementsmustbeappliedtothatimpervioussurface.Thesevaluesarecalled“minimumrequirements.”

***IncludestherecommendedcorrectionfactorspresentedintheSWMM.

Figure1:NorthshoreDriveinBellingham,Washington.Cyclistsusingpermeablepavementbikelanesadjacentto

permeablesidewalk.PhotobyC.Weiland

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POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Therearenumerousmethodstocalculaterunoffvolume.Manyareapplicabletostormsoflargemagnitude

andunderestimatetherunoffgeneratedbysmallstorms,whichoccurmorefrequentlyandrepresentmostof

theannualrunoffvolume.Averageannualrunoffvolumeshavebeenspecifiedforuseinallofthestormwater

relatedcreditsinGreenroadstoprovideconsistencybetweencredits.

2. TheLIDevaluationprocessthatisrequiredtomeetProjectRequirementPR8doesnotrequireanaverage

annualrunoffmodel.Infact,itrecommendstheuseofdesignstormstomodelpeakflow.Thispracticeisnow

outdatedandthepreferredapproachtorunoffquantitymanagementisthroughflowcontrolmethods.(Cityof

Seattle,2009)

3. Continuousmodelingcanbetimeintensiveandcostlyandthiscanvarygreatlybetweenprojectsandbysizeof

project.The2009SustainableSitesInitiative(SSI)providesanalternativemodelthatcanbeusedtomeetthe

intentofthiscredit.ItisbasedontheoldTR55softwaremodelfromtheNationalResourceConservation

Service(NRCS)incombinationwithacontinuousmodelingprogrambasedontheStormwaterManagement

Model(SWMM)softwarebytheEPA.The2009SSIcreditprovideschartsandtargetcurvenumbersfor

achievingcertainpointsinthatratingsystem.(Ingeneral,probablyagoodruleofthumbisthatpointsforthe

SSIcreditareworth5,7,and10pointswhichprobablycorrespondto1,2,and3pointsinGreenroads,

respectively.However,Greenroadsalsorequiressupportingcalculationstoshowthatflowcontrolperformanceguidelineshavebeenmetaccordingtothiscreditandtodatenoprojectshaveattemptedthis

creditortheSSIapproach.)4. Anymodelsthatareusedinherentlyhavesomelimitationsandassumptions.Somearebetterthanothers

dependingonprojectlocation.Thiscreditdefaultstotheintegrityofthedesignertochoosetheappropriate

modelingsoftware.

RESEARCH

Alteringtheimperviousnessofthelandtomakewayforroadscanhavemajorimpactsonthephysicaland

chemicalintegrityofawatershed(Southerland,1994;FormanandAlexander,1998;EnvironmentalProtection

Agency:EPA,2007).ThisGreenroadscreditprimarilyaddresseschangestophysicalintegrityofwatershedsbased

onphysicalquantitiesofrunoffgeneratedbyaroadway;however,manyofthetopicsareinherentlytiedtowater

qualityissuesbecauseallbestmanagementpracticesthataddressflowcontrolalsoaddresswaterquality(Quigley

etal.,2009).CreditEW3RunoffQualityaddresseschemicalrunoffcharacteristics(waterquality)whileanoften

ignoredcomponentofwatershedhealth,biologicalintegrity,isaddressedbyCreditEW6HabitatRestoration.

PhysicalImpactsfromStormwaterRunoff

Thegeneralrelationshipbetweenvolumeofwaterandvelocityofflowsonstreambedsseemsintuitive—more

waterandfasterflowsmeansmoreerosionandthushighersedimentloads—however,therelationshipbetween

volume,pollutant(sediment)transport,andaquaticbiologicalintegrityisactuallyquitecomplex.Muchofthis

complexitystemsfromthescaleoftheproblem.Toillustratethisissue,in2007,therewereactuallymoremilesof

roadwayintheUnitedStates(almost4.1million)thanthereweredocumentedriverand coastaland lakeshoreline

miles(about3.6million)(FederalHighwayAdministration:FHWA,2008;EPA,2010).TheEPAnotes(2007):

“Theeffectthataroadnetworkhasonstreamnetworkslargelydependsontheextenttowhichthe

networksareinterconnected.Roadnetworkscanbehydrologicallyconnectedtostreamnetworks

whereroadsurfacerunoffisdelivereddirectlytostreamchannels(atstreamcrossingsorviaditchesorgulliesthatdirectflowofftheroadintoastream)andwhereroadcutstransformsubsurfaceflow

intosurfaceflow(inroadditchesoronroadsurfacesthatdeliversedimentandwatertostreams

muchmorequicklythanwithoutaroadpresent).Thecombinedeffectsofthesedrainagenetwork

connectionsareincreasedsedimentationandpeakflowsthatarehigherandarrivemorequickly

afterstorms.Thiscanleadtoincreasedinstreamerosionandstreamchannelchanges,especiallyin

smallwatersheds.”

141





FigureEW2.3belowshowshowinterconnectedbothofthesesystemsactuallyareintheUnitedStates.Notethat

thescaleofthisimageonlyallowsalevelofdetailthatshowsmajorInterstatesandmajorwatershedstreams;

localorarterialroadsandsmallerwatershedsarenotshown:thesesmallerwatershedsaremostsensitiveto

nearbyroadwayprojectimpacts.

FigureEW2.3:UnitedStatesstreams(blue)andtheInterstatehighwaysystem(lightred).(Enviromapper,n.d.)

FigureEW2.3suggeststhatasignificantamountofhydromodificationisattributabletoroadways.

HydromodificationisatermusedbytheEPAtomean“alterationofthehydrologiccharacteristicsofcoastalandnoncoastalwaters,whichinturncouldcausedegradationofwaterresources.”(EPA,2007)Hydromodification

encompassesriverengineeringactivitiesforimprovingriverchannels(i.e.dredging)andalsobuildingdams.Italsoincludesforestrypractices,recreationandindustrialuse,constructionsitesandotherpointsourceactivities,anda

plethoraofurbanrunoffissuesincludingstreamrestorationpractices(EPA,2010).Roadsareinnatelytiedtoeach

oftheseactivities.

Theprimaryconcernswithhydromodificationare:

x Pollutantgenerationandtransport

x Habitatdegradationandlossofhabitat

x Speciesloss

x Streambankslopestability

x Erosionofchannelsorchangesinflowpathofstreams

x Flooding

Amajorityoftheliteratureregardingstormwatermanagementandroadsandbridgesaddressestheissuesof

waterpollution(waterquality)andcontrollingpollutanttransport.Importantly,sedimentisconsideredtobeone

oftheprimarypollutantsforwaterbodiesthatthreatenaquatichabitatsandspecies(EPA,2008).Together,theseissuescanbroadlybetermed“watershedhealth."(Pollutantsandimpactsassociatedwithpollutionarediscussed

furtherinCreditEW3.Itisimportanttonotethataneffectiveflowcontrolmeasurealsohasthecobenefitof

reducingpollutantloadsduetothehierarchicalnatureofphysicalprocesses.Additionally,notethatsomebestmanagementpracticesappliedforflowcontroloffermoreeffectivemitigationofpollutantsthanothers.)

Watershedhealthisdirectlyrelatedtonearbyeffectiveimpervioussurface.(EPA,2008;TilleyandSlonecker,2007;CityofSeattle,2009;EPA,2010)Itfollowsthatwatershedhealthisdirectlyrelatedtomanagementofstormwater

runoffquantitiesgeneratedbythoseimpervioussurfaces.

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Bankstability,erosionandflooding,however,areprimarilyflowcontrolconcernsassociatedwithphysicalimpacts

ofrunoff,notquality.Theseareoftenconsidered“drainageissues”andhavehistoricallybeentheprimary

applicationofstormwatermanagementgovernedbyEPApermitsupuntil1987,whenrunoffqualitycametobe

addressedaswell.(PittandMaestre,2005)Thesephysicalattributesofrunoffcanimpactsensitivewatershed

habitatsandaquaticlifeinbothurbanandruralenvironments(Southerland,1994;CityofSeattle,2009).For

example,“Whenastreamchangesitsphysicalconfigurationandsubstrateduetoincreasedflows,habitatsare

altered….Thebiologicalcommunitiesinwetlandsarealsoseverelyimpactedandalteredbythehydrologicalchanges.Relativelysmallchangesinthenaturalwaterelevationfluctuationscancausedramaticshiftsin

vegetativeandanimalspeciescomposition”(CityofSeattle,2009).Furthermore,in2007,approximately73%of

theroadsintheUnitedStatesweredesignatedas“rural”bytheFHWA(2008);43%ofruralroadsareunpaved.

TheEPA(2007)states:

“Roadsbuiltinruralareas,suchasforestandrecreationalroads,alterthenaturallandscapeandcan

destroyriparianhabitat.Ifnotproperlyinstalledandmaintained,thesetypesofroadserodeand

supplyincreasedsedimentandpollutantstoadjacentstreams.Additionally,roadsmayincrease

imperviousness,whichleadstoflashierrunoffevents.Streamcrossingsassociatedwithruralroads

canblockfishpassage,trapdebrisduringstorms,andleadtoincreasedstreambankerosionin

nearbyareas.”

Inurbanenvironments,theproblemissometimesworse.Morewaterandfasterflowsinthiscasemeanthatanaginginfrastructuresysteminanalreadydegradedwatershedcaneasilybecomeoverloadedwithincreasing

developmentinsurroundingareas.Muchofthestormwaterinfrastructureincitiesisbuiltintandemwithroadsinthepublicrightofway.Thismeansthat(1)manystormwaterinfrastructureprojectsalsobecomeroadway

projects,andmoreimportantlyforGreenroads,(2)flowcontrolclearlypresentsbothachallengeanda

stormwatermanagementopportunitytoroadwayprojects.

HydromodificationandRoads:TheSmokingGun

TheEPA’sdefinitionofhydromodificationisquitebroad—whileitisimpossibletoisolatehydromodification

impactswithroadwaysaloneforanumberofreasons,itisalsodifficulttoarguethattheydonotcause

hydromodification.Whichiscorrectseemstobeamatterofphilosophicaldebate(FHWA,1990;EPA,2008).

Watercoursesaredynamicbynatureandrespondtostressors,changingpathsanderoding“naturally.”

(Wilcock,PitlickandCui,2009)Thebehaviorofriversandstreamsisultimatelygovernedbyprinciplesofgeomorphologyandhydraulics,notbyhumans.Itappearsthatthecoreissueisoneofvaluesandhowone

definessomethingas“natural.”Forexample,itistruethatmorewaterandfasterflowsaregeneratedfrom

higherlevelsofimpervioussurfaces(MaestreandPitt,2005),whichcanpreventorimpede“natural”

groundwaterrechargeandhaveanumberofthus“unnatural”effectsonstreamflowsinlocalizedareasof

watersheds(EPA,2007;EPA,2008).Itisalsotruehowever,thatevenstreamrestorationactivitiesare

accountedforinthelistofhydromodificationimpactsassociatedwithdegradationofwatersheds(EPA,2008).

So,streampreservationviamanmadecontrolsintendedtorepairastreamtowhatisconsidered“natural”may

actuallyhaveunintendedconsequencesoffurtherdegradation.Thereislittleevidencetoshowthatthestream

wouldnothaveactedthatwayonitsown,buttheconverseisalsotrue.

Thestressorsofconcern,then,arereallyhumanactivitiesthemselves.Inparticular,thestressiscausedby

urbanizationordevelopment(twomoreverybroadterms).Theinteractionbetweenhumanactivitiesandthe

hydrologiccycleisalsocomplex.Itisimportanttonotethatmanyimportantrelationshipsarenotwellenoughunderstoodtobeabletoquantifythetotalaccountabilityforroadsandbridgesforhydromodificationbeyond

indirectassociation.Manyuncertaintiesandvariabilityarise,forexample,duetolackofunderstandingof:

x Theamountofstreambankerodability(Morrissey,Rizzo,Ross,andYoung,2009)thatoccursdueto

upstreamchanges

x Thelevelofchangebetweensurfaceandbaseflowsassociatedwithdifferenthydrauliccontrols(i.e.stormSewers,catchbasinsandponds)(TilleyandSlonecker,2007)

143





x Amountsofsedimentandsedimenttransportcapacityofdifferenttypesofriverandstreamflows(Wilcock,

PitlickandCui,2009)

x Inconsistenciesandvariabilityinmonitoringandassessmentofwatersheds(Strecker,Mayo,Quigley,and

Howell,2001)

x Thebiologicalintegrityofreceivingwatersheds(CityofSeattle,2009)

Urbanization,HydromodificationandRoadsDevelopment,includingroads,changesthehydrologicprofileofasiteorareausuallybyincreasingthetotal

impervioussurfacearea.ThiscorrelationwasconfirmedinarecentstudybyMaestreandPitt(2005)anda

graphisshowninFigureEW2.4thatillustratestheclearrelationshipbetweenvolumetricrunoffcoefficients

andpercentimperviousnessofasurface.

TheUnitedStatesis5%developedwithrangesofimperviousbetween2080%insomeareas.(EPA,2008)

Thoughpreviouslyestimatedatmuchhigherpercentages,roadsandsidewalksmakeupabout33%ofthetotal

impervioussurfaceinaverageurbanandsuburbanareas(TilleyandSlonecker,2007).Inruralenvironments,up

to100%ofthetotalimpervioussurfaceareacanbeattributedtoroadsandhighwaysdependingonthescale

ofthewatershedbeingstudied.

Therefore,hydromodification(bankstability,erosion,flooding,andrelatedwaterqualityissues)canbedirectly

attributedtoincreasesinrunoffdischargesfromimpervioussurfacesduetourbanization.GregoryandChin

(2002)composedabrieflistthatprovidesagoodsummaryofhowquantitiesofstormwaterdischargeare

relatedtourbanizationandavarietyofhydromodificationhazards.Awarenessoftheseeffectscanassistin

developmentofappropriatestormwatermanagementplans.TheseareshowninFigureEW2.5.

FigureEW2.4:Dischargequantitiesaredirectlyproportionaltoimpervioussurfaces.(Maestre&Pitt,2005)

144





FigureEW2.5:Urbanchannelhazardsrelatedtourbanizations.(Gregory&Chin,2002)

DesignAlternativesforRoadwayFlowControl

Hydrologicconditionsateachroadwaysitearehighlyvariable,evenwithinthesamesite.Granato,Zenone,and

Cazenas(2003)note“Stormwaterflowsresponddifferentlytodifferenttypesofstormsandmayrespond

differentlytothesametypeofstormindifferentseasonsoftheyear.”Justliketheinterconnectednessof

roadwaysandwatersheds,stormwaterflowcontroldesigncanbecomplexandeasilylendsitselfto

oversimplification.Thisisperhapsexemplifiedwiththefluctuationsforflowcontrolstandardsinthepastthirty

years(CityofSeattle,2009).Avarietyofapproacheshavebeenused,includingpeakflowdesignsthatlimitedflow

ratestocontrolerosiveflows,settingcertainpercentagesofthoseratestothosesupposedtobemore

representativeofpredevelopmentpeaks,andfinallyflowdurationstandards.Thisshiftinpracticerepresentedashiftfromeventbasedmethodsatamicroscaleleveltocontinuoussimulationmodelingatawatershedscale.

Typically,allowableregulatorylevelsforcertainflowsandcertaintypesofroadwayprojectsaresetand“flow

control”reallymeansapredeterminedsuiteorrangeofallowableflowvolumes,ratesandtimestoconcentration

thatareconsideredtoposeanacceptableriskoferosionreceivingwaters.(CityofSeattle,2009)Thesethreshold

levelsareprimarilydetermined“basedontheamountofnewandreplacedimpervioussurfaces,…whichcanalso

bedependentonthetypeofproject,sizeofproject,andthedrainagebasininwhichtheprojectislocated.”(City

ofSeattle,2009)Thereisamountingbodyofevidencehowevertosuggestthatsingleeventdesignapproaches

areinsufficienttomaintainstreambankandchannelintegrityandstructure.(CityofSeattle,2009;Bledsoe,2002;

Huberetal.2006).Bledsoe(2002)notes:

145





Tofullyaddressthepotentialforchannelresponse,itisnecessarytoexpandstandarddesign

approachestoaddressthetemporaldistributionoferosiveforcesrelativetobothbedmaterialsand

bankconditions.Singleeventtechniquesformaintainingthecumulativebedloadtransportvolume,

unlessmodifiedtoaccountfordifferentialtransportbysizefractionsacrossabroaderrangeofflow

events,mayalterpredevelopmentfluvialprocessesandaffectchannelmorphologyandthequalityof

instreamhabitat.Giventhesensitivityoffinegrainedstreamstoinflowingbedmaterialload,

reproducingthepredevelopmenthydrographwillnotnecessarilyensurestabilityifthereisasufficientlongtermreductioninsedimentdelivery.Thus,stormwatermanagementstrategiesshould

becarefullyweighedintermsoftheirlongtermgeomorphicimplicationsinadditiontofloodcontrol

andpollutantremovalfunctions.

Eventbasedmethodsoftenresultinoverlyconservativedrainagedesigns(Huberetal.2006)andingeneraldonotmeetstreamchannelprotectionobjectives(Booth,1991;BoothandJackson,2007).Huberetal.(2006)notesthat

thoughmostofthehyetographs(graphsofrainfalldistributionsovertime)fromeventbaseddesignscanbe

appliedtomonitoredrainfalldata,theyaregenerallynot;andtheyarealsosensitivetoinitialconditionsand

assumptionsaswellasstoragecapacityandinfiltrationcapabilitiesofthesite.Theseimperfecttraitsand

limitationsthengetadoptedintowaterqualitydesigns,whichareconsequentlyalsooverlyconservative,orworse,

ineffective.Despitethedisadvantagestoeachoftheseapproachesandtheresearchtojustifythatsyntheticstorm

eventbasedmethodsareinefficienttomodelactualrainfallevents(CityofSeattle,2009;Huberetal;2006),

“thesemethodsareembeddedinseveralversionsofcommercialsoftwareandareroutinelyacceptedbythehydrologicengineeringprofessioninspiteoftheissuesjustmentioned.”(Huberetal.2006).FHWAandthe

AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)andmoststatedepartmentsof

transportationstillrecommenduseofthetraditionaldesignstormsforhydrologicandhydraulicdesignof

roadways,presumablyduetothesingleevent,catastrophicnatureoffloodevents.(FHWA,2009;AASHTO,2005)

Someregulatoryagenciesnowrequire2,10and100yearsinsteadofoneorother(FHWA,2009;WSDOT,2008).

Currently,lowimpactdevelopment(LID)methodshavebecomethepreferredstandardofpracticeforthebuilt

environmentandforsitedevelopment(CityofSeattle,2009).Themostappropriatewaytoemulatethe

performanceofLIDmethodsisthroughcontinuousmodeling(CityofSeattle,2009;Huberetal.,2006).Continuous

hydrologicalmodelinghasitsowndisadvantages,primarilyintimeintensiveness(andthuscost)andunavailability

ofdata(Huberetal.,2006;CityofSeattle,2009).Ingeneral,theseLIDmethodsarebeingpushedmostlyinurban

areastohelpmanagetheincreasingimperviousnessandtheassociatedwaterqualityissuesincitiesaspopulationsinthesecommunitiesgrowtorelievestressonexistinginfrastructureandattempttoachieve

“natural”conditionsasabaselineforperformance.However,duetothehighconcernoffloodingimpactson

roadways,itmaybemostappropriatetouseacombinedapproach,whichmayrequireacombinationofbothLID

andconventionalmethodsinordertomeetfloodcontroldemandsandalsomaintainwaterqualitystandards.

(WashingtonDepartmentofTransportation:WSDOT,2008)

LowimpactDevelopmentforFlowControl

AbriefintroductiontoLIDtechniqueswasprovidedinProjectRequirementPR8.TherelevantconceptsforLID

methodsinflowcontrol(allofferqualitybenefitsunlessotherwisenoted)arebrieflydescribedbelow.(Cityof

Seattle,2009)MostLIDtechniquesincorporatemorethanone.

x Infiltration.Runoffispercolatedintoreceivingsoils.Theinfiltrationcapacityiscloselyrelatedtothehydraulic

conductivityandcapacityofthesoils.Evaporationisoftenalsopresentaswellastranspirationasthesefacilitiesareoftenvegetated.

x Evaporation.Runoffisvaporizedandabsorbedintotheair.

x Transpiration.Runoffisabsorbedbyplantsandthenreleasedasvapor.

x Dispersion.Runoffareaisincreasedtodelaytheflow.

x Interception.Rainfallistrappedbytheleavesofplants.

x Storageandrelease(retentionanddetention).Runoffiscollectedtemporarilyandreleasedviaacontrolledoutflow.(Trueretentionfacilitiesrelyoninfiltrationandevaporationandnooutflow.)

146





x Storageandreuse.Runoffiscollectedandstoredforstoredforotheruses(commonly“harvestingrainwater”).

Oftenstoragefacilitiesarevaultsbeneathroadwaysandtheirflowcontrolutilityisbasedontheirtotalvolume

andopeningsizes.

ThePrinceGeorge’sCountyLIDManual(1999)presentsamoredetaileddescriptionoftheLIDmethods:the

readerisreferredtotheManualformoredetailedinformation.Asummaryoftheflowcontrolattributesofsome

commonLIDtechniquesisshowninFigureEW2.6.(Formostroadwayfacilities,storagewillbeunderground.)

FigureEW2.6ThesuiteofflowcontrolattributesforLIDmethods.(PrinceGeorge’sCounty,1999)

FlowControlbyAvoidance

TheEPA(2007)suggeststhatthegeometricdesignofaroadcandomuchtoaidinflowcontrol,howeverthe

primaryobjectiveoftheir“nonerodingroadway”designconceptistostabilizeandorienttheroadbedto

minimizeproductionofsedimentduetoerosionofslopes,basematerialsandsurfacecoursesandavoid

uncontrolleddrainageofpollutantsintosensitiveareas.Furtherdesignconsiderationsincludenotslopingthe

roadwaytowardwetlandareas(unlessthewetlandsarepartofthetreatmentscheme)orplanningalignmentstofallasfaraspossibleawayfromexistingwatercourses.Nevertheless,theshapeandsurfacecoursematerial

designisclearlytiedtotheamountofrunoffgeneratedbytheroadway.Thedesignapproachisespeciallycriticalforunpavedroadswhereerosionandsedimentationoftheroaditselfisanimportantissue.(EPA,2007)

FlowControlbySoilAmendment

“Soilamendment”isaprocessthatdescribesaddingorganiccontentsuchascompostormulchtonativeand

fillsoils.Theorganiccontentaidsinflowcontrolbyprovidingadditionalstoragethroughabsorption,higher

infiltrationandevapotranspirationfromincreasedsurfaceareaoffinersoilparticles,improvedgroundwater

rechargeandalsoimprovedaffinityforvegetation.Italsooffersseveralpollutantreducingbenefitsandcanofferurbanbenefitssuchasreducedirrigationandfertilizerneeds.(CityofSeattle,2009)Timeofconcentrationisincreasedandpeakflowsareattenuatedandreducedthroughthismethod.Manyofthe

compostamendedsoilapproachesareoutlinedinsitedevelopmentguidancedocumentsforbuildings;however,SwissengineersPiguet,ParriauxandBensimon(2008)offeraroadspecificdesignapproachcalled

“infiltrationslopes”thatallowsimplementationofsoilamendmentthatmaintaintheoverallimpermeabilityoftheroadwayforfastrunoffremovalwithoutpromotingwaterintrusioninroadwaysubbasematerials.Their

modelsofinfiltrationslopesareshowninFigureEW2.7withvariousslopeandmaterialconfigurationsusing

147





differentsoilsandgeotechnicalreinforcments.Theauthorsfoundincreasedinfiltrationcapacity,improved

groundwaterrecharge,increasedevapotranspirationandimprovedflowcontrol.

FigureEW2.7:Infiltrationslopecrosssections.(Piguet,Parriaux&Bensimon2008)

ControversyofDetentionFacilities

Detentionfacilitiesusedasflowcontroldevicesareamatterofsomecontroversy.Toreceivethiscredit,landmay

notbeprocuredoutsideoftherightofwaytoserveasconventionaldetentionorstoragefacilities.Thiscriterion

attemptstomitigatetheoveralllandareaimpactofconventionaldetentionfacilitiesbyrestrictingconstructionof

suchfacilitieswithinROWlimitswithoutrestrictingtheuseofthiscommonBMP.However,thethoroughliterature

reviewfromtheCityofSeattle(2009)indicatesthatdetentionpondsmaynotbeeffectiveflowcontrolmeasures

formitigatinghydromodificationimpacts,otherflowcontrolmethodsoffermuchhigherpollutantremovalthan

detentionponds,andthepondshavelimitedhydrologicalbenefitsespeciallywhenmorethanoneispresentinthe

samewatershed.

Therearesomedocumentedbenefitsofdetentionandretentionfacilitiesofreducinglargedebrisdeliveredto

streamsandbedscour.Also,theyareeasilyunderstoodbyhydraulicdesignersandoffermuchcontroloverrunoffreleases.(FHWA,2009)CompletelydisallowingdetentionpondsinGreenroadswouldeffectivelyeliminatethe

mostcommonlyusedmethodofstormwatercontrolsavailabletomosthighway,streetandroadwayprojects

(FHWA,2009).However,LIDtechniqueshavebeenshowntobeabletoreducetheneededsizeofdetentionponds

oreliminatethemandconventionalconveyancealtogetherinsomecases(Hinman,2005;CityofSeattle,2009).

148





ThepreferredalternativetoconventionaldetentionpondsinGreenroadsaremultifunctionalBMPssuchas

bioretentionorstormwaterstorageandreuse.

WhenLIDIsNotAppropriate

Ingeneral,LIDflowcontrolBMPsmaynotbeappropriateandshouldbeavoidedinareas(WSDOT,2008)

x Withhighorseasonallyhighwatertablesx Belowthe100yearfloodplain

x Withdistressedgroundwater

x Inintertidalareas

x Insensitivewatershedsorforests(thesehaveahighernetbenefitthanLID.)

However,asitespecificdesignbuiltonwatershedparametersandtopographywillbemosteffectivefor

controllingrunoffflowsandsomeofflowcontroltechniquesmaybeviableevenintheseconditions.

AdditionalResources

x Forfurtherdiscussiononthemeritsofdetentionfacilities,seetheEnvironmentallyCriticalAreas:Best

AvailableSciencereportbytheCityofSeattle(2009),availableat:


x CurrentperformancedataonflowcontrolforLIDBMPsisavailableattheInternationalBMPDatabase:

http://www.bmpdatabase.org.Theyalsotrackcostdataasitisvolunteeredalongwithsubmissions.

FormoreinformationandadditionalresourcesonspecificLIDtechniques,seethediscussioninProject

RequirementPR8LowImpactDevelopment.

GLOSSARY


Biodiversity Totalnumberofspeciespresent

Biologicalintegrity Theabilitytosupportandmaintainabalanced,integratedadaptive

assemblageoforganismshavingspeciescomposition,diversity,and

functionalorganizationcomparabletothatofnaturalhabitatoftheregion(KarrandDudley,1981).


BMPDB InternationalBMPDatabase(http://www.bmpdatabase.org)

Channel Astreambed

Detention Theprocessofholdinganddelayingrunoffwithacontrolledrelease

EIA Effectiveimperviousarea


Erosion Surfacewearingduetophysicalprocessessuchaswater,windandheat

Evaporation Theprocessofwaterbecomingwatervapor

Evapotranspiration thecombinedeffectsofevaporationandtranspirationinreducingthe

volumeofwaterinavegetatedareaduringaspecificperiodoftime(Huber

etal.2006)FHWA FederalHighwayAdministration

Flowcontrol Managementofrunoffvolumephysicalcharacteristicsincludingpeakflows

andtimeofconcentration

Hydromodification alterationofthehydrologiccharacteristicsofcoastalandnoncoastalwaters,

whichinturncouldcausedegradationofwaterresources(EPA,2007)

149





Impervioussurface ahardsurfaceareathateitherpreventsorretardstheentryofwaterintothe

soilmantleorcauseswatertorunoffthesurfaceingreaterquantitiesorat




Interception Theprocessofleavesofplantspreventingrainfallfromhittingasurface

Lowimpactdevelopment abroadcollectionofengineeredcontrols,stormwatermanagementfacilities,andotherlanddevelopmentBMPsthatattempttomimicpredevelopmenthydrologicconditionsbyemphasizinginfiltration,evapotranspiration,or


Reach Thelengthofariverorstreambetweenriverbends

Retention Theprocessofholdingrunoff,ideallynoreleaseoccursandallrunoffis

infiltratedorevaporated

TIA Totalimperviousarea

Transpiration Theprocessofwateruptakeinplants

Urbanization Theprocessofandactivitiesassociatedwithhumandevelopment

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ResourcesPlanningandManagement.128(6),451.

Booth,D.B.(1991).Urbanizationandthenaturaldrainagesystem:Impacts,solutions,andprognoses.The

NorthwestEnvironmentalJournal.7(1).

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CriticalAreas:BestAvailableScienceReview.AccessedNovember14,2009.Availableat


EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2007).Nationalmanagementmeasurestocontrolnonpointsourcepollution

fromhydromodification.[EPA841B07002]Washington,DC:NonpointSourceControlBranch,Officeof

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http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/hydromod/pdf/Hydromod_all_web.pdf

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Washington,DC:EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.

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EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(n.d.)EnviromapperforWater.AccessedJanuary13,2010.Availableat

http://map24.epa.gov/emr/

FederalHighwayAdministration.(1990).HighwaysintheRiverEnvironment.[FHWAHI90016].Washington,DC:

FederalHighwayAdministration,HydraulicsEngineering.Availableat

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/pubs/hire1990.pdf

150





FederalHighwayAdministration.(2008,December15).TableHM12–HighwayStatistics2007HighwayStatistic

Series–PolicyInformationFHWA.OfficeofHighwayPolicyInformation.AccessedJanuary13,2010.Available

athttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/statistics/2008/hm12.cfm

FederalHighwayAdministration.(2009).UrbanDrainageDesignManual.3rd

ed.[NHI10009].Washington,DC:

FederalHighwayAdministration,HydraulicsEngineering.Availableat

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/pubs/10009/index.cfm

Forman,R.T.T.,&Alexander,L.E.(1998).Roadsandtheirmajorecologicaleffects. AnnualReviewofEcologyand

Systematics.29,207.

Granato,G.E.,Zenone,C.&Cazenas,P.A.(2003).TheNationalhighwayrunoffdataandmethodologysynthesis.

[FHWAEP03054]U.S.GeologicalSurveyfortheFederalHighwayAdministration.Washington,D.C.:U.S.Dept.

ofTransportation,FederalHighwayAdministration,OfficeofNaturalandHumanEnvironment.

Gregory,K.J.,&Chin,A.(2002).UrbanStreamChannelHazards. Area.34(3).

Hinman,C.(2005).Lowim pactdevel opment:TechnicalguidancemanualforPugetSound .Olympia,WA:Puget

SoundActionTeam.Availableat

http://www.psparchives.com/publications/our_work/stormwater/lid/LID_manual2005.pdf

Huberetal.(2006).NCHRPSynthesis565:Evaluationofbestmanagementpracticesforhighwayrunoffcontrol.

NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP).Washington,D.C.:TransportationResearchBoard.

Availableathttp://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_565.pdf

Karr,J.R.andDudley,D.R.(1981).Ecologicalperspectiveonwaterqualitygoals.EnvironmentalManagement,5:55

68.

Maestre,A,&Pitt,R.(2005).TheNationalStormwaterQualityDatabase,Version1.1:ACompilationandAnalysis

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StreambankErosion.U.S.GeologicalSurveyStateWaterResourcesResearchInstituteProgram.Accessed

January13,2010.Availableathttp://water.usgs.gov/wrri/09grants/2009VT44B.html

PiguetP,ParriauxA,&BensimonM.(2008).Thediffuseinfiltrationofroadrunoff:anenvironmentalimprovement.

TheScienceoftheTotalEnvironment.397(13),13.

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DevelopmentDesignStrategies:AnIntegratedApproach.Availableat

http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/lidnatl.pdf

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Strecker,E.,Mayo,L.,Quigley,M.andHowell,J.(2001,June).GuidanceManualforMonitoringWaterQuality.

(FHWAEP01022).UnitedStatesDepartmentofTransportation,FederalHighwayAdministration.Officeof

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152




EW-3 Runoff Quality

RUNOFF QUALITYGOAL

ImprovewaterqualityofstormwaterrunoffleavingtheroadwayRightofWay(ROW)

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

1. Developastormwatermanagementplanforthesiteusingstormwaterbest

managementpractices(BMPs)forwaterqualitytreatment.Explicitlystatethegoals

ofthisplanandhowperformancewillbemeasured.

2. Uselowimpactdevelopment(LID)BMPstothemaximumextentfeasibleas

determinedinProjectRequirementPR8byalicensedprofessional.

3. Computethe90th

percentileaverageannualrainfalleventpostconstructionrunoff

volumes(Vtotal)fortwoareasasfollows:

x Vrunoff :thetotalpollutiongeneratingsurface(PGS)areaoftheprojectROW

x Vrunon:ThetotalPGSareaoutsidetheROWthatmaygenerateuntreated

stormwaterwhichrunsintotheROWBMPs,ifany.

x Vtotal=Vrunoff+Vrunon

x Vtreated=Vrunofftreated+Vrunontreated

x %ofTotalPostConstructionRunoffVolumeTreated=Vtreated/Vtotalx100%

x Computeaweightedaverageofvolumestreatedforthetotalvolumemanaged

intheprojectwheremorethanoneBMPisused.

4. Providetreatmentforadesiredpercentageofthetotalcomputedrunoffvolume

foreitheroftheareasnotedinTableEW3.1.Listthetypes,manufacturers,

treatmentlevels,andtotalvolumestreatedinBMPs.

5. DemonstratethattheplannedBMPsmeetthefollowingqualitycriteria:

x BMPsreducesedimentloadstototalsuspendedsolids(TSS)concentrationsof

25mg/Lorless,asanindicatorofoveralltreatmentlevel.SeeTableEW3.2.

x BMPsconformtoallapplicableminimumwaterqualitystandardsforall

effluentleavingtheROWsetbythegoverningjurisdictionforcontaminants,

suchasheavymetals,hydrocarbons,pathogens,watertemperatureandturbidity.Statetheminimumrequirements,includingcriticalerosiveflow

criteria,andprovidereferenceddocumentorpolicy.

TableEW3.1:Greenroadspointsfor%volumesoftreatedrunoff

TypeofRunoffVolume VolumeTreated TreatmentLevel Points

Pollutiongenerating

surfaces(PGS)from

withintheprojectROW

only(runoff)

80% Basic

Basic&Enhanced

Basic,Enhanced&Oil 1

90% Basic

Basic&Enhanced 1

Basic,Enhanced&Oil 2Pollutiongenerating

surfaces(PGS)from

withintheprojectROW

andfromoutsideareas

(runonandrunoff)

80% Basic

Basic&Enhanced 1


90% Basic 1

Basic&Enhanced 2


EW-3

1-3 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR8LowImpact

Development

9 PR10Site

MaintenancePlan

9 EW2RunoffFlow

Control

9 EW4StormwaterCostAnalysis

9 EW5SiteVegetation

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Extent

BENEFITS

9 ReducesWater

Pollution9 ReducesSolidWaste

9 ReducesManmade

Footprint

153




Runoff Quality EW-3

Details

Thiscreditisanadaptationofthe2009SustainableSitesInitiativeCredit3.6:“Protectandenhancewater

quality”andtheLEED™GreenBuildingRatingSystemSustainableSitesCreditSS6.2“StormwaterDesign:

QualityControl.”ItalsodrawsheavilyonconceptsfromtheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation

HighwayRunoffManual.Continuousmodelingapproachesarerecommended(seeCreditEW2).

IfmorethanoneBMPisusedintheproject,calculateaweightedaverageofthe%totalvolumetreatedby

eachBMPanditsqualityachieved.NotethatBMPsshouldbesizedappropriatelyifconsideringanyrunoff

volumesgeneratedfromoutsidetheprojectROW.“Basic,”“Enhanced”and“Oil”treatmentcriteriaaredefined

bylocalgoverningagenciesorbytheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT)Highway

RunoffManual,inabsenceofalocaldefinition.

DOCUMENTATION

Acopyoftheexecutivesummaryoftheprojectdrainagedesignreportthatincludes,atminimum,thefollowing:

x Shortnarrativethataddresseseachofthecreditrequirements.

Asneeded,supportingcalculationsforrunoffareas,runoffvolume(outputfromanyrainfallmodelingsoftware

usedisadequate),andtreatmentlevelsmayberequested.

TableEW3.2:Medianofaverageinfluentandeffluentconcentrations.(ReproducedfromtableinGeosyntec&

WrightWater,2008)

ConstituentsSample

Location

DetentionPond

(n=25)1

WetPond(n=46)1

WetlandBasin

(n=19)1

Biofilter(n=57)1

MediaFilter

(n=38)1

HydrodynamicDevice(n=32)1

PorousPavement

(n=6)1

SuspendedSolids(mg/L)

Influent72.65

(41.70103.59)

34.13(19.1649.10)

37.76(18.1053.39)

52.15(41.4162.88)

43.27(27.2559.58)

39.61(21.9576.27)

Effluent31.04

(16.0746.01)

13.37(7.2919.45)

17.77(9.2626.29)

23.92(15.0732.78)

15.86(9.7421.98)

37.67(21.2854.02)

16.96(5.9048.72)

TotalCalcium(g/L)

Influent

0.71(0.45

1.28)

0.49

(0.200.79)

0.36

(0.110.60)

0.54

(0.400.67)

0.25

(0.120.49)

0.74

(0.371.11)

Effluent0.47(0.25

0.87)0.27

(0.120.61)0.24

(0.110.55)0.30

(0.260.35)0.19

(0.10.37)0.57

(0.251.33)

DissolvedCalcium(g/L)

Influent0.24(0.15

0.33)0.19

(0.100.28)

0.25(0.210.28)

0.16(0.110.21)

0.33(0.110.55)

Effluent0.25(0.17

0.36)0.11

(0.080.15)

0.21(0.190.23)

0.13(0.100.18)

0.31(0.130.71)

TotalCopper(g/L)

Influent20.14

(8.4131.79)

8.91(5.2912.52)

5.65(2.6738.61)

31.93(25.2538.61)

14.57(10.8718.27)

15.42(9.2021.63)

Effluent12.10

(5.4118.80)

6.36

(4.708.01)

4.23

(0.627.83)

10.66(7.6813.68)

10.25(8.2112.29)

14.17

(8.3320.01)

2.78

(0.888.78)

DissolvedCopper(g/L)

Influent6.66(0.73

12.59)7.33

(5.409.26)

14.15(10.1418.16)

7.75(4.5510.96)

13.59(9.8217.36)

Effluent7.37

(3.2811.45)4.37

(3.735.73)

8.40(5.6511.45)

9.00(7.2810.72)

13.92(4.4023.44)

TotalChromium

(g/L)Influent

7.36(5.499.88)

6.00(3.5810.08)

5.63

(4.497.05)

2.18(1.662.86)

4.07(2.396.91)

154




EW-3 Runoff Quality

ConstituentsSample

Location

DetentionPond

(n=25)1

WetPond(n=46)1

WetlandBasin

(n=19)1

Biofilter(n=57)1

MediaFilter

(n=38)1

HydrodynamicDevice(n=32)1

PorousPavement

(n=6)1

Effluent3.18

(2.104.84)1.44

(0.792.66)

4.64(3.086.98)

1.48(0.822.70)

3.52(2.145.80)

TotalLead(g/L)

Influent

25.01

(12.0637.95)

14.36

(8.3220.40)

4.62

(1.4311.89)

19.53

(10.1128.95)

11.32

(6.0916.55)

18.12

(5.7030.53)

Effluent15.77

(4.6726.87)5.32

(1.639.01)3.26

(2.314.22)

6.70(2.8110.59)

3.76(1.086.44)

10.56(4.2716.85)

7.88(1.6437.96)

DissolvedLead(g/L)

Influent1.25

(0.332.17)3.40

(1.125.68)0.50

(0.330.67)2.25

(0.773.74)

1.44(1.051.82)

1.89(0.832.95)

Effluent2.06

(0.933.19)2.48

(0.985.36)0.87

(0.850.89)1.96

(1.262.67)

1.18(0.771.60)

3.34(2.224.47)

TotalZinc(g/L)

Influent111.56(51.50171.63)

60.75(45.2376.27)

47.07(24.4790.51)

176.71(128.28225.15)

92.34(52.29132.40)

119.08(73.50164.67)

Effluent60.20

(20.7099.70)

29.35(21.1337.66)

30.71(12.8066.69)

39.83

(28.0151.56)

37.63

(16.8058.46)

80.17(52.72107.61)

16.60

(5.9116.61)

DissolvedZinc(g/L)

Influent26.11

(5.2075.10)

47.46(37.6557.27)

58.31

(32.4679.16)

69.27(37.97100.58)

35.93(4.9666.90)

Effluent25.84

(10.7540.93)

32.86(17.7048.01)

25.40

(18.7132.09)

51.25(29.0473.46)

42.46(10.3874.55)

TotalPhoshporus

(mg/L)

Influent0.19

(0.170.22)0.21

(0.130.29)0.27

(0.110.43)0.25

(0.220.28)

0.20(0.150.26)

0.24(0.010.46)

Effluent0.19

(0.120.27)0.12

(0.090.16)0.14

(0.040.24)0.34

(0.260.41)

0.14(0.110.16)

0.26(0.120.48)

0.09(0.050.15)

DissolvedPhosphorus

(mg/L)

Influent0.09

(0.060.13)0.09

(0.060.13)0.10

(0.040.22)0.09

(0.070.11)0.09

(0.030.11)

0.06(0.010.11)

Effluent0.12

(0.070.18)0.08

(0.040.11)0.17

(0.030.31)0.44

(0.210.67)

0.09(0.070.11)

0.09(0.040.13)

TotalNitrogen

(mg/L)

Influent1.25

(0.831.66)1.64

(1.391.94)2.12

(1.582.66)0.94

(0.941.69)

1.31(1.191.42)

1.25(0.332.16)

Effluent2.72

(1.813.63)1.43

(1.171.68)1.15

(0.821.62)0.78

(0.531.03)

0.76(0.620.89)

2.01(1.372.65)

Nitrate

Nitrogen(mg/L)

Influent0.70

(0.351.05)0.36

(0.210.51)0.22

(0.010.47)0.59

(0.440.73)

0.41(0.300.51)

0.40(0.060.73)

Effluent0.58

(0.250.91)0.23

(0.130.37)0.13

(0.070.26)0.60

(0.410.79)

0.82(0.601.05)

0.51(0.081.34)

TKN(mg/L)

Influent1.45

(0.971.94)1.26

(1.031.49)1.15

(0.811.48)1.80

(1.621.99)

1.52(1.071.96)

1.09(0.521.57)

Effluent1.89

(1.582.19)1.09

(0.871.31)1.05

(0.821.34)1.51

(1.241.78)

1.55(1.221.83)

1.48(0.872.47)

1.23(0.443.44)

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Runoff Quality EW-3


x Reduceordisconnectimperviouscover,suchasbetweenlaneswithavegetatedmedianorsidewalkswithabufferstrip.(SustainableSitesInitiative:SSI,2009)

x Providedepressionstorageinthelandscape(SSI,2009)

x Conveystormwaterinswalestopromoteinfiltration(SSI,2009)

x Usebiofiltrationtoprovidevegetatedandsoilfiltering(SSI,2009)x Evapotranspire(e.g.,useengineeredsoilsandvegetationinbiofiltrationareas/landscapingtomaximize

evapotranspirationpotential)(SSI,2009)

x Infiltratestormwater(infiltrationbasinsandtrenches,permeablepavement,etc.)(SSI,2009)

x Developandimplementaspillresponseplan(SSI,2009)

x Minimizetheuseofsaltfordeicingandconsiderorganicdeicersorsandinstead(SSI,2009)

x Usea“treatmenttrain”ofmanyBMPsinseries.(SSI,2009)

x UseastormwatertreatmentsystemorBMPsthathavebeendemonstratedtoachievethe25milligrams/liter

TSSdischarge.Someoftheseare(SSI,2009):

x Waterqualitywetponds

x Constructedstormwaterwetlands

x

Bioretentionx Biofiltration(e.g.,raingardens)

x Vegetatedbufferstrips

x Sandfilters

x Bioswales(usuallymosteffectiveasthefirstinlineofatreatmenttrain)

x OtherBMPslikevaultsandpretreatmentormechanicalseparatorsmaynotbeabletoearnthiscreditalone

butcouldbeusedinatreatmenttraineffectively.

x Performregularinspectionsandmonitoringactivitiestoensurelongtermperformance.Thisincludesvisual

inspectionofcontrols.(EPA,1995)

x Cleanoutaccumulatedsedimentregularly.(EPA,1995)

x Replaceoldfabrics,filtersandothermaterialsastheydeterioratetomaintainBMPeffectiveness.(EPA,1995)

x RemovetemporaryBMPsusedinconstructionandreplacethemwithpermanentcontrols.(EPA,1995)

x Seedwithgrassandcompostamendedmulchorsoiltodevelopvegetationandprovidestabilizedslopes.(EPA,1995)

x Usewildflowercovertoprovideerosioncontrolandaestheticbenefits.(EPA,1995)

x Useestablishedgrasssodblanketsonpreparedsoils.(EPA,1995)

x Designtheroadwayfacilityfortreatmentusinggrassedswales,checkdams,filterstrips,terracing,infiltration

trenchesand/orbasins.(EPA,1995)

x Considerconstructedwetlandsforincreasedqualityandnewprovisionofhabitat.(EPA,1995)

x Setperformancegoalsforbasictreatment(i.e.80%removalofTSS),enhancedtreatment(i.e.metalsremoval)

andoilorphosphorouscontrol.(WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation:WSDOT,2008)

x Considerinfiltrationslopes(Piguet,Parriaux&Bensimon2008)and“Ecologyditches”(CityofSeattle,2009)(thesearesimilarapproachesusingcompostamendedsoilsforpromotinginfiltrationandpollutantremoval).

x Considergeometricdesignforerosioncontrolandflowmoderation(EPA,2007)

Example: City of Kirkland 120 th Street Extension

TheCityofKirklandproposestoextendNE120thStreetonecityblockbetween124thAvenueNEtoSlater

AvenueNE.Improvementsincludetheapproximate0.16mileextensionofNE120thStreet,completewith

5footsidewalks,5footbicyclelanesineachdirection,4.5footplanterstrips,andcontinuoustwowayleft

turnlanesateachintersection.

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EW-3 Runoff Quality

Theextendedroadwaywillhaveamaximum44footcurbtocurbsection.Anewtrafficsignalwillalsobe

constructedattheintersectionofNE120thStreetand124thAvenueNE.Partialacquisitionsofuptofour

commerciallyzonedpropertieswillberequiredtocompletetheproject.Associatedimprovementsinclude

utilitiesandstormwaterstructureinstallation.Theproposedmeasureswillenhancetrafficcirculationand

safetyinKirkland’sTotemLakearea.Thedesignteamusedacontinuoushydrologicmodelingtooltocalculate

theirflowratesandrunoffvolumes.

TableEW3.3:SummaryofWaterQualityCalculations

TotalInflowtoProjectBMPs 5548.96acft

TotalAreaTreated 1.188ac

ProposedPGISAreaforProject 0.99ac

AmountofAdditionalTreatmentArea +0.198ac

TotalVolumeTreatedAsPercentofProjectPGS 120%

WeightedAverageAnnualTreatmentVolumeAchievedbyBMPs 93.1%

BasicTreatment(80%TSSremoval,<25mg/L) Yes

EnhancedTreatment(dissolvedmetals) Yes

EnhancedTreatment(oil) NotPursued

EnhancedTreatment(other) NotPursued

TotalPoints 2

SummaryofCreditCalculations

1. Postconstructionrunoffvolume:5548.96acrefeet.LIDtechniqueswereusedtotreataminimumof90%

oftheaverageannualpostconstructionrunoffvolume.

a. TheprojecttreatedrunonandrunoffintheROWBMPs.

b. Calculation:1.118acrestreated>0.99acresacresofpollutiongeneratingsurfacesintheROWonly

(120%treated).

c. NodetentionfacilitieswereusedoutsideoftheROW.

2. Calculation:93.1%averagevolumefiltered(seeDetailedCalculationsbelow).

3. Treatmentdefinitionsandprojectwaterqualitygoals:

a. BasicTreatment:80%TSSremoval(WSDOT,2008)

b. Enhancedtreatment:BMPsprovideahigherrateofremovalthanbasictreatmentfacilitiesfor

dissolvedcopperanddissolvedzinc(WSDOT,2008)

4. ConcentrationtestinginformationforthetreeboxfiltersusedwasprovidedbytheWashington

DepartmentofEcology(2010).Noexpectedeffluentvaluesexceedthestated25mg/LTSSlimit

(SustainableSites,2009)orspecialWashingtonStatestandardsforremovalofheavymetalsoroils

(enhancedtreatment).

5. ProductapprovalbytheWashingtonStateDepartmentofEcologyisavailablehere:

http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/stormwater/newtech/use_designations/filterrauld111306.pdf

6. BasedonTable1,2pointsareearnedbythisprojectfortreatmentof93.1%ofthetotalrunonandrunoff

accordingtostatedstandardsforenhancedtreatment.

DetailedCalculations

1. ThresholdAnalysis

x Thethresholdanalysiscalculationsarerequiredtodeterminetheapplicableminimumrequirementsfortheprojectandthresholddischargearea.

x Withintheprojectlimit,thereisonethresholddischargearea(TDA).Twodownstreampathsthatexittheprojectlimitjointogetheratadistancethatisalittlemorethanaquartermiledownstreamfromthe

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Runoff Quality EW-3

projectsite,atawetland.ThisflowdischargesintoaculverttoTotemLake. Thesetwosystemsare

hydraulicallyconnectedbecausethewaterlevelatthequartermilepointisthatthelevelofTotemLake.

2. Assumptions

x Allroadwayareasareconsideredpollutantgeneratingimpervioussurface(PGIS),sidewalksasnon

pollutiongeneratingimpervioussurface(NPGIS),andplanterstripandotherlandscapeasnonpollutiongeneratingpervioussurface(NPGPS).

x Rubblizedpavementleftinplaceandpavedoverisnotconsideredreplacedpavement.

3. Definitions(fromTable31ofthe2008WSDOTHighwayRunoffManual)

BasicTreatment

x Appliestoallprojectthresholddischargeareas(TDAs)whererunofftreatmentthresholdismet(projectadds5000sformoreofPGIS)

PerformanceGoal: 80%removaloftotalsuspendedsolids(TSS)

EnhancedTreatment(dissolvedmetals)

x Appliestoallprojectthresholddischargeareas(TDAs)whererunofftreatmentthresholdismet

(projectadds5000sformoreofPGIS)

x DoesnotdischargetoBasicTreatmentreceivingwaterbody

x AppliestoroadwayswithinUrbanGrowthAreas(UGAs)withAverageDailyTrip(ADT)7,500(Forthis

projectarea,ADTis8700)

PerformanceGoal:ProvideahigherrateofremovalofdissolvedmetalsthanBasicTreatmentfacilitiesfor

influentconcentrationsrangingfrom0.003to0.02mg/Lfordissolvedcopperand0.020.3mg/Lfor

dissolvedzinc.

4. PerviousandImperviousAreaCalculations

x TabulatedcalculationsareshowninTablesEW3.4andEW3.5.

TableEW3.4:Imperviousareasummary

Category Area(sf) Area(Acres)

ExistingImpervious 35,240 0.81

NewImpervious 22,140 0.51

ReplacedImpervious 9,735 0.22

RemovedImpervious 1,647 0.04

ProposedImpervious 55,733 1.28

EffectiveImpervious 31,875 0.73

TableEW3.5:PGISsummary

Category Area(sf) Area(Acres)ExistingPGIS 34,201 0.79

NewPGIS 16,404 0.38

ReplacedPGIS 4,321 0.10

RemovedPGIS 7,646 0.18

ProposedPGIS 42,959 0.99

EffectivePGIS 16,404 0.38

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EW-3 Runoff Quality

5. MinimumRequirementsfrom2008WSDOTHighwayRunoffManual(HRM)

Figures3.1,3.2,and3.3oftheHRMareusedtodeterminetheminimumrequirementsapplicablefora

project.*Section32.2oftheHRMlistspossibleexceptionsforthisproject.**Nospecialexceptionsapply,so

minimumrequirements19oftheHRMstatesthatnewpollutiongeneratingimpervioussurfacemustprovide

waterqualitytreatmentmeetingthestatedperformancegoalsforbasicandenhancedtreatment.

6. CalculatethePredevelopedandDevelopedRunoffAreas***

Acontinuousmodelingsoftwaretoolwasusedtocalculatethetotalareaintherightofway(ROW)andthetributaryareasprovidingrunonintoprojectstormwatertreatmentfacilities.SeeTableEW3.6.

TableEW3.6:Totalpredevelopedanddevelopedrunoffarea

SubbasinNumber TotalArea(Acres)

Predeveloped Developed

Subbasin1 0.770 23.850

Subbasin2 0.770 0.770

7. CalculatePredevelopmentFlowrate

Predevelopmentflowratewascomputedusinga2yearrecurrenceintervalforonsite(0.016cfs)andoffsite

flows(2.640cfs).

8. CalculatePostConstructionRunoffVolume

ThetotalinflowvolumetoprojectstormwatertreatmentfacilitiesfromSubbasin1wascomputedtobe5549

acrefeet.TherewasnochangeinrunoffareafromSubbasin2.

9. IdentifyTypesofStormwaterBestManagementPractices(BMPs)ToBeUsed

Fivesubsurfacebiorentionsystems(treeboxfilters)****wereselectedbytheprojectteamfortreating

stormwaterrunoffandrunon.SeeFigureEW3.1.

10. SelectLocationsBMPsandComputeTreatmentLevelsforStormwaterVolumes

Theweightedaverageannualtreatmentforwaterqualityontheprojectwas93.1%forrunoffandrunon.See

TableEW3.7forcomputations.

TableEW3.7:Runoffareatreatedbythetreeboxfilters

AreaExtents Area(ac) Infiltration*(%)

Station160+50to102+73(northhalf) 0.244 91.4

Station160+50to102+73(southhalf) 0.284 91.1

Station108+50to160+50(south) 0.183 94.9

Station102+73toStation100+00(south) 0.236 95.4

Station102+73toStation100+00(north) 0.241 93.5

WeightedAverage 93.1

Notes:*Thesefiguresmakeupadecisiontreeusedtoguidetheengineerintheapplicableminimumrequirementswhendesigningastormwatermanagementfacilitybasedonknownsurfaceareas,relativeperviousness,andpollutiongeneratingcapacity.**Generally,iftheamountofimpervioussurfacesisgreaterthanaspecifiedminimumvalue,certainrequirementsmustbeappliedtothatimpervioussurface.Thesevaluesarecalled“minimumrequirements.”

***ThiscalculationandthefollowingcalculationswerecompletedusingtheWesternWashingtonHydrologyModel(WWHM),acontinuousmodelingsoftwaretool.****Thesetreatmentsystemshaveunderdrainsinplacethatbypassexcessrunoffintoadetentionvaultduringhigherintensityevents.

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Runoff Quality EW-3

FigureEW3.1:Treeboxfilterschematic

(http://www.ladstudios.com/LADsites/Sustainability/Strategies/images/treeboxModel.jpg)

Example: Streetside Bioswale

InstalledaspartoftheStreetEdgeAlternatives(SEAStreet)ProjectbytheCityofSeattle,thebioswalepictured

belowinFigureEW3.2isanexampleofastructuralstormwatercontrolforwaterqualitytreatment.ThebioswalesonSEAStreetsuccessfullymitigate98%oftherainyseasonstormwaterand100%ofthedryseasonwater.Thisdetentionbasedapproachachievesqualitytreatmentprimarilythroughcontrolofflowvolumes

andinfiltration.Additionally,therearesixdetentionfacilitieswhichallowforatreatmenttrainforanystormwaterthatenterstheconventionalinfrastructure.Qualitytreatmentisprovidedbyplantuptakeand

compostamendedsoilsthathelptreatstreetrunoffandremoveheavymetals.AvirtualtourofSEAStreetisavailableathttp://www2.cityofseattle.net/util/tours/seastreet/slide1.htm.MoreinformationaboutSeattle’s

NaturalDrainageSystemprogram(includingotherprojects)isalsoavailableat:http://www.seattle.gov/util/About_SPU/Drainage_&_Sewer_System/GreenStormwaterInfrastructure/Natural

DrainageProjects/index.htm

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EW-3 Runoff Quality

FigureEW3.2:Awellestablishedvegetatedswale(“bioswale”)thatusescompostamendedsoilandnoflow

controldevicesorstructures.Residentialstreettoright.Seattle,WA.(PhotobyJ.Anderson)

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Actualwaterqualitymaybedifficulttomodelandmaybedifferentthandesigned.Thiscreditdoesnotrequire

monitoringtobeinplacetoverifypollutantremovalsareachievedatthistime.

2. Longtermperformancedataformanylowimpactdevelopmentmethodsusedforqualitycontrolarenotavailableforroadwayprojectsorlackconsistency.Forexample,casestudiesofgrassedswalesinthelate1990s

performedbytheFederalHighwayAdministrationshowedqualityandquantitybenefitsbutdatawerenot

collectedconsistently.(EPA,2000)

3. Detentionpondsarenotallowedexceptwithintherightofway.Adiscussionofthereasoningforthisis

providedinCreditEW2.

4. Infiltrationpracticesarenotrecommendedwheregroundwatercontaminationisaconcern.

5. Heavyprecipitationandhighpeakfloweventscanwashpollutantsoutofsometreatmentsystems.

6. Maintenanceandmonitoringareimperativeforthesuccessofawaterqualitytreatmentprogram.

7. Continuousmodelingcanbetimeintensiveandexpensive.However,thereareavarietyofsoftwareprograms

availabletomodelpollutantloadings.

RESEARCH

ThisGreenroadscreditprimarilyaddresseschangestochemicalconcentrationsofwaterofwatershedsbasedon

chemicalscollectedonroadwaysandpassedintoreceivingwaterbodiesbystormwaterrunoff.Allbest

managementpracticesthataddressflowcontrolalsoaddresswaterquality(Quigleyetal.,2009);however,Credit

EW2RunoffFlowControladdressesphysicalrunoffmanagementpractices.BiologicalintegrityofreceivingwatersisaddressedbyCreditEW6HabitatRestoration.

ExistingLiteratureforRoadwayStormwaterQuality

Therelationshipbetweenstormwaterrunoffqualityandroadwaysasapollutantgeneratoriswelldocumented

(MaestreandPitt,2005;Strecker,Mayo,Quigley,andHowell,2001;Clarkeetal.,2007;Huberet.al.,2006;

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency:EPA,2007;Shoemaker,Lahlou,DollandCazenas,2002;EPA,2000).Clarkeetal.

(2007)providesanannotatedbibliographyofallstormwaterliteraturebetween1996and2006foralltypesof

urbanrunoffpractices,includingabrief(fivepages)reviewofliteraturefor“highwaysandotherroads.”The

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Runoff Quality EW-3

NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)Report565(Huberetal.2006)providesanother

excellentreferencespecificallyrelevantforroadwaysusinglowimpactdevelopmentapproachesforstormwater

qualitymanagement(andflowcontrol)inahighwayenvironment.Thereaderisreferredtothesedocumentsfor

moredetailedinformation.Abriefintroductionofroadwaywaterqualityissuesispresentedbelow,includingan

overviewofstormwatertreatmentobjectives,terminology,impactsandtypesofpollutantsandsome

recommendedLIDcontrolsforrunofftreatment.

WhatisNonPointSourcePollution?

TheEPAidentifiesroadways,intheiroperationalphases,asnonpointsourcepollutiongenerators,whichmeans

thatthesourceofthepollutantsisdiffuse(EPA,2010a).Nonpointsourcerunoffcomesfromrainorsnowmeltthatwashesoversurfaces,collectingandtransportingparticles,whichvaryinhumanandenvironmentaltoxicity,

intoreceivingbodiesofwater.Pollutantsarecollectedonimpervioussurfacesthroughavarietyofprocessessuchastirewear,erosionofpavementsurfacesandembankments,atmosphericdepositionandroutinemaintenanceof

roadways.TheregulatoryframeworkthatgovernsnonpointsourcepollutionintheU.S.includes(Shoemaker,

Lahlou,Doll,andCazenas,2002):

x NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)

x CleanWaterAct:NationalPollutantDischargeEliminationSystem(NPDES)

x CleanWaterAct:NonpointSourcePollutionControlProgram

x CoastalZoneActReauthorizationAmendments(CZARA)

x Otherstateandlocalregulatoryrequirements.

WaterQualityTreatmentObjectives

Theprimaryconcernswithnonpointsourcerunoffaregenerationandtransportofpollutants,habitat

degradation,habitatloss,lossofbiodiversity,andpreservationofbeneficialuse(suchasdrinkingwatersupplies)

(EPA,2010a;Southerland,1994)Federalguidanceisintendedtomeetthefollowingobjectives(EPA,2005)

x Protectsensitiveecosystems,includingwetlandsandestuaries,byminimizingroadandbridgerelated

impactsandwatercrossings,andbyestablishingprotectivemeasuresincludingsetbacksduring

construction

x Reducetherunoffofpollutantsthroughtheuseandpropermaintenanceofstructuralcontrols

x Reducethegenerationofpollutantsfrommaintenanceoperationsbyminimizingtheuseofpesticides,herbicides,fertilizers,anddeicingsaltsandchemicals

x Reducethegenerationandrunoffofpollutantsduringhighwayandbridgerepairoperationsbydecreasing

theuseofhazardousmaterialsandincorporatingpracticestopreventspillageintosensitiveareas.

ManystateshavewaterqualityobjectivesthatalignwithfederalregulatorycompliancewiththeCleanWaterActandintendtoprotectstatewaterresources.SomeexamplesfromtheWashingtonStateDepartment(WSDOT)

HighwayRunoffManual(2008)are:

x Preventpollutionofstatewatersandprotectwaterquality,includingcompliancewithstatewaterquality

standards.

x Satisfystaterequirementsforallknownavailableandreasonablemethodsofprevention,control,and

treatmentofwastespriortodischargetowatersofthestate.x Satisfythefederaltechnologybasedtreatmentrequirementsunder40CFRPart125.3.

WaterQualityTreatmentTerminology

Nonpointsourcepollutioncanbemanagedthroughavarietyof“structural”and“nonstructural”controls.These

aretypicallyreferredtoas“bestmanagementpractices”(BMPs)or“integratedmanagementpractices”(IMPs),

andsometimessimplyas“stormwatercontrols”or“stormwatercontrolmeasures”(SCM)(Quigleyetal.2009).For

thepurposesofGreenroads,thetermBMPisused,asarethedefinitionsofstructuralandnonstructuralcontrols

providedbytheInternationalStormwaterBestManagementPracticesDatabase(ibid.)AstormwaterqualityBMP

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Runoff Quality EW-3

TableEW3.8:VaryingDefinitionsofStormwaterTreatmentControlsinSelectGuidanceDocuments

Source StructuralControl NonStructuralControl

2009LEED™Rating

System(USGBC,2009)

“Structuralmeasures,suchasrainwater

cisterns,manholetreatmentdevicesand

pondscanbeusedtoremovepollutants

fromrunofffromimperviousareasand

sometimesreusethewaterforirrigationorbuildingflushfixtures….Structural

measuresarepreferredonurbanor

constrainedsitesandmakeitpossibleto

effectivelycleantherunoffwithminimal

spaceallocationandlanduse.For

existingsiteswithgreaterthan50%

imperviousness,structuraltechniques

mayincluderestorationandrepairof

deterioratedstormsewers,orseparation

ofcombinedsewers.”

“Nonstructuralstrategies,suchas

vegetatedswales,disconnectionof

imperviousareas,andpervious

pavement,canbeusedtoinfiltrateand

limitrunoff.Inthesecasesyouare‘capturingandtreating’runoffby

allowingittonaturallyfilterintothesoil

andvegetation.Pollutantsarebroken

downbymicroorganismsinthesoiland

theplants….Nonstructuralmethodsare

oftenpreferredbecausetheymaybeless

costlytoconstructandmaintainandthey

helprechargegroundwatersupplies.”

2009SustainableSites

Initiative

Notexplicitlydefined Not explicitly defined

2009NationalHighway

Institute/FederalHighway

AdministrationUrban

DrainageManual

“…theseengineereddevicesaretypically

structuralandaremadeonaproduction

lineinafactory.”

Vegetativepracticessuchasgrassed

swales,filterstripsandwetlands“are

nonstructuralBMPsandaresignificantly

lesscostlythanstructuralcontrols”

2002FederalHighway

Administration

StormwaterBest

ManagementPracticesin

anUltraUrbanSetting

(Shoemaker,Lahlou,Doll

andCazenas)

Infiltrationtechnologies,includingbioretention,pondsandpond/wetland

combinations,enhancedtreatmentsystems,filteringsystems,vegetated

swalesandfilterstrips,waterquality

inlets,porouspavements

Streetsweeping,sourcecontrols

2009StormwaterBMP

MonitoringManual

(Quigleyetal.2009),

Greenroads

“StructuralBMPsincludeavarietyof

practicesthatrelyonawiderangeof

hydrologic,physical,biological,and

chemicalprocessestoimprovewater

qualityandmanagerunoff.

“NonstructuralBMPssuchaseducation

andsourcecontrolordinancestypically

dependonacombinationofbehavioral

changeandenforcement.”

ImpactsofPollutantsinRoadwayRunoff

Fewstormwaterqualitymanagementapproachesconsidertheaggregateandsystemicimpactstothefullreachofawatercourse,letalonethewatershed(Wilcock,PitlickandCui,2009).AsdiscussedinCreditEW2RunoffFlow

Control,impervioussurfacesaredirectlyrelatedtorunoffvolumes.Thesevolumesofrunoffcarrypollutantsintoreceivingwaterbodies,suchasriversandstreams,bays,wetlandsandoceanenvironments.TilleyandSlonecker

(2006)determinedthatimperviousnessaslowasonepercentcancauseanaquaticecosystemareatobelabeledas“stressed”andupto25%imperviousnesscancause“irreversibleenvironmentaldegradation.”Theyalsoshow

thatroadsandsidewalkscompriseupto33%oftheimperviousareainaveragesuburbanandurbanenvironments,whileinruralenvironments,nearlyalloftheimperviousareaisduetoroadways(MaestreandPitt,2005).The

pollutantsgeneratedfromroadwaysinareasofexistingwatershedimpairmentaremonitoredandmanagedby

waterqualityprogramsthroughtheEPAorauthorizedstateorlocalagencies.

TotalMaximumDailyLoadsandRoads

TheEPAgathersstatisticsonwaterqualityforavarietyofwaterbodiesaspartoftheongoingwaterquality

programcalledAssessmentTotalMaximumDailyLoad(TMDL)TrackingandImplementationSystem(ATTAINS),

whichisregulatedthroughsections305(b)and303(d)oftheCleanWaterAct(EPA,2009b).Reportingisrequiredfromstateswithnonattainmentwaterbodies(thoseexceedingtheirTMDLs)everytwoyearsuntil

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EW-3 Runoff Quality

attainmentisreachedforeachassessedpollutant(EPA,2009a).RoadwaysarepartofTMDLcomputationsas

theyareconsideredtobenonpointcontributorsofpollution(theyarecountedaspartofthetotalload

allocationforeffluent)–thecontributionisbasedontotalcontributingareaorlengthinawatershed.Table

EW3.9wasconstructedfromthecurrentTMDLstatisticslistedintheATTAINSdatabase.Forexample,ofthe

26%oftheassessedmileageofU.S.riversandstreamsreceivingroadwayrunoff,over50%areconsidered

impairedandthreatened.Impairedwaterbodiesarethosethathavenotmetthequalitycriteriaforoneor

moreofitsassessedbeneficialuses,whereasthreatenedwaterbodiesmeetallassessedbeneficialusesbutdemonstrateanapparentdeclineinwaterquality(EPA,2008).

AccordingtoATTAINS,somestateshavereportedroadwaysasadirectprobablecauseofimpairment(notincludingthreatenedwaters)forreceivingstreamsandrivers.Roadsandroadconstructionactivitiesare

probablydirectlyresponsibleforabout3.4%oftheassessedimpairedwaters.However,theimpactofroadwaysismuchgreaterthanthisfigureindicates.Asdiscussedinthepreviouscredit(EW2RunoffFlow

Control),runoffgeneratedonimpervioussurfacessuchasroadwaysandbridgescancausedegradationof

habitat,lossofwetlandhabitat,clearingofvegetationandmanyotheractivitiesassociatedwith

hydromodification.Manyoftheseimpactsresultfromorareotherwiseindirectlyrelatedtoroadway

constructionanduse.WhilenotallriversandstreammilesintheU.S.wereassessed,theseindirecthabitatand

ecosystemchangesassociatedwithroadwaypotentiallyrepresentanadditional20%ofthetotalimpairments

inassessedriversandstreams.Thediffuseimpactsduetoroadwaydevelopmentcouldbeupto56%forbays

andestuaries.TheseTMDLstatisticslikelyincludeseveraldifferentnonpointsources;however,manydatawerealsonotreported(denotedas“NA”inTableEW3.9).Forexample,ATTAINSincludesadditional

informationoncoastalandnearcoastalwatersandshorelines,butthereisextremelylimiteddatafor

roadwaysandtheindirectactivitiesnoted;thesewereomittedfromthetable.

WhenPollutionisWorst

MaestreandPitt(2005)showedthatstreetsinurbanareasgenerateapproximately2050%oftheinitialrunoffup

tohalfaninch,whichisoftencalledthe“firstflush”event.PrinceGeorge’sCounty(PGC:1999)explainsthe

conceptofthe“firstflush,”whichis“thefirsthalfinchofrunofffromanimpervioussurface[thatis]expectedto

carrywithmostofthepollutantloadassociatedwithstormwater.Intermsofatypicalstormhydrograph,the“first

flush”representsasmallportionofastorm’stotaldischarge,butalargerpercentageofthetotalloadingfora

particularcontaminant.”ThishypothesiswasinvestigatedbystatisticalanalysisoftheNationalStormwaterQuality

DatabasebyMaestreandPitt(2005),whoshowedthatwhilepeakpollutantconcentrationsoccuroftenwithpeakflows,onsmallareasofpavementwithsmallorlocalizeddrainagefacilitiesitislikelythattherewillbeafirstflush

whereconcentrationspeakearlyduetothewashingawayofmostpollutantswithinitialrainfall.However,at

largerscalesandhigherrainfall,andwithmorecomplexdrainagesystems,thepollutantloadislesslikelytobe

detectedintermsofstatisticallysignificantconcentrationdifferences.ThissuggeststhatLIDmethods,whichare

small,decentralizedandefficientattreatingthefirsthalfinchofrunoff,maybeappropriateforroadsandmay

alsohelpagenciesmeetrequirementsforTMDLattainmentlevels(Huberetal.,2006,PGC,1999).

165




Runoff Quality EW-3

TableEW3.9:NationalProbableSourceGroupsContributingtoWaterBodyImpairmentsDuetoRoadsand

BridgesBasedonwaterbodyassessmentdatafromtheNationalSummaryofStateInformation.(EPA,2010b)

WaterBodyRivers&

Streams

Lakes,Reservoirs

&Ponds

Bays&

EstuariesWetlands

(unit) (mi) (ac) (mi2) (ac)

TotalU.S.Waters 3,533,205 41,666,049 87,791 107,700,000

TotalAssessedWaters 933,384 17,576,176 18,444 2,051,861PercentofU.S.WatersAssessed 26.4% 42.2% 21.0% 1.9%

PercentofImpairedAssessedWaters 49.6% 66.0% 63.7% 36.4%

GoodWaters 464,428 5,928,815 6,687 1,304,892

ThreatenedWaters 6,355 47,330 17 805

ImpairedWaters 462,601 11,600,032 11,740 746,163

TotalAssessedImpairedWatersDirectlyor

IndirectlyAttributabletoRoads/Bridges/Highways23.3% 5.8% 55.8% 14.6%

DIRECT CAUSESOFIMPAIRMENT

Urbanrelatedrunoffprobablesourcegroup

Highway/road/bridgerunoff(nonconstruction) 7,712 18,705 2 NA

Constructionprobablesourcegroup

Highway/road/bridgeinfrastructure 6,591 100,796 NA NA

Forestryprobablesourcegroup

Forest&loggingroads(constructionanduse) 1,273 NA NA NA

DirectlyAssessedProbableImpairmentfrom

Roads/Bridges/Highways3.4% 1.0% 0% 0%

INDIRECT CAUSESOFIMPAIRMENT

Habitatalterations(notdirectlyrelatedtohydromodification)probablesourcegroup

Lossofriparianhabitat 11,028 4,506 2,091 NA

Removalofvegetation 389 NA NA NA

Hydromodificationprobablesourcegroup

Channelerosion/incisionfromupstream

hydromodifications

723 NA NA NA

Channelization(includinglinedchannels) 19,380 31,925 NA 220

Cleansediments 1,132 NA 1,916 NA

Erosion&siltation 12,520 2,300 2 NA

Flowalterationsfromwaterdiversions 3,038 27,510 NA 1,000

Flowregulation/modification 199 NA NA NA

Hydromodification 17,660 302,373 607 98,412

Postdevelopmenterosion&sedimentation 1,369 16,185 NA NA

Sedimentresuspension 563 101,420 1,918 965

Streambankmodifications/destabilization 10,227 63,721 NA 8,491

Transferofwaterfromanoutsidewatershed 252 73 NA NA

Upstreamimpoundment 8,122 7,647 13 NA

Waterdiversions 5,537 NA NA 75IndirectlyAssessedProbableImpairmentfrom

Roads/Bridges/Highways19.9% 4.8% 55.8% 14.6%

Notes:NAmeansNotAssessed,NotAvailableorNotApplicable.NotallwatersinU.S.havebeenassessed.Coastalwaters,nearshorelines,andoceanshadnodataforroadwaysorlistedindirectcauses.Forestclearing,wetlandalterations,andminingandresourceextractionactivitiesarenotincludedinthistable.Someentrieshavebeenaggregatedwheremultipleentriesusedsametitleindatabaseundersameprobablesourcegroupheadings.Indirectcausesofimpairmentrepresentaggregateddataforallpotentialsourcegroups.Statisticsbasedonaggregateddatacollectedfromallreportingstates.

166




EW-3 Runoff Quality

CommonPollutantsandSources

Themostcommontypesofpollutantsfoundinroadwayrunoffaresediment(totalsuspendedsolids:TSSandtotal

dissolvedsolids:TDS),heavymetals,hydrocarbons(oilsandgrease),andpathogens.Concentrationsofthese

pollutantsvarywidelydependingontrafficloads,environmentalsettingandlanduse.Forexample,Huberetal.

(2006)showedthatTSSisgenerallygreaterforhigheraveragedailytraffic(ADT)loads.TSSconcentrations

averagedabout172mg/Landhadawidespreadrangefromaslowas2mg/L(Interstate205inVancouver,

Washington:17x103

ADT)toashighas8735mg/L(Interstate10inBatonRouge,Louisiana:78x103

ADT).

SomecommonroadwaypollutantsareshowninTableEW3.10andtheirpotentialconcentrationsinTableEW

3.11below.

TableEW3.10:Commonconstituentsandsourcesofroadrunoff(Shoemaker,Lahlou,Doll,andCazenas,2002)

Constituent Source

Particulates Pavementwear,vehicles,atmosphericdeposition,maintenanceactivities

Nitrogen,Phosphorus Atmosphericdepositionandfertilizerapplication

Lead Leadedgasolinefromautoexhaustsandtirewear

Zinc Tirewear,motoroil,andgrease

Iron Autobodyrust,steelhighwaystructuressuchasbridgesandguardrails,andmoving

engineparts

Copper Metalplating,bearingandbrushingwear,movingengineparts,brakeliningwear,

fungicidesandinsecticides

Cadmium Tirewearandinsecticideapplication

Chromium Metalplating,movingengineparts,andbrakeliningwear

Nickel Dieselfuelandgasoline,lubricatingoil,metalplating,bushingwear,brakelining

wear,andasphaltpaving

Manganese Movingengineparts

Cyanide Anticakingcompoundsusedtokeepdeicingsaltsgranular

Sodium,Calcium,Chloride Deicingsalts

Sulphates Roadwaybeds,fuel,anddeicingsalts

Petroleum Spill, leaks,antifreezeandhydraulicfluids, andasphaltsurfaceleachate

TableEW3.11:Commonconstituentsandsourcesofroadrunoff(Shoemaker,Lahlou,Doll,andCazenas,2002;

EPA,2005;adaptedinthesesourcesfromBarrettetal.1995)

Parameter Concentration(mg/L,unlessnoted)

TotalSuspendedSolids(TSS) 45798

VolatileSuspendedSolids(VSS) 4.379

TotalOrganicCarbon(TOC) 2477

ChemicalOxygenDemand(COD) 14.7272

BiochemicalOxygenDemand(BOD) 12.737

Nitrate+Nitrite(NO3+NO2) 0.151.636

TotalKjeldahlNitrogen(TKN) 0.33555.0

TotalPhosphorusasP 0.1130.998

Copper(Cu) 0.0227.033

Lead(Pb) 0.0731.78

Zinc(Zn) 0.0560.929

Fecalcoliform 50590 (organisms/100ml)

OtherQualityConcerns:TemperatureandTurbidity

Temperatureandturbidityaretwoothercommonmeasuresofwaterquality.Temperature,whichis

technicallyaphysicalcharacteristicofwater,isusuallyincludedinqualitymeasurementsasanindicatorof

biologicalimpacts,especiallyinsensitiveaquatichabitatssuchasriparianareas(Hinman,2005).Turbidity,or

167




EW-3 Runoff Quality

x CurrentperformancedataonqualitycontrolforLIDBMPsisavailableattheInternationalBMPDatabase:

http://www.bmpdatabase.org.Theyalsotrackcostdataasitisvolunteeredalongwithsubmissions.

GLOSSARY


ADT AveragedailytrafficBiodiversity Totalnumberofspeciespresent

Biologicalintegrity Theabilitytosupportandmaintainabalanced,integratedadaptive

assemblageoforganismshavingspeciescomposition,diversity,andfunctionalorganizationcomparabletothatofnaturalhabitatoftheregion

(KarrandDudley,1981).


BMPDB InternationalBMPDatabase(http://www.bmpdatabase.org)

Detention Theprocessofholdinganddelayingrunoffwithacontrolledrelease


Erosion Surfacewearingduetophysicalprocessessuchaswater,windandheat


Flowcontrol Managementofrunoffvolumephysicalcharacteristicsincludingpeakflowsandtimeofconcentration

Hydromodification alterationofthehydrologiccharacteristicsofcoastalandnoncoastalwaters,

whichinturncouldcausedegradationofwaterresources(EPA,2007)

IMP Integratedmanagementpractice

Impairedwaterbody Bodiesofwaterthathavenotmetthewaterqualitycriteriaforoneormore

ofitsassessedbeneficialusesbasedonTMDL(EPA,2008)

Impervioussurface ahardsurfaceareathateitherpreventsorretardstheentryofwaterintothe

soilmantleorcauseswatertorunoffthesurfaceingreaterquantitiesorat




LA Loadallocation(usedtocomputeTMDL),nonpointsourcesLEED LeadershipinEnergyandEnvironmentalDesign™

Lowimpactdevelopment abroadcollectionofengineeredcontrols,stormwatermanagementfacilities,

andotherlanddevelopmentBMPsthatattempttomimicpredevelopment

hydrologicconditionsbyemphasizinginfiltration,evapotranspiration,or


Nonpointsource Adiffusegeneratorofpollutionorcontaminants

Nonstructuralcontrol BMPsthatdependonbehavioralchangeandenforcement(Quigleyetal.,

2009)

Reach Thelengthofariverorstreambetweenriverbends

Retention Theprocessofholdingrunoff,ideallynoreleaseoccursandallrunoffis

infiltratedorevaporated

SSI SustainableSitesInitiativeStructuralcontrol BMPsthatuseawiderangeofhydrologic,physical,biological,andchemical

processestoimprovewaterqualityandmanagerunoff.

TDS Totaldissolvedsolids

Threatenedwaterbody BodiesofwaterthathavemetallrelevantwaterqualitycriteriaforitsassessedbeneficialusesbasedonTMDLbutdemonstrateanapparent

declineinwaterquality(EPA,2008)

TMDL Totalmaximumdailyload

169




Runoff Quality EW-3

SustainableSitesInitiative.(2009).GuidelinesandPerformanceBenchmarks.AmericanSocietyofLandscape


Garden.

Tilley,J.S.,&Slonecker,E.T.(2006).Quantifyingthecomponentsofimpervioussurfaces.Reston,Va:U.S.

GeologicalSurvey.



WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2008).HighwayRunoffManual.[M3116.01]

WashingtonDepartmentofTransportationEnvironmentalandEngineeringPrograms,DesignOffice.Olympia,WA:WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation.Availableat

http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Environment/WaterQuality/Runoff/HighwayRunoffManual.htm

Wilcock,P.R.,Pitlick,J.,&Cui,Y.(2009).SedimenttransportprimerEstimatingbedmaterialtransportingravel

bedrivers.FortCollins,CO:U.S.Dept.ofAgriculture,ForestService,RockyMountainResearchStation.

WrightWaterEngineersandGeosyntecConsultants(2007).FrequentlyAskedQuestionsFactSheetforthe

InternationalStormwaterBMPDatabase:WhydoestheInternationalStormwaterBMPDatabaseProjectomitpercentremovalasameasureofBMPperformance?AccessedJanuary15,2010.Availableat

http://www.bmpdatabase.org

172




EW-4 Stormwater Cost Analysis

STORMWATER COST ANALYSISGOAL

Determinelifecyclecostsandsavingsassociatedwithlowimpactdevelopment

techniquesandbestmanagementpracticesforstormwaterutilities.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Conductalifecyclecostanalysis(LCCA)forstormwaterutilitiesaccordingtothe

NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)Report565:Evaluationof

BestManagementPracticesforHighwayRunoffControlGuidelinesManual.

NCHRPReport565canbeaccessedatthefollowinglink:

http://144.171.11.107/Main/Blurbs/Evaluation_of_Best_Management_Practices_for_

Highwa_158397.aspx

TheGuidelinesManualisavailabletodownloadasaCDimagefile(*.iso).Thisfilecan

beburnedtoaCDandthenviewedasaPDF.

Details

Note:ThiscreditisapplicableonlyforprojectswherePR8hasidentifiedthatlow

impactdevelopmenttechnologiesareappropriateforimplementationfor

stormwatermanagement.

DOCUMENTATION

ProvideacopyoftheLCCAspreadsheetshowingthefinalresultsofthecostanalysis

andhighlightingthefinalalternativechosen.Theresultsmustshow,atminimum,that

thefollowingcriteriahavebeenaddressed:

x Expectedservicelifex Constructioncosts

x Maintenancecosts

x Interestrate

x Salvagevalue

x Estimatedannualcostofthestormwatermanagementsystem

EW-4

1 POINT

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR2LifecycleCost

Analysis

9 PR7Pollution

PreventionPlan

9 PR8LowImpact

Development

9 PR10SiteMaintenancePlan

9 EW2RunoffFlow

Control

9 EW3RunoffQuality

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Economy

9 Extent

9 Expectations

9 Exposure

BENEFITS

9 Improves

Accountability

9 ReducesLifecycle

Costs

9 CreatesNew

Information

173




EW-4 Stormwater Cost Analysis

Next,byannualizingthisvalueusingEquationEW4.3,itcanbeshownthattheannualcostforthenew

stormwatersystemwillbe$666.14peryearfora30yearlifetime.

EquationEW4.3:

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Complexityofthecostanalysiswillbeproportionaltotheextentandlaborinvolvedininstallingthestormwaterutilitiessystem.

2. LCCAdoesnotnecessarilyreflecttheactualcostorfunctionalityofthefinishedstormwatersystem.

RESEARCH

Manyagencies’projectevaluationprocessconsidersonlytheinitialcapitalcostsofprojectswithoutconsidering

longtermoperationsandmaintenance.Focusingonlyoncapitalcostsmakesitlesslikelythatprojectswilladopt

stormwatercontrolsthatmayhavehigherinitialcosts,butarelessexpensivetooperateandmaintaininthelong

term.Therearealsononmonetaryrisksandcostsassociatedwithstormwatersystemsthatarerelevantto

decisionmakingsuchaspermanentlandusechangesassociatedwithdetentionponds,acommonfeatureofconventionalstormwaterinfrastructure.

Overallcapitalandmaintenancecostsarenottheonlycoststhatshouldbeinvolvedinthelifecyclecostassessment.Thecostofactuallytreatingthestormwatershouldbeincludedaswell.Preliminaryestimatesin

NCHRPReport565showthatthecostoftreatingstormwatercanvaryfrom$0.10to$3.00pergallonbasedonthe

treatmentmethodology(Huberet.al,2006).

Drasticchangestostormwatersystemscanaffectbothwaterqualityandflowrates.Evaluatingbothinalifecycle

costanalysisaswellasawaterqualityanalysiscanbeaneffectivemethodofdesignevaluation.Thedesignteam

shouldensurethattheoverallgoalsofthestormwatersystemarenotgeneratedspecificallyoncost,but

functionalityaswell(Huberet.al.,2006).Otherpossiblefactorstoconsiderindesignevaluationincludeexisting

infrastructure,propertyownership,healthandsafety,andvolumereduction(Huberet.al,2006).

Casestudiesof17lowimpactdevelopmentinstallationsforstormwaterflowcontrolandqualitymanagement

werecompletedbytheEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyin2007.ResultsofthestudyshowedthatapplyingLID

techniquesusuallyreducedprojectcostsandhadtheaddedbenefitofimprovedenvironmentalperformance(for

bothflowcontrolandqualityofdischarge).Insomecases,LIDwasmoreexpensivethanconventionalbest

managementpractices,dueinparttocontractorunfamiliarity.Inmostcases,significantcapitalcostswere

reducedbyavoidinggrading,stormwaterinfrastructure,additionalpavingandvegetation.Savingsrangedfrom15

80percentwiththefewexceptionsmentioned(EPA,2007).

GLOSSARY

LCCA Lifecycle costanalysis

REFERENCES

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(2007).ReducingStormwaterCoststhroughLowImpactDevelopment(LID)

StrategiesandPractices.[PublicationNumberEPA841F07006,December2007

HuberW.C.,Strecker,E.W.,Heaney,J.P.,&Weinstein,N.(2006).EvaluationofBestManagementPracticesand

LowImpactDevelopmentforHighwayRunoffControlUser’sGuideforBMP/LIDSelectionGuidelinesManual.

NationalCooperativeResearchProgram.

175




Site Vegetation EW-5


UseaPreDefinedListofApprovedPlants

Inmanycasesthelocalroadowner(e.g.,City,County,Stateorotherauthority)alreadyhasapredefinedlistof

acceptableplantspeciesforsitevegetation.Usually,theselistshavebeencarefullydevelopedtoexcludeinvasive

plantsandnoxiousweeds;howevertheyshouldstillbecheckedagainstlocal/regionallistsandlaws.Oftentimes,

thesepredefinedlistsalsoidentifynativeplantsanddroughttolerantplants(e.g.,nowateruse).Followingsuchlistscanoftenachievethenoninvasivespeciespointandzerowaterusepoint.Selectingnativeplantsspecies

(whichmayalsobeidentifiedontheselists)canthenearnthethirdpoint.

Predefinedlistsareadvantageousbecausetheyarestraightforwardandeasytofollow;plantsareeitheronthe

listornot.However,whenusedalonetheymaynotprovideadequateguidanceonestablishinglongtermecosystemgoals,managementofsitevegetationafterplanting,appropriatelocationanddensityofvegetationand

othermoreadvancedconcepts.

FollowaPreDefinedProcess

Itmaybepossibletoidentifyasitevegetationprocessthathasbeenapprovedoradoptedbythelocalauthority.

Theseprocessestypicallyidentifythesitevegetationstrategyanddescribetheactionsandmajorstepsneededtoestablishsitevegetation.Theseplanscanbecomplex,suchasWesternFederalLandsHighwayDivision’sRoadside

Revegetation:AnIntegratedApproachtoEstablishingNativePlants(Steinfeldetal.2007)ormoregeneralinnaturelikeXeriscapeColorado(ColoradoWaterwise2009).

SustainableSitesInitiative

OnerobustpredefinedprocessisassociatedwiththeSustainableSitesInitiative(www.sustainablesites.org).

Thisis“aninterdisciplinaryeffort…tocreatevoluntarynationalguidelinesandperformancebenchmarksfor

sustainablelanddesign,constructionandmaintenancepractices.”(TheSustainableSiteInitiative2009c).A

roadwayprojectparticipatingintheSustainableSitesInitiativeprogramandrecognizedasa“sustainablesite”

wouldlikelyqualityforatleast1pointinthisVoluntaryCreditand,dependinguponwhichSustainableSites

creditbenchmarksareachieved,couldachieveall3points.Overall,theSustainableSitesInitiativeisamore

robustsetofbenchmarksforsitevegetationthanGreenroadsbecauseitsscopeislimitedtositedevelopmentanddoesnotincluderoadways,mobility,accessorothermetricsassociatedwithtransportation.

HaveanExpertDevelopaSiteSpecificVegetationStrategy

Intheabsenceofexistingguidance,itmaybenecessarytohaveanexpertdevelopanentirelynewsitespecific

vegetationplan.Whilethisisanacceptableoption,theexpertiseandtimetodeveloptheplancanbeexpensivein

relationtotheamountofsitevegetation;especiallyonsmallprojectswherevegetationislimited.Inadditionto

carefulselectionofappropriateplants,plandevelopmentrequiresconsiderationofplantingbedspecifications,

topsoilneeds,andplantingtechniques.Finally,longtermmaintenanceplansandgoalsmustbeestablishedforthe

plantcommunity.

Example: City of Portland, OR

TheCityofPortland’sBureauofPlanningandSustainabilityhasmaintainedaPortlandPlantList since1991.

Thislistincludes:

x Nativeplants.PlantshistoricallyfoundintheCityofPortland.Theyaregroupedbytype(tree,arborescent

shrubs,shrubsandgroundcovers)andincludethescientificname,commonname,andwetlandindicator

statusandhabitattype.

x Nuisanceplants.Plantsthatcanberemovedmanuallywithoutrequiringanenvironmentalreviewor

greenwayreview.Plantsareconsideredanuisancebecausetheyhaveatendencytodominateplantcommunitiesorareharmfultohumans.Nuisanceplantsmaybenative,exoticornaturalized.

x Prohibitedplants.Plantsprohibitedfromuseinallreviewedlandscapingsituations.Theseplantsposea

seriousthreattonativeplantandanimalhealth/vitality.

178





Ecological

Sitevegetationispartofthelocalecosystem.TheMillenniumEcosystemAssessment(2005)definesanecosystem

as“…adynamiccomplexofplant,animal,andmicroorganismcommunitiesandthenonlivingenvironment

interactingasafunctionalunit.”Thesecanbesystemsrelativelyuntouchedbyhumans(e.g.,naturalforests)or

thosethathavebeensignificantlymodified(e.g.,urbanareasandagriculturallands)(MEA2005).Inlookingat

ecosystemsoverthelast50yearstheMillenniumEcosystemAssessment(2005)arrivedatfourmajorfindings:

x Overthepast50yearshumanshavechangedecosystemsmorerapidlyandextensivelythaninanycomparableperiodofhumanhistory.

x Ecosystemchangeshavecontributedtosubstantialnetgainsinhumanwellbeingandeconomicdevelopment,

butthesegainsareattheexpenseofsubstantiallydiminishingthebenefitsthatfuturegenerationsobtainfrom

ecosystems.

x Thedegradationofecosystemservicescouldgrowsignificantlyworseduringthefirsthalfofthetwentyfirst

century.

x Reversingecosystemdegradationcanbedonebutinvolvessignificantchangesinpolicies,institutionsand

practicesthatarenotcurrentlyunderway.

Thus,totheextentthatsitevegetationhelpsmanageecosystemsmoresustainably,itcancontributepositively,

thoughperhapsonlyslightly,tothereversalofsomeofthedegradationseenoverthelast50years.Benefits

attributedtomoresustainablesitevegetationincludetheregionalandlocalimpactsoutlinedbelow(MEA2005):

Regional:

x Betterairquality

x Climateregulation

x Waterregulation

x Erosionregulation

x Waterquality

x Pestregulation

x Pollination

x Naturalhazardregulation

Local:x Lowerwateruse

x Reducederosion

x Preventionofexoticplantspeciesfromoutcompetenativespecies

x Bettersurvivabilityofsitevegetationbecauseitisbetteradaptedtothelocalenvironment(thoughplants

indigenoustothelocalecosystemarenotnecessarilysuitableforthealteredroadwayenvironment).

Economic

Aspartofthelocalecosystem,sitevegetationcan,inabroadsense,provideeconomicbenefitssuchascleanair,cleanwater,food,renewableresourcesandwastedecomposition(TheSustainableSitesInitiative,2009b).Itis

difficulttovalueecosystemservicesproperlybecause(1)ourattemptstovaluethemaregenerallybasedonhumanvaluesandnotwhatmightbeconsideredobjectivevaluesets,and(2)theyarenotfullyvaluedor

quantifiedincommercialmarketsorpolicydecisions(Costanzaetal.1997).Nonetheless,attemptshavebeenmadetovalueecosystemservicesthatcanprovideinsight.Costanzaetal.(1997)provideacomprehensive

overviewonthevalueoftheworld’secosystemservicesbasedonasynthesisofpreviouswork.Inshort,they

foundarangeofpotentialvaluesofUS$1654trillion/yrwithameanofUS$33trillion/yrfor17ecosystem

services(in1994USdollars).Thiscomparestoaworldgrossnationalproduct(GNP)ofUS$18trillion(1994US

dollars)makingecosystemservicesabout1.8timestheglobalGNPifthemeanvalueisassumed.Thisestimateis

basedonmarginalcostby“…determiningthedifferencesthatrelativelysmallchangesintheseservicesmaketo

humanwelfare.”(Costanzaetal.1997).Theyacknowledgethattheirestimatesareonthelowside,incomplete

andflawedbutreasonthatsomeestimateisbetterthannone(Costanzaetal.1997).

180





GLOSSARY

Nativeplant PlantthatisnativetotheEPALevelIIIecoregionthatcontainstheroadwayprojectsiteorknowntonaturallyoccurwithin200milesoftheroadway

constructionsite(SustainableSitesInitiative,2009a).

Plantestablishmentperiod Durationoftimethatallowsnewlyinstalledvegetationtoreachastateof

maturitythatrequiresminimalongoingmaintenanceforsurvival.Activitiesduringtheplantestablishmentperiodcaninclude:removalof

litterandtrash,weeding,waterapplication(evenfornonirrigated

vegetation),replacementofdeadplantsandpestcontrol(includingthe

useofapprovedpesticides).

Xeriscape Asetofgardeningprinciplesdesignedtosavewaterwhilecreatingalushand

colorfullandscape.

REFERENCES

ColoradoWaterwise.(2009). XeriscapeColorado.Website.AccessedNovember25,2009.http://coloradowaterwise.org//index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=88&Itemid=145.

Costanza,R.,d’Arge,R.,deGroot,R.,Farber,S.,Grasso,M.,Hannon,B.,Limburg,K.,Naeem,S.,O’Neill,R.V.,Paruelo,J.,Raskin,R.G.,Sutton,P.,vandenBelt,M.,(1997).Thevalueoftheworld’secosystemservicesand

naturalcapital.Nat.,387,253260.

MillenniumEcosystemAssessment(MEA),(2005).EcosystemsandHumanWellbeing:Synthesis.IslandPress,

Washington,DC.

SantaMonicaOfficeofSustainabilityandEnvironment.(2009).Landscape:DemonstrationGardens.Website.CityofSantaMonica,CA.AccessedNovember30,2009

http://www.smgov.net/Departments/OSE/Categories/Landscape/Demonstration_Gardens.aspx

Steinfeld,D.E.,Riley,S.A.,Wilkinson,K.M.,Landis,T.D.andRiley,L.E.(2007a).RoadsideRevegetation:An

IntegratedApproachtoEstablishingNativePlants.FHWAWFL/TD07005.FederalHighwayAdministration,

WesternFederalLandsHighwayDivision,Vancouver,WA.

Steinfeld,D.E.,Riley,S.A.,Wilkinson,K.M.,Landis,T.D.andRiley,L.E.(2007b). AManager’sGuidetoRoadside

RevegetationUsingNativePlants.FHWAWFL/TD07006.FederalHighwayAdministration,WesternFederal

LandsHighwayDivision,Vancouver,WA.

TheSustainableSitesInitiative.(2009a).GuidelinesandPerformanceBenchmarks.AmericanSocietyofLandscape


Garden.

TheSustainableSitesInitiative.(2009b).TheCaseforSustainableLandscapes.AmericanSocietyofLandscape


Garden.

182




EW-6 Habitat Restoration

HABITAT RESTORATIONGOAL

Offsetthedestructionanddeteriorationofnaturalhabitatcausedbyroad

construction.Restoreandprotectnaturalhabitatbeyondregulatoryrequirements.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

CompleteOptionAorB.

OptionA–Forprojectsrequiredtomitigatehabitatimpactsthroughrestorative

practices(3points)

Implementarestoration/preservationplanthatrestoresand/orpreservesmorearea

by5%beyondwhatisrequiredsuchthatoneofthefollowingmetricsbelowismet:

1. Totalareaofrestoredand/orpreservedhabitatequalsorexceeds105%oftotal

requiredmitigationarea

2. Totalrestorationand/orrestorationcostequalsorexceeds105%oftotalcost

requiredforrestoration/preservationduetotheroadwayproject

OptionBForprojectsnotrequiredtomitigatehabitatimpactsthroughrestorative

practices(3points)

Conductabiologicalassessmentofthepredevelopmentconditionoftheprojectsite

andsurroundingecosystemorwatershedandimplementarestorationplanthat

includesallsevenitemsbelow:

1. Restoresanareaequaltothetotaldisturbedsurfaceareaoftheroadwayproject.

2. Statesquantifiablegoalsregardingatleastoneoftheperformancemetricsoutlined

below.

3. Describesecologicaldesignorengineeringelementsthatareexpected,with

reasonableprofessionalcertainty,tomeetthegoalsstatedabove.

4. Listsresponsiblepartiesforrestorationactivitiesandsubsequentmonitoring

efforts.

5. Listssourcesoffundingforrestorationactivitiesandsubsequentmonitoring

efforts.

6. Completesrestorationactivitiespriortotheroadwayfacilityopenstotraffic,ideally

duringprojectplanning.

7. Issignedandapprovedbytheresponsiblepartiesortheprojectecologist.

Details

Disturbedsurfaceareaincludesallcutandfillsoilsforpavementareas,shoulders,

embankments,bridgeabutmentsandconstructionstagingareas.Inotherwords,

anyearthworkareathatisrequiredfortheroaditselfisincluded,butthearea

designatedforhabitatcreationorrestorationisnot.

Thetotalrequiredsurfaceareacanbemadeupofmultipletypesofrestorationand

preservationefforts,solongastheprojectteamcanshowthatthetotalrestored

andpreservedareasmeettheaboverequirements.

Preservedhabitatareasmaynotbepreviouslydesignatedopenspace.Preservation

designationsmustbedirectlyassociatedwiththeprojectandbeinplaceby40

EW-6

3 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 EW2RunoffFlow

Control

9 EW3RunoffQuality

9 EW5SiteVegetation

9 EW7Ecological

Connectivity

9 EW8LightPollution

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Equity

9 Extent

9 Experience

BENEFITS

9 RestoresHabitat

9 CreatesHabitat9 ReducesManmade

Footprint


183





x Usegeographicinformationsystems(GIS)mappingsoftwaretodeterminecalculationsfordisturbedand

restoredsurfaceareas.

x Anticipatethatrestorationactivitiestakeasignificantamountofthoughtfulplanning,andarebeststartedprior

totheconstructionoftheroadwayproject.

x Startacommunitystreammonitoringeffort.Mostbioindicatorspeciescanbeidentifiedbyamateursandthose

willingtolearnwellenoughtoestablishatleastafamilytaxonomiclevel.(UniversityofWashington,2001)

x Collaboratewithadjacentgoverningagenciestocreatemutuallybeneficial(andpotentiallymutuallyfunded)restorationprojectsinconjunctionwiththeroadway.

x Coordinatewithwaterresourcesprofessionalsearlyintheplanningphaseoftheprojecttodevelopandimplementawatershedmanagementplanintandemwithahabitatconservationplan(Brown,2006).Roadway

projectscanbeintegratedintobothtypesofplans,includingestablishingminimumgoalsfortreatmentofstormwaterimpactsonwaterqualityforreceivingwaterbodiesandpreservationofaquatichabitat.

x Avoidintroductionofinvasivespeciesthroughlandscapingactivities.SeealsoCreditEW5SiteVegetation.

Example: Off-Site Mitigation - Springbrook Creek Wetland & Habitat Mitigation Bank

TheSpringbrookCreekWetland&HabitatMitigationBankwasacombinationofwetlandenhancementand

restorationcovering130acresinRenton,Washington.Theseeffortswereaimedatmitigatingtheincreased

runoffcausedbyconstructionofadditionallanesonInterstate405andfutureregionaltransportationprojects,

aswellascreatingwildlifehabitat.Theprojectsiteislocatedinanareasurroundedbyheavydevelopmentandtwomajorfreeways.Anemphasiswasplacedontheplantingofalargevarietyandnumberofnativeplants,

enhancingtheattractivenessofthesitetolocalfauna.Inaddition,aboardwalkwasconstructedthroughthe

sitetoraisepublicawarenessoftheimportanceofwetlandhabitat.ConstructionwascompletedinJune,2009.

FiguresEW6.2andEW6.3showtherestoredwetlandandboardwalk,aswellaslocalwildlife.

Moreinformationonthisprojectisavailableat:http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/i405/Springbrook/

FigureEW6.2:GeesefamilyintheSpringbrookCreekwetland(PhotobyWSDOT)

185





2. Restoredorengineeredwetlandandhabitatareasmayfunctionwell,butplacementwithinalargelydeveloped

areacanseverelylimitinteractionofspecieswithinthesite.

3. Adjacenthabitatcaninfluencewhetheratargetspeciescanuseasitebecausemanyspeciesusemultiple

habitatsaspartoftheirlifecycle.Inparticular,mostlargespeciesalsodonotliveinonehabitatduringtheir

entirelife.

4. Habitatagecaninfluencethedegreetowhichspeciesuseanarea.Createdsitesarealwaysecologicallyyoung.

5. Completingrestorationactivitiesintandemwithroadwayconstructionmaynotbeoptimal.Mitigatingactivitiessuchasrestorationsoftenfunctionbestwhencompletedpriortothestartofconstructionsothatthe

newlymitigatedhabitatcanstabilizeandbefullyfunctional.Specificityofdesigndoesnotnecessarilydictate

successfulusebyparticularspeciesofwildlife.Detailedtargetingeffortsdonotalwayswork,evenifspecies

specificdesignfeaturesofahabitatareincorporated.

6. Duringthelifetimeofahabitat,alltargetedspeciesmayusethesite,butnotnecessarilyallatthesametime.

Monitoringexpectationsshouldthereforebesetaccordingly.

7. Somehabitatscannotbefullyrestoredtopredevelopmentconditions.

8. Lossofbiodiversityorspeciesdiversityisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,toreplace.

9. Manynewlyrestoredhabitats,especiallysensitiveorcriticalones,maynotfunctionasefficientlyoreffectively

asplannedandintended.Onlysomeofthefunctionsmaybesuccessfullyreplacedorimprovedartificially.

10. Plannersanddesignersshouldbetakentoavoidlocatingorcreatingpotentiallysensitivehabitatnearedges

andboundariesofroadwayprojects.Wherepossible,theroadwayclearzoneshouldbemaintainedtopreserve

safetyandvisibility.11. Monitoringanddatacollectioneffortsshouldbetiedtoperformancemetricsdeterminedduringtheplanning

stageofrestorationprojectstomakethemmeaningful.

RESEARCH

Naturalecosystemsprovideavarietyofimportantservicestobothhumanandnonhumanlife,andrelyonawide

arrayofcomplexinteractionstofunction.Inevitably,thechangeoflandusebyhumandevelopmentcandisrupt

thesedelicateprocesses,oreliminateimportantareasofecosystemaltogether.Habitatrestorationistheprocess

ofretainingthenaturalfunctionalityofagivenimpactedecosystem,throughlocalimprovementorthecreationof

analogousecosystemelsewhere.Inpractice,manyrestorationprojectsareaimedatrestoringwatershed

managementactivities,knownas“wetlandrestoration”.However,restorationcanapplytodamagednonaqueous

ecosystemsaswell,whicharenotalwaysregulatedtosimilarstandards.Whilerestorationeffortsareoften

orientedtowardsaparticularecosystemfunction,itisrecognizedthatecosystemsfunctionmosteffectivelyunder

naturalconditions(EPA,1994).Restorationisadelicateprocessrequiringsignificantknowledgeofthespecific

ecosystemathand,andmonitoringeffortsareusuallyrequiredtoensurethecontinuingsuccessofarestored

habitat.Legalmandates(primarilytheCleanWaterAct)andorpoliticaldirectivesgenerallydictatethetypeand

methodofmostwatershedrestorationprocesses,aswellasmonitoringrequirements.

RoadsandHabitatLoss

Roadsandhighwayscannegativelyimpactnaturalhabitatinanumberofways.Theseimpactshavetraditionally

beendividedintodestruction,fragmentation,anddegradationofhabitat(EPA,1994;Amentetal,2008).

Destructionreferstotheactualreplacementofhabitatbyroadwayplacement.Thisincludestheroadwayitselfas

wellasanysubstantiallyalteredcorridor.Fragmentationisthebreakingupofremaininghabitatandeliminationof

criticalmigrationpathways.Inaddition,fragmentationofhabitatareaincreasestheproportionof“edge”habitat

exposedtotheoutsideenvironment,whichcanhavesignificantlydifferentcharacteristicsfrominteriorhabitat(FuentesMontemayoretAl,2009).Degradationinvolvesdisturbancestosurroundinghabitatduetofactorssuch

asnoise,pollutantcontamination,andothersecondaryimpacts.Roadconstruction,forexample,canintroduce

invasivespecies,altersoilproperties,increaseerosion,etc.(FormanandAlexander,1998).

Aparticularlyimportantdegradationeffectofroadsisthecreationofpollutedrunoff.Asaresultoftherangeof

thesevariousimpacts,roadconstructiondisturbshabitatinanareamuchgreaterthantheactualroadway

corridor.BecauseroadscoverapproximatelyonepercentoftheUnitedStates,theirecologicaleffectshave

widespreadimpacts(FormanandAlexander,1998).

187




Habitat Restoration EW-6

TheImportanceofHabitatLoss

Naturalecosystemsprovideavarietyofimportantservicestobothhumanandnonhumanlife,andrelyonthe

presenceofsuitablehabitattofunction.Lossofhabitatdisruptstheimportantbenefitsoftheseecosystems.

Naturalprocesseshaveimportantfunctions:maintainingairandwaterquality,regulatingclimate,productionof

goods,andotherimportantprocesses(Wilson,2002).Theglobalvalueoftheseserviceshasbeenestimatedtobe

between16and54trilliondollarsannually(Constanzaetal,1997).

Inaroadwaysetting,preservationofsurroundinghabitatcanaidinstormwatercontrol,afunctionmade

increasinglyimportantbytheextrarunoffcreatedbytheroadwayitself(NCHRP,2006).Inaddition,habitat

destructionleadstothereductionofbiodiversity(Wilson,2002).SocietalacceptanceofthevalueofbiodiversityintheU.S.hasbeenexemplifiedexplicitlyinlegislationsuchastheEndangeredSpeciesAct(1973),whichstatesthat

“speciesoffish,wildlife,andplantsareofesthetic,ecological,educational,historical,recreational,andscientificvaluetotheNationanditspeople“.Inaddition,biodiversityisoftenconsideredaneconomicgoodbasedonits

importanceinscience,industry,andmedicine.Therefore,preservationofbiodiversityisvitaltobothtoecosystem

healthandhumanhealth(Wilson,2002).

PrecedentforRestoration

MostoftherequiredhabitatrestorationintheUnitedStatesismandatedbySection404oftheCleanWaterAct,

whichregulatesactivityinU.S.watersincludingwetlands.Toobtainapermitunderthisact,thedevelopermust

showthatmeasureshavebeentakentoavoidandreducewetlandimpacts,andthatanynecessaryimpactshavebeencompensatedfor(EPA,2009a).Habitatrestorationcanbeconsideredaformofcompensationthroughthe

creationofnewwetlandenvironments.Constructionofwetlandshasalsotraditionallybeenusedasa“bestmanagementpractice”foracquisitionofapermitundertheNationalPollutantDischargeEliminationSystem

(NPDES),whichisgenerallyrequiredbytheCleanWaterActwhenconstructionwillcausepollutantdischargeto

surfacewaters(NCHRP,2006).

Inaddition,habitatrestorationcanbeemployedtomeettherequirementsoftheEndangeredSpeciesAct.Actions

whichwouldcauseincidentalharmtoaconservedspecies(includinghabitatloss)requiresubmittalofaHabitat

ConservationPlan(HCP).TheseHCP’smustshowthat“theapplicantwill,tothemaximumextentpracticable,

minimizeandmitigatetheimpactsofthetaking”.Similartotheprovisionsofthecleanwateract,restorationof

previouslydisturbedhabitatcansatisfyrequirementsformitigationefforts.(U.S.FWS,2009)

BrownfieldRestoration

Thetermbrownfieldreferstoanareainwhichdevelopmentorusehasbeencomplicatedbyathreatof

contamination.Thisiscommonlyaresultofpreviousindustrialusebutiscausedbyotheractivitiesaswell.

Remediationoftheseareas,whichusuallyinvolvessoilandgroundwatercleanup,canconvertthelandbackto

usablecondition.Thisincreasesthevalueofthepropertyandcanhelppreserveundevelopedland.Private

developersareoftenreluctanttoremediatebrownfieldsduetofinancialrisksandliabilityissues,howevermany

differentgovernmentagenciesincentivizetheseactivities(Opp,2009).TheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)

hascreatedaBrownfieldsProgramthatprovidesfundingtobrownfieldrevitalizationprojects,whichhasinturn

contributedtohigherlevelsofownerinvestment,creationofjobs,andincreasesinnearbypropertyvalues(EPA,

2009).Inaddition,eachstatehastheirownbrownfieldprogram,providingvaryinglevelsoffundingandliability

protectionforcleanupefforts(Opp,2009).

Anumberoftreatmentmethodsexistfortheremovalofhazardouspollutantsfromsoilandgroundwater.Thesecanbebrokendownintotechniquesthatremovecontaminantsthroughbiological,chemical,orphysicalprocesses

(Hamby,1996).Bioremediationreferstotheuseofmicroorganismsthatcanbreakdownortransformdangerous

chemicalcompoundsthroughtheirownmetabolicpathways.Whenappropriate,thiscanbealowcostalternative

tootherremediationoptions(Hamby,1996,EPA,1991).Phytoremediation,anotherexampleofabiological

approach,usesplantstocleansoilandgroundwaterthroughsorptionandwateruptake.Chemicalmethodsrelyon

theintroductionofcompoundsthatcandestroy,transform,bindto,orotherwiserendercontaminantsharmless.

Finally,physicaltechniquesincludetreatmentssuchasstripping,pumping,andwashingofthesoilorwaterin

question(Hamby,1996).Bothofthesecategoriesaretonumerousandvariedtobediscussedindetailhere.

188





IndexofBiologicalIntegrity

TheIndexofBiologicalIntegrity(IBI)isamultimetricassessmenttoolthatcharacterizesthebiological

functionalityofawaterbodybasedonanumberofsensitivebiologicalmeasures.Specifically,IBI(andother

derivativesofthismetric)measurestheimpactsofhumanactivitiesonbiologicalcommunities.Integrityofliving

systemswithinawaterbodyisrequiredtoperformnecessaryecosystemservices(KarrandChu,1997).Thus,

“biologicalintegrity”isthe“abilitytosupportandmaintainabalanced,integratedadaptiveassemblageof

organismshavingspeciescomposition,diversity,andfunctionalorganizationcomparabletothatofnaturalhabitatoftheregion"(KarrandDudley,1981).Asaresult,theIBIprovidesimportantinformationabouttheconditionofa

waterbodyrelativetosurroundinglevelsofhumaninfluence.AkeypointisthatdeterminationoftheIBIrequires

trainedbiologistsfamiliarwiththespecificaquaticecosystem.

Additionally,sinceitisarelativemeasure,useoftheIBIrequiresdeterminingareferenceconditionforthearea.TheEPA(2006)describesthereferenceconditionforbiologicalintegrity,RC(BI),as“thenaturalbiological

conditionofawaterbody,undisturbedbyhumanactivity.Asaconceptualaid,itisusefultothinkofanabsolute

‘natural’orpristineconditionthatcouldexistintheabsenceofallhistoricalandcurrenthumandisturbances.This

definitionrecognizestheneedforareferenceconditiontermreservedfor‘naturalness’or’biologicalintegrity’

eventhoughwemightonlyapproximateitinmostpartsoftheworld.”Italsorequiressomelevelofdata

collection,someofwhichmayalreadybeestablishedviacontinuousmonitoring.DataforcomputingIBIscoresis

basedonthe“lowestpracticaltaxonomiclevel”whichmeanstothefurthesttaxonomicextentallowedbycurrent

science(UniversityofWashington,2001)forlocal“bioindicatorspecies”(EPA,2009b)forpurposesofthiscredit.Examplesofcommonbioindicatorspeciesaremacroinvertebrates,whichareaquaticinsects(“benthos,”hence,

theBenthicIBI).

GLOSSARY

Benthos Greekformacroinvertebrates

BIBI BenthicIndexofBiologicalIntegrity

Biodiversity Totalnumberofspeciespresent

Bioindicator See“indicatorspecies”

BiologicalIntegrity Theabilitytosupportandmaintainabalanced,integratedadaptive

assemblageoforganismshavingspeciescomposition,diversity,and

functionalorganizationcomparabletothatofnaturalhabitatoftheregion(KarrandDudley,1981).

Brownfield Anareamadeunsuitablefordevelopmentbyprevioususe,commonly

industrial.

EcosystemServices Naturalprocessesthatprovidebenefitsforhumankind

Fragmentation Divisionofasinglepopulationordisruptionofmigrationroutesbetween

smallerpopulations

IBI IndexofBiologicalIntegrity

Indicatorspecies Aspecieswhichrespondspredictablytostressorsfromhumandisturbance

(EPA,2009b)

RC(BI) Referenceconditionforbiologicalintegrity

Referencecondition Thenaturalbiological conditionofawaterbody,undisturbedbyhuman

activity.Asaconceptualaid,itisusefultothinkofanabsolute‘natural’orpristineconditionthatcouldexistintheabsenceofallhistoricalandcurrent

humandisturbances(EPA,2006)

Totaldisturbedarea Anyareadisturbedforconstructionactivitiesincludingconstructionstaging

areasandclearedorstrippedplantlife,butnotincludinganyareas

designatedforrestorationorhabitatcreationpurposes

189




Habitat Restoration EW-6

REFERENCES

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Brown,J.andU.S.DepartmentofTransportation,FederalHighwayAdministration,ResearchandInnovative

TechnologyAdministration,VolpeTransportationResearchCenter.(2006,April).Ecological:AnEcosystem ApproachtoDevelopingInfrastructureProjects.[FHWAHEP06011].Washington,DC:OfficeofProject

DevelopmentandEnvironmentalReview,FederalHighwayAdministration,U.S.DepartmentofTransportation.

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naturalcapital.Nature,387,253260.

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FederalInteragencyStreamRestorationWorkingGroup(2001).StreamCorridorRestoration:Principles,Processes,

andPractices.

http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/stream_restoration/newtofc.htm

Forman,R.andAlexander,L.(1998).Roadsandtheirmajorecologicaleffects. AnnualReviewofEcologyand

Systematics,29,207231.

Forman,R.T.T.andDeblingerR.D.(2000).TheEcologicalRoadEffectZoneofaMassachusettsSuburbanHighway.

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Hackney,C.T.(1998).HabitatRestoration:"GoalSettingandSuccessCriteriaforCoastalHabitatRestoration"Dept.BiologicalSciences,UniversityofNorthCarolinaatWilmington.

Hamby,D.M.(1996).Siteremediationtechniquessupportingenvironmentalrestorationactivitiesareview.The

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Karr,J.R.andDudley,D.R.(1981).Ecologicalperspectiveonwaterqualitygoals.EnvironmentalManagement,5:55

68.

Kentula,M.E.(1998).PerspectivesonSettingSuccessCriteriaforWetlandRestorationin:HabitatRestoration:

"GoalSettingandSuccessCriteriaforCoastalHabitatRestoration"Dept.BiologicalSciences,Universityof

NorthCarolinaatWilmington.http://www.csc.noaa.gov/lcr/text/confsumm.html

Keim,R.F.,A.B.Price,T.S.Hardin,A.E.Skaugset,D.S.Bateman,R.E.Gresswell,andS.D.Tesch.(2003).An

AnnotatedBibliographyofSelectedGuidesforStreamHabitatImprovementinthePacificNorthwest.

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D.C.:TransportationResearchBoard.Washington,DC:TransportationResearchBoard.

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191




Ecological Connectivity EW-7

RESEARCH

Whatisecologicalconnectivity?

Ecologicalconnectivityistherelativeeasewithwhichdispersiveanddynamicecologicalprocesses(suchasspecies

migration,watermovement,soiltransmission,pollination,etc.)occuracrossvariousecosystemboundaries

(Interstate90SnoqualmiePassDevelopmentTeam2006).InGreenroads,specifically,ecologicalconnectivityrefers

tothemovementofnonhumanorganisms(wildlifeandplantspecies)acrossvariousmanmadeecosystemboundaries,suchasroadways.Anecologicalconnectionisadeliberateattempttoprovideapathwayfor

transmissionofnonhumanlifeacross,under,above,orthrougharoadwayprojectfootprintwithoutimpacting

thesafetyofhumanusers.

Considerationofandcompensationforadverseeffectsonecologicalconnectivityarenotspecificrequirementsof

theNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)orstateenvironmentallaws.Instead,considerationofecological

connectivityisdrivenbystakeholders,regulatoryandnaturalresourceagenciessuchastheU.S.ArmyCorpsof

Engineers(USACE),EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(throughSection404oftheCleanWaterAct),theU.S.Fish

andWildlifeService,federallandmanagementagencies,orthestatenaturalresourcesmanagementagency.

Whyisecologicalconnectivityimportant?

Migrationabilityisnecessarytothesurvivalofmanyspecies,androadsthatdisruptvitalhabitatcorridorshavethe

potentialtoseriouslydebilitateanecosystem.Animalcrossingoftraditionalroadshashugecostsintheformofhumanandanimallifeinadditiontomonetarylosses.However,withcarefulplanning,wildlifecrossingcanbe

effectivelyfacilitatedinasafeandnondisruptivemanner.Itisimportanttonotethatthereisnosinglesolutionto

everyconnectivityproblem,andthereisnotnecessarilyasolutionforeveryspeciesthatmightbeencounteredon

aproject.Whenwellresearchedandtailoredtoaspecificproject,connectivityfeatureshavethepotentialto

createsaferroads,improvehabitat,andsavemoney.Establishingormaintainingecologicalconnectivityfor

existingandnewprojects,respectively,willreducethelongtermecologicalimpactsofroads,helptosustain

populations,andpossiblyreducetheneedforlegalprotectionforspecies.

Access&MobilityforWildlife

Amongtheanimalkingdom,therearefewspeciesthatliveinsingle,staticrangesthroughouttheirlifetimes.

Suitablehabitatforaspecificspeciesmightonlybefoundinsmallparcelsthroughoutaregion,whichoften

forcesaspeciestoinhabitsmallisolatedchunksofland.Thispopulationstructureisdefinedasametapopulation,oragroupofsmallpopulationswhichmakeupthetotalpopulation.Becauseoflowgenetic

variabilitywithinthesesmallerpopulations,thethreatofindividualgroupextinctionandtheneedfora

constantfoodsource,connectivitybetweendifferenthabitatpatchesisvitalforthesurvivalofmanyspecies

(Freemanetal.2005).IlkaHansi,whoextensivelystudiedGlanvillebutterflypopulationsinoneofthedefining

studiesofpopulationdynamics,concludedthattheabilityofsmallerpopulationstobereplacedbyindividuals

fromothergroupsisnecessarytoavoidextinction(Hanski,1995).

Roadwaysandhighwaysarelonglinearstructureswhichcanoftenseparateanimalsfromimportant

destinations,resultinginalossofecosystemfunctionalityforthosethatdonotattempttocrossandamore

directhazardintheformofautomobilecollisionforthosethatdo.IntheAppalachians,areasinwhichblack

bearscommonlyattempttocrossroadshavesignificantmortalityrates,whilehighertrafficroadsdeterbear

crossingandforcesmall,isolatedpopulationsthreatenedbylowgeneticvariability(Donaldson2007).In

additiontoterrestrialanimals,population,geneticdiversity,andlongtermsurvivalofmanyfishspeciescanbesignificantlyreducedbylossofmigrationability,whichcanbehinderedorpreventedbytypicalculvertsfound

atstreamandrivercrossings.(Mirati1999,Fitch1995)

HumanSafety

Thecrossingofroadwaysbyanimalshasaverydirecthumancostaswell.In2002,anestimated1.5million

collisionsbetweenautomobilesanddeeroccurredintheUnitedStates,killingabout150peopleandcausing

over$1.1billioninvehicledamage.(Hedlundet.Al2003)Inthiscase,thereislittlethreattothesurvivalofthe

species.Infact,therapidgrowthrateofdeerpopulationindicatesthatthistrendwillworsenovertime.

196





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ParksCanada.(2009).BanffNationalParkCanada.RetrievedSeptember25,2009,fromhttp://www.pc.gc.ca/pn

np/ab/banff/index_e.asp

Reed,R.A.,JohnsonBarnard,J.andW.L.Baker.(1996).ContributionofRoadstoForestFragmentationinthe

RockyMountains.ConservationBiology ,10(4),10981106.

Romin,A.L.,J.A.Bissonette(1996)Deervehiclecollisions:statusofstatemonitoringactivitiesandmitigation

efforts.WildlifeSocietyBulletin24,276283

Ruediger,B.,J.J.Claar,andJ.F.Gore.Nodate.RestorationofCarnivoreHabitatConnectivityintheNorthern

RockyMountains.

http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/habitat_conservation/habitat_and_hi

ghways/reports/restoration_of_the_carnivore_habitat.pdf

Ruediger,Bill.(1996).TheRelationshipBetweenRareCarnivoresandHighways.In:Evink,G.L.;Garrett,P.;Ziegler,

D.;andJ.Berry(Eds.)TrendsIn:AddressingTransportationRelatedWildlifeMortality.Proceedingsofthe

TransportationRelatedWildlifeMortalitySeminar.

Smith,D.J.;Harris,L.D.andF.J.Mazzotti.(1996).Alandscapeapproachtoexaminingtheimpactsofroadsonthe

ecologicalfunctionassociatedwithwildlifemovementandmovementcorridors:Problemsandsolutions.In:Evink,G.L.;Garrett,P.;Ziegler,D.;andJ.Berry(Eds.)TrendsInAddressingTransportationRelatedWildlife

Mortality.ProceedingsoftheTransportationRelatedWildlifeMortalitySeminar .

WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation.(2009).190SnoqualmiePassEast.RetrievedSeptember24,

2009,fromhttp://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/I90/SnoqualmiePassEast/Default.htm

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200




EW-8 Light Pollution

LIGHT POLLUTIONGOAL

Safelyilluminateroadwayswhileminimizingunnecessaryandpotentiallyharmful

illuminationofsurroundingskyandhabitat.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

ProvidelightingfixturesthatareDarkSkycompliantorequivalent.AlistofDarkSky

approvedfixturescanbefoundathttp://www.DarkSky.org.

Details

Thiscreditaddressestwokeycomponentsofroadwaydesign,nighttimesafetyand

lighttrespassintoadjacentecosystemsandthenightsky.

TheInternationalDarkSkyAssociation(IDA)fixturecertificationprogramisbased

onupwardlightemission.Approvedfixturesmustemitnolightabove90degrees

(oftencalled“fullcutoff”).Forfixturestobecomecertified,photometricimageryfromacertifiedtestinglabmustbesubmittedtotheIDAforexamination.

“Equivalent”standardswillmeetthecriteriaforIDAbutmaynotcarrytheDarkSky

seal.Equivalencecanbeshownbyprovidingdocumentationdemonstratingthat

IDAstandardsaremetorexceededbyselectedfixtures.Suchdocumentation

shouldbereviewedandapprovedbytheprojectlightingprofessionalorelectrical

engineerandalettershallbeprovidedstatingequivalence. Projectsthatdeliberatelyreduceexistinglightingorcompletelyeliminatelighting

areeligibleforthiscreditprovidedthat:

a. Lightingiswithintheprojectscopeorotherwiseisnormallyrequiredby

standardspecifications(e.g.,apreservationhotmixasphaltpavementoverlayisnotlikelytohaveroadwaylightingwithinitsscopeandisthereforenoteligible

forthiscredit).“Withinscope”canbedemonstratedbycreditPR1

EnvironmentalReviewProcessorbyAE3ContextSensitiveSolutions.

b. Theprojectprovidesevidencetoshowthatlightingisnotrequiredtomeet

minimumroadwaysafetyrequirementsorthatreducingexistinglightingissafe.

Thisgenerallymeansanintentionaldecisionhasbeenmadetoreduceor

eliminatelightingwithinthealignmentbasedonafullsafetyinvestigation.(See

alsoAE1SafetyAudit).

c. AnylightingusedconformstoIDAfixturestandardsorequivalent.

DOCUMENTATION

x Executivesummaryofthelightingsafetystudydemonstratingappropriatenessoflightingconfiguredforroadway,signedbytheleadelectricalprofessional.

x Lightingorelectricalplan.HighlightALLlocationsoffixture,bulbandcover

technologyused.

x Alistofthefixtures,bulbsandcoversinstalled,includingnameoftechnologies,

wattage,areaofshade,codecompliance(ifany).

x CopyoftheDarkSkycertificationforanyproductspecifiedandinstalled.

EW-8

3 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 AE1SafetyAudit

9 AE3Context

SensitiveSolutions

9 MR6Energy

Efficiency

SUSTAINABILITYCOMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Experience

BENEFITS

9 ReducesFossilFuel

Use

9 ReducesGreenhouse

Gases

9 RestoresHabitat

9ImprovesHumanHealth&Safety


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Light Pollution EW-8


x U.S.DepartmentofEnergy’sEnergyStarprogramhasbeenexpandedtoincluderoadwaylighting.The

standardsforupwardilluminationforEnergyStarcertifiedfixturesaresuchthatfixturesreceivingthis

certificationarelikelytobedarkskycompliant.Selectionoffixturesthatmeetbothspecificationscanreduce

bothenergyuseandlightpollution(seeMR6EnergyEfficiency).

x

Effectivelightingdesigncreatesanimpressionofelegance,comfort,andclarityontheroadwayatnight.Thiscanbeaccomplishedusingthelatestlightingdesignsoftwaretomodeltheappearanceoftheproject,aswell

asdesigningprojectattributessuchassignageformaximumvisibility.

Example: Dark-Sky Certified Fixture Label

FigureEW8.1belowisanexampleofalabelthatcanbefoundonfixturesthatareDarkSkycompliant.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Lightingmodificationsimplementedtopromoteecosystemhealthalsomustmaintainsufficientlightlevels

necessaryforhumansafety.

2. NonoverheadroadwaylightsarenotcurrentlyDarkSkycertifiablethroughIDA.

RESEARCH

Roadwaylightingisanimportantrequirementforasafenighttimedrivingenvironment.Thoughabout25%ofdrivingoccursatnight,thefatalityrateofnighttimedrivingismorethandoublethatoftheday(FHWA,1985,Sivak

etal.,2007).Theincreasedabilitytoidentifypotentialhazardsprovidedbyoverheadlightingfixturessignificantly

decreasesnighttimeaccidentrisk.Therefore,installationofroadwaylightingsystemscansavehumanlifeand

money.However,excessivelightingcanhavenegativeimpacts,andthesafetybenefitsofadditionallighting

diminishathigherintensitylevels(Fisher,1977).Inadditiontousefullightthatilluminatestheroadway,lightcan

beemittedupwarddirectlyfromlightfixtures,orreflectfromtheroadwaysurface,bothofwhichcontributetosky

glow.Inadditiontotheseformsoflightpollution,lightfromoverheadfixturescan“trespass”andilluminate

surfacesandareasotherthantheroadwayincludingprivatepropertyornaturalhabitat.Thisexcesslightcanhaveconsequencesforhumancomfort,ecosystemfunction,andtheabilitytoconductastronomicalobservations.

However,inmanycases,carefullightingdesigncanprovidesafedrivingconditionswhileminimizingwastedlight

andadverselightingeffects.

EnvironmentalImpactsLightpollutioncannegativelyimpactawiderangeofplantandanimalspecies.Outdoorskygloweffectscanbe

significantenoughthatnighttimeconditionsmimicthosenaturallyobservedattwilight(NavaraandNelson,2007).

Estimatesindicatethat20%oflandinthecontinentalUnitedStatesislocatedwithin127metersofaroadway

(RittersandWickham,2003).Becauseofthis,theecologicalconsequencesoflightpollutionfromroadwaylighting

havehugepotentialimpacts.Intheplantkingdom,artificiallightcandisruptthenaturalmechanismsusedto

regulatefloweringandotherseasonalactions(SelectCommissiononScienceandTechnology,1997).Impactson

theanimalkingdomhoweverarefarmorediverseandcauseawidearrayofecosystemalteration.Insomecases,

lightpollutioncanbedevastating.Forinstance,seaturtlehatchlingsnavigatetheirwaytotheoceanbasedonthe

FigureEW8.1:IDALabelforDarkSkyApprovedDevices

http://www.DarkSky.org/mc/page.do?sitePageId=56421&orgId=idsa

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ACCESS & EQUITY

205



Access & Equity Greenroads™ Manual v1.5

Safety Audit AE-1

x Austroadsdescribed9auditeddesignstatesitesthatreported250findingswithbenefit/costratiosbetween

3:1and242:1.

x TheNewYorkDepartmentofTransportationreportsa2040%reductionincrashesatmorethan300high

crashlocationsthathadreceivedsafetyimprovementsrecommendedbyRSAs.

x EarlySouthCarolinaDepartmentofTransportationresults(atthe1yearpoint)showeddecreasedcrashesand

economicsavings.Onesiteimplementing4of8recommendationsshoweda12.5%decreaseincrasheswitha

savingsof$40,000,asecondsitehada15.8%increaseincrasheswhenonly2of13recommendationswereimplemented,athirdsitethatimplementedall9recommendationssawa60%reductioninfatalitiesresulting

ina$3.66millionsavings,andafourthsitethatimplemented25of37recommendationshada23.4%

reductionincrashesandasavingsof$147,000.

Costs&LegalConsiderations

GenerallyRSAscostbetween$1,000and$8,000(WilsonandLipinski,2004),whichusuallyrepresentsasmall

fractionofengineeringdesigncosts.Therefore,analysesthatcalculaterateofreturngenerallygivevaluesofover

100%.ThisisespeciallytruewhenevenonelifesavedisattributedtotheRSA.Inpractice,however,itisdifficultto

attributesavingalifetoanyoneaudit,recommendationoraction.

TheFHWA(2006)mentionsthatsomeagencieshavebeenreluctanttoconductRSAsduetoafearthatreportswill

beusedagainstthemintortliabilitylawsuits.InstateswheretrainingonRSAswasconductedlocallegalstaffs

gaveacommonmessage:RSAsareapositiveapproachanddonotincreasetheagency’sliabilityand,infact,help

inthedefenseoftortliability(WilsonandLipinski,2004).

GLOSSARY

REFERENCES

AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO).(2007).Transportation:Investin

OurFuture.AASHTO,Washington,DC.Availableat

http://www.transportation1.org/tif5report/safer_america.html

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2006).RoadSafetyAuditGuidelines.PublicationNo.FHWASA0606.FHWA,U.S.DepartmentofTransportation.Availableathttp://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/index.cfm.

UnitedNations.(2008).GeneralAssemblyAdoptsResolutiononEasingGlobalRoadSafetyCrisis.GA/10694.Sixty

secondGeneralAssembly,Plenary,87thmeeting(AM).

U.S.DepartmentofTransportationOfficeofPublicAffairs.Pressrelease:RoadsCanBeSafer,TopFederalHighway

OfficialSays.(2008).Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pressroom/fhwa0816.htm.

Wilson,E.M.andLipinski,M.E.(2004).NCHRPSynthesis336:RoadSafetyAudits.TransportationResearchBoard,

Washington,D.C.


RSA Roadsafetyaudit

210




Intelligent Transportation Systems AE-2

TableAE2.1:AllowableITSApplicationsforAE2

Category Application

Surveillance Traffic

Infrastructure

TrafficControl AdaptiveSignalControl

AdvancedSignalSystems

VariableSpeedLimits Bicycle&Pedestrian

SpecialEvents

LaneManagement HOVFacilities ReversibleFlowLanes

Pricing

LaneControl

Variable SpeedLimits

EmergencyEvacuation

InformationDissemination DynamicMessageSigns(DMS)

HighwayAdvisoryRadio(HAR)

Enforcement SpeedEnforcement

TrafficSignalEnforcement RampMeterEnforcement

HOVFacilitiesEnforcement

RampControl RampMetering

PriorityAccess

WarningSystems RampRollover

CurveSpeedWarning DownhillSpeedWarning

Overheight/OverwidthWarning HighwayRailCrossingWarningSystems

IntersectionCollisionWarning

PedestrianSafety

BicycleWarning

AnimalWarningRoadWeatherManagement PavementConditions

AtmosphericConditions

WaterLevel

TransitManagement DynamicRouting/Scheduling

InTerminal/WaysideInformationDissemination

TravelerInformation Internet/Wireless

511

Telephone

ElectronicPayment/Pricing TollCollection

TransitFarePayment

TrafficIncidentManagement CallBoxes

ServicePatrols EmergencyVehicleSignalPreemption

Notes:TheapplicationnomenclatureanddefinitionscomedirectlyfromtheFHWA’sRITAITS Applications

Overview webpage(http://www.itsoverview.its.dot.gov).

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Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Access & Equity

AE-2 Intelligent Transportation Systems


x TheFHWA’sRITAITSwebsite(http://www.its.dot.gov)maintainsacurrentdatabaseofITSbenefits,costs,

lessonslearnedanddeploymentstatistics.Itisanexcellentresourceforapproachesandstrategies.

x ITSAmerica,anotforprofitorganization,alsomaintainsawebsite(http://www.itsa.org)withsubstantial

documentationonITSefforts.

Example: How to Calculate Points

3points

Afreewayonrampisbeingupgradedtoincludearampmeteringsystem.Inadditiontherearealreadyvideo

surveillancecamerasinusethatareaccessiblebythegeneralpublicthroughacommontrafficwebsite.The

areaisalsocoveredbya511trafficinformationsystemandhighwayadvisoryradio(HAR).Thisprojectwould

earn3pointsbecause3applicationcategoriesarerepresented.Notethataprojectcannotearn1pointforthis

VoluntaryCredit.Atleast2categoriesmustberepresentedtoearntheminimumof2points.

x Surveillance.Thetrafficcamerasareanapplicationinthiscategory.

x Travelerinformation:the511serviceandwebsitearebothapplicationsinthiscategory.Althoughthis

categoryisrepresentedbytwoseparatesystems,itisstillonlycountedonce.

x Informationdissemination:theHARisanapplicationinthiscategory.

5points

Anarterialisbeingupgradedtobemorecontextsensitive.Existingarterialfacilitiesthatremaininplace

includeavariablemessagesignandvideotrafficsignalenforcement.Theprojectisaddingtimedsignallights

andsensorstoincludeitintheareawidenetworkshownonlineattheagency’swebsite.Trafficsurveillance

camerasarealsobeingadded.Thisprojectwouldearn5pointsbecause5applicationcategoriesare

represented.Notethataprojectcannotearn1pointforthisVoluntaryCredit.Atleast2categoriesmustbe

representedtoearntheminimumof2points.

x Surveillance.Theaddedtrafficcamerasareanapplicationinthiscategory.

x Trafficcontrol.Theaddedsignaltimingisanapplicationinthiscategory.

x Informationdissemination.Theexistingdynamicmessagesignisanapplicationinthiscategory.

x Enforcement.Theexistingtrafficsignalvideoenforcementisanapplicationinthiscategory.

x Travelerinformation:theinclusionofthisarterialintheagency’sonlinetrafficflowmapisanapplicationin

thiscategory.

Example: ITS Categories

SomeexamplesofITSusefromtheRITA’sIntelligentTransportationSystemsBenefits,Costs,andLessons

Learned:2008Updateare(thesearedirectquotesfromtheexecutivesummary,italicsaddedtodistinguish

fromothertext):

ArterialManagement

Optimizingsignaltimingisconsideredalowcostapproachtoreducingcongestion.Basedondata

fromsixseparatestudies,thecostsrangefrom$2,500to$3,100persignalperupdate(Sunkari2004;

TEIEngineering2005;Harris2005;NTOC2005;Luor2006;Heminger2006).Basedonaseriesof

surveysofarterialmanagementagenciesin78ofthelargestU.S.metropolitanareas,halfoftraffic

signalsinthesemetropolitanareaswereundercentralizedcontrolthroughclosedlooporcomputer

controlin2006.

FreewayManagement

TherearenumerousITSstrategiestoimprovefreewayoperations.Metropolitanareasthatdeploy

ITSinfrastructureincludingdynamicmessagesigns(DMS)tomanagefreewayandarterialtraffic,

213





GLOSSARY

Effectivecapacity Themaximumpotentialrateatwhichpersonsorvehiclesmaytraversealink,node,ornetworkunderarepresentativecompositeofroadwayconditions

includingweather,incidents,andvariationintrafficdemandpatterns.

IntelligentTransportationSystem Anapplicationofintegratedinformation,telecommunicationsandcomputer

basedtechnologiestoinfrastructureandvehiclesinordertoimprovesafetyandmobilityonsurfacetransportationnetworks.

REFERENCES

511DeploymentCoalition.(2005). America’sTravelInformationNumber:ImplementationandOperational

Guidelinesfor511ServicesVersion3.0,511DeploymentCoalition.

511DeploymentCoalition.(2006).511DeploymentCosts:ACaseStudy,511DeploymentCoalition.

Birst,S.andAymanS.(2000).AnEvaluationofITSforIncidentManagementinSecondTierCities:AFargo,NDCase

Study.PaperPresentedatITE2000AnnualMeeting.Nashville,Tennessee.6–10August2000.

Breen,B.D.(2001). Anti IcingSuccessFuelsExpansionofthePrograminIdaho,IdahoTransportationDepartment,SnowandIcePooledFundCooperativeProgram.

http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/weather/Publications/AntiicingIdaho.pdf .Accessed5October2001.

CambridgeSystematics.(2001).TwinCitiesRampMeterEvaluation:FinalReport.PreparedbyCambridge

SystematicsfortheMinnesotaDOT,EDLNo.13425.St.Paul,MN.

Douma,F.;Zmud,J.andPatterson,T.(2006).PricingComestoMinnesota:BaselineAttitudinalEvaluationoftheI

394HOTLaneProject.PaperPresentedatthe85thTransportationResearchBoardAnnualMeeting.

Washington,DC.

Drakopoulos,A.(2006).CVO/FreightandITSSession.Presentationatthe12thannualITSForum,WisconsinChapterofITSAmerica—Smartways,MarquetteUniversity.Milwaukee,WI.

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(1999a).InnovativeTrafficControlTechnologyandPracticeinEurope,

U.S.DOTFederalHighwayAdministration,OfficeofInternationalPrograms.

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(1999b).ITSImpactsAssessmentforSeattleMMDIEvaluation:Modeling

MethodologyandResults.U.S.DOTFederalHighwayAdministration.EDLNo.11323.

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2000).MetropolitanModelDeploymentInitiative:SanAntonio

EvaluationReport(FinalDraft).U.S.DOTFederalHighwayAdministration,ReportNo.FHWAOP00017,EDLNo.12883.

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2001).DetroitFreewayCorridorITSEvaluation,U.S.DOTFederal

HighwayAdministration.EDLNo.13586.

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2004).EvaluationofRuralITSInformationSystemsalongU.S.395,

Spokane,Washington.U.S.DOTFederalHighwayAdministration,EDLNo.13955.

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2006).FinalEvaluationReport:EvaluationoftheIdahoTransportation

DepartmentIntegratedRoad WeatherInformationSystem.U.S.DOTFederalHighwayAdministration,EDLNo.

14267.

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218




Context Sensitive Solutions AE-3


TheCSS/CSDFramework

x Consultexistingguidancedocumentsandresourcestounderstandtheframeworkandreviewavarietyof

examples.Seethe“AdditionalResources”listedattheendofthiscredit.

x FollowtheCSSframework(Stamatiadisetal.,2009;Neumanetal.,2002).TherearesixkeystepsintheCSS

projectdevelopmentprocess:

1. Developadecisionmakingprocessandmanagementstructure.

2. Definetheproblem.

3. Developtheprojectandtheevaluationframeworkfortheproject.

4. Determinealternatives.

5. Screenthealternatives.

6. Evaluateandselectanalternative.

InterdisciplinaryDecisionMaking

x Collaboratewithlocalexpertsinbothtransportationandnontransportationplanninganddesignprofessions.

x Useatransparentdecisionprocesswithclearchannelsforcommunityparticipation.Thiswillensuredesignofa

projectthatmeetstheneedsofthetransportationsystemaswellasthecommunityasawhole.

x Incorporatethefollowingfiveelementsinthedecisionprocessthroughouttheprojectforthemosteffective

approach(fromNeumanetal.,2002):

1. Thedecisionpointsintheprocessorprojectmilestones.

2. Whowillmakeeachdecision.

3. Whowillmakerecommendationsforeachdecision.4. Whowillbeconsultedoneachdecision.

5. Howrecommendationsandcommentswillbetransmittedtodecisionmakers.

x Documenteachoftheseelementsclearlyintheprojectpapertrail.Thiswillhelpensurethatprojectdecisionmakersareheldaccountablefortheirresponsibilitiesandactions.

PlanningandDesignConsiderationsx Considertheappropriatenessofincludingbike,pedestrianortransitfacilitiesinthedesignoftheroadway

duringprojectplanning.Thismightbeassimpleasconstructingbikelanesandsidewalksascalledforinlocal

designstandards.

x Reviewlocalplansforroadwaydesignstandardsandfunctions.

x Consultwithlocalplannersfromappropriateagencies(parksdept.,publicworks,planning,transportationandtransit)todetermineifyourassessmentiscomplete.

x Usevisualizationtools,suchasphotographrenderingorcomputermodels.Thesecanoftencanhelpindesignalternativeselectionprocess.

x Considertheprojectnobuildcondition.Somelocalstandardsmayrequireelementsthatmaynotbe

appropriateforenvironmentalorengineeringreasonsandmaybeabletobegrantedanexceptionwhichcan

bepursuedduringplanning.Anexamplewouldbedesigningnarrowerstreetsthanrequiredbystandard

specificationsinaresidentialneighborhood,whichcanimprovesafetybyslowingneighborhoodtraffic.

CSDforMultimodalAccess

x Considerallmodesattheinitialstagesofplanning.Whileeachindividualroadwaydoesnothavetoaccommodatepeopleusingallmodes,asystemshouldbeaccessibletopeopleonbikes,foot,andtransit,as

wellasincarsandtrucks,wherethepurposeandneedstatementfortheprojectdefinetheseelementsas

appropriate.

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AE-3 Context Sensitive Solutions

x Consultlocalplansforexistingandfutureplannedbike,pedestrianandtransitelementstoseeiftheproject

includesorcrossesnamedelements.Manyjurisdictionshaveadoptedplansrelatedtobike,pedestrianand

transitsystems.

x Incorporatenewmodalelementssuchasbikelanes,sidewalksortrails,andtransitfacilitiesshouldbeincluded

indesignswhereapplicable.Generally,designstandardsorplanswilldictateplacementoftheseelements,or

theymayberequestedbythepublicduringprojectscoping.

x Consideringroadwayimprovementswhichmayimpacttheexistingormasterplannedbike,pedestrianandtransitnetworks.Improvementstothesemodalelementsshouldbemadeasappropriatetomitigateuser

impacts.

PublicInvolvementConsiderations

x Consultwithstakeholderstounderstandcommunityissues,toenvisionsolutions,and,ultimately,to

understandhowaprojectfitsintoacommunity.Throughthisprocess,plannersanddesignersaremorelikely

todesignaprojectthatminimizesimpactstothecommunityandsupportsthecommunity’svision.

x Conductanappropriatelyscaledstakeholderconsultationprocessinprojectplanningforthewholeprojectand

specificissuesasneeded.Thisprocessmightbeassimpleasholdingaprojectopenhousetoidentify

communityconcerns,issuesoropportunities,oritmightbealongprocesswithmultipleopportunitiesfor

stakeholderengagementincludingpublicworkshops,committeemeetings,andotherengagement

opportunities.

x Includeinthepublicinvolvementplanthefollowingsteps:issueidentification,developmentofevaluation

criteria,developmentofpotentialsolutions,evaluationofsolutions,andselectionofasolutionthatbestmeets

theevaluationcriteria.

x Followtheguidanceavailableonstakeholderconsultation,suchastheFHWA’sPublicInvolvementTechniques

forTransportationDecisionMakingandHowtoEngageLowLiteracyandLimitedEnglishProficiency

PopulationsinTransportationDecisionmaking.

x Developmentaplanforstakeholderinvolvementsothatthesessionsrunsmoothlyandachieveobjectives.This

planrequiresanunderstandingofthecommunitythatcanbeinformedbyconversationswithlocalleadersor

jurisdictionalstaff,researchontheweb,orpreviousworkinthecommunity.Theplanshouldidentify

milestonesforstakeholderinvolvement,acleardecisionprocessthatillustrateshowinputwillbeused,and

toolsormethodsforinvolvingstakeholders.

x Documentandtrackpublicinputandhowthatinputisreflectedinprojectplanninganddesign.

x Setupacommentandresolutionlogthatlistscommunitycommentsandteamactions.x Usenarrativesorminutesthatdescribeinputgatheredateachprojectmilestoneandhowthatinputwillbe

reflectedintheprocess.

x Rememberthatthestakeholderconsultationprocessdoesnotrequireacquiescencetoeverystakeholder

request.Somerequestswillbetooexpensive,willbeoutofstepwiththeprojectpurpose,orwillnotreflectthevaluesofthecommunityasawhole.

x Developinganevaluationframeworkthatreflectscommunitygoalsandprojectgoalscreatesafilterfor

determiningwhichrequestsareintegratedintotheprojectandwhicharesetaside.

Example: Aurora Avenue North Multimodal Corridor Project — Shoreline, WA

TheCityofShorelineimplementedanewroadwaydesignforthreemilesofStateRoute99(alsoknownas

AuroraAvenueNorth)toalleviatetrafficcongestion,improvebusinessaccess,andprovidepedestrianaccess.

ContextSensitiveSolutions(CSS)wereusedtodesignanenvironmentallyconsciousroadwaythatprotected

salmonandprovidedmultimodalmobilityimprovementstotheNorthwest,includingpedestrians,bicyclists,

motorists,andfreighttruckers.SeeFiguresAE3.1throughAE3.3.

SomehighlightsoftheCSSprocessfollowedbytheprojectinclude:

x Photosimulationshelpedstakeholdersvisualizetheimpactofproposedsolutions

221





x MultimodalconnectivitywassuccessfullyprovidedforcyclistsandpedestriansviatheInterurbanTrail,

whichsailsacrosstheroadway,givingsafeanddedicatedaccessforthesetravelers.Continuous11foot

widesidewalkswithdisabilityaccesswerealsoinstalled,reducingpedestrianfatalitiesandinjuries.

x TransitservicewasenhancedviaBusRapidTransit(BRT:FigureAE3.2),includingdedicatedbuslanes,in

linestops,accessimprovementsatbuszonesandshelters,andsignalpriority.Theseenhancements

resultedinmajorefficiency(80%speedincrease)andschedulingimprovements(600%reliabilityincrease).

FigureAE3.1:BicycleandPedestrianBridge.

PhotobyCH2MHill.

FigureAE3.2:AerialviewofAuroraAvenueandBRT.

PhotobyCH2MHill.

FigureAE3.3:InterurbanTrailBicycleandPedestrianBridgeoverSR99.PhotobyCH2MHill.

x Stakeholdersworkedalongwithplannersanddesignerstoreachaconsensusthatbestfitgoalsandvalues,

(thoughagoodportionoftheremainingSR99corridorisstillamatterofpublicdebate.)

x Trafficefficiencyimprovements,suchasintersectioncapacity,corridorwidetrafficmanagement,new

signalsandaccesslocations,resultedinflowimprovementsover36%overthenobuildcondition.

x Accessmanagementandilluminationofthecorridorincreasedsafetybyreducingseverityofcrashesand

reducingtotalcrashesby25%.

x Aestheticimprovementswereincorporated,includinglandscaping,trees,screeningandburyingutilities,

publicartandarchitecturalfeatures.Thisresultedinincreasedpropertyvaluesandredevelopmentanda

morelivablecommunity.

x StormwatermanagementincorporatedbiofiltrationareasandinRightofWaytreatmentfacilities,

ultimatelyreducingimpervioussurfaceby15%andimprovingstormwaterqualityby100%overnobuild.

MoreinformationabouttheSR99ImprovementsisavailableherefromtheWashingtonStateDepartmentof

Transportation:http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/projects/SR99/Shoreline_NCTHOV/

Example: Case Study — Whittier Access Project — Whittier, Alaska

TheAlaskaDepartmentofTransportationandPublicFacilitiesbegantheWhittierAccessProjecttoincrease

accessandmobilitytotheregionforbothtrainandhighwaytravel.Forthefirsttimein50years,Whittier

222





FigureAE3.6:Graphicaldepictionof15principlesofContextSensitiveSolutions.(Stamatiadisetal.,2009)

BenefitsofCSS

ThereareseveralbenefitsofCSS.Stamatiadisetal.(2009)recentlyattemptedtoidentifythequantifiablebenefits

ofCSS.Hisgroupestablished22quantifiablebenefitsofapplyingCSSprinciples.TheseareshowninTableAE3.1.

TableAE3.1:22BenefitsofCSS(adaptedfromNCHRPReportNo.690byStamatiadisetal.,2009)

ImprovedbyCSS OptimizedbyCSS

Performancepredictabilityandprojectdelivery Maintenanceandoperations

Scopingandbudgetingprocess Designappropriateforcontext

Longtermdecisionsandinvestments IncreasedbyCSS

Environmentalstewardship Riskmanagementprotection

Mobilityforusers Stakeholder/publicfeedback

Walkabilityandbikeability Stakeholder/publicparticipation,ownershipandtrust

Safety(vehicles,pedestriansandbikes) Partneringopportunities

Accesstomultimodaloptions(includingtransit) MinimizedbyCSS

Communitysatisfaction Overallimpacttohumanandnaturalenvironment

Qualityoflifeforcommunity Constructionrelateddisruption

Speedmanagement Overallcostsforprojectdelivery

Overalltimeforprojectdelivery

Inadditiontothequantifiablebenefits,somequalitativehighlightsofCSSplanninganddesignprinciplesare:

x CSSisuniversal.AkeystrengthofCSS/CSDisitsuniversalityandapplicabilitytoallstakeholdersintheproject,

includingowneragencies,thepublicanddesignprofessionals.TheNCHRP480(Neumanetal.,2002)document

summarizesstrategiesandapproachesbasedonsixareasofpeoplewhohaveastakeintheoveralloutcomeof

theproject.Thedocumentisorganizedintosectionsbasedonprofessionalareaandthereaderisreferredto

thisdocumentinsteadofsummarizingeachofthoseapproachesherein.

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AE-3 Context Sensitive Solutions

x CSSisapplicableandeffectiveataprojectlevel.CSSprojectsrequireeffectiveandsuccessfulprojectdelivery

basedonstructureddecisionmaking,thoughtfulconsiderationofcommunityinputandvalues,environmental

awareness,protectionofsafety,andanunderstandingofhowtheprojectfitswithinorganizationalneedsand

constraints(Neumanetal.,2002)

x CSSpromotesenvironmentalstewardship.Environmentalresourcesareidentifiedandgoalsaresetto

managetheseresourcesatthebeginningoftheproject.Thisapproachhelpstopreventunnecessaryor

minimizeenvironmentalimpacts(ICFInternational,2009).x CSSallowsacleardefinitionofscope.ImplementingaprojectmanagementstructurethatalignswithCSS

principlescanclearlydefinetheprojectneedsandscope.Thishelpsprioritizeproblemsthatmayariseduring

constructionorevenpreemptthemthroughthoughtfulplanning.(Stamitidiasetal.,2009)Italsoallowsfora

unifiedvisionstatement;FHWA,2007)

x CSSoffersamoreinformeddecisionmakingprocess.Effectivedecisionmakingrequiresinformationfromall

collaboratingparties.CSSaccomplishesthiscollaborationbyinstitutingamantraofinformedconsent,throughactivestakeholderengagementandopencommunication.(Stamitidiasetal.,2009;ICFInternational,2009)

x CSSengagesstakeholders.StakeholderinvolvementisacoreprincipleofCSS.Collectionandintegrationofstakeholdervaluestranslatesthosevaluesdirectlyintothefinalprojectoutcomes.(FHWA,2009;AASHTO,

pavementconference;Neumanetal.,2002;Stamiditidiadlas;ICFInternational,2009)CSSopenslinesofcommunicationwithallstakeholdersearlyandkeepsthemopenthroughoutprojectdevelopmentanddelivery

(FWHA,2007)

x CSSisinterdisciplinary.Decisionsmadeareconsensusbased,anddrawfromprojectmanagers,environmental

managers,roadwaydesignersandengineers,owneragencies,andthepublic(Neumanetal.,2002).

x CSSiscosteffective.InastudybytheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT)andthe

UniversityofWashington,WSDOTfoundthatcontextsensitiveplanningforcommunitydesignelementsin

mainstreetareasofurbancentershelptopreemptscopeandschedulingchanges,whichresultedinpotential

overallsavingsfortheagency.(NichollsandReeves,2009)

x CSScanbeintegratedintopolicy.CSSisawellestablishedbestpracticethathasbeensuccessfullyintegrated

withinmanyagenciestohelpachieveinternalgoalsandobjectives,suchasatWSDOTandtheUtah

DepartmentofTransportation(UDOT)(FHWA,2007;ICFInternational,2009).

x CSSisubiquitous.TheCSS/CSDprocessforprojects(andforguidancedocuments)iswellsuitedtoanonline,

collaborativeandinteractiveenvironment.ManytoolsareavailableforprojectteamstocreateandmanagetheCSSelementsoftheproject,includingpublicinvolvement.Thedepthoftheinternetinfrastructurethat

supportsCSSideasandimplementation.TheonlinedatabaseofCSS,http://www.contextsensitivesolutions.orgisjustoneexampleoftheresourcesavailable.Additionally,theFHWAandAASHTOCenterforEnvironmental

Excellencehavecreatedanopenforumforallpractitionersandprofessionals:

CSSandSustainability

CSSiswellestablishedandacceptedasabestpracticeforroadwaydesigners.However,itmaybesaidthatwhile

usingAASHTO’sGreenBookisconsideredabestpracticefordesigningmanyroads,itcertainlydoesnotguarantee

thattheroaditselfwillbe“green”ormoresustainable.Sustainabilityisasystemcharacteristicthatdescribesthat

system’scapacitytosupportnaturallawsandhumanvalues.Whatactuallymakestheroadwaymoresustainablethoughisateamofproactiveandthoughtfulprofessionalsmakingadeliberateattempttobeconsiderateof

communityneeds,valuesandenvironmentalsurroundingswhileplanninganddesigningtheproject.Themulti

disciplinary,consensusbased,wholesystemapproachisthekeydifferencebetweenconventionalpracticeand

CSS,anditisalsothereasonwhyCSDusuallyresultsinamoresustainableproject.Infact,CSSaddressesallsevensustainabilitycomponentsunderitswideumbrellaofcharacteristics.TableAE3.2showshowthe15principlesof

ContextSensitiveSolutionsaddressthesevencomponentsofsustainabilityandhowtheyalignwiththe

Greenroadstaxonomyofsustainabilitybenefits.

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TableAE3.2:CSSandSustainability(AdaptedfromStamatidiasetal.,2009)

No. CSSPrinciple SustainabilityComponents PotentialBenefits

1 Useofinterdisciplinaryteams. 9 Experience 9 ImprovesBusinessPractice

2 Involvestakeholders. 9 Expectations

9 Exposure


3 Seekbroadbasedpublic

involvement.

9 Exposure 9 IncreasesAwareness

9 ImprovesBusinessPractice9 CreatesNewInformation

4 Useafullrangeof

communicationstrategies

9 Exposure

9 Experience

9 ImprovesBusinessPractice


5 Achieveconsensusonpurpose

andneed

9 Expectations 9 ImprovesBusinessPractice

9 IncreasesLifecycleSavings

6 Addressalternativesandall

modes

9 Extent

9 Experience



7 Considerasafefacilityforusers

andcommunity

9 Equity 9 ImprovesHumanHealth&Safety

8 Maintainenvironmentalharmony 9 Ecology

9 Experience

9 OptimizesHabitat&LandUse

9 Addresscommunityandsocialissues

9 Equity9 Exposure

9 ImprovesAccess&Mobility9 ImprovesHumanHealth&Safety


9 Aesthetics

10 Addressaesthetictreatmentsand

enhancements

9 Exposure 9 Aesthetics

11 Utilizeafullrangeofdesign

choices

9 Experience

9 Extent


9 ImprovesAccess&Mobility


9 IncreasesLifecycleService

12 Documentprojectdecisions 9 Expectations 9 ImprovesBusinessPractice

13 Trackandmeetallcommitments 9 Expectations 9 ImprovesBusinessPractice

14 Useagencyresourceseffectively9

Economy9

IncreasesLifecycleSavings9 ImprovesBusinessPractice

15 Createlonglastingcommunity

value

9 Extent

9 Expectations

9 Equity


9 ImprovesHumanHealth&Safety



9 Aesthetics

FollowingtheCSSframeworkdoesnotultimatelyguaranteeroadwaysustainabilityasanendproduct,nordoesit

implythatsustainabilitymustbenecessarilyconsideredduringprojectdevelopment.However,CSSand

sustainabilityarecomplementaryapproachestothesameendpoint.TheCSSframeworkiswellsuitedto

accommodatingsustainabilityconsiderations,suchasthoseoutlinedbyGreenroads,earlyinprojectdevelopment.

LimitationsofThisCredit

Generally,CSSisaplanninganddesignstepthatiscomprehensivebecauseitinvolvesconsiderationoftheentire

projectlifecycleandusessystemsthinkingtocreatesolutions.Thislifecycleperspectivenecessitatesanevaluation

orassessmentprocessthatoccursduringtheoperationandmaintenancephaseoftheproject(i.e.longterm

performancemonitoring).However,thecreditrequirementsdonotrequiredetaileddiscussionofplanning

considerationsfortheroadwaymaintenance.Thisisbecausesuchplansanddocumentationforlifetime

maintenanceandoperationsarecoveredelsewhereinGreenroads(infact,theyarerequiredundertheProject

RequirementsPR9PavementMaintenanceandPR10SiteMaintenance).Currentlythereisnocreditgivenfor

228





CSSNationalDialog.(2009).SubmissionFormsAccessedSeptember16,2010.Availableat

http://www.cssnationaldialog.org/forms.asp

ContextSensitiveSolutions.org.(2010).WelcometoCSS|ContextSensitiveSolutions.orgACSSsupportcenter

forthetransportationcommunity.AccessedJanuary9,2010.Availableat

http://www.contextsensitivesolutions.org.

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)OfficeofPlanning.(2006,February).HowtoEngageLowLiteracyand

LimitedEnglishProficiencyPopulationsinTransportationDecisionmaking.[FHWAHEP06009].Reporttothe

FHWAbyPBS&J.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/hep/lowlim/lowlim1.htm.

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2009,April13) AGuidetoBuildingCSSKnowledgeandSkillsfor

SuccessfulProjectDelivery.AccessedJanuary9,2010.ReporttotheFHWAbytheLouisBergerGroup,Inc.,

OldhamHistoricProperties,Inc.andProjectforPublicSpaces.Availableat

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/context/trainingguide/

ICFInternational,CH2MHill,Inc.andTransTech.(2009,June30).IntegratingContextSensitiveSolutionsinto

TransportationPracticeGuide.AccessedJanuary9,2010.Availableathttp://www.contextsensitivesolutions.org/content/reading/integrating_context_sensitive_s_//resources/Integ

rating_CSS_into_Transportation_Practice_Guide.pdf

Neuman,T.R.etal.(2002). Aguidetobestpracticesforachievingcontextsensitivesolutions.NationalCooperative

HighwayResearchProgram–NCHRPReport480.Washington,D.C.:TransportationResearchBoard.

Nicholls,J.andReeves,P.(2009).Statehighwaysasmainstreets:Astudyofcommunitydesignandvisioning.[WA

RD733.1]Seattle,Wash:WashingtonStateTransportationCenter,UniversityofWashington.

Stamatiadis,N.etal.(2009).QuantifyingthebenefitsofContextSensitiveSolutions.NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram–NCHRPReport642.Washington,D.C.:TransportationResearchBoard.

StateofAlaska,DepartmentofTransportationandPublicFacilities.(n.d.)AntonAndersonMemorialTunnel–

Whittier,Alaska.AccessedJanuary9,2010.Availableathttp://www.dot.state.ak.us/creg/whittiertunnel/index.shtml

UnitedStatesDepartmentofTransportation,FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)FlexibilityinHighway

Design.[FHWAPD97062]ReportbytheFederalHighwayAdministration.Availableat

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/flex/index.htm

UnitedStatesDepartmentofTransportation,FederalHighwayAdministration.(2007,March)ResultsofJoint

AASHTO/FHWAContextSensitiveSolutionsStrategicPlanningProcessSummaryReport.Preparedbythe

CenterofTransportationandtheEnvironment,NorthCarolinaUniversity.Availableathttp://environment.transportation.org/pdf/context_sens_sol/portlandsummary_final.pdf

UnitedStatesDepartmentofTransportation,FederalHighwayAdministrationandFederalTransitAdministration.

(1996).PublicInvolvementTechniquesforTransportationDecisionMaking.[FHWAPD96031]ReporttotheFHWAandFTA.PreparedbyHoward/SteinHudsonAssociates,Inc.andParsonsBrinckerhoffQuadeand

Douglas.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/reports/pittd/cover.htm.

230




Traffic Emissions Reduction AE-4


x BecomeanearlyadopteragencyoftheMOVES2010software.

x Considerimplementingintelligenttransportationsystems(ITS)fordynamicpricingandconversionofexisting

highoccupancyvehicle(HOV)lanestohighoccupancytoll(HOT)lanes.

x Notethatsometolledfacilitieswerenotinstalledtomanagecongestion.Inorderfortollfacilitiestomeetthe

intentofthiscredit,roadwayprojectswithinatolledsystem,especiallyiftheusercostisstatic,reducescongestionusingtheMOVES2010softwareandprovidingsupportinginformationasnoted.

Example: Congestion Pricing in Puget Sound – Traffic Choices Study

In2002,thePugetSoundRegionalCouncil(PSRC)receivedagranttobecomeapilotprojectwiththeValuePricingPilot(VPP)programwiththeFederalHighwayAdministration.Theobjectofthestudywastomonitor

behavioralchanges(numberoftrips,mode,route,andtimeofvehicletrips)tovariableorcongestionbasedtolling.TheTrafficChoicesStudy(PSRC,2008)usedglobalpositioningsystem(GPS)tollingmeterstotrack

drivingpatternsfor275volunteerhouseholds,beforeandafterexperimentaltollswerechargedforuseofmajorfreewaysandarterialsinSeattle.Whilenocostwasincurredbythevolunteers,severalimportant

changesintraveldemandwereobservedthathavesignificantimplicationsonreducingemissions.These

resultsincluded:

x Alltrips(toursperweek)decreased7%

x Vehiclemilestraveled(milesperweek)decreased12%

x Drivetime(minutesofdrivingperweek)decreased8%

x Toursegments(segmentsoftoursperweek)decreased6%

x Milesdrivenontolledroads(tolledmilesperweek)decreased13%.

MoreinformationabouttheTrafficChoicesStudyisavailableat:http://www.psrc.org/transportation/traffic.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. NotethatthetransportationsectordesignationofmanyenergyuseorGHGemissionsstatisticsdonotinclude

processesfordesignorconstructionofroadways.Thisislikelyduetothesmalltimescaleofconstruction

activitieswhencomparedtothemuchlongerservicelifeoftheroaditself.Dependingonthelifecyclemodelusedandwhatthesystemboundariesofthatmodelare,eithertheusephase(i.e.vehicularemissions)ortheproductionofmaterials(i.e.themanufacturingorconstructionprocess)havebeenshowntohavethehighest

overallimpactonGHGandenergyuse.Thesevaluesarehighlyvariabledependentonlocation,capacity,typeofroadway,multimodalaccess,maintenance,andamountofcongestion,tonamejustafew.

2. TheEPAMOVES2010modeliscurrentlythebestavailablequantitativeapproachtomodelingusephasevehicle

emissions.(EPA,2009f)Aswithanysoftwareprogram,thismodelhasbuiltinassumptionsthatmaybe

counterindicativeofappropriatenessforaparticularroadwayproject.ThelimitationsofEPAMOVES2010

shouldbeunderstoodpriortopursuingthiscredit.

RESEARCH

ThoughGreenroadsisintendedtobemosteasilyimplementedduringthedesignandconstructionphasesofthe

roadwaylifecycle,theimpactoftheuseandoperationsphaseandtheplanningimplicationsoftheroadwayinthisphaseareunavoidable.Ignoringtheseimplicationswouldberemiss,sinceclearlyimplementingsuchemissions

reductionprogramsresultsinaroadwaythatismoresustainableoverall.Thiscreditrewardsplanningstepsthat

havebeenimplementedinordertoreducetheoveralllifecycleemissionsimpactduetovehiculartrafficfrom

roadsinordertopromotehumanandenvironmentalhealth.Additionally,researchintheseareasalsoshowsthat

thereareexternalbenefits,suchasincreasedservicelife(andtherefore,reducedlongtermmaintenancecosts)

andhumanhealthimprovements,thatareassociatedwithsystematictollingprograms.

232





intheairareregulatedbytheEPA,whocomparestestedlevelstoallowablelevelssetinthe1990CleanAirAct

(CAA)amendments(40CFR§50)NationalAmbientAirQualityStandard(NAAQS).(EPA,2009b;EPA,2009c)

Itisimportanttonotefuelcombustionalsoaccountsformostoftheindirectgreenhousegases(EPA,2009a)

whichincludeCO,NOX,nonmethanevolatileorganiccompounds(NMVOCs),andSO2.Indirectgreenhouse

gases“donothaveadirectglobalwarmingeffect,butindirectlyaffectterrestrialradiationabsorptionby

influencingtheformationanddestructionoftroposphericandstratosphericozone,or,inthecaseofSO2,byaffectingtheabsorptivecharacteristicsoftheatmosphere.Additionally,someofthesegasesmayreactwithotherchemicalcompoundsintheatmospheretoformcompoundsthataregreenhousegases.”(EPA,2009a)

TableAE4.1summarizesthepercentagecontributionsofselectedpollutantsfromthetransportationsector.

Mostoftheemissionscomefromuseofhighwayvehiclesandheavytrucks.Also,notably,transportation

accountsforthemajorityofcarbonmonoxideandnitrogenoxideemissionsintheUnitedStates(Davis,Diegel

&Boundy,2009).

TableAE4.1:Transportation’sShareofU.S.EmissionsofVariousPollutants,2007

(AdaptedfromTable12.1inDavis,Diegel&Boundy,2009)

Pollutants ChemicalSymbol Percentage ofTotalU.S.Emissions(%)in2007

Carbonmonoxide CO 68.4

Nitrogenoxides NOX 57.1

Volatileorganiccompounds(VOC) Various 33.9

Sulfurdioxide SO2 8.9

Ammonia NH3 5.7

Particulatematter PM10 2.7

PM2.5 7.2

Lead Pb Notincluded

Ozone O3 NotIncluded

Notethatthetermtransportationsectormeanshumanuseofvehiclesonroadways,andcommonlytheair

pollutantcontributionsduetoconstructionareomittedfromstatisticalreports.TheDOEdatainTableAE4.1

werealsonotspecificallyadjustedforenduseelectricityorenergyforthetransportationsectorandincludescontributionsfromairandfreightmodes.Duetotheincreasedavailabilityofunleadedgasolineandrelatedregulationssincethemid1980s,theprevalenceofthecriteriapollutantleadhasdecreasedsignificantly(EPA,

2009d)anditisnotincludedinthestatisticsshown.Similarly,groundlevelozoneisnotincludedbecauseitisnotemitteddirectly;instead,itisformedduetoachemicalreactionofnitrogenoxidesandVOCsinsunlight

(2009d).

HowareAirEmissionsfromTransportationModeled?

TheEPAisrequiredbytheCAAtocontinuallytrackandupdateairqualitydatafrommobilesourceemissions,

aswellasitssoftwaremodelsusedtomeasurevehicleemissions.PriortotheDecember2009releaseof

MOVES2010softwarefromtheOfficeofTransportationandAirQuality(OTAQ),eitherMOBILE6.2orprevious

versionsoftheMOVESprogramwererequiredtobeusedtodevelopemissionsmodelsduringcreationofstateimplementationplansforairqualityperformance.Now,theEPAstatesthatMOVES2010isthebestavailable

toolforemissionsmodelingfortransport.(EPA,2009f)Recentdata(collectedwithinthelast10yearsusingthebestavailabletechnologiesandimprovedmonitoringandcontrols)wasusedtodeveloptheemissions

algorithmsinMOVES2010.Currently,thereisatwoyeargraceperiodbeforetheEPAwillrequireadoptionoftheMOVES2010softwareinallregulatedagencies.(EPA,2009f)TheaddedfeaturesofMOVES2010,when

comparedtoMOBILE6.2,allowimprovedcalculationofgreenhousegasemissions(aswellascriteriapollutants)becauseitisbaseduponuserinputsfortransportationplanning,vehiclemilestraveled(VMT)andspeedsand

notsolelyuponfuelconsumption.(ICFConsulting,2006)

234





substantialimprovementsinvehiclefuelefficiencyhavebeenachievedinthepastdecades,therearesimply

moredriversontheroadatpeakhoursinmanylocationsthancanfitcomfortably.Congestionpricingoffersa

meansofapproachingthesechallengesthroughmoreeffectiveuseofroadwaycapacityandinfluencing

travelerbehaviorsthrougheconomictools.

Congestionpricingworksbyapplyingavariablecosttotheusersoftheroadwayfacilityduringpeaktravel

times,therebyloweringtraveldemand,reducingthenumberofvehiclesonaroadway,andreducingemissionsduetofeweridlingvehicles(CBO,2009;Daniel&Bekka,2000).Daniel&Bekka(2000)notethat“Travelersdonotconsidercostsofdelayorpollutiontheyimposeonothers,butonlytheirowntravelcosts.Assessing

congestionfeesequaltotheadditionaltravelcoststhattravelersimposeonothersinternalizesthesecostsandpromotesefficientuseoflimitedroadwaycapacity.”Becausecongestionpricingimprovesefficiency(bynot

overloadingthestructuralcapacityofthepavement),thelifetimeoftheroadwayisincreased,whichcorrespondstolesslifetimemaintenanceneedandthereforereducedlifecyclecosts.Also,congestionpricing

hasalsobeenfoundtoproduceenormousnetsocialbenefitsvaluedbetween$1945billion(2005dollars)

(CBO,2009),andonceimplemented,hasasurprisinglylowpublicdisapprovalratinginmostcases

(Verbruggen,2008).

ABriefNoteonEquity

Theroleofequityinthedebateoverairqualityintransportationpolicyiscomplex,aswithanyethicaldebate

regardingpolitics,economicsandcommunitiesofpeople.Woodcocketal.(2007)notesthatcurrentlevelsofautomobileuseinhighincomecommunitiesarenotsustainablebecausetheydonotprovideequalaccessor

mobility.ArecentstudybyDietz&Atkinson(2005)highlightsseveralofthecoreequityissues,includingdisparitybetweenpollutiondistributionbecauseofphysicalprocesses(i.e.someareashavelowerairquality

thanothers),economicpolicy(wheretheeconomicortaxburdenoftransportpoliciesisoftenunevenly

distributed,andsometimeshardesthitarelowincomegroups),andaccountabilityforthegenerationof

transportationemissions.However,theCBO(2009)reportsthatstudiesoftheequitychallengesdueto

congestionpricinghavefoundsupportamongallincomegroupswhereithasbeenimplemented.Notably,

Dietz&Atkinson(2005)pointout“thefactthatsomeenjoycleanerairthanothersissignificant.”Fromthisit

followsthatbecausecleanerairbenefitseveryoneandtheenvironment,thehumanequitydiscussion(while

bothimportantandinevitable)issecondarytotheoverallenvironmentalqualitygoal.Also,otherimportant

equityissuescanarisebetweencommunitiesandroadwaysduetocertainplacementorlocationnearhigh

densitytrafficareas(Appatova,Ryan,LeMasters&Grinshpun,2008),orproximityanddensityofcertaincommunitiestolowrisestructureswhichcantrappollutantsina“streetcanyon”effect(Salizzoni,Soulhac&

Mejean,2009).Equityissuesregardingaccessandmobilityneedsarefurtheraddressedinsubsequent

Greenroadscreditsformultimodaltransportalternativesandsolutions.However,Greenroadsdoesnot

addresslanduse,planningandzoningorothercommunitylocationissues;itisnotknownifthisiseither

possibleorappropriateforsuchametric,andingeneraltheseissuesfalloutsidethescopeofGreenroads.

ProjectLevelImplications

TheCleanAirAct(CAA)andwellasformerfederalmandates,suchastheIntermodalSurfaceTransportation

EfficiencyAct(ISTEA),theTransportationEquityActforthe21st

Century(TEA21),andtheSafe,Accountable,

Flexible,EfficientTransportationEquityAct:ALegacyforUsers(SAFETEALU)givestateagenciestheauthorityto

regulateandcontrolairpollutionthroughavarietyofmeans(Daniel&Bekka,2000)[Notethatasofthiswriting,

theSAFETEALUregulationhasexpiredandnoreplacementhasbeenpassedbyCongress.Itisassumedthestate

authoritywillbepreserved.]Ingeneral,implementingbroadagencypoliciesthatprovidemitigationstrategiesforcurbingairemissionsarelikelytobeverychallenging(Fisher&Costanza,2005)andalsounfamiliar.Congestion

pricingschemesmayalsobeunfamiliar(orworse,unwanted)bypublicstakeholders(Verbruggen,2008,CBO,

2009).But,D’Avignonetal.(2009)showthatwhileglobalairemissionsimpactsdonottranslatewellenoughtobe

measuredeasilyormeaningfullyatlocalandregionalscales,theimpactsoflocalemissionspoliciescanstillbe

effectiveatreducinglocalsectorcontributions.Similarly,congestionpricinghasbeenwellestablishedasan

effectivemeasureforreducingvehicleemissionsandincreasingefficiencyofroadwaycapacity.(FHWA,2009;

Hecker,2003;CBO,2009;Verbruggen,2008)

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AE-4 Traffic Emissions Reduction

D’Avignonetal.(2009)statethatthisistrueespeciallywhenemissionsinventoriesareusedtoestablishinitial

policybenchmarks,reductiontargets,andlocalactionplansformitigation.(Formoreinformationonemissions

inventories,seeProjectRequirementPR3LifeCycleInventory).Whileanemissionsactionplanorpolicydoesnot

guaranteesuccessoreffectiveness,especiallyiftargetsarecontinuallyunmetorpushedfurtherintothefuture,it

doesallowforincreasedlocaladaptabilityforlongrangeclimatechangeplanningandprojectspecificityfor

emissions,aswellasuniformityoflocalandregionalpolicyandpractice(Fisher&Costanza,2005).The

introductionofpricingschemesintheshorttermmightassistinfutureacceptanceofsuchpolicies.

Pricingschemesdifferinutilityataprojectlevelcomparedtoregionalpoliciesbecausetheycanbeappliedona

projectbyprojectbasis.Basically,thisallowsacorridortobebuiltandpricingtobeimplementedinapiecewisemanner,whichismoremanageableandrealisticonaprojectscale.However,piecewisemanagementalsocomes

withtradeoffsbecauseitstillrequiresadequateandthoughtfulplanningaswellaspublicinvolvementpriortobeingimplementedsuccessfullyandeffectively.

AdditionalResources

TheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)aspartofNationalCooperative

HighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)oftheTransportationResearchBoard(TRB)Task2525completeda

comprehensivestudyin2006ofavailableassessmenttechniquesformodelinggreenhousegasemissionsin

transportationprojects(ICFConsulting,2006).Thisreportreviewsthebestavailabletechniquesandpolicy

recommendationsfortransportationplanners,andalsohighlightsvarioustoolsforcalculation,strategicplanning,andenergy/economicforecasting.ThedocumentdiscussestheadvantagesandlimitationsoftheEPAMOVES

softwareforemissionsmodeling.MoreinformationisavailableinNCHRP2525(17),AssessmentofGreenhouse

GasAnalysisTechniquesforTransportationProjects.

TheEPAprovidesuptodateanddetailedstatisticalinformationaboutGHG,indirectGHG,andcriteriapollutant

emissionsduetofossilfuelcombustionandthetransportationsector.Additionally,theEPAprovidesandmanages

distributionofthefreeMOVES2010softwareandprovidespolicyguidanceforimplementinginSIPs.More

informationonthesetopicsisavailablehere:

x 2010U.S.GreenhouseGasInventoryReport:

http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/usinventoryreport.html

x GreenBook:NonAttainmentAreasonCriteriaPollutants(includesNAAQSanddatalinks):http://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/greenbk/index.html

x TheMotorVehicleEmissionsSimulator(MOVES2010)andallrelevantguidanceandtechnicaldocumentation:

http://www.epa.gov/otaq/models/moves/index.htm

WhiletheUnitedStatesdidnotratifytheKyotoProtocol,manyindividualstateshavebecomeinvolvedatapolicy

levelinclimatechangeandemissionstargeting(Fisher&Costanza,2005;Mayors’ClimateProtectionCenter,

2009).TheMayorsClimateProtectionCenterlists1,016individualcitieswhosemayorshaveagreedtoreducelocal

emissionsfrom1990valuesby7%in2012.Therearealsomanyregionalinitiatives,suchastheRegional

GreenhouseGasInitiative(RGGI)andtheWesternClimateInitiativewhichhavestartedCO2budgettrading

programs.MoreinformationaboutlocalandregionalGHGinitiativescanbefoundhere:

x MayorsClimateProtectionCenter:http://usmayors.org/climateprotection/list.asp

x WesternClimateInitiative:http://www.westernclimateinitiative.org/

x RegionalGreenhouseGasInitiative:http://www.rggi.org/home

TheCongressionalBudgetOffice(CBO)recently(2009)publishedacomprehensivereviewofcongestionpricingin

theUnitedStates,UsingCongestionPricingtoReduceTrafficCongestion.Thisdocumentisavailableforfreeat

http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/97xx/doc9750/0311CongestionPricing.pdf

237





Salizzoni,P.,Soulhac,L.,&Mejean,P.(2009).Streetcanyonventilationandatmosphericturbulence. Atmospheric

Environment.43(32),5056.



VerBruggen,R.(2008).TollTalkCongestionpricingisthecureforourovercrowdedhighways.NationalReview.60(21),28.

WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcology.(2009).2020Collaboration|ClimateChange|WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcology.AccessedDecember30,2009.Availableat:

http://www.ecy.wa.gov/climatechange/2020collaboration.htm

WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcology.(2009).2009ExecutiveOrder|ClimateChange|WashingtonState

DepartmentofEcology.AccessedDecember30,2009.Availableat:

http://www.ecy.wa.gov/climatechange/2009EO.htm

WesternClimateInitiative.(2009).WesternClimateInitiative.AccessedDecember28,2009.Availableat:

http://www.westernclimateinitiative.org/

Woodcock,J.etal.(2007).Energyandtransport.Lancet.370(9592),107888.

Woodcock,J.etal.(2009).Publichealthbenefitsofstrategiestoreducegreenhousegasemissions:urbanland

transport.Lancet.374(9705),193043.

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Pedestrian Access AE-5

2009).Othermeansofsafedesigninclude,increasingthedistancebetweenthestoplineandcrosswalkatan

intersectionandputtingupsomesortofnotificationtodrivers(signs,lights,etc.)thatpedestriansarelikelytobe

presentinthearea(Ewing&Dumbaugh,2009).

BenefitsofActiveTransport

Increasedpedestriantravelcanalsoprovidehealthbenefits.Arecentstudycomparedthecurrentstateof

travelandmodeledamoresustainabletypeoftravelusingmorewalkingandbicyclesandreducingtheamountofcarsontheroad.Thestudyfoundthetendencyforseveralchronicdiseasescouldbereducedbyhavingahigherpopulationoftravelerswhomusewalkingorbicyclesastheirmainmodeoftransportation(Woodcock

et.al.,2009).

ConsiderationsforDisabledUsers

Thegoalofprovidingpedestrianfacilitiesistoprovideameansforeveryonetotravel,includingpeoplewith

specialneeds.SomeimprovementstosidewalksaremandatedbytheAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct(ADA)of

1990andspecificguidelinesareavailableat:http://www.accessboard.gov/adaag/html/adaag.htm.For

transportationfacilitiesthiscouldinclude:sidewalksslopedforeasyaccessornoisemakingdevicesinstalledat

intersectioncrosswalks.

BoostLocalEconomies&ImproveMobility

Theadventofnewfacilitiesonitsowncanalsoencouragetravelthroughoutthearea.Thisissimplybasedonincreasingtheoverallpedestriannetworkthroughoutthearea.Withgapsinapedestriannetwork,itcanincrease

thedistanceapedestrianisforcedtotravel,andcandiscouragethemfromusingwalkingasaprimarymodeof

transportation(Randall&Baetz,2001).

GLOSSARY

REFERENCES

AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayTransportationOfficials.(2004). AASHTO Guide for the Planning,Design, and Operation of Pedestrian Facilities.1sted.Washington,DC:AASHTO.

ContextSensitiveSolutions.(2005).NewYorkCity,MulrySquare.Accessedat:

http://www.contextsensitivesolutions.org/content/case_studies/mulrysquare

Ewing,R.,&Dumbaugh,E.(2009).TheBuiltEnvironmentandTrafficSafety:AReviewofEmpiricalEvidence.

JournalofPlanningLiterature,23(4),347367.doi:10.1177/0885412209335553.

Randall,T.A.,&Baetz,B.W.(2001).EvaluatingPedestrianConnectivityforSuburbanSustainability. Journalof

UrbanPlanningandDevelopment ,127 (1),115.doi:10.1061/(ASCE)07339488(2001)127:1(1).

Woodcock,J.,Edwards,P.,Tonne,C.,Armstrong,B.G.,Ashiru,O.,Banister,D.,etal.(2009).Publichealthbenefits

ofstrategiestoreducegreenhousegasemissions:urbanlandtransport.Lancet.374(9705),19301943.

Zhou,H.,Zhao,J.,Hsu,P.,&Rouse,J.(2008).IdentifyFactorsAffectingNumberofStudentsWalkingorBikingto

School.In ASCEConf.Proc.(Vol.330,p.253).Chengdu,China:ASCE.doi:10.1061/40996(330)253.

ADA AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct

Pedestrian Apersonwhomistravelingwithouttheuseofamechanicaldeviceandmain

modeoftransportationiswalking.

Sidewalk Asurfaceprovidedspecificallyforpedestriantravelthatisseparatefromthe

roadway

244




AE-6 Bicycle Access

BICYCLE ACCESSGOAL

Promotebicyclingincommunitiesbyprovidingdedicatedcyclingfacilitieswithinthe

projectrightofway.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

AchieveCreditAE3ContextSensitiveSolutions(CSS)anddescribetheneed,purpose

andappropriatenessforplanned,new,orupgradedbicyclefacilitiesinthesubmitted

documentforCreditAE3.TheCSSdocumentshouldclearlynotewhetherbicycle

facilitiesorimprovementsarerequiredorhaveotherwisebeenrequestedbythe

public.Inordertoachievethiscredit,abicycleonlyfacilitymustbepresentwithinthe

ROWatthestartofconstructionorresultfromconstructionofthisproject.TableAE

6.1showsthepointsavailableforthiscredit.

TableAE6.1:AvailablePointsforCreditAE6

Points Requirements

1 Implementnew(orimproveexisting)operationsortechnologiesforbicyclefacilities.Thisincludes(butisnotlimitedto)addedsignageorminoraccess

improvementsforbicycles,suchasinstallingbicycledetectorsindriving

lanesorgrantingsignalpriority,addingbicyclefriendlystormwaterdrains,

coderequireddimensionupgrades,resurfacingexistingbicyclelanes,or

addingnewstreetsidebicyclestoragefacilities(lockers,racks,etc.).

2 Implementphysicalorconstructedchangestotheroadwaystructure,

dimensions,orformthatprovidebicycleonlyfacilitieswithdedicatedaccess

withintheROW,suchasabicyclelane,orotherbikeway.Lanessharedwith

motorizedvehiclesdonotmeetthisrequirement.

Details

Forpurposesofthiscredit,thetermbicyclereferstoapedaldriven,humanpoweredvehiclewithatleastoneseatforanoperator.Sharedusepathwayis

definedasamultiusepathwayforallnonmotorizedusersincludingpedestrians

andbicyclists.ThismaybelocatedwithinaroadwayRightofWayyetmustbe

separatedfromtheroadwayandhavewiderwidthsthansidewalks.

Currentfacilitiesdonotalonequalifyforthiscreditwithoutadditionaleffort,such

asupgrades,improvementsorconstructionofnewfacilities.Theattemptto

providepedestrianaccessmustbedeliberateandasadirectresultoftheproject.

DOCUMENTATION

x CopyofthesectionthatfocusesonbicyclefacilitiesintheCreditAE3:Context

SensitiveSolutionsdocumentation.Thissectionshouldaddress:

a. Purposeandneedforbicycleaccessontheroadwayprojectdetermined

throughaprojectanalysisoraBicycleMasterplanningprocess.

b. Regulatoryorjurisdictionalstandardsaddressed,ifany

c. Resultsofpublicinputonproposedbicyclefacilities,ifany

d. Totalcostassociatedwithneworimprovedbicyclefacilities

e. Contractspecificationsandplansforproposedbicyclefacilities

AE-6

1-2 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 AE3Context

SensitiveSolutions

9 AE4Traffic

EmissionsReduction

9 AE5Pedestrian

Access

9 AE7Transit&HOVAccess

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Equity

9 Economy

BENEFITS

9 ReducesFossilFuel

Use


9 ReducesGreenhouse

Gases

9 ImprovesAccess

9 ImprovesMobility

9 ImprovesHuman

Health&Safety

9 ImprovesLocal

Economies

245




Bicycle Access AE-6


x Includeelementssuchasbicyclelanes,separatedbicyclepathsoradjacentsharedusepathsindesignswhen

requiredbydesignstandards,orcommunitytransportationplans,orbycommunityrequest.

x Reviewlocalbicycleplansandmapsoftheexistingbicyclenetworkstounderstandhowtheroadwaywill

interactwiththeexistingandplanned,roadwaytransportation,andbicycleandpedestriansystems..Thismay

includesharedusepathwaysorparkplans.x Includelocalbicycleplannersandadvocatesinadvisorycommittees,projectdevelopmentormanagement

teams,ordecisionmakingcommitteesasappropriate.Consultwithplannerstounderstandhowtheproject

cansupportthedevelopmentofthebicyclenetworkandtopromotecyclingincommunities.

x Designroadwayimprovementsandnewroadwaystoaccommodateexisting,newandplannedbicyclefacilities.

x Relyontheassessmentoflocalplannersandadvocateswherenoexistingbicycleplanexistsabouthowto

integrateexistingandfuturemultimodalfacilitiesintotheprojectdesign.

x Considerhowaneworredesignedroadwaywillimpacttheexistingorplannedbicyclenetworksandintegrate

designelementswithothermodalfacilities(e.g.bicycleandtransit)tomitigateoverallimpacts.Thismaymean

providingconnectionsoradaptabilityforfuturebicyclelanes,sharedusepathways,crossingsorotherfacilities

withinthebicyclenetwork.

Example: Dedicated Access on a Roadway

Below,FigureAE6.1showshowadedicatedaccessforbicyclesshouldbemarkedaccordingtotheManualfor

UniformTrafficControlDevices(FHWA,2009).

1point 1point

1point

FigureAE6.1:Examplesofappropriatesignagefordedicatedbicycleaccess.(FHWA,2009)

FigureAE6.2isanexampleoflanemarkingsthatpromotededicatedbicycleaccess(FHWA,2009).Asshownin

thefigure,bicyclistsareprovidedtheirownseparatelaneonaroadwayfortravel.

FigureAE6.3showshowaccessshouldbemarkedforbicyclesthatareutilizingthesamespaceasmotor

vehicles;howeverwhilethesignaboveearnsonepoint(ifnonepreviouslyexisted)becausethishelpsincreasesawarenessofbicycleusersonaroutewithmotorvehicles(andtheoreticallyincreasessafety),thelaneitselfby

definitiondoesnotprovideddedicatedaccessforbicyclists.

246




Bicycle Access AE-6

Example: Case Study - Bridgeport Way University Place, Washington

BridgeportWaywasimprovedin2005toaccommodateamorecontextsensitiveroadwayinUniversityPlace,

Washington.Indoingso,thecityofUniversityPlacewasabletosignificantlyreduceaccidentsontheroadway,

whileprovidinganincreasedemphasisonpedestrian,bicycleandtransituseinthroughthearea.Asshownin

thefiguresbelow,therewasadrasticchangeinthechannelizationoftheroadwaytoprovideadequate

facilitiestobroadenthemodesavailableforusethroughthecorridor.Thenewdesignoftheroadwayproved

toreducetrafficspeedswhichcanencouragemorebicycleusethroughthearea(ContextSensitiveSolutions,

2005).Simplybyaddingthefacilitiestotheroadway,thecityofUniversityPlacehasencouragedtheuseof

bicycletravelaswellaspedestriantravel.

FigureAE6.4:BridgeportWayBeforeConstruction.(ContextSensitiveSolutions,2005)

FigureAE6.5BridgeportWayAfterConstruction(ContextSensitiveSolutions,2005)

248




AE-6 Bicycle Access

POTENTIAL ISSUES

Encouragingcyclinginareaswheretherewaspreviouslynocyclingmayresultinincreasedbicyclecrashesand

collisions.Carefulplanningforbicyclesandmeetingengineeringandsafetystandardscanhelptomitigatethese

instances.

RESEARCHIncreasingthebicyclefacilitiesalongagivencorridorcanhaveabeneficialresultontheoverallsustainabilityofa

givenroadway.Thebenefitsofincludingbicyclefacilitiescanincludemakingamoreequitableroadway,

decreasingtheamountofcurrenttrafficontheroadway,andalsoprovidehealthbenefitstousersofthefacilities.

Bicyclesandpedestriansareoftengroupedtogetherbecausetheyareeasilydistinguishedfrommotorizedmodes

thatusearightofway.Also,bothwalkingandbicyclingareconsidered“activetransport”(Woodcocketal.,2009)

modes.Therefore,muchofsupportingresearchforthiscreditandCreditAE5PedestrianAccessoverlap,andwill

notberepeatedhereforbrevity.Improvedmobilityandaccess,environmentalandeconomicbenefits,andhealth

improvementsoftheseactivemodesareaddressedinCreditAE5.

BicycleSafety

Thesafetyconsiderationsforbicyclistsaretypicallyinvolvedindrivingonthesamesurfaceasmotorvehicles.

Severalsafetymeasuresareavailabletoincreasesthesafetyofbothmotorvehiclesandbicyclists.TheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficialsrecommendsthatbikelaneshavedimensionsofatleast

fourfeetinwidthandarelocatedbetweenthelaneoftravelandsidewalkorparkinglane.Thisreducesthechance

ofaccidentsbetweenbicyclesandvehicles(AASHTO,1999).

However,EwingandDumbaugh(2009)showthatthebestmethodtoincreasesafetyforbicyclesandpedestrians

isbyincreasingawarenessthroughnotificationorsignagealongarightofway.Theyalsoshowthatincreasesin

overallnumbersofbicyclists(andpedestrians)offer“safetyinnumbers”becauseofheightenedawareness.

Furthermore,dedicatedaccessforbicyclesprovidescomfortabletravelwithoutlanesharingaswellasimproved

safety.Reynoldsetal.(2009)hasshowndedicatedaccesscanreducebicyclevehicleaccidentsbyupto50percent

comparedtoshareduselanes.

GLOSSARY

REFERENCES

AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO).(1999).Guideforthedevelopment

ofbicyclefacilities.Washington,D.C.:AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials.

ContextSensitiveSolutions.(2005).BridgeportWay–UniversityPlace,Washington.Availableat

http://www.contextsensitivesolutions.org/content/case_studies/kentucky_bridgeport/

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2009).ManualforUniformTrafficControlDevices(MUTCD).

Washington,DC:FHWA.Availableathttp://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/htm/2009/html_index.htm

Ewing,R.,&Dumbaugh,E.(2009).TheBuiltEnvironmentandTrafficSafety:AReviewofEmpiricalEvidence.

JournalofPlanningLiterature,23(4),347367.doi:10.1177/0885412209335553.


Activetransport Walkingorbiking(humanpoweredtransport)

Bicycle Apedaldriven,humanpoweredvehiclewithatleastoneseatforan

operator


249




AE-7 Transit & HOV Access

TRANSIT & HOV ACCESSGOAL

Promoteuseofpublictransitandcarpoolsincommunitiesbyprovidingnewtransit

andHOVfacilitiesorbyupgradingexistingfacilitiesintheroadwayrightofway.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

AchieveCreditAE3ContextSensitiveSolutions(CSS)anddescribetheneed,purpose

andappropriatenessforplanned,new,orupgradedtransitandHOVfacilitiesinthe

submitteddocumentforCreditAE3.TheCSSdocumentmustdemonstratethatat

leastonemasstransitrouteand/orHOVfacilityexists,orisplannedtoexistwithin5

yearsofthestartofconstruction,thatisaccessiblefromtheprojectROWwithin0.25

mile.TableAE7.1showsthepointcriteriaforthiscredit.

TableAE7.1:AvailablePointsforCreditAE7

Points Requirements

Any

1

a. Enhanceatleast50%oftransitstation orstopamenities (lighting,trash

bins,benches,payphones,heatingand/orcooling,etc.)b. Improveatleast50%ofthetransitandHOVfacilitysignage(relatedto

transit&HOV)andvehicularaccess(beyondbasicADArequirements)

c. Providetransitsheltersatmorethan50%ofthecorridorstations/stops

d. Provideaccesstonewpark&ridelotsinstrategiclocations.

2 Implementtwoormoreoftheimprovementsfromthelistabove.


dimensionsorformthatprovideHOVaccessorminordedicatedtransit

accesswithintheROW,suchasacarpoollaneforHOVvehicleorqueue

jumplanesfortransitvehicles.


dimensionsorformthatprovidededicatedtransitaccesswithintheROW,

suchasanonstreetbuslaneoranexpresswaybuslane.5 Implementphysicalorconstructedchangestotheroadwaystructure,

dimensionsorformthatprovideexclusivemasstransitaccesswithinthe

ROW,suchasatgradeorgradeseparatedtransitways.

Details

ThepointcriteriaforthiscreditareroughlybasedontheFederalTransityAuthority

(FTA)criteriafromCharacteristicsofBusRapidTransitforDecisionMaking(CBRT)

andTCRP90,BusRapidTransitbyDiazandHinebaugh(2009).

DOCUMENTATION

x Copyofthesectionthatfocusesontransit&HOVfacilitiesintheCreditAE3:

ContextSensitiveSolutionswhitepaper.Thissectionshouldaddress:

a. Purposeandneedfortransit&HOVaccessontheroadwayproject,including

howitfitswithexistinglandusesand/orexistingGeneralandTransportation

Plans

b. Regulatoryorjurisdictionalstandardsaddressed,ifany

c. Resultsofpublicinputonproposedtransit&HOV,ifany

d. Totalcostassociatedwithneworimprovedtransit&HOVfacilities

e. Contractspecificationsandbudgetitemsaddressingtransit&HOV

AE-7

1-5 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 AE2Intelligent

Transportation

Systems

9 AE3Context

SensitiveSolutions

9 AE4Traffic

EmissionsReduction9 AE5Pedestrian

Access

9 AE6BicycleAccess

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Equity

9 Economy

9 Experience

BENEFITS9 ReducesFossilFuel

Use

9 ReducesAir

Emissions

9 ReducesGreenhouse

Gases

9 ImprovesAccess

9 ImprovesMobility

251




Transit & HOV Access AE-7


x Reviewlocalplansandexistingtransitserviceplanstounderstandhowtheroadwaywillinteractwiththe

existingandplannedtransitsystem.Becauseofthestrongconnectionsbetweenthepedestrianandbike

systemandtransit,thismayoverlapwithbikeandpedestrianplanning.Seerelatedcreditsforfurtherdetails.

x Includethelocaltransitprovider(s)inadvisorycommittees,projectdevelopmentormanagementteams,or

decisionmakingcommitteesasappropriate.x Consultwithlocaltransitprovider(s)tounderstandhowtheroadwayprojectcansupporttheiroperationsand

futureexpansion.

x Considerhowaneworredesignedroadwaywillimpacttheexistingorplannedpedestriannetworksandintegratedesignelementswithothermodalfacilities(e.g.bicycleandtransit)tomitigateoverallimpacts.For

example,thismightmeanincludingapedestriancrossingonamajorarterialthatcouldbeabarrierto

residentsreachingatransitfacility.

x Surveyexistingroutesandaskstakeholdersforsuggestionsonhowtoimproveaccesstoexistingtransit

facilitiesduringthepublicinvolvementprocess.

x Locateenhancementstotransitstation/stopamenitiesatmorethan50%ofthestations/stopsalongthe

corridorbasedoncost.Amenitiescouldincludeinstallingsafetylighting,trashreceptacles,benches,pay

phones,heatingand/orcoolingandothersimilarenhancements.Thisshouldbereflectedsomewhereinthe

projectbidlistorbudget.

x InstallsignageandimproveaccessthatisexclusivelyfortransitandHOVvehiclesonlytoearnthiscredit.Thisdistinctionisnottodiscourageacomprehensivesignageprogram;however,signageforpedestrianand

bicyclesareaddressedinCreditAE5PedestrianAccessandCreditAE6BicycleAccess.Acomprehensive

approachtosignageandaccessimprovementsatatransitandHOVfacilitycanultimatelyincludeallmodes

andbeeligibleforpointsinmultiplecredits.

x Identifytroublespotsfortransitandcombinetransitsignalprioritywithqueuejumplanestocreateanefficienttransitfacilityatminimalcost.ThiscanalsoearnpointswithCreditAE2IntelligentTransportationSystems.

x Consideraddingacarpoollane,whichencouragesmultiplepassengersineachvehicleandcanimprovetransittraveltimesandreliability.

x Improveaccessbeyondbasicrequirements,suchasADA.

x Improvesignagebeyondbasicrequirementswheresignagealreadyexists.Typesofsignageimprovements

couldincludeprovidingpassengerinformationamenities(maps,schedules,realtimesignage)atfacilitiesand

signsalongtheroadwaytodesignatetransitstations.x Placeadditionalparkandridelotsinstrategictransitand/orcarpoolaccesslocations.

x Provideextrawidthonsidewalkstoaccommodatetransitshelters.

x Designtheroadwaytoaccommodateanexclusivetransitlane.

x Accommodateanyplannedfixedguidewaysbyconstructinggradeseparatedcrossings.

Example: Point Calculations

2points

Aroadwaywithseveralmajortransitroutesisbeingresurfacedandabovegroundelectricalwiresarebeing

buriedasacomponentoftheproject.Alongwiththeroadwayimprovements,all(100%)ofthemajortransitstopsalongtheroutearebeingenhancedwithrealtimebusarrivalinformation,lighting,surveillancecameras,

areamapdisplaysandtrashcans.Thisprojectwouldearn2pointsbecauseitincludessignificant

improvements(over50%)toboth(a)amenitiesand(b)signage.

4points

Abusrapidtransitprojectincludesaroadwaywideningandrestripingtoaddanoutsidededicatedtransitlanewithsignalpriorityatintersections.Theprojectalsoincludesstationenhancementsatallthestationsalongthe

corridorwithnewshelters,gradeseparatedpedestrianaccess,realtimepassengerinformation,bicyclestoragelockersandseveralstationamenities.Thisprojectwouldreceive4pointsunderTransit&HOVAccess.

ThetransitsignalpriorityimprovementswouldbeeligiblefortheITScreditandpedestrianandbicycleimprovementswouldbeeligibleforthePedestrianAccessandBicycleAccesscredits.SeeFigureAE7.1.

252





FigureAE7.1:AnonstreetbuslaneinVancouver,Canada.4points.(PhotobyK.Watkins)

5points

SeeexamplesofagradeseparatedtransitwayinFigureAE7.2andanatgradetransitwayinFigureAE7.3.

FigureAE7.2:AgradeseparatedtransitwayinOttawa,Canadaworth.5points.(PhotobyK.Watkins)

253





FigureAE7.3:AnatgradetransitwayinEugene,Oregon.5points.(PhotobyK.Watkins)

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. ManytransitandHOVfacilities(suchasparkandridelotsandtransitcenters)willinvolveimprovementsthat

crossmultiplemodes.Inordertoawardcredithere,especiallywherenodrasticphysicalchangestothe

roadwaystructureorformareimplemented,improvementsandchangesshouldbeexclusivetoHOVand

transitusersanddistinguishable,viaabudgetitemforexample,fromotheramenitiesthatareforpedestrian

andbicyclists.Anexamplewouldbeimprovementstobusstopswherethesidewalkgradesareraisedto

accommodatebusrampsfordisablepassengers.Althoughtheintegrationoftransitwithbicyclesand

pedestriansiskeytoobtaininghigherridership,amenitieswhichareincludedinthePedestrianAccesscreditAE5andBicycleAccesscreditAE6cannotbeappliedagainhere.

2. Thiscreditpresupposestheintegrityofthedesigner:appropriatesignageandsafetymustbepreservedwith

thehigherpointsavailableinthiscredit.ThismeansthatatransitorHOVfacilitysuchasadedicatedbuswayor

carpoollaneisassumedtobesignedappropriatelyandwillnotbedesignedtoincreasesafetyrisk.Additionalpointsarenotawardedforsignageandaccessimprovementsforthehighervaluecreditsforthisreason.

3. IntelligentTransportationSystems(ITS),transit&HOVoftengohandinhandbutareexplicitlynotcoveredinthiscreditbecausetheyareincludedinCreditAE2IntelligentTransportationSystems.However,manyITS

applications,suchastravelerinformation,transitmanagement,andlanemanagementpairnicelywiththeimprovementsinthiscredit.

254





4. AestheticimprovementstotransitandHOVfacilitiesorotherpublicart,whileconsideredamenities,arenot

includedinthiscredit.SeeCreditAE9CulturalOutreach.Itispossibletoincludeallofthesethingsandearn

pointsacrossmultiplecredits.

5. Lightrailorbuswayprojectscanqualifyforthiscreditiftheymeetthecriteriaandarecompletedwithinthe

roadwayrightofway.Ingeneral,manyofthecreditsavailableinGreenroadsarebroadlyapplicableandmay

alsobeappliedtothesetypesofprojects,buttheymaylackthespecificityneededtobeeffectiveasametric

forsuchfacilities.6. Thiscreditfocusesintwoareas,runningwaysandstations.Thisisthesupportinginfrastructurefortransitand

HOVaccess,facilitiesandsystemservices.Corridorenhancementssuchasserviceimprovements(increased

service,neworspecializedservice,routerestructuring),branding,marketingandpartnershipprograms,

informationsystems,fareinnovations,andneworenhancedvehiclesareencouragedbutareoutsidethescope

oftheGreenroadsRatingSystem.

RESEARCH

Thesocietalbenefitsofpublictransportationarenumerous.Transitprovidesmobilitytothosewhocannotorchosenottodrive,includingaccesstojobs,educationandmedicalservices.Transitreducescongestion,gasoline

consumptionandthenation’scarbonfootprint(America’sPublicTransportationAssociation:APTA,2008).In2007,publictransportationsaved646millionhoursoftraveldelayand398milliongallonsoffuelintheU.S.,resultingin

asavingsof$13.7billionincongestioncosts(SchrankandLomax,2009).UseofpublictransportationreducedU.S.carbondioxide(CO2)emissionsby6.9millionmetrictonsin2005(DavisandHale,2007).Theincreaseduseof

transitonapercapitabasisiscriticaltothenation’seconomyandmeetingenvironmentalgoals.

Improvementstopublictransportationinfrastructurearecriticaltoanyplantoimprovethesustainabilityof

transportation.IntheUrbanLandInstitute’srecentlyproduced“MovingCooler”report(CambridgeSystematics,

2009),transitcapitalinvestmentshadtheabilitytoproducecumulativegreenhousegasreductionsof0.4to1.1

percentofbaselineemissions.Thereportidentifiespublictransportationimprovementsasoneofninekey

categoriesthatcanbebundledtoreduceemissions.Further,theWorldBank(Gwilliam,Kojima,andJohnson,2004)identifiesmodalshiftstononSOVmodesasakeytoreducingtransportsectoremissions.Theypointout

however,thatmixingcars,othervehiclesandnonmotorizedtransportwithpublictransportvehicles“reducestheaveragespeedoftrafficandmakesitdifficulttoestablishaneffectivebussystem.”

Infrastructureimprovementsshouldincludemeanstoseparatetransitvehiclesfromgeneralpurposetrafficto

makethemodecompetitive(Vuchic,2005;2007).Withoutexclusiverightofway,transitvehiclesareheldcaptive

bythecongestioncausedbylowoccupancyvehiclesandcannotimprovetheefficiencyofthetransportation

system.Forthisreason,thiscreditincludeshigherpointvaluesastheexclusivityoftransitrightofwayimproves.

AdditionalResources

Twoofthemostusefulreferencestounderstandingtheelementsforthiscreditare:

x TheFederalTransitAdministration’sCharacteristicsofBusRapidTransitforDecisionMaking(CBRT)guidance

documentbyDiazandHinebaugh(2009),whichisavailableat:

http://www.fta.dot.gov/documents/CBRT_2009_Update.pdf

x TransportationResearchBoard’sTransitCooperativeResearchProgram(TCRP)90,BusRapidTransit:Volume2:

ImplementationGuidelines,byLevinsonetal.(2003).Thisdocumentisavailableat:http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_90v2.pdf

Manyadditionalreferencesareincludedforconsiderationofotherapplicableplanninganddesignguidelines.Althoughcreditsareobtainedforincludingelements,properdesigniscriticaltothefunctionalityofthefacilities

andtheReferencessectionattheendofthiscreditshouldbeconsideredastartingpoint.

255





GLOSSARY

Atgradetransitway Roadsfortheexclusiveuseoftransitvehicleswithaccessallowedonlyatdesignedpoints,howeverintersectionsandothercrossingsareatgradeand

subjecttosignalization

BRT Busrapidtransit – aflexible,highperformancerapidtransitmodethat

combinesavarietyofphysical,operatingandsystemelementsintoapermanentlyintegratedsystemwithaqualityimageanduniqueidentity

CBRT CharacteristicsofBusRapidTransitforDecisionMaking,anFTAdocument

describingthemajorelementsofBRTandimpactonsystemperformance

Carpoollane Aroadwaylanedesignatedforvehicleswithmorethanoneoccupant

Dedicatedlane AlanedesignatedforonlytransitoronlyHOVuse

Expresswaybuslane Buslaneonanexpresswaydedicatedtobususeonly

FTA FederalTransitAdministration

Gradeseparatedtransitway Roadsfortheexclusiveuseoftransitvehicleswithaccessallowedonlyat

designedpoints,includeoverpassesorothergradeseparateatcrossingsto

minimizeconflictswithothervehicles

HOV HighOccupancyVehicle– avehiclewithtwoormoreoccupants

HOVfacility Aphysicalentity,structureorspacethatprovidesHOVaccessorservicestoorintheROW,suchasaparkandride,carpoollaneortransitcenter

ITS Intelligenttransportationsystems theintegrationofinformationand

electronicstechnologyintotransportationinfrastructuretorelieve

congestion,improvesafetyandenhanceproductivity

Masstransit Seetransit

Onstreetbuslane Alaneonanarterialorcollectorstreetreservedforbususeonly

Publictransit Seetransit

Queuejumplane Alaneusedatabottlenecklocation(typicallyintersections)toallowtransit

vehiclestocometothefrontofwaitingtrafficandbypassthequeuesby

receivinganearlygreensignal

SingleOccupantVehicle Vehicleswithoneoccupantofdrivingage(thedriver)

Station Transitpassengerpickupanddropofflocationsthatserveastheentryandexitpointfromthepublictransportationsystem

Runningway Thetrackorroadwayonwhichtransitoperates

TCRP TransitCooperativeResearchProgram aTransportationResearchBoard

researchinitiativeforpublictransportation

Transit Amodeoftransportationthat includesvehiclesopentopublicusesuchas

buses,lightrail,subways,ferriesandtrains

Transitsignalpriority Alterssignaltimingtogiveprioritytotransitvehiclesbyextendinggreentime,givingearlygreentimeorprovidinganexclusivetransitphase

REFERENCES

AmericanPublicTransportationAssociation(2007).PublicTransportation:Benefitsforthe21st

Century .Availableat

http://www.apta.com/resources/reportsandpublications/Documents/twenty_first_century.pdf

AmericanPublicTransportationAssociation(2008).PublicTransportationFactsataGlance.Availableat

http://www.apta.com/resources/reportsandpublications/Documents/facts_at_a_glance.pdf

AmericanPublicTransportationAssociation(2009).ChangingtheWayAmericaMoves:CreatingaMoreRobust

Economy,aSmallerCarbonFootprintandEnergyIndependence.Availableat

http://www.apta.com/resources/reportsandpublications/Documents/america_moves_09.pdf

256





CambridgeSystematics(2009).MovingCooler:AnAnalysisofTransportationStrategiesforReducingGreenhouse

GasEmissions.UrbanLandInstitute.AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableathttp://www.movingcooler.info/

Cleghorn,D.;Clavelle,A.;Boone,J.;Masliah,M.&Levinson,H.(2009).ImprovingPedestrianandMotoristSafety

AlongLightRailAlignments.TransitCooperativeResearchProgramReport137.TransportationResearchBoard.

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Davis,T.&Hale,M.(2007).PublicTransportation’sContributiontoU.S.GreenhouseGasReduction.Science

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Diaz,R.&Hinebaugh,D.(2009).CharacteristicsofBusRapidTransitforDecisionMaking.FederalTransit

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http://www.fta.dot.gov/documents/CBRT_2009_Update.pdf

FederalTransitAdministration(2009).TransitGreenBuildingActionPlan.AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableathttp://www.fta.dot.gov/documents/Transit_Green_Building_Action_Plan.pdf

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Levinson,H.;Zimmerman,S.;Clinger,J.;Gast,J.;Rutherford,S.&Bruhn,E.(2003).BusRapidTransit:Volume2:

ImplementationGuidelines.TransitCooperativeResearchProgramReport90.TransportationResearchBoard.

AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableathttp://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_90v2.pdf

Nelson&Nygaard(2006).ToolkitfortheAssessmentofBusStopAccessibilityandSafety .EasterSealsProject

Action.AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableathttp://projectaction.easterseals.com

257





Pucher,J.&Buehler,R.(2009).IntegratingBicyclingandPublicTransportinNorthAmerica.JournalofPublic

Transportation,Volume12,No.3.http://www.nctr.usf.edu/jpt/pdf/JPT123Pucher.pdf

Schneider,R.(2005).IntegrationofBicyclesandTransit:ASynthesisofTransitPractice.TransitCooperative

ResearchProgram(TCRP)Synthesis62,TransportationResearchBoard.

Schrank,D.&Lomax,T.(2009).UrbanMobilityReport.TexasTransportationInstitute.AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableathttp://tti.tamu.edu/documents/mobility_report_2009.pdf

St.Jacques,K.&Levinson,H.(1997).OperationalAnalysisofBusLanesonArterials.TransitCooperativeResearchProgramReport26.TransportationResearchBoard.AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableat

http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_26a.pdf

TexasTransportationInstitute(1996).GuidelinesfortheLocationandDesignofBusStops.TransitCooperative

ResearchProgramReport19.TransportationResearchBoard.AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableat

http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_19a.pdf

TranSystems;PlannersCollaborativeandTomCrikelairAssociates(2007).ElementsNeededtoCreateHigh

RidershipTransitSystems.TransitCooperativeResearchProgramReport111.TransportationResearchBoard.

AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableathttp://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_111.pdf

UnitedStatesDepartmentofTransportation(USDOT).(2010).ReporttoCongress:Transportation’sRolein

ReducingU.S.GreenhouseGasEmissions.Volume1:SynthesisReportandVolume2:TechnicalReport.

Washington,DC:USDOT.605pp.Availableat

http://ntl.bts.gov/lib/32000/32700/32779/DOT_Climate_Change_Report__April_2010_

_Volume_1_and_2.pdf

UnitedStatesGeneralAccountingOffice(2001).MassTransit:BusRapidTransitShowsPromise.AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableathttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d01984.pdf

Vuchic,V.(2005).UrbanTransitOperations,PlanningandEconomics.JohnWiley&Sons.

Vuchic,V.(2007).UrbanTransitSystemsandTechnology.JohnWiley&Sons.

Wright,L.&Hook,W.(2007).BusRapidTransitPlanningGuide.InstituteforTransportation&DevelopmentPolicy.

AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableathttp://www.itdp.org/index.php/microsite/brt_planning_guide/

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AE-8 Scenic Views

SCENIC VIEWSGOAL

FeatureNationalScenicBywaysProgram(NSBP)valuesinaroadway.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

EITHERrequirementmaybemetforcredit.

1Point:AnyportionoftheprojectispartoftheNationalScenicBywaysProgram

(NSBP)(http://www.byways.org)meaningithasbeendesignatedasoneofAmerica’s

Byways®(NationalScenicBywayorAllAmericanRoad),aStateScenicByway,oran

IndianTribeScenicBywaybecauseofitsscenic,natural,and/orrecreationalqualities.

OR

2Points:Provideatleastoneaccessfromtheprojecttoadesignatedareaforvehicles

toexitthetrafficstream,stopandexperiencescenic,naturalorrecreationalfeatures

alongtheroadway.Theseareasmaybescenicviewpointsoroverlooks,welcomecenters,touristactivitiesorinformationcentersorrecreationareas.Theymustbe

identifiedwithsignageconformingto23CFR655(theManualonUniformTraffic

ControlDevices,currentrevision)Part2–Signs.

Details

TheNSBPisabroadprogramthatcapturesmanyroadwayqualities.Thesecanbest

becategorizedasscenic,historical,cultural,natural,recreationalandarcheological.

Thiscreditcoversscenic,naturalandrecreationalqualities.CreditAE9Cultural

Outreachcovershistorical,culturalandarcheologicalfeatures.

DOCUMENTATION

Ifascenicroutedesignationisusedtosatisfythiscredit,providedocumentationof

national,State,orIndiantribedesignation.Alsoprovideapictureoftheroutethatbest

capturesitssceneryorotherimportantfeatures.

OR

Ifaroadsideaccesspointisusedtosatisfythiscredit,indicateinthesubmittedplans

andspecificationswheretheviewpointoroverlookisdrawnandspecified.Also

provideapictureoftheaccesspointandapictureoftherelatedattraction.

AE-8

1-2 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR11Educational

Outreach

9 AE3Context

SensitiveSolutions

9 AE9Cultural

Outreach

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Equity

9 Exposure

BENEFITS



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Scenic Views AE-8


x WorkthroughformalchannelstohavearoadwayorportionofroadwaydesignatedasaNationalScenic

Byway,anAllAmericanRoad,aStatescenicbyway,orandIndianTribescenicbyway..Thiscanbedone

throughtheNationalScenicBywaysProgramorthroughaStateorIndianTribeprogramthatformally

recognizesscenicroadways.

x

Providelocations,suchasviewpointsorpullouts,wheredriverscanstoptoenjoyascenic,historic,cultural,natural,recreational,orarchaeologicalfeatureoftheroadwayarea.

x ForAmerica’sByways®andStatedesignatedbyways,applyforagrantwiththeNBSPtoenhanceoneofthe

abovequalities.

Example: National Scenic Byways Program

TheNationalScenicBywaysProgram(NSBP),partoftheFederalHighwayAdministration,hasamissionto“…provideresourcestothebywaycommunityincreatingauniquetravelexperienceandenhancedlocal

qualityoflifethrougheffortstopreserve,protect,interpret,andpromotetheintrinsicqualitiesofdesignatedbyways.”(NSBP,2009).Theprogramformallyrecognizescertainroadsfortheirarchaeological,cultural,

historic,natural,recreationalandscenicqualities.Tobecomeanofficial“Byway”(theoverarchingtermthe

NSBPusestodescribetheseroads)aroadwaymustbenominated(thenominationcanoriginatefromany

personororganization)throughadetailedprocess.TheNSBPdefinessixintrinsicroadwayqualitiesthataroadwaycanpossess.NationalScenicBywayspossess“characteristicsorregionalsignificance”inatleastoneof

theseintrinsicqualities,whileAllAmericanRoadspossess“characteristicsofnationalsignificance”inatleast

twooftheseintrinsicqualities(NSBP,2009).Thesixintrinsicqualitiesare(paraphrasedfromNSBP,2009):

x Archaeological.Physicalevidenceofhistoricorprehistorichumanlifeoractivitythatisvisibleandcapable

ofbeinginventoriedandinterpreted.

x Cultural.Evidenceandexpressionsofthecustomsortraditionsofadistinctgroupofpeople.

x Historic.Legaciesofthepastthataredistinctlyassociatedwithphysicalelementsofthelandscape,whether

naturalormanmade,thatareofsuchhistoricsignificancethattheyeducatetheviewerandstiran

appreciationforthepast.

x Natural.Thosefeaturesinthevisualenvironmentthatareinarelativelyundisturbedstate.Thesefeatures

predatethearrivalofhumanpopulationsandmayincludegeologicalformations,fossils,landform,water

bodies,vegetation,andwildlife.x Recreational.Outdoorrecreationalactivitiesdirectlyassociationwithanddependentuponthenaturaland

culturalelementsofthecorridor'slandscape.Theyprovideopportunitiesforactiveandpassiverecreationalexperiences.

x Scenic.Heightenedvisualexperiencederivedfromtheviewofnaturalandmanmadeelementsofthevisualenvironmentofthescenicbywaycorridor.

FigureAE8.1showsamapofregisteredNationalScenicBywaysandAllAmericanRoadsintheU.S.as

classifiedbytheNSBP.TheNSBPwebsitegivesmapsandlocationsforByways(FigureAE8.2)thatcanbeused

todetermineifaparticularprojectencompassespartofone.

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AE-8 Scenic Views

FigureAE8.1:UnitedStatesScenicByways.(NSBP,2009).

FigureAE8.2:AnexampleofthemapsavailableattheNSBPwebsite(NSBP,2009).Thismapisforthe

ChinookScenicBywaynearMt.RainierinWashingtonState.

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Scenic Views AE-8

Example: Oregon Scenic Byways

OregonhasitsownScenicBywaysProgramthatincludesfederal,state,cityandcountydefinedscenicroads

andhighways.SomeareintheNSBPandsomearenot.Thisprogramlistsitsscenicbywaysat:

http://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/HWY/SCENICBYWAYS/index.shtml.Asanexample,theSilverFallsScenicByway

isa55mileroutenearSalem,ORthatgoesthroughSilverFallsStatePark.AlthoughitisnotpartoftheNSBP,it

stillqualifiesforthisVoluntaryCreditbasedonitsdesignationbythestateofOregon.

Example: Scenic Viewpoint

Roadwayscanofferopportunitiestosafelyviewscenerybyprovidingdesignatedpulloutsorviewingareasthat

allowmotoriststostopandexittheirvehiclestotakeinscenery.Theseviewingareascanbelargeconstructed

parkinglotswithvisitoramenities(FigureAE8.3)orcanbesimplewidenedshoulderpullouts(FigureAE8.4).

Ineithercasetheviewpointoroverlookshouldbeproperlysignedandidentified.

FigureAE8.3:ScenicviewpointshowingMt.St.HelensaccessiblefromForestHighway25

intheGiffordPinchotNationalForest.

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AE-8 Scenic Views

FigureAE8.4:Scenicpullout(slightlyleftandlowerfromcenter)onSR410inMt.RainierNationalPark.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Althougharoadwaymayprovidepleasingscenery,itcannotbeconsideredforthisVoluntaryCreditunlessitis

(1)formallydesignatedasascenicroadway,or(2)providesanareafordriverstopulloffthetravelledwayand

stoptoenjoythescenery.

2. Historicalroadwaysorthosewithaccesstospecificculturalorgeologicalfeaturesarespecificallyincludedin

CreditAE9:CulturalOutreach.Insomecases,aroadwaymightqualifyforbothAE8andAE9.

3. Providingsignageordirectiontoascenicviewpointoroverlookthatisnotdirectlypartoftheroadwayproject

doesNOTsatisfythisVoluntaryCredit.

RESEARCH

“Sceneryisdefinedasthegeneralappearanceofaplaceandthefeaturesofitsviewsorlandscapes”(Gallioano

andLoeffler,2000).InthecontextofthisVoluntaryCredititmorespecificallyreferstopredominantlynatural

featuresratherthanmanmade.Alongaroadway,sceneryisthenthenaturalfeaturesandbeautif ulviewsthatcan

beseenfromornearbytheroadway.Inthecontextofsustainability,humansplacevalueonwhattheycanseeand

itsqualitysotheavailabilityofscenicviewsalongroadwayscancontributetotheequitycomponentof

sustainability(i.e.,scenicviewsaresomethingwevalueashumans).Therearealsomeasurablephysicaland

psychologicalbenefitstoattractivescenery(GallioanoandLoeffler,2000citeDriveretal.,1992;Ulrich,1984)and

humanpreferencefornaturallandscapesisidentifiableandmeasurable(GallioanoandLoeffler,2000citeMagill,

1992;Lee,1976;Litton,1984;Daniel&Boster,1976).Therefore,providingaccesstoscenicviewshasvalueandcancontributetothesustainabilityofaroadway.Theexactnatureofthevaluecanbecomplexbutsuchvalueis

basedprimarilyonhumanperceptionandeconomicworth.Thenexttwosectionsbrieflysurveytheseideas.

AssessingVisualLandscapeQuality

Inabroadsense,visuallandscapequality(atermthatimplies“scenicviews”andaratingoftheirdegreeof

excellence)istypicallyquantifiedusingexpertdesignapproachesorpublicperceptionapproaches(Daniel,2001).

Expertdesignapproachesrelyontranslatinglandscapefeaturestoformaldesignparametersthatcanthenbe

relatedtohowhumansperceivethembasedonmodelsortheory.Publicperceptionapproachesrelyonhow

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Scenic Views AE-8

landscapefeaturesfunctionasstimulitoevokehumanresponse.Eithermethodisfundamentallyrelatedtohow

humansperceivelandscapefeatures.Theseperceptionsare,onaverage,quiteconsistentinthatpeopletendto

prefernaturalappearinglandscapes(Lee,1976;McGuire,1979;Newby,1971;Noe,1988)andgenerallylikethe

samethings(Zube,1976).Therefore,inabroadsenseitispossibletopredicthumanpreferencesforvisualquality

andplanfortheminaroadway.Anoppositeapproachthatisgainingmomentumseekstodirectlyassessthe

ecologicalfunctionofthelandscapeanddeemhumanperceptionandpreferencesirrelevant(Daniel,2001).This

approachmayevenfindthatnotbuildingany roadmaybethebestapproachtopreservingvisuallandscapequality.

EconomicValueofScenery

Scenerycanalsobejudgedbasedonitseconomicvalue.Mostresearchinthisareainvestigateswhathumanshave

paidfortheprivilegeofenjoyingavieworwhattheywouldbewillingtopay.Forexample,inlookingatHongKongapartmentsJimandChen(2009)foundthatpeoplearewillingtopayapremiumforattractiveviews;e.g.,a

broadharborviewofHongKongHarborcouldincreasetheapartmentvalueby2.97%orabout$15,173.In

somethingperhapsmorerelatedtoroadwayscenery,Batistanetal.(2002)lookedatthevalueofagriculturalland

inWyoming(nearYellowstoneandGrandTetonNationalParks)andfoundthat“…remoteagriculturallands,which

includewildlifehabitat,anglingopportunitiesandscenicvistas,commandhigherpricesperacrethanthosewhich

primarilypossessagriculturalproductioncapacity.”Another,perhapssimpler,waytodemonstratetheeconomic

valueofscenicviewsistolookatthepricingofhotelrooms.LangeandShaeffer(2001)lookedatroompricingin

Zurich,Switzerlandandfoundtheretobesignificantvalueinviews(asomewhatobviousconclusionbutnonethelesssupportedbyproperstatisticalanalysis).Sucheconomicanalysisisnotentirelyneweither.An1879

articleintheNewYorkTimes(Jarves,1879)providesanearlyviewintowhatsceneryisworth.InthisarticleJarves

looksattouristvisitstoSwitzerlandandclaims1.4millionvisitorshavespentover$45million,which,heargues,

canbeviewedastheinterestat5%on$900million,“…whichmaybeconsideredtheactualmarketvalueofthe

landscapealone…”In2009dollarsthatconservativelycomestowellover$20billion.

TheNationalScenicBywayProgram(NSBP)

TheNSBPchooseslessscientificallyrigorousmethodsforselectingroadwaysfordesignationasNationalScenic

BywaysorAllAmericanRoads.Thedefinitionoftheirsixintrinsicqualitiesthattheseroadshave(archaeological,

cultural,historic,natural,recreational,scenic)indicatesthattheNSBPdefinitionisbroaderthantheGallioanoand

Loeffler(2000)definitionof“generalappearanceandthequalitiesofitsviewandlandscapes.”Howeverareview

ofthesesixintrinsicqualitiesshowsthateachonemustessentiallyberepresentedbyaphysicalpresencethatcanbeviewedorexperienced.ThespecificrequirementsforscenicbywaydesignationareoutlinedbytheFHWAin

theirinterimpolicyonScenicByways(NationalScenicBywaysProgram,1995).Specifically,roadwaysnominated

should:

x Safelyandconvenientlyaccommodatetwowheeldriveautomobileswithstandardclearances.

x Accommodate,whereverfeasible,bicycleandpedestriantravel.

x Safelyaccommodateconventionaltourbuses.

x Haveascenicbywayscorridormanagementplan.ForAllAmericanRoads,theremustbeademonstration

oftheextenttowhichenforcementmechanismsarebeingimplementedbycommunitiesalongthehighway

inaccordancewiththecorridormanagementplan.

x Userfacilities(e.g.overlooks,foodservices,etc.)shouldbeavailablefortravelers.

x Havecontinuity.Roadwaysshouldhavetoomanygapsbutrathershouldbeascontinuousaspossibleand

shouldminimizeintrusionsonthevisitor’sexperience.

Also,andimportantly,anyroadnominatedfortheNationalScenicBywayorAllAmericanRoaddesignationis

consideredtobedesignatedaStatescenicbyway .ManyofthescenicbywaysrunningthroughtheUnitedStates

arenotjustviewedaspartofthehowpeopletravel,butcanberecognizedasculturallandmarks(Youngs,White

andWodrich,2008).

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AE-8 Scenic Views

GLOSSARY

REFERENCES

Bastian,C.T.;McLeod,D.M.;Germino,M.J.;Reiners,W.A.&Blasko,B.J.(2002).Environmentalamenitiesand

agriculturallandvalues:ahedonicmodelusinggeographicinformationsystemsdata.EcologicalEconomics,

40,pp.337349.

Daniel,T.C.&Boster,R.(1976).Measuringlandscapeesthetics:thescenicbeautyestimationmethod .Research

Paper.RM167.U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestService,RockyMountainForestandRangeExperimentStation,FortCollins,CO.

Daniel,T.C.(2001).Whitherscenicbeauty?Visuallandscapequalityassessmentinthe21st

century.Landscapeand

UrbanPlanning,54,pp.267281.

Driver,B.L.;Brown,P.J.&Peterson,G.(1992).Benefitsofleisure.StateCollege,PA:VenturePublishing,Inc.

Gallioano,S.J.&Loeffler,G.M.(2000).SceneryAssessment:ScenicBeautyattheEcoregionScale.InteriorColumbia

BasinEcosystemManagementProject:ScientificAssessment ,Quigley,T.M.,ed.PNWGTR472.U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestService,PacificNorthwestResearchStation,Portland,OR.

Haefele,M.(2009).Sceneryholdseconomicvalue.TheWildernessSociety.http://wilderness.org/content/scenery

holdseconomicvalue.Accessed8December2009.

Jarves,J.J.(18October1879).MoneyValueofScenery;RevenuefromNaturalAttractions.NewYorkTimes.

http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B0DEFD7103EE73BBC4C53DFB7678382669FDE.

Jim,C.Y.&Chen,W.Y.(2009).Valueofscenicviews:HedonicassessmentofprivatehousinginHongKong.

LandscapeandUrbanPlanning,91(4),pp.226234.

Lange,E.&Schaeffer,P.V.(2001).Acommentonthemarketvalueofaroomwithaview.LandscapeandUrban

Planning,55(2),pp.113120.

Lee,R.G.(1976). Assessingpublicconcernforvisualquality—landscapesensitivityresearchandadministrative

studies.PSW19.U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestService,PacificSouthwestForestandRange

ExperimentStation,Berkeley,CA.

Litton,R.B.,Jr.(1984).Visualvulnerabilityofthelandscape:controlofvisualquality .ResearchPaper.WO39.U.S.

DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestService,Washington,DC.

AllAmericanRoad AroaddesignatedbytheNationalScenicBywaysProgramandpossessing

characteristicsofnationalsignificancewithinatleasttwoofthefollowing

intrinsicqualities:archaeological,cultural,historic,natural,recreationaland

scenic.

NationalScenicByway AroaddesignatedbytheNationalScenicBywaysProgramandpossessingcharacteristicsofregionalsignificancewithinatleastoneofthefollowing

intrinsicqualities:archaeological,cultural,historic,natural,recreationaland

scenic.

Scenery Thegeneralappearanceofaplaceandthefeaturesofitsviewsor

landscapes.

ScenicView Apleasingsightorvistathatinvolvesalandscapepredominatedbynatural(asopposedtomanmade)features.

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Scenic Views AE-8

Magill,A.W.(1992).Managedandnaturallandscapes:Whatdopeoplelike? ResearchPaper.PSWRP213.U.S.

DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestService,PacificSouthwestResearchStation,Albany,CA.

NationalScenicBywaysProgram(NSBP)Online.(2009).NationalScenicBywaysProgram.Website.

http://www.bywaysonline.org.Accessed3December2009.

NationalScenicBywaysProgram,60Fed.Reg.26759(1995).

Ulrich,R.S.(1984).Viewthroughawindowmayinfluencerecoveryfromsurgery.Science,224,pp.420421.

Youngs,Y.L.(2008).TransportationSystemsasCulturalLandscapesinNationalParks:TheCaseofYosemite.

SocietyandNaturalResources,21,797811.

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AE-9 Cultural Outreach

CULTURAL OUTREACHGOAL

Promoteculturalawareness,communityconnectivityandart.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

1point

Anypartoftheprojectoranyitemwithin10milesoftheprojectboundaryiseither:

x ListedintheUnitedStatesNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces

x SubjectofaDeterminationofEligibility(DOE)madebyaStateHistoricPreservation

Officer.

x PartoftheNationalScenicBywaysProgram(NSBP)(http://www.byways.org)

meaningithasbeendesignatedasoneofAmerica’sByways®(NationalScenic

BywayorAllAmericanRoad),aStateScenicByway,oranIndianTribeScenicByway

becauseofitscultural,historical,orarcheologicalfeatures.

AND

Installinformationalinfrastructure(e.g.,viewpoint,kiosk,sign,orothersmallscale

installationforvisitorsdetailinghistorical,cultural,orarcheologicalsignificance)to

explainthesiteordirectroadwayuserstothesite.Anexistinginstallationmeetsthis

informationalinfrastructureportionoftherequirement.

2points

Dedicateaminimumof1%ofthetotalprojectbudget(nottoexceed$200,000)toart

orcommunitycultureinstallationsalongtheroadwayrightofway(ROW).

Details

ManyNationalParkSystem(NPS)unitsareautomaticallylistedintheNational

RegisterofHistoricPlace.AsofDecember2009thoseinclude:internationalhistoric

sites,nationalbattlefields,nationalbattlefieldparks,nationalbattlefieldsites,

nationalhistoricsites,nationalhistoricalparks,nationalmemorial,nationalmilitary

parksandnationalmonuments.

TheNSBPisabroadprogramthatcapturesmanyroadwayqualities.Thesecanbest

becategorizedasscenic,historical,cultural,natural,recreationalandarcheological.

Thiscreditcovershistorical,cultural,andarcheologicalqualities.CreditAE8Scenic

Viewscoversscenic,natural,andrecreationalqualities.

ForthepurposesofGreenroads,“art”isbroadlydefinedasthebehaviorofmaking

thingsspecial.

DOCUMENTATION

1point

x AcopyoftheregistrationoftheitemorlocationintheUnitedStatesNational

RegisterofHistoricPlacesordocumentationofNSBPdesignation.Ascreenshotof

theitemlistedintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesontheofficialwebsite

(www.nps.gov/nr)isacceptable.Or,ifaDOEisused,acopyoftheofficialDOE.

AE-9

1-2 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR11Educational

Outreach

9 AE3Context

SensitiveSolutions

9 AE8ScenicViews

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Equity

9 Exposure

BENEFITS



267




Cultural Outreach AE-9

x Amapshowingthattheitemorlocationisintheprojectareaorwithin10milesoftheprojectboundary.

x Aphotographoftheitemorlocationandtheinformationalinfrastructure.

2points

x Copyoftheprojectbudgetshowingaminimumof1%ofthetotalbudgetor$200,000(whicheverisless)has

beendedicatedtowardart.

x Atleastonephotographoftheinstalledartwork.


x Integratecontextsensitiveaesthetictreatments,asdeterminedbyparticipatingstakeholders,intothedesign

oftransportationfacilities.Examplesmayincludetreatmentstosoundwalls,structures,streetfurniture,

screening,fences,signage,piersorlighting.

x Setaside0.5%ofthetotalprojectbudgettowardartorculturalinstallations.Allowforcommunity

contributionsandsuggestionsduringthepublicinvolvementprocessduringprojectscoping.

x Encouragepublicengagementthroughmuralpaintingorotherparticipatoryactivities.

x InvestigateplacesontheNationalRegisterofHistoricalPlacestoseeifanymayhelptheprojectqualifyforthis

VoluntaryCredit.

x InvestigateregisteringanitemorplaceontheNationalRegisterofHistoricalPlaces.

Example: National Register of Historic Places

TheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces(www.nps.gov/nr)istheofficiallistofU.S.historicplacesworthyof

preservation.ItisauthorizedbytheNationalHistoricalPreservationActof1966andismaintainedbythe

NationalParkService.TheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesprogrammaintainsanominationprocess(states,tribesandotherfederalagenciesmaynominatepropertiesforinclusioninthelist);offersguidanceandhelps

qualifiedpropertiesreceivepreservationbenefits.Roadscanbeandareincludedintheregister.Forexample,

recordnumber336109concernstheColumbiaRiverHighwayDistrict,whichaddressedanhistoricalroadway

thattravelsalongtheOregonsideoftheColumbiaRiver.

Example: Historic Roads Website

Thisresource(www.historicroads.org)providesideasforwhatconstitutesanhistoricroadandresourcestoassistwithdocumentationanddesignation/recognition.

Example: Wisconsin’s Rustic Roads Program

Establishedin1973,theWisconsinRusticRoadsprogram

(http://www.dot.wisconsin.gov/travel/scenic/rusticroads.htm)helpscitizensandlocalgovernmenttopreserve

scenic,lightlytraveledcountryroads.Therearenow108suchroads,designatedwithan“R”infrontofthe

routenumber(e.g.,R62orR108).AccordingtotheWisconsinDepartmentofTransportationaroadmusthave

thefollowingcharacteristicstoqualifyfortheRusticRoadprogram:

x Outstandingnaturalfeaturesalongitsborderssuchasruggedterrain,nativevegetation,nativewildlife,or

includeopenareaswithagriculturalvistaswhichsinglyorincombinationuniquelysetthisroadapartfrom

otherroads.x Lightlytraveledlocalaccessroad,onewhichservestheadjacentpropertyownersandthosewishingto

travelbyauto,bicycle,orhikingforpurposesofrecreationalenjoymentofitsrusticfeatures.

x Notschedulednoranticipatedformajorimprovementswhichwouldchangeitsrusticcharacteristics.

x Have,preferably,aminimumlengthof2milesand,wherefeasible,shouldprovideacompletedclosureorloop,orconnecttomajorhighwaysatbothendsoftheroute.

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Example: Percentage for Art Programs

Incorporatingapercentageoftheprojectbudgetforartorculturalendeavorsiscommoninmanymajor

municipalities.Examplesare:

x TheCityofSeattlehasaPublicArtOrdinance(passedin1973)thatdedicates1%ofconstructioncoststo

art.Importantly,theCitydefines“constructionproject”as“…anycapitalprojectpaidforwhollyorinpart

bytheCitytoconstructorremodelanybuilding,structure,park,utility,street,sidewalk,orparkingfacility,

oranyportionthereof,withinthelimitsofTheCityofSeattle.”(CityofSeattle,2009a).

x SoundTransit(inthePugetSoundregionofWashingtonState)administerstheStartPublicArtProgram,

whichallocates1%ofprojectconstructioncoststoart(SoundTransit,2009).

x WashingtonState’sArtinPublicPlacesProgramadds0.5%fortheacquisitionofartworktonew

constructionbudgetsforstateownedbuildings(WashingtonStateArtsCommission,2009).

x NewYork’sCityArtProgramusesonepercentofatotalpublicprojectbudgetstofundartisticinstallationsatpublicbuildings(Heartney&NewYorkDepartmentofCulturalAffairs,2005).

x Oregon’sPercentforArtlegislation(passedin1975)guidestheacquisitionofOregon’sStateArtCollection.

Itsetsaside“…1%ofthedirectconstructionfundsofneworremodeledstatebuildingswithconstruction

budgetsof$100,000orgreaterfortheacquisitionofartworkwhichmaybeanintegralpartofthebuilding,

attachedthereto,orcapableofdisplayinotherStateBuildings"(OregonArtsCommission,2009).

x Hawaii’sArtinPublicPlacesProgram(establishedin1967)wascreatedto“…enhancetheenvironmentalqualityofstatepublicbuildingsandspacesthroughoutthestatefortheenjoymentandenrichmentofthe

public;cultivatethepublic'sawareness,understandingandappreciationofvisualartsinallmedia,styles

andtechniques;contributetowardthedevelopmentandrecognitionofaprofessionalartisticcommunity;

andacquire,interpret,preserveanddisplayworksofartexpressiveofthecharacteroftheHawaiian

Islands,themulticulturalheritageofitspeople,andthevariouscreativeinterestsofitsartists.”(Hawaii

StateFoundationonCultureandtheArts,2009).

FiguresAE9.1throughAE9.3areexamplesofstreetscapeartinthegreaterSeattlearea.

FigureAE9.1:RichardBeyer’sPeopleWaitingfortheInterurban(1979)atthecornerofFremontAvenue

NorthandNorth34thStreet.Paidforbycommunitydonations,theSeattleArtsCommission(NowtheOffice

ofArts&CulturalAffairs)andtheWashingtonStateArtsCommission(CityofSeattle,1979).

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FigureAE9.2:JackMackie’sDancers'Series:Steps(1982)foundin8locationsalongBroadwayAvenueinthe

CapitolHillareaofSeattle.PaidforbytheEngineeringDepartment(nowpartofSeattlePublicUtilities)1%for

ArtandprivatebusinessesintheBroadwayLocalImprovementDistrict(CityofSeattle,2009b).

FigureAE9.2:TomAskmanandLeaAnneLake’s BallardGateway (2003)onthe15thAvenueN.W.approachto

theBallardBridge.PaidforbytheSeattleDepartmentofTransportation1%forArt,SeattleCityLight1%forArt

andMillenniumLightingFunds,DepartmentofNeighborhoodsMatchingFunds(CityofSeattle,2009b).

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POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Itmaynotalwaysbeappropriateorpossibletoincludeculturaloutreachorartonaproject.

2. Artcanbecontroversial.

3. Sometimesitisdifficulttospecifyexactlywhatartis.BeyondthegeneraldefinitionusedinthisVoluntary

Credit,somethingmorepreciseisgenerallyneededtoincludeincontractdocumentsinordertodefinewhat

qualifiesas“art.”

RESEARCH

Constructionoftransportationinfrastructurerepresentsalargepublicinvestmentinmanycommunities.Roadway

projectsnotonlyconnectplacesandeconomies,theyalsoconnectpeopletoplace.Roadwaydesignersand

contractorsareinpositiontooffermoretosocietythansimplymeetingbasicneeds,projectdeadlines,and

bottomlines.Designingaesthetictreatmentsthatreflectcommunityidentityorintegratingpublicartinto

transportationprojectsisanopportunitytoenhancecommunities,particularlythosewithoutresourcestopursue

independentpublicartorlandscapeprograms.Mostcivilengineeringworks,bydefinition,meetneedsandservetobetterthegreatergoodofthepublic.Inroadwayprojects,opportunitiesforpromotingthissenseofcommunity

canbeaccomplishedthroughincorporatinghistoricalandculturalinformationfacilities,connectiontonational

landmarksandcommunitycenteredartwork.Thisresearchsectionattemptstodefinewhatartisandwhyitmight

beviewedasimportant.

EthnologicViewofArt

ThefollowingdiscussionofArtislargelytakenfromtheworkofEllenDissanayake,anAffiliateProfessorinthe

SchoolofMusicattheUniversityofWashington.Shegenerallytakesanethologicalviewofart;thatisshe

approachesartassomethinglivingcreatures(humans)dointheireverydaylifethatsomehowhasanadaptiveor

selectivevalueinhumanevolution.

WhatisArt?

Dissanayake(1980)broadlydefinesartas“…theabilitytorecognizeorconfer‘specialness,’alevelororder

differentfromtheeveryday.”Inshort,artistheactofmakingspecial.Thisencompassesabroadrangeofitems

includingsong,dance,ritual,playandevenorganizedsports.Importantly,theideaofartdoesnotincludea

qualityjudgmentorinvolveanunderstandingofhowartmanagestoachievespecialness.

WhyisArtImportant?

Humanethologistsbelievethatcertainhumanbehaviorshavepersistedovertimebecausetheycontribute

positivelytotheevolutionandsuccessofthespecies(Dissanayake,1980).Intermsofart,thismeansthatasa

behaviorartexistsbecauseitissomehowimportanttothesuccessofthehumanspecies.Artwouldnotexist

universallyifitdidnothaveselectivevalue.Artisnot,asthemodernviewgoes“foritsownsake”(i.e.,no

practicalvalue).Artisalsonotjustforartists;itisacommonbehaviortoallhumans.

“Itisthedegreetowhichartembodiesandcommunicatesexperiencethatmakesituniqueand

irreplaceable(givesitvalue).Althoughtherearelikelymanywhoappeartodojustfinewithoutart(aswe

knowittoday)itisonlyrecently(last100orsoyears)thatarthasbecomedetachedfromtherestoflife

andregardedforitsownsake.Formostofhistory,theactivityofgivingmeaningandembellishinglifewas

notanimpracticalleisuretimeactivitybutratherthewaythehumanmindworked–awayofcomprehendingtheworld.”(Dissanayake,1980).

Artcontributesessentialsocialbenefitssuchasdocumentation,expression,storytelling,entertainment,display

ofwealthandpowerandrepresentationofcustomandtradition.Inotherwords,artgivesshapetoandembellisheslife;whatmakesartuniqueandirreplaceableisthedegreetowhichartembodiesand

communicatesexperience(Dissanayake,1980).Onlyinthelast100yearsorsohasartbecomedetachedfromritualandplayandbeenviewedasanindependentactivity.Formostofhumanexistence,theprimarytaskof

271





artistswastogiveshapetoandembellishlife;tohelpfindmeaninginlife.Artistsrecordedevents,decorated

homesandembellishedceremonialobservances(Dissanayake,1980).

Insummary,therefourkeypointstotakeawayfromtheethologicalviewpoint:

1. Artistheabilityto“makespecial.”Artrecognizesorconfers‘specialness,’alevelororderdifferentfrom

everyday.Equallyimportantisthebehaviorofappreciatingthatsomethingsarespecial.Theseideasarefundamentalanduniversal.

2. Arthasselectivevalue,i.e.,insomewayitenhancesthesurvivalofthespecies.Artwouldnotexist

universallyifitdidnothaveselectivevalue.It’snot,asthemodernviewgoes“foritsownsake”(i.e.,no

practicalvalue).

3. Thebehaviorofartisacommonbehaviortoallhumanbeings,notjustartists.It’simportanttonotethat

“art”doesnotmean“goodart.”

4. Artisvaluablebecauseitgivesmeaningandembellisheslife.Ashumans,wesimplycannotbear

senselessnessorlackofmeaning.

HowArtisPublicallyFunded

Magie(1997)reviewedmajorsourcesofpublicfundingforthearts.Amongtheartfundingsourcesshediscussed,

thefollowingcouldapplytoroadwayconstructionartfunding:

Generalfundappropriations.Themostcommonpublicfundingmechanism.Artisoftenincludedasalineitemin

astate,city,county,etc.budget.Usually,generalfundallocationsrequirestrongadvocacyandpoliticalsupport.Ingeneral,supportatthestateandfederallevelhasbeendeclining,howeversupportandthecity,countyandlocal

levelhasbeenincreasing.

Taxesandfees.Manypublicorganizationshavesetuptaxesorfeeswhoserevenuesupportorpartiallysupports

thearts.Specialtaxdistricts,salestaxes,propertytaxes,hotelmotel(transientoccupancy)taxes,entertainment

taxes(e.g.,theaters,concerts,sports),franchisefees(e.g.,fromcablecompanies),realestatetaxesandevena

portionoflottery/gamblingproceedshavebeenusedtogenerateartsfunds.

Endowments.Thisapproachcollectsmoneybysimilarpubicmechanismasthe“taxesandfees”section,however

themoneyisheldontoandonlytheinterestpaymentsareusedtosupportthearts.

Bonds.Fundingforinfrastructurecanbelargeandmanypublicorganizationshaveissuedbondsfortheexpress

purposesofsupportingartandcultureinfrastructure.Forinstance,theRockandRollHallofFameandMuseum

wasbuiltlargelywithbondfunding.

Percentforartprograms.Theseprogramsspecifythatapercentage(often1%)ofcapitalconstructioncostsfora

neworrenovatedbuildingbesetasideforartwork.Theseprogramsbeganinthe1960sbutnowtherearemore

than135stateandlocallyfundedprogramsintheU.S.

Transportationmitigationorenhancementfunds.Whilepublicartinroadwayconstructionisstilldeveloping,

publicorganizationsoftensupportartthroughmitigationorenhancementfundsthatarededicatedtoaddvalueto

propertyandareasthathavebeennegativelyimpactedbyroadwayconstruction.

Corporatesupport.Corporatesponsorshaveoftenbeeninstrumentalinartprogramsandinfrastructureto

supportsuchprograms.However,corporatesponsorshiphasnotbeenheavilyusedinroadwayrelatedart.

ExamplesofArtinRoadwayProjects

Thefollowingfiguresshowsomeexamplesofhowarthasbeenincorporatedintoroadwayprojects.

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FigureAE9.3:ArtincorporatedintothefasciaforanI5freewaywallassociatedwithanexpansionprojectonI

5nearitsintersectionwithSR16inTacoma,WA.

FigureAE9.4:SeattletoBremertonferrytunnelinBremerton,WA.

PhotofromtheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation.

273





FigureAE9.5:JamesAngus,EllipsoidalFreewaySculpture(2008)Eastlinkfreeway:NunawadingtoFrankston,Melbourne.PhotofromtheRoslynOxley9Gallery

(http://www.roslynoxley9.com.au/artists/5/James_Angus/1116/41258).

GLOSSARY

Art Theactofmakingspecial.

UnitedStatesNationalRegister

ofHistoricPlaces

OfficiallistofU.S.historicplacesworthyofpreservation.Authorizedbythe

NationalHistoricalPreservationActof1966andmaintainedbytheNational

ParkService.

REFERENCES

AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers(ASCE).(2009).HistoricCivilEngineeringLandmarkProgram.http://content.asce.org/history/ce_landmarks.html.Accessed22December2009.

CityofSeattle(2009b).PermanentlySited:Streetscapes.

http://www.seattle.gov/arts/publicart/permanent.asp?cat=3.Accessed22December2009.

CityofSeattle.(2009a).PublicArtOrdinance.http://www.seattle.gov/arts/publicart/ordinance.asp.Accessed22

December2009.

Dissanayake,E.(1980).ArtasaHumanBehavior:TowardanEthologicalViewofArt. JournalofAestheticsandArt

Criticism38(4),397406.http://ellendissanayake.com/publications/pdf/EllenDissanayake_5624714.pdf .

HawaiiStateFoundationonCultureandtheArts.(2009).ArtinPublicPlaces.

http://hawaii.gov/sfca/grants.php?article_id=17.Accessed22December2009.

Heartney,E.,&NewYorkDept.ofCulturalAffairs.(2005).Cityart:NewYork'sPercentforArtProgram.London:

Merrell.

Magie,D.(1997). ArtsFundingintothe21st

Century .EssaypreparedforCreativeAmerica,areportbythe

President’sCommitteeontheArtsandtheHumanities,Washington,D.C.

274





OregonArtsCommission.(2009).Oregon’sPercentforArtProgram:APublicLegacy.

http://www.oregonartscommission.org/pdf/oac_connections_percent.pdf .Accessed22December2009.

SoundTransit.(2009).PublicArtProjects.SoundTransit,Seattle,WA.http://www.soundtransit.org/x1250.xml.

Accessed22December2009.

WashingtonStateArtsCommission.(2009).ArtinPublicPlaces–1/2of1%.http://www.arts.wa.gov/publicart/percent.shtml.Accessed22December2009.

275





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CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES

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278



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Construction Activities

CA-1 Quality Management System

QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMGOAL

Improveconstructionqualitybyusingacontractorthathasaformalquality

managementprocess.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Theprimecontractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirmshallhavea

documentedqualitymanagementsystem(QMS)fortheentirecompanyoratleastthe

portion(s)ofthecompanyparticipatingintheproject.TheQMSmustbeinplacefor

thedurationofprojectconstruction.Asaminimum,theQMSanditsdocumentation

shallmeettherequirementsofInternationalStandardsOrganization(ISO)9001:2008

orISO9001:2000.

Details

Theprimecontractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirmis

consideredtohaveadocumentedQMSifitis:

x IsISO9001:2008orISO9001:2000certified

x HasaQMSthatmeetsISO9001:2008orISO9001:2000requirementsbutisnot

formallycertified

x TherecipientoftheMalcolmBaldrigeNationalQualityAward(anyyear)

DOCUMENTATION

Submitone(1)ofthefollowingitems:

1. DocumentationoftheISO9001:2008orISO9001:2000certificationfortheprime

contractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirm

2. Acopyoftheprimecontractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirm’sQMSdocumentationtoinclude:

x Qualitypolicyandobjective

x Qualitymanual

x Listingofdocumentedprocedures

x ListingofrecordsretainedinaccordancewiththeirQMS

3. DocumentationoftheMalcolmBaldrigeNationalQualityAwardawardedtothe

primecontractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirm

CA-1

2 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR1Environmental

ReviewProcess

9 PR4QualityControl

Plan

9 PR11Educational

Outreach

9 EW1EnvironmentalManagementSystem

9 CA2Environmental

Training

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Extent

9 Expectations

9 Experience

9 Exposure

BENEFITS

9 ImprovesHuman

Health&Safety

9 Improves

Accountability


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Construction Activities Greenroads™ Manual v1.5

Quality Management System CA-1


x HaveaprimecontractorwithISO9001:2008orISO9001:2000certification.

x HaveaprimecontractorwithadocumentedQMSthatmeetstherequirementsofISO9001:2008orISO

9001:2000.

x SelectaprimecontractorthathaswontheMalcolmBaldrigeNationalQualityAward.Asof2009,noprime

contractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirmhaswonthisaward.

Example Quality Manuals

WhileitisnotpossibletopresentanentireQMS,therearemanyexamplesofkeyQMSdocumentsavailableon

theWebincludingthefollowingqualitymanuals:

x R&DSystems:http://www.rndsystems.com/DAM_public/5722.pdf

x ContinentalSteel&TubeCo.:http://www.continentalsteel.com/pdf/continentalsteelqualitymanual.pdf

x Cirruslogic:http://cirrus.com/en/pubs/misc/Quality_Manual.pdf

x PARNuclearsupplierqualitymanual:http://www.parnuclear.com/PaRNuclear/docs/SQM.pdf

x WestinghouseNuclear:

http://www.westinghousenuclear.com/Our_Company/Quality_Management_System/docs/E6_qms.pdf

Therearealsocompaniesthatwillsellqualitymanualtemplatestoassistingettingstarted.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. SmallerfirmsmaynotbeabletoaffordtheISOcertificationprocess.

2. DocumentationofaQMSisnotthesamehashavinganeffectiveQMS,howevercollectionofdocumentation(inlieuofanactualaudit)isanefficientwayofgatheringevidenceofaneffectiveQMS.

RESEARCH

AccordingtoISO(2009),aQMSisreferstowhattheorganizationdoestomanageitsprocesses,oractivities,so

thatitsproductsorservicessatisfythecustomer'squalityrequirementsandcomplywithregulations.Oneofthe

morecomprehensivedescriptionsofsuchasystemcomesfromISOintheir9000familyofstandards.

ISO9000

AccordingtoISO(2009),“TheISO9000familyofstandardsrepresentsaninternationalconsensusongoodquality

managementpractices.Itconsistsofstandardsandguidelinesrelatingtoqualitymanagementsystemsandrelated

supportingstandards.”Essentially,itisaformaldescriptionofaQMSandallthatisinvolvedinitscreation,

implementationanduse.JustasASTMInternationalortheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayand

TransportationOfficials(AASHTO)setstandards,sodoesISO.

Certification:ISO9001

WhiletheentireQMSstandardiscontainedintheISO9000familyofstandards,theactualrequirementsfor

certificationarecontainedinISO9001.Therefore,organizationsarecertifiedinaccordancewithISO9001;the

numberisappendedwiththeyearofthestandardthatappliedwhentheorganizationwascertified.Themost

currentversionisISO9001:2008,howevermanyorganizationsstillhaveISO9001:2000certifications(thepriorversion).

ISOdoesnotcertifyorganizationsitself.Mostcountrieshaveformedformalgroupsor“certificationbodies,”

whichauditorganizationsapplyingforISO9001certification.Throughmutualagreementsthesebodiesensure

thatcertificationauditstandardsarerelativelythesameworldwide.Certification,oncegranted,mustbe

renewedatstandardintervals;oftenthreeyears.

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ISOdoesnotrequirecertificationandmanyorganizationsjustchoosetofollowISO9000requirementsbut

foregocertification.However,itiscommonpracticeinmanypartsoftheworld(e.g.,westernEurope,China,

India,etc.)torequireISOcertificationasaprerequisitefordoingbusiness.Therefore,countriesthatrequire

thisusuallyseethehighestcertificationrates.

ArgumentsforCertification

Argumentsforcertificationtypicallycitethegeneralideathatpropermanagementofqualityimprovesbusiness,whichcanbemeasuredbylargermarketshare,salesgrowth,highermargins,competitiveadvantage

andothermetrics.

ArgumentsagainstCertification

Argumentsagainstcertificationclaimthattheactualactofcertificationandexistenceofdocumentationdo

not,inandofthemselves,guaranteeimprovedbusiness.Further,theypointoutthatISO9001certificationcan

beanexpensiveprocessthatdoesnotguaranteeresults.

CertificationCost

AccordingtothesurveycompletedbyYatesandAniftos(1997),thecostoftheISOcertificationprocessranged

from$0to$500,000,butcertificationcostsgenerallyrangefrom$300,000to$400,000.Thisreporteddata

rangeisunclearduetohowthesurveyquestionwasposed.Itispossiblethatsomecompaniesreported

additionalcostsincludinginternaltrainingbudgets,neglectedthecostofthecertificationitself,orthatsomedidnothaveanyadditionalcosts.CertificationthroughISOrequiresapproximately12to18months,on

average.

WorldwideISO9001Certification

Datafrom2006showworldwideISO9001certificationsat625,742in170differentcountriesandgrowing(Figure

CA1.1).InDecember2006theU.S.had44,883certifications,whichrankedsixthworldwide(FigureCA1.2).ISO

9001certificationisfarmorepopularinEuropeandtheFarEast(EasternAsia)with46%and34%ofworldwide

certificationsrespectively.NorthAmerica(consistingofonlytheU.S.,CanadaandMexico)comprisedalmost7%of

theworldwidetotal.AccordingtoYatesandAniftos(1996,1997),verylittleparticipationbyorganizationswithin

theUnitedStateshasbeennoted.ThemajorityoftheISOstandardstakeholdersareintheEuropeancommunity

andthebulkofinfluenceontheglobalizationofsuchstandardscomesfromagroupcalledtheEuropean

CommitteeforStandardization(CEN).

281





FigureCA1.1:ISO9001certificationworldwidegrowth20022006(datafromISO,2006).

FigureCA1.2:Top10countriesintermsofnumberofISO9001certificationsin2006(datafromISO,2006).

ISO9001CertificationintheU.S.ConstructionIndustry

ISO9000enjoyssubstantialworldwidepopularity,howeverrelativelyfewU.S.constructionfirmsarecertified.The

2006ISOSurveyofCertificationsreported80,432constructioncompaniescertifiedworldwide.Ofthe39industrial

sectorslistedconstructionrankedfirstwith12.9%ofthetotalcertifiedcompanies.However,relativelyfew

167,124

497,919

660,132

773,867

897,866

100,000

200,000

300,000

400,000

500,000

600,000

700,000

800,000

900,000

1,000,000

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

N u m b e r o f I S O 9 0 0 1 C e r t i f i c a t i o n s W o r l d w i d e

Year

162,259

105,799

80,518

57,552

46,458

44,833

40,967

40,909

21,349

18,922

20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 140,000 160,000 180,000

China

Italy

Japan

Spain

Germany

USA

India

UK

France

Netherlands

NumberofISO9001CertificationsinDecember2006

282





constructionfirmsintheU.S.haveadoptedISO9000standardsandbecomecertified(Chini&Valdez,2003).

ReasonsgivenforthislackofadoptiontendtofocusontheideathatISO9000isnotpromotedorrequiredbyU.S.

clientsorgovernmentlikeitiselsewhere(Ahmedetal.,2005)sothereisnoperceivedadvantageofformal

certification.ChiniandValdez(2003)showevidenceofthiswhentheyfound36%ofU.S.certifiedconstruction

relatedfirmswerelocatedinMichiganandanother14%inOhio.Notcoincidentally,thesestatesarewhereU.S.

automakers,companiesthatrequireISO9001certificationfromthosetheycontractwith,arelargelylocated(at

leastin2000).

EvidencetosupportthepositiveoutcomesofISO9001certificationgenerallycomesfromsurveysoforinterviews

withcontractorsthatarealreadyISOcertified(e.g.,Ahmedetal.,2005;Chini&Valdez,2003;MoatazedKeivanietal.,1999)soitisnotsurprisingthatresultsindicateageneralbenefittoISO9001certification.Evenso,thereis

ampleevidencetosuggestthatISO9000isatleastapplicabletoconstructionandcanbeadopted(Nee,1996;Chung,1999)andargumentshavebeenmadethatitcanhelpstandardizecorporateprocedures(Chung,1999),

reducewaste,improvequalityandprovideindependentverificationthatsuchthingsarebeingdone(Love&Li,

2000).AcomparisonoftheU.S.andHongKongconstructionindustries(Ahmedetal.,2005)foundthatpromotion

ofISO9001certificationamongstclientsandgovernmentisminimalintheU.S.whileitisprominentinHongKong.

GLOSSARY

ISO InternationalStandardsOrganizationQMS Qualityprocessmanagementsystem

Quality Degreetowhichasetofinherentcharacteristicsfulfillsrequirements.Thisisabroaddefinition.Notethatinthiscontextisdoesnotrefertoadegreeof

excellence.

REFERENCES

Chini,A.R.andValdez,H.E.(2003).ISO9000andtheU.S.ConstructionIndustry. J.ofManagementinEngineering,

19(2),pp.6977.

Chung,H.W.(1999).Understandingqualityassuranceinconstruction:apracticalguidetoISO9000,E&FSpon,

London,UK.

InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO).(2006).TheISOSurveyofCertifications2006.ISO,Geneva,

Switzerland.

InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO).(2009).ISO9000essentials.ISOwebsite.Availableat

http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/management_standards/iso_9000_iso_14000/iso_9000_essentials.htm

Accessed29October2009.

InternationalOrganizationforStandardization.ISO9001:2008QualitymanagementsystemsRequirements.1st

ed.2008:IHS.

Ketola,J.,&Roberts,K.(2008).ISO9001:2008Update:Theyear2008revisionofISO9001hasmadeitswaytoa

FinalDraftInternationalStandard.QualityDigest.20,3336.

Love,P.E.D.&Li,H.(2000).Overcomingtheproblemsassociatedwithqualitycertification.’Construction

ManagementandEconomics,18(2),pp.139149.

MoatazedKeivani,R,;GhanbariParsa,A.R.,&Kagaya,S.(1999).ISO9000standards:perceptionsandexperiences

intheUKconstructionindustry.ConstructionManagementandEconomics,17,pp.107119.

Nee,P.A.(1996).ISO9000inConstruction.Wiley,NewYork,NY.

283





Yates,J.K.,&Aniftos,S.(1997).InternationalStandardsandConstruction. JournalofConstructionEngineeringand

Management.123(2),127.

Yates,J.K.,&Aniftos,S.C.(1996).InternationalStandards:TheUSConstructionIndustry'sCompetitiveness.Cost

Engineering:aPublicationoftheAmericanAssociationofCostEngineers.38(7),32.

284




CA-2 Environmental Training

ENVIRONMENTAL TRAININGGOAL

Provideconstructionpersonnelwiththeknowledgetoidentifyenvironmentalissues

andbestpracticemethodstominimizeenvironmentalimpacts.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Provideanenvironmentaltrainingplanthatiscustomizedtotheproject,including:

1. Listofthetypesofprojectpersonneltobetrained.Thismaybealistbyjobtypeor

byemployerneednotcontainactualemployeenames.

2. Descriptionofthetypes,goalsandobjectivesoftrainingtobegiven.

3. Aprocesstotracktrainingefforts,includingdates,means(e.g.,online,classroom,

fieldtraining),topics,theidentificationofthoseparticipatingintraining,and

attendancenumbers

4. Aprocesstomeasureoftrainingeffectivenesssuchasselfassessment,pretestand

posttest,andproductivitymeasurement.

Details

Theenvironmentalawarenesstrainingplanshalladdressthefollowingtraining

elements,orstatewhyanyareinappropriate:

a. Permitconditions,performancestandards,environmentalcommitments,and

environmentalregulationsrelatedtotheproject

b. Overallimportanceofenvironmentalissues(i.e.,ecologicalimpactofactions)

c. Identifyingworkactivitiesthatpresentthegreatestriskforcompliance(i.e.,

specificenvironmentalsensitivitiesoftheproject)

d. Requiredenvironmentalqualificationsandcertifications

e. Environmentalrecordsmanagement

f. Environmentalcompliancemonitoringandreportingprocedures

g. Unanticipatedhistoricresourceorarchaeologicaldiscoveriesh. Environmentalnotificationtriggersandemergencyresponseprocedures

i. Oilspillpreventionandresponseprocedures

j. Constructionstormwatermanagement(includingmonitoringsitesand

monitoringandreportingprocedures)

k. Erosionandsedimentcontrolprocedures(includingdustmitigation)

l. Inwaterwork

m. Reductionofairpollution

n. Managementofknownorsuspectedcontamination

o. Wastemanagementandrecycling

p. Hazardousmaterialsmanagement

q. Managementofnoiseimpacts

r. Litteringandgoodhousekeeping

s. Planfortrainingsubcontractorsandfieldpersonnelnotimmediatelyinvolvedatprojectstartorplanning.Thesepersonnelmustalsoreceivetraining.

DOCUMENTATION

x Acopyoftheenvironmentaltrainingplanandanyupdatestothatplanthatoccur

throughouttheconstruction.

x Asignedletterfromanowner’srepresentativestatingthatthecontractor(s)

followedtheenvironmentaltrainingplanassubmittedandupdated.

CA-2

1 POINT

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR11Educational

Outreach

9 EW1Environmental

ManagementSystem

9 CA1Quality

ManagementSystem

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Equity

9 Expectations

9 Experience

9 Exposure

BENEFITS

9 ReducesAir

Emissions9 ReducesWater

Pollution

9 ReducesSolidWaste

9 ImprovesHuman

Health&Safety

9 Improves

Accountability


285




Environmental Training CA-2


x Provideenvironmentaltrainingaspartofstandardorientationtrainingtoaconstructionproject.Donein

combinationwithconstructionhealthandsafetytrainingcanensurethatallpersonnelarereachedbefore

enteringtheworksite,andcanreducetrainingcostbyavoidingmultipletrainingsessions.

x Deliveractivityspecifictoolboxortailgatetalktopicsonsite,targetingthepertinentconstructionpersonnel

priortoeachnewactivity.Toolboxenvironmentaltalksmightrelyoncommerciallyavailablepresentations,supplementedbycustomizedprojectandworklocationspecifictopics.

x Deliverenvironmentaltrainingonregularorasneededbasesviateleconferences,periodicemail

environmentalalerts,environmentalawarenessmeetings,designreviewmeetings,weeklyprojectmeetings,

preconstructionmeetingsforeachworkphase/activity,andfielddiscussionsduringsitemonitoringand

inspection.

x Focusenvironmentaltrainingcomponentsontargetaudienceswithappropriatefrequenciesasfollows:

x EnvironmentalStewardshiptraining:Discussstewardshipprinciplesattheconstructionkickoffmeeting.

x Baselineenvironmentalawarenesstraining:Provideenvironmentalorientationforallfieldpersonnel,

personallydeliveredpriortoentryintoworkphasesviaaconsistentaudiovisualpresentation;addresspermitconditions,performancestandards,environmentalcommitments,environmentalregulations,and

overallimportanceofenvironmentalissues.

x Environmentaldesigntraining:Deliverthistrainingtodesignersatdesignreview/validationmeetingsduringtheconstructionphase(i.e.,designbuildprojects).

x Projectmanagementteamtraining:Conducttrainingduringsteeringmeetings.Discussupcoming

constructionscheduleandcorrespondingenvironmentalcompliancechallenges.Addressenvironmental

commitmentsandapplicablecontentofenvironmentalguidancemanuals.Orientdiscussiontothespecific

andappropriateworkstages,timeofyear,orworkactivity.

x Constructiontraining:Meetonsitetogiveconstructionworkerstoolbox/tailgatetraininginspecific

activitiespriortoinitiatingconstruction.Highlightpreconstructionandawarenessofcomplianceneedsand

howtosupportthezeroviolationsgoal.Providepreactivityenvironmentalcompliancepocketchecklists

forimprovedenvironmentalperformance.

x Environmentalstafftraining:Providetheenvironmentalteamwithbiweeklyorasneededspecific

instructioninmonitoringtasks,performancedocumentationandcompliance,andenvironmental

compliancesupportprocedures.x Skillandneedspecifictraining:Ensurecompetencyamongselectedenvironmentalstaffandcrewsin

waterqualitymonitoringprocedures,erosionandsedimentcontrolinspections,inwaterwork,etc.

Examples

WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT)

WSDOT’sEnvironmentalManagementSystemdeliversenvironmentaltrainingtoprovidetoolsandinformation

toassiststaffinensuringthatprojectsstayincompliancewithenvironmentallaws,regulations,andpolicies

(WSDOT,2008a).AkeycomponentoftheirConstructionEnvironmentalManagementProgramistrainingthe

appropriatepersonnelontheapplicableprocedurestoensurecompliancewithenvironmentalrequirements

duringconstruction.Trainingsessionstargetvariousaudiences,includingenvironmentalpractitioners,

constructionstaff,andmaintenanceandoperationsstaff.Forexample:

x Drainagedesignleadengineerswhoareresponsibleforstormwaterdesign(includingdownstreamanalysis,

bridgescouranalysis,andfloodplainfillandhydraulicimpactmitigationevaluations)mustcomplete

WSDOT'strainingcourseintheHighwayRunoffManual.

x WSDOTtrainscontractorstoensurewaterqualityismonitoredinaccordancewiththeHighwayRunoff

Manualprotocols,projectspecificpermitconditions,performancestandards,andenvironmental

commitments.

x Erosionandsedimentcontroldesignmustbepreparedbyanindividualwhohassuccessfullycompleted

WSDOT’sConstructionSiteErosionandSedimentControlcourse.

286





Sometypesofenvironmentaltrainingarerequiredbyregulation.Forexample,spillprevention,containment,

andresponsetrainingforallspillrespondersisrequiredinWashingtoninaccordancewithWashington

AdministrativeCode(WAC)296824.Hazardousmaterialssurveys,includingasbestoscontainingmaterials/lead

basedpaint(ACM/LBP)mustbecompletedbyanAsbestosHazardEmergencyResponseAct(AHERA)certified

inspector.

MeasuringPerformanceofEnvironmentalTrainingResearchsuggeststhatenvironmentaltrainingasacomponentofenvironmentalmanagementsystems(e.g.,

ISO14001standards)improves:(1)employeeawareness,(2)operationalefficiency,(3)managerialawareness,

and(4)operationaleffectiveness(Rondinelli&Vastag,2000;Sroufe,2003).

DOTspreparequarterlyandannualreportsonprogramwideenvironmentalperformance.Forexample,

WashingtonDOT’sGrayNotebook indicatesenvironmentalperformancethroughEnvironmentalCompliance

Assurancemetrics(WSDOT,2008b).WashingtonDOTbelievesthatitsEnvironmentalComplianceAssurance

Proceduresandtheenvironmentalcomplianceforconstructioninspectorstrainingcoursehaveraisedthe

generalawarenessofnoncomplianceevents,witheventsbeingcitedandquicklyresolvedwithincreasing

numbers.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Constructionpersonnelmayturnoverduringtheproject.

2. Somesubcontractors,operatorsanddriversmaybeonsiteonlyonceorinfrequently.

RESEARCH

Thisresearchsectioncoverstheideaofenvironmentaltrainingintwodistinctsections.First,thevalueoftraining

ingeneralisaddressed(e.g.,whyshouldanyorganizationspendmoneyontraining?)andthenexamplesofandreasonsforconstructionrelatedenvironmentaltrainingarediscussed.

TheValueofTraininginGeneral

Knowledgeisavitalorganizationalasset.Thisistheessentialunstatedassumptionassociatedwithalmostall

trainingdiscussions.WhileAmericancorporationsspendinexcessof$50billionannuallyontraining(Galvin,2002)

andnumerousauthorsespousethevirtueandnecessityoftraining,fewmakeanefforttoactuallyshowitsvalue.Thissectionhighlightsthefundamentalpremiseforcontinuedandevenincreasedsupportfortraining:itisan

investmentinavaluablecommoditythatproduceshighreturns.

KnowledgeisValuable

Today,intheinformationage,organizationsareroutinelyvaluednotontheirphysicalbutrathertheir

intellectualcapital.EdvinssonandMalone(1997)defineintellectualcapitalas“thepossessionofthe

knowledge,appliedexperience,organizationaltechnology,customerrelationshipsandprofessionalskillsthat

provide[anorganization]withacompetitiveedgeinthemarket.”BassiandVanBuren(1999)pointoutthat

“intellectualcapitalistheonlysourceofcompetitiveadvantagewithinagrowingnumberofindustries.”For

instance,themarketvalueofMicrosoftfarexceedsthevalueofitsphysicalassets.Tobesure,muchofthis

valueisbasedonspeculation,butmuchisalsobasedonMicrosoft’sintellectualcapital–whatitknows.

Trainingisoneofthechiefmethodsofmaintainingandimprovingintellectualcapital.Becauseofthis,an

organization’strainingcanaffectitsvalue.BassiandVanBuren(1999)foundtrainingasapercentageof

payrolltobesignificantlycorrelatedwiththemarkettobookvalueofpubliclytradedcompanies.Wherethe

averageU.S.employerspentabout0.9%ofpayrolloneducationandtraining(Bassietal.,1996),training

magazine’s2002top100trainingcompaniesaveraged4%withPfizerrankingfirstat14%.

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TrainingisanInvestment

Generalaccountingstandardsclassifytrainingasanexpense.However,trainingisreallyaninvestment:an

organizationtypicallyinvestsupfronttotrainitsemployees(intheformofenrollmentfees,travelexpenses

andopportunitycostoftheemployees’time)and,inreturn,expectsfuturereturns(intheformofincreased

knowledge,skillsandproductivity).Aswithanyotherinvestment,ifthereturnsoutweightheinvestment,

trainingisaworthwhileendeavor.

Trainingisalsoaninvestmentfromtheemployee’sperspective.Trainingincreasesskillsandknowledge,which

canleadtobetterpayorpromotion.Sowhobenefitsmostfromthetraininginvestment:theemployeewith

increasedwagesand/orpromotionortheemployerwithincreasedproductivity?LoewensteinandSpletzer(1998)researchedthisquestionandconcluded,“...theeffectofanhouroftrainingonproductivitygrowthis

aboutfivetimesaslargeastheeffectonwagegrowth.”Therefore,employers“reapalmostallthereturnstocompanytraining”(Bartel,2000).Thismaybeoversimplifyingbecauseemployeesgenerallyviewtrainingas

eitheragiftfromtheemployeroratleastasignofcommitmentonthepartoftheemployee,whichis

importanttojobsatisfaction(Barrett&O’Connell,2001).

Insum,boththeemployeeandemployerbenefitfromthetraininginvestment.Thequestionnowshiftstoone

ofmeasurement:dothereturnsontrainingoutweightheinvestment?

TrainingReturnonInvestment(ROI)

Whencalculatedusingsoundmethodology,traininghasbeenshowntoprovidesignificantreturnon

investment:ontheorderof5to200percent.TheproblemisthatmethodsusedtoquantifytrainingROIcan

oftenbesuspectorevenoutrightselfpromotion.Furthermore,itisoftenverydifficulttoquantifytheeffects

oftraining.Forinstance,oneoftraining’seffectscanbeincreasedjobsatisfaction,whichisdifficultifnot

impossibletoquantify.Intuitivelyweknowthisisimportantinretaininggoodemployees;howeveritwillnot

showuponaROIcalculation.

In2000,Bartelprovidedoneofthebestobjectivelooksatthevalueoftrainingtotheemployer.Shelookedat

10largedatasetsurveysand16individualcasestudiesinanattempttodeterminetheemployer’sreturnon

investmentforemployeetraining.Shefoundthefollowing:

x MethodsusinglargedatasetstocomparemanydifferentorganizationsestimatedtrainingROIfrom7to50percent.

x IndividualcasestudiesestimatedtrainingROIfrom100to5900percent.BartelbelievesthehighROIsin

thiscategoryarebasedonfaultymethodology.Herindepthanalysisoftwowellconstructedinternalcase

studiesrevealeda100to200percentROI.

Therefore,eventhemostconservativeestimateputstraining’sROIat7percent–anacceptablerateofreturn

bymoststandards.Additionally,althoughitisnotappropriatetogeneralizebasedontheresultsoftwocase

studies,itcanbesaidthatbasedonBartel’sindepthanalysisoftwowellconstructedinternalcasestudies,training’sROIcanbemuchhigher:approaching100to200percent.

Summary

Trainingisavaluablecommoditythat,ifviewedasaninvestmentratherthananexpense,canproducehigh

returns.Whileitistruethattrainingcostsmoneyandusesvaluableemployeetimeandresources,studiestendtoshowtrainingprovidesapositivereturnoninvestment–sometimesintheneighborhoodofseveral

hundredpercent.Therefore,althoughtrainingmightseemlikealuxuryexpenseintightfinancialtimes,itis,in

fact,oneofthemostsureandsoundinvestmentsavailable.

EnvironmentalTraining

Environmentaltrainingis,forthemostpart,aresponsetopublicdemandforbetterenvironmentalperformancein

infrastructureconstruction.Thisisgenerallyseenintwoways:(1)publicowneragencieshavebeguntorequirenot

onlythatprojectsmeetenvironmentalregulationsbutalsothattheyincorporateemployeeenvironmentaltraining

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inordertoimproveunderstandingandcompliance,and(2)privatefirms(e.g.,constructionfirms)usingtraining

programsasawaytogaincompetitiveadvantagebasedonownerrequirementsandalsoasacomponentintheir

approachtoaddressingownerandshareholder(inthecaseofpubliccompanies)demandsforenvironmental

accounting.

OwnerAgencyTrainingandRequiredTrainingforContractWork

Manystatedepartmentsoftransportation(DOTs)provideenvironmentaltrainingtotheiremployeesandsomearebeginningtorequiretrainingofcertainkeypersonnelfromcontractorsworkingonpublicprojects.Ina

2002surveyofstateDOTs(VennerConsulting&ParsonsBrinderhoff,2004),24wereperforminggeneral

natureresourcesand/orregulatorytrainingforengineersand/orconstructionpersonnel;whileabout60%offeredgeneraltrainingintheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA),publicinvolvement,environmental

processesandbestmanagementpractices(BMPs)formaintenanceandwaterquality.

Itisalsobecomingmorecommonforowneragenciestorequirecontractortraininginstormwaterpollution

preventionmethods,commonlyreferredtoastemporaryerosionandsedimentcontrol(TESC)onconstruction

sites.TypicallyasupervisorNPDEStohaveatrainederosionandsedimentcontrolpersononsitetomanagea

project’stemporaryerosionandsedimentcontrolefforts.Forexample,forconstructioninhighqualityor

impairedwaters,Tennesseerequiresthecontractor’serosionpreventionandsedimentcontrolinspectorand

environmentalsupervisortohavecompletedaspecifiedformalcourse(orequivalent)(TDOT,2005).

ConstructionFirmTraining

Constructionfirmshavebeguntorecognizeaneedtoformallymanagetheirimpactontheenvironmentand

haveincludedtrainingprograms(bothcompanywideandprojectspecific)tohelp.Reasonsforhavingan

environmentaltrainingprograminclude:

a. Compliancehelp.ThenumberandcomplexityofexistingU.S.environmentalregulationsandtheir

associatedcostlyfinesifviolated(seeU.S.EPA,2005)necessitatesanorganizedapproachtounderstanding

andcomplyingwiththeseregulations.InaHongKongstudy(Tametal.,2006)“managementandtraining”

wasidentifiedasthemostimportantevaluationfactorforassessingenvironmentalissuesinconstruction

projects.

b. Showingcommitmenttothepublic.Publicallyheldcompanies,especiallythoselistedinEuropean

exchanges,areunderpressuretoshowtheirsustainabilityeffortstotheirstockholders.Theseofteninclude“environmentalmanagementsystems”(EMS)–seeEW1.AfundamentalcomponentofanEMSisan

employeetrainingplan(Christinietal.,2004).Thus,thosecompanieswithEMSsorthoseprogressing

towardsthemhaveaneedforenvironmentaltraining.

c. Competitiveadvantage.Somepubliccontracts,especiallydesignbuildones,haveascoringsystemthat

awardsenvironmentalconsiderationsbeyondregulatorycompliance.Also,someclientsmaysoonrequire

contractorstohaveanEMS(includingthetrainingcomponent)inplace(Christinietal.,2004).

REFERENCES

Barrett,A.&O’Connell,P.J.(April2001).DoesTrainingGenerallyWork?TheReturnstoInCompanyTraining.

IndustrialandLaborRelationsReview ,54(3).pp.647662.

Bartel,A.P.(July2000).MeasuringtheEmployer’sReturnonInvestmentsinTraining:EvidencefromtheLiterature.IndustrialRelations,39(3).pp.502524.

Bassi,L.J.&VanBuren,M.E.(1999).Valuinginvestmentsinintellectualcapital.InternationalJournalof

TechnologyManagement ,18(5/6/7/8).pp.414432.

Bassi,L.J.;Gallagher,A.L.&Schroer,E.(1996).TheASTDTrainingDataBook .AmericanSocietyforTrainingandDevelopment.Alexandria,VA.

289





Christini,G.;Fetsko,M.&Hendrickson,C.(2004).EnvironmentalManagementSystemsandISO14001Certification

forConstructionFirms. J.ofConstructionEngineeringandManagement ,130(3),pp.330336.

Edvinsson,L.&Malone,M.S.(1997).IntellectualCapital:RealizingYourCompany’sTrueValuebyFindingits

HiddenBrainpower .HarperBusiness.NewYork,NY.

Galvin,T.(October2002).2001IndustryReport.Training,38(10).pp.4075.

Loewenstein,M.A.&Spletzer,J.R.(November1994).InformalTraining:AReviewofExistingDataandSomeNew

Evidence.NationalLongitudinalSurveysDiscussionPaper.U.S.DepartmentofLabor,BureauofLaborStatistics.Washington,D.C.http://www.bls.gov/ore/pdf/nl940050.pdf .

Tam,V.W.Y.;Tam,C.M.;Yiu,K.T.W.&Cheung,S.O.(2006).Criticalfactorsforenvironmentalperformance

assessment(EPA)intheHongKongconstructionindustry.ConstructionManagementandEconomics,24(11),

pp.11131123.

TennesseeDepartmentofTransportation(TDOT).(2005).RulesofTennesseeDepartmentofTransportation

ConstructionDivision,Chapeter168052ContractorQualificationsforConstructioninHighQualityorImpaired

Waters.http://www.state.tn.us/sos/rules/1680/168005/16800502.pdf .

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2005).ManagingYourEnvironmentalResponsibilities:APlanning

GuideforConstructionandDevelopment .OfficeofCompliance,OfficeofEnforcementandCompliance

Assurance,U.S.EPA,Washington,D.C.

VennerConsulting&ParsonsBrinderhoff.(2004).EnvironmentalStewardshipPractices,Procedures,andPolicies

forHighwayConstructionandMaintenance.NCHRPProject2525(04),TransportationResearchBoard,

Washington,D.C.

WSDOT.2008a.EnvironmentalManagementPrograms.WashingtonDepartmentofTransportation,Olympia,WA.

http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Environment/EMS/ems_training.htm#enviromental.Accessed7December2008.

WSDOT.2008b.Measures,MarkersandMileposts.TheGrayNotebook28.WashingtonDepartmentofTransportation,Olympia,WA.

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CA-3 Site Recycling Plan

SITE RECYCLING PLANGOAL

Minimizetheamountofconstructionrelatedwastedestinedforlandfillandpromote

environmentalstewardshipthroughgoodhousekeepingpracticesattheworksite.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Establish,implement,andmaintainaformalSiteRecyclingPlanaspartofthe

ConstructionandDemolitionWasteManagementPlan(CWMP)duringconstruction.

TheSiteRecyclingPlanmustclearlydescribetheplanforimplementing,

communicating,monitoringandmaintainingappropriaterecyclinganddiversion

practicesonsite.Thefollowingtopicsmustbespecificallyaddressed.

1. Expectedtypes,quantities,processingordisposalfacilities,locationsofreceptacles

andproperhandlingforrecyclable(orreusable)roadwaymaterialsgeneratedfrom

roadwayconstructionprocessessuchas(butnotlimitedto):

x Pavingprocesswaste(e.g.hotmixasphalt,concrete)

x Millingwaste,concretesloughandgrindings,cobble

x Excesssteelrebarandothermetalproductsorscraps

x Excessplasticpipesandpackaging

x Excavatedsoilcuttingsandboulders

x Landclearingdebrisandtopsoil

x Woodandpaperproducts(e.g.packagingmaterials,cardboardandpallets)

2. Expectedtypes,quantities,processingordisposalfacilities,locationsofreceptacles

andproperhandlingforrecyclable(orreusable)materialsgeneratedfrommobile

office(e.g.jobtrailer,siteoffice)activitiesandpersonalworker(household)waste

suchas(butnotlimitedto):

x Paper,copierpaper,paperproducts

x Plastic

x Aluminumandvarioushouseholdmetals

x Glass

x Householdtrashorcompostables

3. Communicationexpectationsforjobsitehousekeepingpracticesforthegeneral

contractor(alsointendedforanysubcontractors)regarding:

x Littercontrol

x

Expectedtypesofsiteandworkergeneratedrecyclables.x Collectionpracticesforsiteandworkergeneratedrecyclables.

x Locationsofrecyclingreceptacles.

x Trainingrequirementsforallsiteemployeesandmeansofcorrectiveaction.

DOCUMENTATION

x CopyoftheSiteRecyclingPlan.

CA-3

1 POINT

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR6Waste

ManagementPlan

9 PR10Site

MaintenancePlan

9 EW1Environmental

ManagementSystem

9 MR4RecycledMaterials

9 CA2Environmental

Training

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Expectations

9 Exposure

BENEFITS9 ReducesAir

Emissions

9 ReducesSolidWaste

9 ReducesManmade

Footprint

9 ReducesLifecycle

Costs

9 Improves

Accountability


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Site Recycling Plan CA-3


x IncludetheSiteRecyclingPlaninagencycontractdocuments,bidpackages,and/orspecifications.

x SetwastereductiongoalsandexplicitlystatethemintheSiteRecyclingPlan.

x Locatereceptaclesineasilyaccessibleorhighlyfrequentedlocationsonthejobsite.Receptaclesshouldnotbe

placedinareaswheretheymaycauseharmtoworkersorthelocalenvironment.SeePR7PollutionPrevention

Planformoreinformation.x Clearlylabelreceptaclesandrecyclinglocations.Largecolorphotosofwhatisrecyclableandwhatisnotare

oftenveryhelpful,especially,formultilingualworkenvironments.

x Providewastereceptaclesthataresmallerthantherecyclingreceptacles,slightlymoredifficulttoopen,orslightlymoredifficulttoaccess.Thisprovidesavisualorbehavioralcueindicatingthatthetrashissupposedto

belimitedandthereareamplerecyclingalternatives.

x Includeinstructionsorwarningsonthewastebinsuchas:“AreYouSureThisIsNotRecyclable?”

x Manyrecyclingfacilitiescanacceptcomingledrecyclables,whichmeansthatlesssortingandfewer

receptaclesarerequired.However,quantitiesofthesecomingledmaterialsareoftenhardertotrackand

requiredetailedreceiptsfromthewastetransportagencytoassessthecompositionofcomingledstreams.

x Designateaparticularpersonorafewpeopletobethesitemonitorforhelpingworkersrecycleproperly.

x Reviewlocalenvironmentalmaintenanceplansusedforlittercontrolandroadwaycleanupactivities.These

plansmaybehelpfulreferenceswhendevelopingtheSiteRecyclingPlan,oratminimum,reducepotentialfor

conflictbetweenexistingpolicyandpractice.SeealsoPR10SiteMaintenancePlan.

x HireacontractorwithanEnvironmentalManagementSystem(EMS)inplace.(SeeCreditEW1EnvironmentalManagementSystem).Theseemployersalreadyhaveinternalofficeproceduresestablishedtoreduceoffice

relatedpollutionandmaybefamiliarwithlocalagencyrecoveryeffortsandrecyclingorsalvagefacilities.

x Developanddelivertrainingtoworkerstoeducatethemonwasterecoveryeffortsbeingimplementedonsite

andcompliancewiththegeneralCWMPandtheSiteRecyclingPlan.Thisstepwillbecriticaltoallprojects.See

CreditCA2EnvironmentalTrainingformoreapproachesandstrategiesforeducationprograms.

x Createanincentiveorrecognitionplanforworkerstoengageactivelyinrecyclingeffortsofpersonaltrashthat

rewardspositiveandsuccessfulbehavior.

x Hireanexperiencedwastetransportcompanytomanagesitewasteandmonitorwastestreamsfor

unacceptablematerials.

x Identifylocalfacilitiesthatacceptrecyclablesorsalvagedmaterials.Thisisimportantindesignatingtypeof

wastetoseparate,andinmakingarrangementsfordropoffordeliveryofmaterials.x Identifyexistingrecyclingcollectionfacilitiesthatmaybedecentralized(i.e.recyclebinsalongacitystreet).

Manyurbanizedareaswillhaveaccessorprovisionsforlocalrecyclingprogramsandmayhaveresources

availableforuse.

x The2007Contractor’sGuidebytheKingCountySolidWasteDivisionandSeattlePublicUtilitiesprovidesmanyhelpfulwastemanagementandreductionstrategiesfortheentireproject.Asamplewastemanagementplan

adaptedfromthisguideisprovidedintheexamplesbelow.

Example: Sample Specification Language for Site Recycling Plan

x TheKingCountySolidWasteDivision(KingCounty,2009)providessomehelpfultoolsforwritingclearand

manageablerecyclinganddiversionexpectationsintocontractdocumentsathttp://www.greentools.us.A

sampleof“Section01505(or1524)–ConstructionWasteManagement”isprovidedatthelinkbelowin

ConstructionSpecificationsInstitute(CSI)MasterFormat(KingCounty,2008):http://your.kingcounty.gov/solidwaste/greenbuilding/documents/Sect01505_const_wastemgmt.pdf

x Communicatingtheplanexpectationswithsubcontractorsisequallyimportant.Followingisasample

clauseforsubcontractoragreements:

"Thesubcontractorwillmakeagoodfaithefforttoreducetheamountofwastegeneratedonthejobsiteand

recyclematerialasperthecontractor'swastemanagementplan.Thesubcontractorwillfollowthedesignated

handlingproceduresforeachtypeofwastegeneratedonsiteandprovidedocumentationtoverifymaterial

reuse,recyclinganddisposalasindicatedinthewastemanagementplan."(KingCounty,2008)

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Example: Sample Construction Waste Management Plan with Materials Recovery

Thefollowingexamplecontenthasbeenadaptedfromthe2007Seattle/KingCountyContractor’sGuide,which

isavailablehere:http://your.kingcounty.gov/solidwaste/greenbuilding/documents/ConGuide.pdf .Projects

teamsshouldconsidercustomizingtheSiteRecyclingPlaninformationbasedonprojectgoalsandagencyor

clientexpectations.

SITE RECYCLING PLAN

GeneralContractor:

ProjectName:

SiteRecyclingCoordinator:

Phone:

DebrisCollectionAgency:

SiteRecycling/DiversionGoals:

Stepstoinformcontractors/subcontractorsofSiteRecyclingPlanpolicies.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

C&DMaterialsExpectedtobeGeneratedandProposedDiversionMethod

Thefollowingchartsidentifymaterialsexpectedtobegeneratedbythisprojectandtheplannedmethodfor

divertingthesematerialsfromdisposalasawaste.

DECONSTRUCTION&DEMOLITIONPHASE

Material Quantity(units) DiversionMethod&Location HandlingProcedure

CONSTRUCTIONPHASE

Material Quantity(units) DiversionMethod&Location HandlingProcedure

FigureCA3.1:Samplesiterecyclingplanformat.

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POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Acentrallocationforcollectingrecyclablesonaroadwayprojectmaynotbefeasibleforjobsitesthat

consistentlychangestartinglocationsonadailybasis(i.e.severalmilesdowntheroadwayawayfromthe

collectionarea).Thismayresultinunnecessaryvehicleorworkertripstoandfromaparticularlocationjustto

depositsomethinginacorrectrecyclingreceptacle.Theauthorsareunawareofanypracticesthathavebeen

usedonroadwayconstructionprojectsthatcouldsolveoravoidthisproblem.

2. Thereisatradeoffbetweentransportcosts(includingenvironmentalcostsfromemissions)andtheoverall

utilityorvalueoftherecycledorsalvagedmaterials.Somelocations,especiallymanyruralareas,mayhave

difficultyfindingrecoveryfacilitiesthatarelocatednearenoughtotheprojecttobefinanciallyor

environmentallycosteffective.

3. Technologyisquicklydevelopingforrecyclingofmaterialsintoreconstitutedbuildingmaterials(SeecreditMR

4).However,newtechnologiesmaynotbeavailablelocallyorinruralareas.

4. Carelessbehaviororlackofstewardshipmaybeanissuethatcanresultinrecyclablesbeingdisposedofin

wasteonlyreceptacles,orviceversa,especiallyifobjectivesofaSiteRecyclingPlanarenotmeaningfulor

communicatedwelltoworkers.Thisbehaviorcancontaminatetherecyclablesstreamandmakeanentire

receptacleunsuitableforreprocessingorsalvage,oraccidentallysendrecyclablestoalandfill.

5. Properhandlingofrecyclablematerialsisakeysafetyissuefornewandunfamiliarrecyclingactivities.

Communicationandtrainingiscriticaltominimizeriskandpreservesafety.

6. Safetyandsecurityconsiderationsshouldbetakenintoaccountrelativetoonsitestorageofrecoverablematerialsofhighvalue.Opportunitiesfortheftmaybeincreased,especiallyforsometypesofmetalsthatare

commonlyusedininfrastructureorelectricalutilitieslikecopperwire.

7. Storageareasmustcomplywithrelevantregulationsandthepollutionpreventionplan(seeProject

RequirementPR7).

8. Atthistime,pointsarenotavailableforachievingwastereductionbasedonpercentageoftotalwaste.Thisis

duetolackofdataregardingwastemanagementforroadwayconstructionactivities.

RESEARCH

Thissectiondescribesknownchallengesaboutimplementingarecyclingandrecoveryplanatroadway

constructionsitesandexploresthepotentialenvironmentalbenefitsofsuchplans.Fordetailedbackground

informationonwhatisknownaboutconstructionanddemolition(C&D)wastemanagementforroadways,the

readerisreferredtoProjectRequirementPR6WasteManagementPlan.Similarly,fordetailedinformationonplanningforbulkroadwaymaterialsrecycling,recoveryorreuse(thefirstrequirementfortheSiteRecoveryPlan),

thereaderisdirectedtowardtheMaterials&ResourcesCreditsMR2PavementReuse,MR3EarthworkBalance,

andMR4RecycledMaterials.Thesecreditscontainmanyapproachesandstrategiesthatmaybesynergisticwhenpursuingthiscredit.

Thissectionaddressestwokeypointswhicharenotaddressedintherequirementsorcreditsnotedabove:whatis

knownaboutthestateofrecyclinghousekeepingpracticesandmunicipalsolidwaste(MSW,alsoknownas

householdorpersonalwaste)generationonconstructionsitesandthebenefitsandcostsofapplicable

constructionmaterialsrecoveryactivities.Helpfulresourcesarealsolistedattheendformoreinformation.

StateoftheRoadIndustryRecyclingPractice

Whileseveralagenciesandauthorspromoterecyclingmaterialwasteproductsusedinroadwayconstruction,informationontherecyclablematerialwastesgeneratedbyroadwayconstructionanddemolitionprojectsishard

tolocate.Thefollowinglistidentifiesareasofconstructionactivitiesforwhichthereiscurrentlylittleorno

relevantdata:

x Wastemanagementplansfortransportationcontractors

x Sorting,segregationandprocessingactivitiesforroadwayconstructionwaste,andwheretheseactivitiesoccur

(i.e.onsite,offsite)

x Behaviorsandstewardshippracticesofroadconstructionemployees

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x Generationratesandquantitiesofpersonaltrash

x Generationratesandquantitiesofofficerelatedtrashforconstructionsiteoffices

x CostsassociatedwithC&DandMSWmanagementfromconstructionworksites

Existingregulatoryrequirementsfocusmainlyonstormwater,sedimentanddustcontrolandotherstandardpollutionpreventionactivities,suchastheNationalPollutionDischargeandEliminationSystem(seealsoProject

requirementPR7PollutionPreventionPlan).SomeagenciesmayalsohaveEnvironmentalManagementSystems(EMS)inplace(seeCreditEW1EnvironmentalManagementSystem)whichofteninstitutepersonalandoffice

wastemanagementpolicies,butnoinformationisavailablerelativetowhethertheseEMSplansareimplemented

andfollowedattheconstructionsite.

Thelackofinformationislikelypartlybecauserecyclingactivitiesrepresentamaterialsfeedbackloopatmany

levelsoftheroadwaysystem,fromdesignandconstructiontostartandendofthesupplychain.Waste

managementandrecoveryofresourcesfitneartheendofthepollutionpreventionscheme,buttheseactivities

themselvescaninjectmaterialsintovariouslifecyclephasesoftheoverallproject(EPA,2009b).Thismakesenvironmentalcostsandbenefitsofrecyclingdifficulttoquantify,characterizeandcomparebetweendifferent

projects.Someenvironmentalcostsofmaterialsandproductsduetoextractionandinitialproductionare

effectivelyextendedintoasecondservicelifethroughdowncyclingrecoveryactivities(wheresomeoriginalvalue

islost),generalrecyclingorupcycling(valueisgained)practices.(McDonough&Braungart,2002)Italsomeans

longrangeandupstreamplanningandreductionstrategiescanoftenprovidemoreevidentreductionbenefits

laterinthelifecycle(EPA,2009b).

RajendranandGambetese(2007)estimatedwasteratesforC&Dmaterialtypesbasedonliteraturereviewand

quantitativemodeling.Theirestimates,however,donotincludeMSWmaterialsgeneratedfrompersonaloroffice

activitiesorbehaviorsofsitestaff(theirestimatedratesareitemizedinTablePR6.1).Solidwasterecoveryfor

constructionanddemolitiondebrisisaddressedinPR6andMR4.

CostEffectivenessofConstructionRecyclingPrograms

Afewauthors(Seydeletal.,2002;Kourmpanisetal.,2008;Schultmann&Sunke,2007)haveattemptedto

quantifycostsandperceivedbenefitsassociatedwithconstructionwastemanagementpractices.Thosethathave

donesosuccessfullyhaveonlyfollowedconstructionofbuildingsandbuildingsiteinfrastructurecomponents.

Becausebuildingsitesarerelativelycompactcomparedtothelinearnatureofroads,andbecauseofthevastdifferenceintheexpectedtypesofmaterialquantities(e.g.hotmixasphaltandconcretematerials),therelevance

ofthesestudiesmaybeminor.However,therecyclingactivitiesandmethodsusedforbuildingsprojectsvary

widely.Manydifferentwastemanagementorwasterecoveryprocessesmayalsobeapplicabletoroadwayand

bridgedemolitionandconstruction.Additionally,noquantitativecostmodelswerebasedonU.S.data.

SchultmannandSunke(2007)usealifecycleenergyanalysismodeltoshowthatrecoveryofwasteconstruction

materialsreduceslifecyclecosts,mostlyduetoreducedenergyuseduringextractionofmaterials.Thesesavings

appeartotranslatewelltoroadwaymaterialsbasedontheenergyanalysisforroadwayconstructioncompletedby

RajendranandGambetese(2007),whichdoesuserelevantU.Sdata.SchultmannandSunke(2007),aswellasthe

ConstructionIndustryResearchandInformationAssociation(CIRIA,2004),alsonotethatclosedloopdesignand

planningfordeconstructionactivities,alsoknownascompleteselectivedemolition(Kourmpanisetal.,2008),

insteadofdestructionactivitiespresentsavaluableroutetopotentialcostsavingsformanymaterialproducts.

Kourmpanisetal.(2008)alsosuggestthatacombinationofconventionaldemolitionanddeconstructionactivities

(partialselectivedemolition)andcompleteselectivedemolitionofbuildingscanlowermaterialhandlingand

transportcostsandincreasedrecoveredvalueofmaterials.However,transportcostsandmachinerycostsforon

siteactivitiesmustbeweighedbecausetheyarehighlyvariablebetweenprojects,especiallybylocation.

Seydel,WilsonandSkitmore’s(2002)study(whichtrackedonlythreematerialsinonebuildingprojectinAustralia)

demonstratedthatrecyclingandsortingpracticesrequireheightenedenvironmentalawareness,moresupervision

ofhandlingoperationsandmoreoverallsortingthatisperceivedtobeinadditiontonormalenvironmental

controls.Theirhighesteffortrecoveryscenario,includingsortinganddisposal,reducedtransportanddisposal

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FigureCA3.2:Compositionof2008U.S.MSWwastestream,

250milliontonstotal(beforerecycling)(EPA,2009c).

FigureCA3.3:DisposaltrendsforMSWintheUnitedStates,19602008(EPA,2009b).

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FigureCA3.4:GenerationandRecoveryofMaterialsinMSW,2008(inmillionsoftons

andpercentofgenerationofeachmaterial)(EPA,2009c).

BenefitsofRecyclingMSW

TheEPA(2009c)states,“Recyclinghasenvironmentalbenefitsateverystageinthelifecycleofaconsumer

product—fromtherawmaterialwithwhichit’smadetoitsfinalmethodofdisposal.Asidefromreducing

[greenhousegas]emissions,whichcontributetoglobalwarming,recyclingalsoreducesairandwaterpollution

associatedwithmakingnewproductsfromrawmaterials.”In2008,the83milliontonsofMSWthatwererecoveredrepresent182millionmetrictonsofcarbondioxideequivalentemissionssavedannually.Thisissimilar

toremovingtheairemissionsimpactgeneratedby33millionpassengercarsinoneyear(EPA,2009c).

ForMSWproducts,paperandwoodproducts(organicmaterials)arethemostcommonmaterialsinthewaste

streamthatendupinlandfills.Diversionofthesematerialsfromlandfills,aswellasotherorganicssuchastopsoils

andlandclearingdebris,offersreducedmethaneemissionsduetofewerlandfillemissionsfromdecompositionof

theseorganicmaterials.Methaneisagreenhousegasthatcontributes21timesasmuchtoglobalwarmingand

climatechangeascarbondioxideemissions.(IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange,2007)Also,paperwaste

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iseasilyandcommonlyrecycled,reducingtheoverallneedforforestedmaterials.Therefore,theEPA(2008)states

thatbynotdecreasingtrees,morecarbondioxideisabletobestoredinforestresources,(EPA,2008)andpriceless

habitatispreserved.

TheEPApromotessolidwastemanagementthroughprevention(sourcereduction),recyclingandcomposting

(2008c)asthreeclearwaystoreduceclimatechangeimpactsduetogreenhousegasemissionsandenergy

consumption.“Lessenergyisneededtoextract,transport,andprocessrawmaterialsandtomanufactureproductswhenpeoplereusethingsorwhenproductsaremadewithlessmaterial.”(EPA,2009a).AsshowninSchultmannandSunke(2001),materialsthatcanreducefossilenergyneedmeansfewerassociatedemissions

fromtheenergysectorwiththerecycledmaterialthanforanewmaterialthathasbeenextractedandmanufacturedfromvirginmaterials(EPA,2008b).Wastepreventionpractices(alsoknownaspollutionprevention

orP2:EPA,2008e),whicharesupportedbytheEPAasthemosteffectivewaytoreduceenvironmentalimpacts,canreducelifecycleemissionsandenergyusethanconstructionanddemolitionandMSWrecycling(2008b).

FutureofthisCredit

Otherfamiliarsustainabilityratingsystems,suchasLEED(USGBC,2009)forbuildingsandtheSustainableSites

Initiative(2009),awardcreditforreductionofsolidwasteanddiversionpracticesforconstructionanddemolition

materials.Currently,nominimumrecyclingstandardordataonaveragewastegeneratedperprojectisavailable

forcommontypesofroadwayconstructionprojects.Atthistime,Greenroadscannotjustifyawardingpointsto

oneprojectoveranotherbasedonwastemanagementpracticesorgoalsettingwithoutaknownbenchmarkforthisbestpractice.

AdditionalResources

x CIRIA,theConstructionIndustryResearchandInformationAssociation,providessomehelpfulhintsfordesign

andconstructionbestpracticeformanagingwasteandresources(2004):


x TheCaliforniaIntegratedWasteManagementBoard(CIWMB)offersanumberofresourcesandtools,including

videosofrecyclingbestpractices,(2009)availableat:http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/Recycle/

x TheEPA’sP2(PollutionPrevention)ResourceExchangeprovidescontactinformationforregionalagenciesthatcanhelpconnectprojectleaderstotherightresourcesandopportunitiesforcreatingnewwastemanagement

programs:http://www.epa.gov/p2/pubs/p2rx.html

x WasteCapResourceSolutionsofferstipsandtricksusedbythebuildingindustry.Ofparticularinterestandapplicabilitytoroadwayprojectsareprewrittenspecifications(free)andadditionallinksandresources.

Trainingvideosandreceptaclemagneticsignsarealsoavailableforasmallfee.WasteCapalsooffersanonline

documentationprogramforwastemanagementplanningcalledWasteCapDirect (pricenotspecified).More

informationisavailablehere:http://www.wastecapwi.org/resources/constructiondemolition

GLOSSARY

C&D Constructionanddemolition

CIRIA ConstructionIndustryResearchandInformationAssociation

CIWMB CaliforniaIntegratedWasteManagementBoard

Closedloopdesign Anapproachthatconsiderswastemanagementinprojectplanninginorder

toavoidoreliminateprocessesthatgeneratewaste

Completeselectivedemolition See“deconstruction”

CSI ConstructionSpecificationsInstitute

CWMP ConstructionWasteManagementPlan

Deconstruction Thewholeorpartialdisassemblyofaproducttofacilitate

componentreuseandmaterialsrecycling

Demolition Conventionalmeansofdisassembly,ortakingapart,aproductorfacilitythat

istypicallydestructiveandgenerallyunplanned

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Diversion Avoidingplacementinalandfillthroughrecoveryprocessessuchasrecycling

orreuse

Downcycling Recoveringaportionofausedproduct ormaterialinamannerthatreduces

theoriginalvalueoftheproductormaterialafterbeingreintroducedintothe

manufacturingorconstructionprocess(McDonough&Braungart,2002)

Partialselectivedemolition Engineeredareaswherewasteisplacedintotheland(EPA,2008)

Receptacle AbinorcontainerRecycling(recyclable) Recoveringaportionofausedproductormaterialfromthewastestream

andprocessingsuchthatthosesamematerialscanbereintroducedintothe

manufacturingorconstructionprocess(CIWMB,2009)

Reuse(reusable) Recoveringaportionofausedproductormaterialfromthewastestream

thatrequiresminimal,ifany,processingtobereintroducedintothe

manufacturingorconstructionprocess

ROW Rightofway

Upcycling Recoveringaportionofausedproductormaterialinamannerthatincreases



Waste Anymaterialthatmustbehauledoffsitefordisposalorreprocessing,or,if

disposedwithintheprojectROW,isnotintendedforengineereduseonsite

REFERENCES

CaliforniaIntegratedWasteManagementBoard(CIWMB).(2009).Recycle:CIWMB.AccessedDecember21,2009.

Availableathttp://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/Recycle/

ConstructionIndustryResearchandInformationAssociation.(2004).CIRIA:ConstructionWasteandResources.

DesignandConstructionGoodPracticePointers.AccessedDecember21,2009.Availableat


EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2008)Landfills|MunicipalSolidWaste|Wastes|USEPA.Accessed

December16,2009.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/municipal/landfill.htm

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2008b).ClimateChangeandMunicipalSolidWasteFactSheet|PayAsYou

Throw|USEPA.AccessedDecember21,2009.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/waste/conserve/tools/payt/tools/factfin.htm

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2008c).MunicipalSolidWaste|Wastes|USEPA.AccessedDecember21,

2009.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/municipal/index.htm

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2008)Landfills|C&DMaterials|Wastes|USEPA.AccessedDecember

16,2009.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/industrial/cd/cdlandfill.htm

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2008e).P2ResourceExchange|PollutionPrevention|USEPA.Accessed

December21,2009.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/p2/pubs/p2rx.html.

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2009a).WasteHome|GeneralInformationontheLinkBetweenSolidWaste

andClimateChange|ClimateChangeWhatYouCanDo|USEPA.AccessedDecember21,2009.Availableat

http://www.epa.gov/climate/climatechange/wycd/waste/generalinfo.html

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.OfficeofResourceConservationandRecovery.(2009b).MunicipalSolidWaste

Generation,Recycling,andDisposalintheUnitedStates:DetailedTablesandFiguresfor2008.Availableat

http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/pubs/msw2008data.pdf

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EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2009c).MunicipalSolidWasteGeneration,Recycling,andDisposalintheUnited

States:FactsandFiguresfor2008.(EPA530F009021)Availableat

http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/pubs/msw2008rpt.pdf

IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC).(2007).Pachauri,R.K&Reisinger,A.eds.ClimateChange

2007:SynthesisReport.“ContributionofWorkingGroupsI,IIandIIItotheFourthAssessment.Reportofthe

IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.”IPCC:Switzerland,2007.104pp.

KingCountySolidWasteDivisionandSeattlePublicUtilties.(2007).2007ContractorsGuideKingCountySolid

WasteDivision.Availableathttp://your.kingcounty.gov/solidwaste/greenbuilding/documents/ConGuide.pdf

KingCountySolidWasteDivision.(2008).DesignspecificationsandwastemanagementplansforgreenbuildingprojectsinKingCounty,WA.AccessedDecember20,2009.Availableat

http://your.kingcounty.gov/solidwaste/greenbuilding/constructionrecycling/specificationsplans.asp

KingCountySolidWasteDivision.(2009)GreenBuildingKingCountySolidWasteDivision.AccessedDecember20,2009.Availableat:http://www.greentools.us

Kourmpanis,B.,Papadopoulos,A.,Moustakas,K.,Stylianou,M.,Haralambous,K.,&Loizidou,M.(2008).

Preliminarystudyforthemanagementofconstructionanddemolitionwaste.WasteManagement&Research.26(3),267275.

McDonough,W.,&Braungart,M.(2002).Cradletocradle:Remakingthewaywemakethings.NewYork:North

PointPress.

Poon,C.S.,Yu,A.T.W.,&Ng,L.H.(2001).OnsitesortingofconstructionanddemolitionwasteinHongKong.

Resources,Conservation,andRecycling.32(2),157.

Rajendran,S.,&Gambatese,J.A.(2007).SolidWasteGenerationinAsphaltandReinforcedConcreteRoadwayLife

Cycles. JournalofInfrastructureSystems.13(2),88.

Seydel,A.,Wilson,O.D.,&Skitmore,R.M.(2002).FinancialEvaluationofWasteManagementMethods. JournalofConstructionResearch.3(1),167179.

Schultmann,F.,&Sunke,N.(2007).Energyorienteddeconstructionandrecoveryplanning.BuildingResearch&;

Information.35(6),602615.



UnitedStatesGreenBuildingCouncil(USGBC).(2009).LEED2009forNewConstructionandMajorRenovations


WasteCapResourceSolutions.WasteCapResourceSolutionsConstruction&Demolition.AccessedDecember21,

2009.Availableathttp://www.wastecapwi.org/resources/constructiondemolition/

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302




CA-4 Fossil Fuel Reduction

FOSSIL FUEL REDUCTIONGOAL

Reducetheoverallconsumptionoffossilfuelsbynonroadconstructionequipment.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Reducethefossilfuelrequirementsofnonroadconstructionequipmentbyusing

biofuelorbiofuelblendsasareplacementforfossilfuel.Pointsareawardedasfollows:

1point

Reducethefossilfuelrequirementsofthenonroadconstructionequipmentfleetby

15%throughtheuseofbiofuelorbiofuelblendsasareplacementforfossilfuel.

2points

Reducethefossilfuelrequirementsofthenonroadconstructionequipmentfleetby

25%throughtheuseofbiofuelorbiofuelblendsasareplacementforfossilfuel.

Details

Forthiscredit,atleast15%(for1point)or25%(for2points)ofthefuelconsumed

bynonroadconstructionequipmentontheprojectshouldbefromasourceother

thanfossilfuel.Inmostcases,themoststraightforwardwayofachievingthisisby

usingabiofuel(B100)orbiofuelblend(e.g.,B20,B50)asonsitefuelforthe

equipmentfleet.

DOCUMENTATION

1. Asignedletterfromtheprimecontractorthatdescribesthefossilfueluse

reductionmeasuresusedandthepercentagereductionachieved.

2. Aspreadsheetsummarizingallreceiptsforallfuelusedinnonroadequipmentfor

theproject.Thespreadsheetshouldindicate(andreceiptsshouldshow)associatedbiofuelblend(e.g.,B5,B20,B100)used.

CA-4

1-2 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 CA5Equipment

EmissionReduction

9 CA6Paving

EmissionsReduction

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Economy

BENEFITS

9 ReducesFossilFuel

Use

9 ReducesAir

Emissions

9 ReducesGreenhouse

Gases

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Fossil Fuel Reduction CA-4


x Supporttheenvironmentalandhealthbenefitsofbiodieselbyprovidingeconomicincentivetothegeneral

contractor.Thiscanbedoneeitherbybudgetingforaddedcostsofbiodieselfuelsourcestohelpoffset

potentialcostsorthroughothercontractrelatedincentives.

x Purchaseandusebiodieselastheonsitedieselfuel.UsingB20astheexclusiveonsitedieselwouldbea

meanstoensureatleasta20%reductioninfossilfueluseisachieved.

Example

Someexamplescenariosareprovidedbelowbasedonahypotheticalnonroadconstructionequipmentfleet

thatconsumes1,000gallonsoffuelduringprojectconstruction.

Nopoints

x B5(afuelthatis5%biofueland95%petroleumdiesel)isusedforall1,000gallonsoffuel.Thisamountsto

a5%reductioninfossilfueluse.

x B100(afuelthatis100%biofuel)isusedfor100gallonsoffuelandpetroleumdieselisusedforthe

remaining900gallons.Thisamountstoa10%reductioninfossilfueluse.

1pointx B20(afuelthatis20%biofueland80%petroleumdiesel)isusedforall1,000gallonsoffuel.Thisamounts

toa20%reductioninfossilfueluse,whichexceeds15%butislessthan25%.

2points

x B50(afuelthatis50%biofueland50%petroleumdiesel)isusedfor200gallonsoffuelandB20isusedfor

theremaining800gallons.Thisamountstoa26%reductioninfossilfueluse.

x B50(afuelthatis50%biofueland50%petroleumdiesel)isusedfor500gallonsoffuelandB20isusedfor

theremaining500gallonsoffuel.Thisamountstoa35%reductioninfossilfueluse.

Example: Turner Construction Company Case Study

B99,a99%proportionofbiodieseltoconventionalfuel,wasusedduringtheconstructionoftheMicrosoft

WindowsLiveColumbiaOneDataCenterinQuincy,WashingtontofuelequipmentoperatedbysubcontractorshiredbyTurnerConstructionCompany.DiscussionswiththeSafetyManagerassignedtotheprojectrevealthatthereasonbehindtheswitchtobiodieselfortheonsiteconstructionequipmentwastoprovidearemedyfor

thenoxiousdieselfumesthatwereemittedbythenonroadconstructionequipment.Workersreportednoissueswithairqualityduringthefirsthalfoftheproject,howeverthesecondhalfoftheprojectwaswhena

considerableportionoftheconstructionworkwasperformedwithinthesemienclosedshellandcorestructure.Itwasduringthisstagewhentheparticulatematterandcarbonmonoxidelevelsemittedbythe

nonroadconstructionequipmentbecameaconcerntotheoperatorsandlaborersworkingalongside.ThesituationwaspromptlybroughttotheattentionoftheSafetyManager.

UpontheSafetyManager’srecommendation,TurnerConstructionnegotiatedtheuseofbiodieselfuelforthe

equipmentbeingleasedfromthesubcontractorwhowasprovidingtheequipmentfortheproject.Theprojectcalledforapproximately1520piecesofconstructionequipmentwhichwasleasedfromRSCEquipment

RentalsbasedoutofEllensburg,Washington(NationalBiodieselBoard,2008).DiscussionswiththeTurnerConstruction’sSafetyManagerandtheEquipmentManagerfromRSCEquipmentRentalsconfirmedthatno

retrofittingwasrequiredfortheequipmentpriortomakingtheswitchtobiodieselfuel.

Asaproactivemeanstoprovidepreventativemaintenance,andasaresultoftheanticipatedcleansingofthe

fueldeliverysystemattributedtothesolventactionofbiodiesel,fuelfiltersforeachpieceofequipmentwere

replacedafterthefirstandthirdtankfulsoffuel.Observationsfromtheequipmentoperatorsdetectedno

noticeablelossinfuelefficiencyduringtheoperationoftheequipment.Fuelusewasnotmonitoredonan

individualequipmentbasisand,asaresult,dataisunavailabletocalculateandconfirmimprovementsor

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reductionstothefuelefficiencyoftheequipment.Furthermore,operatorsobservednosignificantlossof

powerfortheequipmentoperatingonbiodieselalthoughtheoperatorofaCAT330excavatornoticedasmall

powerlossnearfulloperatingload.Thelackofanoticeablepowerlossforthemajorityoftheequipmentwas

likelyduetotheequipmentnotbeingutilizedtoitsfullpowerpotential.

AirqualitydatawascollectedbyTurnerConstructionCompanyandtheWashingtonStateDepartmentofLabor

&Industriesshortlyaftermakingtheswitchtobiodiesel.Unfortunately,thedatacollectedbyTurnerConstruction’sSafetyManagerwaslostasaresultofdamagetotheSafetyManager’sportablecomputer.BasedontheSafetyManager’srecollectionhowever,thefollowinginformationpertainstotheairquality

managementproceedings:

x TheairqualitywasassessedduringtheoperationofconcretepumptrucksfueledwithB99biodieseland

measuredwhileoperatingwithintheconfinesoftheshellandcorestructure.Themeasurementwastaken

atthetruckexhaustusinganairmonitor.Readingswereasfollows:

x TurnerConstruction:2ppmCOattheexhaust

x DepartmentofLabor&Industries:34ppmCOattheexhaust

Airqualityregulationspermitcarbonmonoxideconcentrationsattheexhausttoapproach4045ppm.An

interestingsidecommentmadebyDepartmentofLabor&Industrytechnicians,andnotedbytheSafety

Manager,wasthattheproperfunctioningoftheirairmonitorswerecalledintoquestionbecausethecarbon

monoxidemeasurementswereunexpectedlylow.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Currently,biodieselinthemostcommonform,B20(a20percentblendofethanolandconventionaldiesel)

offersnosignificanteconomicadvantageandtheenvironmentalandsocialadvantagesareoftenoverlooked.

2. Theremaybeacostpremiumpergallonforbiodieseloverthatofconventionaldieselfuel.

3. Biodieseliscurrentlynotproducedinsufficientquantitiestomeetwidespreaddemand.

4. Enginemanufacturersmaynothonordieselenginewarrantiesifsuchenginesusebiofuels.Asof2009,most

enginemanufacturersallowB5andsomeallowuptoB20undertheircurrentwarranties.

5. Lackofindustrydataforengineperformanceleadstoskepticequipmentmanufacturers.6. Limitedavailabilityofethanolfeedstockbecauseofthetradeoffwithintheagriculturalindustryforproduction

offoodversusproductionoffuel.7. Therearealimitednumberofnonroadconstructionequipmentmodelsthatofferhybridelectricdriveengines.

RESEARCH

Afuelthatexhibitspropertiessimilartothatofconventionaldieselbutoffersseveralassociatedbenefitsresulting

fromitsuseisbiodiesel.Biodieselcanbeusedasadirectreplacementforconventionaldieselinitspurestor

blendedformsandisproducedfromtheestersofvegetableoilsandanimalfats(VanGerpenetal.,2007).Thisfuel

sourcecanbeusedtopowerdieselenginesandtypicallyrequiresnoequipmentmodificationsandisabletoutilize

thecurrentfuelinginfrastructurefordistribution(USDOE,1995).

Biodieselisproducedthroughthetransesterficationprocess.Thisprocessrequiresfeedstockmaterialswhichincluderapeseed,soybean,vegetableoilsandanimalfats(USDOE,1995).Theanimalfatorvegetableoilis

combinedwithalcoholinthefirststageoftheprocessinachemicalreactionwhichcombinesthefeedstock

materialwithanalcoholtoproduceanesterandglycerol(VanGerpenetal.,2007).Alcoholstypicallyusedinthe

processincludemethanolandethanolthoughmethanolismorecommonlyusedasaresultofitslowercost(You,

2007).Thisreactionisusuallycatalyzedtoimprovethereactionrateandthequantitythatcanbeproduced.The

byproductofthisreactionisglycerolwhichisremovedandseparatedfromthealcohol/estermixture.Thealcohol

isfurtherseparatedfromtheester.Itistheremainingesterswhichmakeuptherawbiodiesel(You,2007).

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Biofuelssuchasethanolandbiodieselarederivedfrombiomassandofferseveraladvantages.Theyareconsidered

renewableformsoffuelbecausetheiruseinvolvesaclosedcarboncycle(Puppan,2001).Inadditiontohelping

reduceourdependencyonforeignoil,theuseofbiodieselhasshownseveralenvironmentalandhumanhealth

benefitsassociatedwithitsuseasaconstructionfuel.Forexample,theuseofbiodieselmitigatestheimpactsof

globalwarmingandclimatechangesincethereisnonetproductionofcarbondioxideduringthelifecycleof

biodieselproductionanduse(VanGerpenetal.,2007).Furthermore,sincebiodieselisanoxygenatedfuel,it

producesfewerhydrocarbons,lesscarbonmonoxideandlessparticulatematterthanthatofconventionalNo.2dieselfuelfromthecombustionprocessinadieselengine(VanGerpenetal.,2007).Asaresult,theuseof

biodieselpromoteslocalizedimprovementtoairqualityandworkerhealthfromthedecreaseintheemissionof

compoundsthatareclassifiedashumanhealthhazardssuchascarbonmonoxide,sulfurdioxide,leadand

particulatematter(Puppan,2001).

Otheradvantagesincludethelubricitypropertiesofbiodieselthatpermitittocontributetoenhancingthe

efficiencyofanengineaswellasimprovingthelifeexpectancyoftheequipment(VanGerpenetal.,2007).

Moreover,biodieselfeaturesadetergentactionorsolventpropertywhichimprovesengineefficiencybyremoving

sedimentationanddepositsfromanengine’sfuelsystem(USDOE,2001).Thesefactorscontributetothe

possibilityofeventuallongtermcostsavingsasaresultofdecreasedmaintenancecostsoverthatobservedwhen

conventionaldieselisusedtofuelequipment.

Thecosttoretrofitequipmenttooperateonbiodieselistypicallynegligible.Usuallynoretrofittingofenginecomponentsisrequiredtopermitequipmenttoutilizebiodieselforfuel.However,thefuelsystemfortheengine

shouldhavenorubberpartssuchasrubberhoses,sealsandgasketswhichcoulddeterioratefromanyphysicalcontactwithbiodiesel(USDOE,1995).Rubbercomponentstypicallyexistinequipmentmanufacturedpriorto

1994andenginedamageasaresultoffuelsystemfailureresultingfromthedeteriorationofenginecomponents

couldresultfromthesolventactionofbiodiesel(USDOE,2001).

Animportanteconomicadvantagetotheuseofbiodieselisthatitcanbeusedinitspureform(asB100)or

blendedwithpetroleumderiveddiesel.Assuch,theuseofbiodieselrequireslittletonomodificationstothe

currentfuelinginfrastructureorvehicleengineandfueldeliverysystemsinpreparationforitsuse(USDOEClean

CitiesFactSheet).

Theresultsofalimitedscopelifecycleassessment(LCA)oftheconstructionofonelanemileofportlandcementconcreteroadwayusingagenericsetofnonroadconstructionequipmentrequiredtoplacetheconcrete(i.e.a

pavingmachineandtexture/curingmachine)indicatedthattheproductionandutilizationofbiodieselconsumes

moreenergythanthatrequiredtoproduceandutilizeconventionalorultralowsulfurdieselfuel.However,based

onthedatacollectedfromtheLCA,itisclearthatbiodieselisthefuelsourcethatistheleastcontributingtothe

potentialforglobalwarming.Inotherwords,conventionaldieselandultralowsulfurdieselcontributemoreto

globalwarmingthanbiodiesel.Thedifferenceinthelevelofcontributionbetweenconventionalandultralow

sulfurdieselwasfoundtobealmostnegligible.Ontheotherhand,biodieselwasdeterminedtobringabouta

largercontributiontosmogformationduetotheincreasedformationofNOXandfurtherreactionoftheNOXwithVOCstoformsmog.Differenceinthecontributiontosmogformationbetweenconventionaldieselandultralow

sulfurdieselwasfoundtobenegligible.

GLOSSARY

Biofuel Renewablefuelsderivedfrombiologicalmaterialsthatcanberegenerated.

Thisdistinguishesthemfromfossilfuelswhichareconsiderednonrenewable.

Examplesofbiofuelsareethanol,methanol,andbiodiesel.

Hybridelectric Apowersystemthatcombinesaconventionalinternalcombustionengine

(e.g.,diesel)andanelectricmotorand/orstoragesystemtoprovidethe

primarypowerforthevehicle.

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B5,B20,B50,B100 Shortnotationtodescribeablendofbiodieselwithtraditionalpetroleum

diesel.Thenumberdescribesthepercentageofbiodiesel(e.g.,B20is20%

biodieseland80%petroleumdiesel).

REFERENCES

BioPowerLondon.(2006).“FrequentlyAskedQuestions.”Availableathttp://www.biopowerlondon.co.uk/index.htm.

EnergyInformationAdministration.(2010).“GasolineandDieselFuelUpdate.”Availableat

http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/oog/info/gdu/gasdiesel.asp.

EuropeanBiodieselBoard.(2010).“Statistics.”Availableathttp://www.ebbeu.org/stats.php.

Frentress,Dave.“BiodieselandOtherGreenInitiativesatGlacierNorthwest.”Stone,Sand&GravelReview ,(Jan/Feb

2008):5053.

Heijungs,R.&Suh,S.(2002). AComputationalStructureofLifeCycleAssessment .KluwerAcademicPublishers,

Netherlands.

NationalBiodieselBoard.(2008).Availableathttp://www.biodiesel.org/.

Radich,Anthony.(2004).“BiodieselPerformance,Costs,andUse.”EnergyInformationAdministration.Availableat

http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/analysispaper/biodiesel.

Sawyer,Tom.(December3,2007).“Developer’sChallengetoConstruction:InnovateforDestiny.”EngineeringNews

Record ,2427.

U.S.DepartmentofEnergy.(1995).NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory.Biofacts:FuelingaStrongerEconomy .

U.S.DepartmentofEnergy.(2001).EnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergyOfficeofTransportationTechnology.

CleanCities:AlternativeFuelInformationSeries:TechnicalAssistanceFactSheet .

U.S.DepartmentofEnergy.(2008).“EnvironmentalPrograms–OnsiteAirQualityAssessment.”

U.S.DepartmentofTransportation.(2007).FederalTransitAdministration.BiodieselFuelManagementBestPractices

forTransit .

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2004a).OfficeofTransportationandAirQuality.EPA420P04005,Median

Life,AnnualActivity,andLoadFactorValuesforNonroadEngineEmissionsModeling.

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2004b).OfficeofTransportationandAirQuality.EPA420R04007,Final

RegulatoryImpactAnalysis.

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2005).OfficeofTransportationandAirQuality.EPA420R05022,NonroadEnginePopulationEstimates.

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2007).OfficeofTransportationandAirQuality.EPA420R07005.Diesel

RetrofitTechnology:AnAnalysisoftheCostEffectivenessofReducingParticulateMatterandNitrogenOxides

EmissionsfromHeavyDutyNonroadDieselEnginesThroughRetrofits.

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2008a).“AirandRadiation.”Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/oar.

307





U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2008b).“ClimateChange.”http://www.epa.gov/climatechange.(Accessed

Sep.29,2008).

U.S.DepartmentofLabor.BureauofLaborStatistics.(2008).“ConsumerPriceIndex .”Availableat

http://www.bls.gov/cpi.

UnitedStatesGeneralAccountingOfficeReporttoCongressionalCommittee.(1999).MassTransit:UseofAlternativeFuelsinTransitBuses.

VanGerpen,J.H.,Peterson,C.L.,&Goering,C.E.(2007).“Biodiesel:AnalternativeFuelforCompressionIgnitionEngines.”AmericanSocietyofAgriculturalandBiologicalEngineers.Presentationatthe2007Agricultural

EquipmentTechnologyConferenceon1114February2007.

You,YiiDer,et.al.(2008).EconomicCostAnalysisofBiodieselProduction:CaseinSoybeanOil.EnergyandFuels22,

no.1:1829.

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CA-5 Equipment Emission Reduction

EQUIPMENT EMISSION REDUCTIONGOAL

Reduceairemissionsfromnonroadconstructionequipment.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Useemissionreductionexhaustretrofitsandaddonfuelefficiencytechnologiesthat

achievetheEPATier4emissionstandardfornonroadconstructionequipment.Points

areawardedasfollows:

1point

Atleast50%ofthenonroadconstructionequipmentfleetoperatinghoursforthe

projectareaccomplishedonequipmentwithinstalledemissionreductionexhaust

retrofitsandaddonfuelefficiencytechnologiesthatachievetheEPATier4emission

standard.

2points

Atleast75%ofthenonroadconstructionequipmentfleetoperatinghoursfortheprojectareaccomplishedonequipmentwithinstalledemissionreductionexhaust

retrofitsandaddonfuelefficiencytechnologiesthatachievetheEPATier4emission

standard.

Details

Forthiscredittobeimplementedsuccessfully,workersmayrequireadditional

trainingonhowtokeeptrackofequipmentoperatinghoursaccurately.Seealso

CA2EnvironmentalTraining.

DOCUMENTATION

Providealistofallnonroadconstructionequipmentusedontheprojectthatcontainsthefollowinginformationforeachpieceofequipment:

1. Makeandmodelofeachpieceofequipment.

2. Operatinghoursassociatedwiththeproject.

3. ForequipmentachievingTier4emissionsstandards,documentedevidencethatthe

equipmenteither(a)meetsEPATier4emissionsstandards,or(b)hasinstalled

emissionreductionexhaustretrofitsandaddonfuelefficiencytechnologiesthat

achievetheEPATier4standard.

CA-5

1-2 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 CA2Environmental

Training

9 CA4FossilFuel

Reduction

9 CA6Paving

EmissionsReduction

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Equity

BENEFITS

9 ReducesAir

Emissions

9 ReducesGreenhouse

Gases


309




Equipment Emission Reduction CA-5


x Retrofitexhaustequipmentonnonroadvehicles.

x Replaceengineswherethisoptionismorecosteffectivethanretrofit.

x Switchtouseultralowsulfurdiesel(ULSD)inconjunctionwiththeaddonfuelefficiencytechnologiesinstalled

intheequipmentfleet.

Example: Scenarios

Someexamplescenariosareprovidedbelowbasedonahypotheticalnonroadfleetoperatingforatotalof1,000equipmenthours.

Nopoints

x 400of1,000totaloperatinghours(40%)areassociatedwithequipmentthatachievetheEPATier4

emissionsstandard.

1point


emissionsstandard.

2points


emissionsstandard.

Example: Case Studies Documented by the U.S. EPA

TheEPAdescribesseveraldieselengineemissionreductioneffortcasestudiesat:

http://www.epa.gov/diesel/construction/casestudies.htm

Example: Washington State Department of Ecology Strategy

OneexampleofanoverallstatewideapproachthatthisVoluntaryCreditisconsistentwithistheWashington

StateDepartmentofEcology’s“DieselParticulateEmissionReductionStrategy.”Thegoalsexpectedunderthis

approachare(Ecology,2006):

1. Installemissionreductionexhaustretrofitsonfiftypercentofthepubliclegacydieselfleetinfouryears.

2. Installemissionreductionexhaustretrofitsandaddonfuelefficiencytechnologiesonfiftypercentofthe

privatelegacydieselfleetineightyears.

3. Evaluate,developandimplementanidlereductionprogramthataddressesandremediesunnecessary

idlingthroughonboardretrofits,onthegroundinfrastructureandantiidlingregulations.

4. Replacetwentyfivepercentofolder(pre1996fornonroad)legacyvehiclesintheprivatefleetineight

years.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Retrofitsandreplacementsofenginescanrepresentasignificantaddedcosttothecontractor.

RESEARCH

Constructionairemissionsarelargelyfromthreemainsources:(1)dustandparticlesfromtheconstruction

activities,alsocalledfugitivedust,(2)emissionsfromconstructionequipmentexhausts,or(3)emissionsfrom

310





constructionmaterials(suchasfumesandvaporsfromhotasphalt).ThisVoluntaryCreditaddressesconstruction

equipmentemissionsingeneralandspecifically,dieselexhaustemissionsfromnonroaddieselequipment.

NonroadEngineDefined

40CFRPart1068(theGeneralComplianceProvisionsforNonroadPrograms)definespreciselywhatanonroad

dieselengineisandisnot.Insummary(40CFR1068hasexactdefinitionsandexclusions),anonroadengineis

definedtobeanyinternalcombustionenginethatis:

1. Inoronapieceofequipmentthatisselfpropelledorservesadualpurposebybothpropellingitselfand

performinganotherfunction.

2. Inoronapieceofequipmentthatisintendedtobepropelledwhileperformingitsfunction.

3. That,byitselforinoronapieceofequipment,isportableortransportable.

Ingeneral,dieselpoweredselfpropelledandportableconstructionequipmentwithaninternalcombustionengine

areconsideredtobenonroadengines.

HealthEffects

Dieselenginesemitacomplexmixtureofgaseouspollutantsandfineparticlesandareamajorsourceofairpollution.Particularemissionsarenitrogenoxides(NOx),particulatematter(PM),sulfuroxidegases(SOx),and

othertoxicairpollutantswhichcontributetoseriousadversehealthandenvironmentaleffects(EPA,1995;ICF,2005).Emissionsfromdieselengineshavebeenfoundtoincludeoverfortycancercausingsubstances,andthe

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)hasconcludedthatdieselexhaustislikelytobecarcinogenictohumansbyinhalationatoccupationalandenvironmentallevelsofexposure(EPA,2002).InWashingtonState,the

WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcologyhasidentifieddieselexhaustastheairpollutantmostharmfultopublichealthinWashingtonState.Theyfoundthat70%ofthecancerriskfromairbornepollutantsisfromdieselexhaust,

mainlyduetothePM2.5emissions(WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcology,2006).Untilthemid1990s,

emissionsfromtheseengineswerelargelyuncontrolled.Inordertocombatthehealtheffectsofdieselemissions,

theEPAstartedaprogramin2007toreducedieselengineemissionsintheU.S.(EPA,2004).Theplanisestimated

toreduceemissionsbymorethan90%by2030.

ContributionofNonroadDieselEnginestoEmissionsInventory

AccordingtoEPA’sNationalEmissionInventory(2008yeardata)(NEI,2009),nonroaddieselengines(usingthecategoryof“offhighway”)areresponsiblefor26%ofNOxemissionsnationally(4,255,000tonsperyear),andfor

5.8%offineparticulateemissions(PM2.5)(283,000tonsperyear)nationally.Thesepercentagescanbeconsiderablyhigherinsomeurbanareas.InWashingtonState,theDepartmentofEcologystatesthatconstruction

activitiesareresponsiblefor18%oftheState’sPM2.5emissions(2002data)(FigureCA5.1).

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FigureCA5.1:

(WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcology,2006).

1.

ImprovementEfforts

Recognizingthelargeimpactthatdieselengineexhausthasonhumanhealthandtheenvironment(e.g.,CARB,

n.d.),therearesubstantialeffortstoreducedieselexhaustemissionsthroughburningcleanerdieselfuels(e.g.,

ultralowsulfurdieselorULSD),installingexhaustretrofitstoreduceemissionsfromexistingenginesand

producingnewdieselenginesthatemitless.

PaceofChange

Althougheffortstoreducedieselemissionsareunderway,significantimpactsmaybeyearsaway.Nonroad

dieselequipmentcanlast20to30yearsandtypicalnewemissionsstandardsarenotrequiredtobemetby

existingequipment.Therefore,theimpactsofsuchchangesarelikelytobefeltasamajorityofequipment

fleetsageandarereplacedbyequipmentmeetingnewer,morestringentregulations.Furthermore,change

anditspacewilllikelybecontrolledbytheprivatesectorastheyownnearly90percentofdieselvehiclesand

dieselengines(WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcology,2006).Thus,effortstoincenttheprivatesectorto

changeaheadofnaturalequipmentturnoverratesmayhelpmakedieselemissionreductionshappensooner.

CostConsiderations

Amajorityofconstructioncompaniesaresmallfirms.Toretrofitorchangetheirequipmentrequireslarge

capitalinvestments,whichtheymaynotbeabletobear.Formanyprivatesmallerconstructioncompanies,this

costissignificantandinterfereswiththeenvironmentalbenefitsthiswouldachieve.Alsothecostofusingalternativefuelorlowsulfurfuelisanissue.

TheEPAestimatestheincrementalcostofproducing500ppmfueltobeonaverage2.5centspergallon,and

15ppmaround5centspergallon.(Thistakesintoaccountallthenecessarychangesinbothrefiningand

distributionpractices,howeverthisestimatedcostsvarywidelyforequipmentofdifferentsizesandfor

differentapplications)(EPA,2003).Forthevastmajorityofequipment,thecostofmeetingemissionstandards

willberoughly12%comparedwiththetypicalretailprice.Asanexample,EPAestimatesthatfora175hp

bulldozer,itwillcostanadditional$2,600toaddtheadvancedemissioncontrolsystemstotheengineandto

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designthebulldozertoaccommodatethemodifiedengine.Anew175hpbulldozercostsapproximately

$230,000(EPA,2003), sotheincreasedcostsareabout1%ofthetotalpurchaseprice.Costscouldbehigher

forsometypesofequipment.Asabenefit,enginesrunningonlowsulfurfuelwillhavereducedmaintenance

expenses(EPA,2003).Asincentive,thereareseveralgrantprogramsavailableatlocalandfederallevelfor

companiestoretrofitorchangepartoftheirequipmentfleet(WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcology,2006;

EPA,2009).

Inthebroadercontext,thebenefitstosocietyofreducedhealthcostsresultingfromfeweremissionsaresubstantial.TheEPAestimatedthebenefittocostratio(healthbenefitstocompliancecost)of30(CARB,n.d.).

Ingeneral,theCaliforniaAirResourcesBoard(CARB)reportsbenefitcostratiosintheliteraturefrom2to8.

GLOSSARY

REFERENCES

CaliforniaAirResourcesBoard(CARB).(nodategiven).HealthEffectsofDieselExhaustParticulateMatter .CARB.

Availableathttp://www.arb.ca.gov/research/diesel/dpm_health_fs.pdf .Accessed14December2009.

ICFConsulting.(2005).EmissionReductionIncentivesforOffRoadDieselEquipmentUsedinthePortand

ConstructionSectors.PreparedforEPA.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/sectors/pdf/emission_20050519.pdf .Accessed14December2009.

NationalEmissionsInventory(NEI).(2009).NationalEmissionsInventory,AirPollutantTrendsData,Average

annualemissions19782002,allcriteriapollutants.Availableat

http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/trends/index.html#tables.

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(1995).CompilationofAirPollutantEmissionFactors,Volume1:

StationaryPointandAreaSources,Chapter13.2.3HeavyConstructionOperations, AP42,FifthEdition.U.S.

EPA,Washington,D.C.

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2002).HealthAssessmentDocumentforDieselEngineExhaust .

NationalCenterforEnvironmentalAssessment,OfficeofResearchandDevelopment,U.S.EPA,Washington,D.C.

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2003).SummaryofEPA'sProposedProgramforLowEmission

NonroadDieselEnginesandFuel .EPA420F03008,U.S.EP,Washington,D.C.http://www.epa.gov/nonroaddiesel/420f03008.htm.Accessed14December2009.

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2004).CleanAirNonroadDieselRule.RegulatoryAnnouncement,

OfficeofTransportationandAirquality,EPA420F04032.U.S.EPA,Washington,D.C.

Tier4emissionstandard EPAstandardsthatrequireemissionstobereducedovercurrentTier2and3standards.Reductionsofparticulatematter(PM)forenginesabove19kW

andnitrousoxides(NOx)forengineslargerthan56kWaresubstantial.Hydrocarbonlimitsarealsosubstantiallyreducedforengineslargerthan56

kW.Suchemissionreductionscanbeachievedthroughtheuseofcontrol

technologiesincludingadvancedexhaustgasaftertreatment.Tier4

standardsaretobephasedinovertheperiodof20082015.

Ultralowsulfurdiesel(ULSD) Standardtermfordieselfuelhavinglessthan15ppmsulfur.Asof2009,most

onhighwaydieselfuelsoldatretaillocationsisULSD.Thepreviousstandard,

lowsulfurdiesel(LSD),allowed500PPMsulfur.

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U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2009).NationalCleanDieselCampaign.U.S.EPA,Washington,D.C.

http://www.epa.gov/otaq/diesel/index.htm.Accessed14December2009.

USEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2003).DraftRegulatoryImpactAnalysis:ControlofEmissionsfromNonroad

DieselEngines.EPA420R03008,U.S.EPA,Washington,D.C.

WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcology(2006).DieselParticulateEmissionReductionStrategyforWashingtonState.WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcologyAirQualityProgram.

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CA-6 Paving Emissions Reduction

PAVING EMISSIONS REDUCTIONGOAL

Improvehumanhealthbyreducingworkerexposuretoasphaltfumes.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Placeatleast90%ofthehotmixasphalt(HMA)ontheprojectusingapaverthatis

certifiedtohavemetNationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealth(NIOSH)

emissionguidelinesassetforthinEngineeringControlGuidelinesforHotMixAsphalt

Pavers,Part1:NewHighwayClassPavers(DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices

(NIOSH)PublicationNo.97105,April1997printing).

Details

Ifmorethanonepaverisusedonaproject,thepercentageofHMAplacedbyeach

pavershallbedeterminedusingthetotalweightofHMAplacedbyeachpaver.Use

EquationCA6.1tocomputethetotalpercentageplacedbytheNIOSHpaver.

CalculationsshouldbedonebyweightofHMAplaced.Forthepurposesofthiscalculation,allplacedbituminousasphalticmixtures(e.g.,hotmixasphalt,warm

mixasphalt,opengradedasphalt,stonematrixasphalt,etc.)shallbecountedas

“HMA.”

EquationCA6.1:

DOCUMENTATION

x Copyofthemanufacturingcertificationprovidedwiththepaver(s)when

purchased.Page5oftheNIOSH(1997)documentprovidesanexampleofthecertificationwording.

x Signedstatementbyapavingcontractorrepresentativeindicatingthatthecertified

paver(s)referencedinthefirstdocumentwas(were)usedonthejobanddidplace

atleast90%oftheHMA.

CA-6

1 POINT

RELATED CREDITS

9 CA4FossilFuel

Reduction

9 CA5Equipment

EmissionReduction

9 PT3WarmMix

Asphalt

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Equity

BENEFITS

9 ReducesAir

Emissions

9 ReducesGreenhouse

Gases


315




Paving Emissions Reduction CA-6


x UseapaverthatmeetsNIOSHengineeringcontrolguidelines.Aquickcheckcanbedonebylocatingthe

exhauststackorrequired3by5inchinformationplate(FigureCA6.1)onthepaverbeingused.These

informationplatesarerequiredtobeattachedbythemanufacturer.

Example: Photos

FiguresCA6.2andCA6.3showexamplesofpaverswithandwithoutexhaustventilationsystems.

FigureCA6.2:Thelargeblackexhauststacktotherightoftheoperator

ispartofaNIOSHcompliantexhaustventilationsystem.

FigureCA6.1:Exampleofamanufacturerinformationplate(fromNIOSH,1997).

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FigureCA6.3:ThispaverisNOTequippedwithanexhaustventilationsystem.

Example: Calculation

Anurbanpavingprojectplacesa1.5inchoverlayona2lanecityarterialstreet.Theoverlayincludes

overlayingsmallareasoneachcrossstreet.ApaverhavingaventilationexhaustsystemmeetingNIOSH

guidelinesisusedforpavingthearterialwhileasmallpaver,notequippedwithaventilationexhaustsystem,is

usedtopavethecrossstreetareas.Oncompletionoftheproject,areviewoftruckticketsshowthattheNIOSHpaverplaced4,250tonsofHMAwhilethenonNIOSHpaverplaced200tonsofHMA.

Therefore,thisprojectqualifiesfor1pointsince95.5%exceedsthe90%requirement.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. HavingaNIOSHcompliantpaverbuthavingamalfunctioningexhaustsystemornotusingtheexhaustsystem.

2. HavingaNIOSHcompliantpaverwithanexhaustsystemthatnolongermeetsNIOSHrequirementsforindoorcaptureefficiency.

RESEARCH

WhilemanypaversbeingusedinconstructionhaveNIOSHengineeringcontrolsonthem,notalldo.Currently,mosthighwaypavers(manufacturedsince1997)havefumecontrolsinstalledin/ontheminaccordancewith

NIOSHstandards.However,smallerpaversarenotrequiredtohavesuchcontrols.

Theseengineeringcontrolsarebasicallyanexhaustventilationsystemthatcollectsfugitiveemissionsneartheaugers(FigureCA6.4),andreleasesthemthroughanexhauststackthatishighenoughsuchthatworkersarenot

exposedtoemissionsfromthatstack(FigureCA6.5).Thisreducesworkerexposuretoasphaltfumes.Accordingto

NIOSH(1997),eachnewselfpropelledHMApaverweighing16,000poundsormoreandmanufacturedafterJuly

1,1997“…shoulddevelopandinstallexhaustventilationsystemswithaminimumcontrolledindoorcapture

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efficiencyof80%...”TheNIOSH(1997)document,whichwasdevelopedinconcertwiththeNationalAsphalt

PavementAssociation(NAPA),describesthedetailedrequirementsfortheexhaustventilationsystemincluding

theperformancetestingcriteria,labeling,certification,operation,maintenanceandtraining.

TheNIOSHsummaryofhealtheffectsofoccupationalexposuretoasphaltfumesgenerallyindicatesthatthereare

acute(immediateorshortterm)andchronic(longterm)impactstohumanhealth.Whilenotallstudiesagreeon

FigureCA6.4:Drawingofthecollectionhoodsusedtocollectfumesneartheauger

(fromConstructionInnovationForum,2006)

FigureCA6.5:Drawingoftheexhaustventilationsystemwithkeypartslabeled

(fromConstructionInnovationForum,2006).

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theeffectsortheirsignificancethereisgenerallystrongenoughevidencetoshowthatsucheffectscanbepresent.

Giventhat,itisbeneficialtoreduceasphaltfumeexposuretopavingworkersevenifitisbelowestablishedlimits.

Establishedexposurelimitsaregenerallytopreventacuteeffects;insomecasestheydonotfullyaddresschronic

effectsanditisverydifficulttodoso.

MoreinformationisavailableinthefullNIOSHdocumentonthewebat:http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/asphalt.html

GLOSSARY

REFERENCES

ConstructionInnovationForum(CIF).(2006).2006NOVAAwardNomination12:HighwayAsphaltPaverFume

Controls.ConstructionInnovationForum,Walbridge,OH.Availableathttp://www.cif.org/nom2006/Nom12

2006.pdf .Accessed6January2009.

NationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealth(NIOSH).(April1997secondprinting).EngineeringGuidelines

forHotMixAsphaltPavers:Part1NewHighwayClassPavers.DHHS(NIOSH)PublicationNo.97105.U.S.

DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices,PublicHealthService,CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention,NationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealth,Cincinnati,OH.Availableat

http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/asphalt.html

HMA Hotmixasphalt

NAPA NationalAsphaltPavementAssociation

NIOSH NationalInstituteofOccupationalHealthandSafety

WMA Warmmixasphalt(seealsoCreditPT3)

319





320




CA-7 Water Use Tracking

WATER USE TRACKINGGOAL

Generateprojectlevelinformationaboutconstructionwateruse.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Createaspreadsheetthatrecordstotalwateruseduringconstruction.This

spreadsheetshouldidentify,atminimum:

1. Datesofuse.

2. Amountsofuse.

3. Locationsandsourcesofwaterused.

4. Potabilityofwatersource(s).

5. Eachconstructionactivityrequiringwateruse.

6. Totalwaterquantityusedineachconstructionactivity.

7. Methodofmeasurementtodeterminetotalquantityused.

8. Disposalpracticeforunusedwater.

9. Typeofwaterusepermit,ifany.10. Totalcostofwaterusedfromeachsource,ifany.

Details

Waterusecanbemeasuredbymeter,hosecapacity,numberofwatertanks,

pumpingrateovertime,orotherappropriatesourcedependentestimates.

Thecreditdoesnotrequirespecificperformancecriteriaforwaterconservation.

Eventually,waterusedatawillbecompiledtoestablishbenchmarksforroadway

constructionwaterefficiencyandtodevelopguidelinesforappropriatewater

conservationpracticesandprinciplestoreducepotablewaterusageandnegative

impactstotheenvironment.

DOCUMENTATION

x Copyofthespreadsheetusedtorecordconstructionwateruse.

CA-7

2 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR7Pollution

PreventionPlan

9 PR10Site

Maintenance

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Expectations

9 Exposure

BENEFITS

9 Improves

Accountability


9 CreatesNew

Information

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Water Use Tracking CA-7


x Askindividualworkerstorecordwateruseontheirdailyreports.

x Providecopiesofthetrackingspreadsheetatlocationswherewaterisusedandmeasuredforgathering

consistentrecordings.

Example: Sample SpreadsheetSamplespreadsheetentriesfordifferentconstructionactivitiesthatcommonlyusewaterareshowninTable

CA7.1forthreedifferenttypesofprojects.Notethateachactivityhasaseparatecolumnandassociateddata.Notethat,realistically,thedatafortheprojectwillrequireinformationforeachactivityontheprojectthat

useswaterandwilllikelybelargerthanthesmallsampleshown.

TableCA7.1:SampleWaterUseSpreadsheetEntriesforDifferentTypesofProjects

ProjectType Urban Rural(DeliveredWater) Rural(Well Water)

Date(s) 6/1/09 6/12/09 January May 2009 August2009

ConstructionActivity Dustsuppression Mixingconcrete Equipmentcleaning

WaterVolumeUsed 12,000 27,000 3,500

VolumeUnit Gal gal Gal

MeasurementMethod Citywatermeter 750gallontanks HosemeterWaterLocation/Source Hydrant Tankdelivery Onsitewell

PotableWater? Yes No Yes

DisposalPracticeofUnusedWater Stormdrain Storage Groundsurface

WaterUsePermitType Hydrant None None

WaterCost(pergal) $8.13 $0.08

WaterCost(perccf) $4.00

TotalCost $64.16 $219,510.00 $280.00

Notes Hydrantpermit

feesnotincluded.

Includesdelivery

charge

SomecommonlyusefulconversionsforwatervolumeareshowninTableCA7.2.

TableCA7.2:TypicalUnitsofWaterVolume

U.S.CustomaryUnits MetricUnits(S.I.)

1cubicfoot(cf)=7.481gallons(gal) 1liter(L)=0.001cubicmeters(m3)

100cubicfeet(cf)=1centumcubicfoot(ccf) 1cubicmeters(m3)=1000liters(L)

Example: Monitored Water Sources for Road Construction in the U.S.

x Montanalimitswaterleasesforconstructionto60,000gallons/dayor120,000gallons/day/project

(Overcast,2001).Requestsformorewatermustbeaccompaniedbyananalysisofpotentialadverseeffects

andadescriptionofplannedmitigationactionsattheproposedpointofdiversion.

x Oregonallowspublicagenciestoregisterawateruseforroadandhighwaymaintenance,construction;inlieuofapermitforawaterright(OregonWaterResourcesDepartment,2007).

x TheCityofBend,Oregonrequireshydrantusepermitsforwatermeasurement,protectionofdrinkingwaterquality,watersystemoperationalprotection,andfirehydrantintegrityandmaintenance.The

permitsapplytowaterobtainedbynormalmeterinstallation,dailyfillstationuse,monthlyhydrantmeter

andbackflowunits,orcustomwatersupplyinstallation.

x TheCityofSouthlake,Texasregulateswateruseonlyduringdroughtconditions.

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POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Trackingwateruseonroadwayconstructionprojectsmaybeunfamiliartositeworkers.Trainingmaybe

necessarytoaccuratelytrackallrelevantwaterdata.

2. Wateruseforroadconstructionmayberegulatedbylocaljurisdictions.Checkwithauthoritiestodetermine

wateruserequirements.

3. Whereroadwayconstructionincludestheuseofnonpotablewater,thereisanobligationtoensurethat

workplacehealthandsafetyisnotnegativelyaffectedbytheuseofthewater.Thismustincludethe

managementofanyrisksarisingfromtheuse,handling,storage,transport,anddisposalofthewateratthe

projectsite.

RESEARCH

Growingcitiesareputtingstressonavailablewatersupplies,anddemandforwaterisgrowingfasterthanthe

humanpopulation.Arecentgovernmentsurveyshowedthat,undernormalconditions,atleast36statesare

anticipatinglocal,regional,orstatewidewatershortagesby2013,anddroughtconditionswillexacerbateshortageimpacts(GAO,2003).Communitiesinwatersupplychallengedregionsoftheworldhavebeguntoaddressthe

ongoingissueofpotable(ordrinkingquality)wateruseonroadconstructionandmaintenanceprojects(CFV,MAV

andIPWEA,2007).Criticaltounderstandingtheissueistodetermineexactlyhowmuchwaterisusedduring

roadwayconstructionandmaintenance.

WaterUsesinRoadwayConstruction

Waterhasmanyusesforroadwayconstruction.However,thereislittleinformationavailableontheamountof

waterusedduringroadconstruction.Sandandgraveloperationsaremajorusers,andcementproductionrelies

heavilyonwater.Onsiteconstructionusesofwaterinclude:concretemixing,concretecuring,dustcontrol,

constructionequipmentwashing,vegetationestablishment,geotechnicalborings,addingwatertobackfill

material/soilcompaction,pipeflushingandpressuretesting,andsitecleanup.

WaterSourcesforRoadwayConstruction

Typicalwatersourcesincludenaturalwaterbodies,potablewatersupplypipelines(e.g.,hydrants),nonpotable

waterfromstormwaterorindustrialdischarges,andreusedwaterfromwastewatertreatmentplants.Water

withdrawalsfromthesefacilitiesmayormaynotberegulatedbythegoverningjurisdiction.Frequently,wateruse

frompublicsuppliesrequiresatemporarywaterrightorpermitallowingthelocaljurisdictioncontrolovertheamountandmethodofwaterwithdrawnforapprovedconstructionuses.Manyregionsalsoregulatepotential

harmtofishfromwaterwithdrawalfromnaturalwaterbodies.Forexample,theNationalMarineFisheriesService

(NMFS)developedintakepumpingandscreeningcriteriaforfishprotectionthatmustbeinstalled,operated,and

maintainedwhenprotectedaquaticspeciesarepresent(NMFS,2008).Occasionally,thesepoliciesrequirewater

systemstomeasureandaccountforallwaterdelivered.However,thesesystemsarealsolikelytobeprovidedbyprivatewatersuppliers.

Estimatesofactualwaterusebyprojectactivityareneededformakingmoreinformedwaterusedecisions.To

enableinformationsharingforimprovedwatersourcingdecisions,someregionsaredevelopingacentralized

“WaterAtlas”ofallalternativewatersources,includingqualityandquantityinformation,toreducedemandon

potablesupplies.Also,indevelopmentisan“IndustrialWasteWaterExchange”tomatchproducersofsuitable

industrialwastewaterwithusersofwaterforconstructionpurposes,allowingindustrialuserstohavetheirwastewaterdisposedofandreused,resultinginpotentiallylowercostsforbothpartiesandlessoverallpotablewater

use.(CCFV,MAVandIPWEA,2007)

WaterPotabilityandQualityIssues

Largevolumesofpotablewaterarecommonlyusedinroadconstruction,butdrinkingwaterissubjectto

competingdemandsbyhumanpopulations.Also,manymunicipalitieschlorinatetheirwatersupply,andthelevel

ofchlorineinchlorinatedtapwater(ashighas1.0milligramofchlorineperliterofwater)istoxictofishandother

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aquaticorganisms(GreaterVancouverRegionalDistrict,1997)andmaybeunsuitableforroadwayusewithout

priormitigation.

Alternativewatersuppliesalleviatedemandforpotabledrinkingwaterthroughmanagementofrelatedhealthand

environmentalrisksassociatedwithconstructionworkactivities.Brackishandoilcontaminatedwatershow

promiseforroadconstructioninwaterlimitedregions(Tahaetal.,2005;KansasDepartmentofHealthand

Environment,2000).Constructionsitemanagersareincreasinglyharvestingstormwaterfromtheirownsitesandstoringitforlateruse(QueenslandGovernment,2007a).Recycledwaterfrommunicipalwastewatertreatment

plantsisapotablewatersubstituteforoperationalandlandscapingpurposes(QueenslandGovernment,2007b).

DischargesofconstructionsitewateraregovernedbytheEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyNationalPollution

DischargeandEliminationSystem(NPDES)permits,orstateorlocalequivalentpolicies.

GLOSSARY

Brackish Waterwithmoresalinitythanfreshwaterbutlessthanseawater

Potability Waterthatissuitableforhumanconsumption

REFERENCES

CivilContractorsFederationofVictoria,theMunicipalAssociationofVictoriaandtheInstituteofPublicWorks

EngineeringofAustralia(CCFV,MAV,andIPWEA).(2007,March29).WaterUseonRoadworks–ACommunity

WideIssue.UseofPotableWaterforRoadWorksSummit.

GreaterVancouverRegionalDistrict.(1997).ConstructionWaterUseGuidelinesforReleaseofMunicipalTap

WatertotheEnvironment.GreaterVancouverRegionalDistrict,MetroVancouver,BC.Availableat

www.metrovancouver.org/about/publications/Publications/ConstructionWaterUseGuidelines.pdf .

KansasDepartmentofHealthandEnvironment.(2000).KansasAdministrativeRegulations,Article47—UseOfOil

andGasFieldSaltWaterinRoadConstructionandMaintenanceProjects(28471to28477).KansasSecretary

ofState.

NationalMarineFisheriesService.(2008).Anadromoussalmonidpassagefacilitydesign.NationalMarineFisheriesService,NorthwestRegion,Portland,OR.

OregonWaterResourcesDepartment.(2007).RegisterWaterUseforRoadandHighwayMaintenance,

ConstructionandReconstruction.OregonWaterResourcesDepartment,Salem,OR.ORS537.040andOAR690340040.

Overcast,Kim.2001.Waterrightsandroadconstruction.WaterResourcesDivision,MontanaDepartmentof

NaturalResources&Conservation,Helena,MT.WATERLINES.4(1),1.

QueenslandGovernment.(2007a).WorkplaceHealthandSafetyQueensland:ModelWaterManagementPlanfor

theCivilConstructionIndustry.Version1–June2007.DepartmentofEmploymentandIndustrialRelations,

QueenslandGovernment,Australia.Availableathttp://www.deir.qld.gov.au/workplace/resources/pdfs/model_watermgt.pdf .

QueenslandGovernment.(2007b).Guidetotheworkplaceuseofnonpotablewater,includingrecycledwaters.

WorkplaceHealthandSafetyQueensland,DepartmentofEmploymentandIndustrialRelations,Queensland.www.nebo.qld.gov.au/council/Nonpotablewater_guide.pdf .

RoadsandTrafficAuthority.(2004).WaterPolicy.RoadsandTrafficAuthority,NewSouthWales,Australia.

Availableathttp://www.rta.nsw.gov.au/environment/downloads/wpolicy.pdf .

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Taha,Ramzi,AmerAlRawas,SalimAlOraimi,HossamHassan,&MohammedAlAghbari.(2005).TheUseof

BrackishandOilContaminatedWaterinRoadConstruction.ENVIRONMENTALANDENGINEERING

GEOSCIENCE.11(2),163169.

UnitedStatesGeneralAccountingOffice(GAO).(2003).FreshwaterSupply:States’ViewsofHowFederalAgencies

CouldHelpThemMeettheChallengesofExpectedShortages.U.S.GeneralAccountingOffice,Washington,DC.

GAO03514.

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CA-8 Contractor Warranty

CONTRACTOR WARRANTYGOAL

Incorporateconstructionqualityintothepubliclowbidprocessthroughtheuseof

warranties.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Theprojectconstructioncontractshallinclude,asaminimum,a5yearwarrantyfor

constructedportionsofthepavementstructuretoincludesurfacing(e.g.,hotmix

asphalt,portlandcementconcrete,etc.)aswellasanyunderlyinglayers(e.g.,granular

basematerial).Otheritemsmayalsobeincludedinthewarrantybutarenotrequired

tobeforthiscredit.

Thetermsofthewarrantyshallbedefinedbytheownerandmayincludecontractor

inputifdesired.Asaminimum,thecontractualwarrantyspecificationsshallinclude:

x Definitionofwhatproduct(s)arewarranted

x Lengthofthewarrantyperiodx Responsibilitiesoftheowner

x Responsibilitiesofthecontractor

x Responsibilityformaintenance

x Conflictresolutionprocess

x Contractorqualitycontrolplan

x Measurementmethods

x Performancebasedrequirementsandassociatedthresholdlevelsthatrequire

correctiveactionbythecontractor

x Requirementsforremedialcorrectiveaction

x Requirementsforelectiveorpreventativeactions

x Basisofpayment

x Finalwarrantyacceptance

Details

Theintentionofthiscreditistoincludeashortterm5yearpavementwarrantyin

thecontractspecifications.Thiswarrantydurationisintendedtobelongenoughto

coveranypavementperformanceissuesduetopoorqualityconstructionbutshort

enoughsoasnottocreatewarrantybondingissuesassociatedwithcontractor

assumptionofriskforundulylongperiodsoftime.

Ultimately,warrantiesmustmeetallapplicablelocalandfederalregulations.

Federalregulationsaredescribedin23CFR635,SubpartD,Section413,Guarantee

andWarrantyClauses.

DOCUMENTATION

x Acopyofthewarrantyspecificationsincludedinthecontract.

CA-8

3 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR4QualityControl

Plan

9 PR9Pavement

ManagementSystem

9 CA1Quality

ManagementSystem

9 PT6PavementPerformance

Tracking

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Economy

9 Extent

9 Expectations

9 Experience

BENEFITS


9 ReducesLifecycle

Costs

9 Improves

Accountability

327




Contractor Warranty CA-8


Developastandardwarrantypolicy(oraspecificonefortheprojectinquestion)thathasbeenvettedwith

industrythatincludes:

x Thetypesofworktobecoveredbythewarranty(i.e.thesurfacecourseorentirepavementsection)

x Thewarranteeguaranteeandbondingrequirements

x Anoutletforconflictresolutionforbothcontractorandowner

x Pavementdistressthresholdsandremedialaction

x AgencyMaintenanceResponsibilities

x Methodofperformancebasedmeasurementformonitoringthepavement

x Finalwarrantyacceptance

x Aselectionprocessofprojectsforwhichwarrantieswillbeincluded

TheNCHRPProject1068“GuidelinesfortheUseofHighwayPavementWarranties”finalreportshouldserveasan

excellentsourceforviableapproacheswhenreleased.AsofOctober2010,itisstillinfinalediting.

Example: Wisconsin Department of Transportation Asphalt Pavement Warranty

NCHRPReport451 (Anderson&Russell,2001)describesastandardprocessmodelforwarrantycontracting(FigureCA8.1)andthenshowsacasestudyofWisconsinDepartmentofTransportation(DOT)warranted

asphaltpavementsinitsAppendixAasanexample.

328





FigureCA8.1:Flowchartprocessmodelforwarrantycontracting(fromAnderson&Russell,2001).

329





FigureCA8.1(continued):Flowchartprocessmodelforwarrantycontracting(fromAnderson&Russell,2001).

330





FigureCA8.1(continued):Flowchartprocessmodelforwarrantycontracting(fromAnderson&Russell,2001).

Specificsofthecasestudycanbeviewedat:http://144.171.11.40/news/blurb_detail.asp?id=5476.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Usingawarrantyclauseinroadwayconstructioncontractsistypicallyaprogrammaticdecision(mustbe

implementedasstandardpracticewithinanowneragency)andnotaprojectspecificone.

2. Warrantyprovisionsasamatterofstandardpracticecanreducecontractorcompetitionassuretiesdecide

whichcontractorstobondandwhichonesnotto.Experiencetodatehasbeenthatbondingforshortterm

warranties(likethe5yearwarrantyinthiscredit)havenotbeenanissuewhendonecorrectly.3. Longtermperformancewarrantiescanreducecontractorbondingcapacitybecauseoftheincreasedriskthey

mustcarryontheirbooks.

4. Warrantiesarenotfree.Theyaregenerallypricedbasedontheriskorperceivedrisktheytransfertothe

contractor.

5. Performancemeasuresonwhichacompletedprojectistobejudgedcanbedifficulttoagreeupon.Itcanalso

bedifficulttofirmlyestablishalinkbetweencontractorconstructionandperformanceparameter

measurement.

331





6. Institutinganewwarrantyprogramcanbedifficultbecauseofthelearningperiodinvolvedwhereboth

contractorsandownersadjusttothewarrantyclause,itsimplementationandinterpretation.

7. Awarrantydoesnotguaranteeimprovedquality,however,mostresearchtodatecitesbetterqualityasan

outcomeofcontractorwarrantyprograms.

RESEARCH

Awarrantyisafairlycommontoolinconsumertransactions.Essentially,awarrantyisanassurancebythesellerthatpropertyorgoodsareasrepresentedorpromised.Thisassuranceisoftenbackedbyaspecificallystated

remedyintheeventthepropertyorgoodfailstomeetthewarranty.

ABriefHistory

Inroadways,warrantieshavebeenusedinassociationwithpavementsforquitesometime.Theearliestpavement

warrantiesaroseinthelate1800s;oneexamplebeingthe15yearwarrantyofferedbytheWarrenBrothers

CompanyontheirpatentedWarreniteBitulithicPavement(FHWA,2009).Inthe1900swarrantiesfelloutoffavor.

Forinstance,priorto1991alongstandingFHWApolicyusedtorestrictedwarrantiesonfederalaidprojectstoelectricalandmechanicalequipmentbecauseitwasfeltthatwithoutthisrestrictionfederalfundscouldbeused

forroutinemaintenance,whichwasillegal(FHWA,2007).Inthe1990spavementwarrantiesbegantomakeacomeback.Rulechangesandanevolvingviewofwarrantiesledtoseveralagenciesexperimentingwithandthen

usingwarrantiesonaregularbasis.Althoughtheyarestillmorecommonelsewhere(e.g.,Europe)warrantiesarecommonforsomeowneragenciesintheU.S.Forotheragencies,theyareeithernotusedorexpresslyforbidden.

ReasonsforWarrantyUse

Warrantyusecanbeviewedasdrivenlargelybytwoforces:(1)thedesiretoimprovepavementqualityand

durability,and(2)thedesiretoreduceowneroversightduringconstruction(AGC,n.d.).Thefirstconcern

(improvedquality)canalsobeaddressedbyothernonwarrantysolutionssuchasaqualitycontrolspecificationor

tighterspecifications.Also,awarrantyrequirementdoesnotdirectlyensureanygreaterquality;itonlyrequiresa

contractortoprovidearemedyifcertainparameters(e.g.,smoothness,cracking,rutting)arenotmet.Aswithallwarranties,apavementwarrantyispricedandbidaccordingly.Inanextremesituation,acontractormaychoose

toincludethecostofanentireoverlayorpartialreconstructionintothebidpricetomitigatetheriskofcorrectiveactionsrequiredbythewarranty.Thesecondreason(reducedoversight)maynotberealizedbecauseowner

personnelareusuallyneededtooverseewarrantedpavements(AGC,n.d.).

TypesofWarranties

Ingeneral,therearethreebasictypesofpavementwarranties:

x Materialsandworkmanship.Almostallconstructioniscoveredbyashortduration(usually1year)materials

andworkmanshipwarranty.Thistypeofwarrantyassignsrisktothecontractorforfollowingagency

specificationsinregardstomaterialsandworkmanship.Ifaproblemordefectisdetectedwithinthewarranty

period,theagencyusuallyusesaforensicanalysistodeterminethecause.Ifitisdeterminedthatspecification

noncompliancecausedtheproblem,itisrepairedatthecontractor'sexpense.Otherwise,theagencyassumes

repaircosts.Thistypeofwarrantyisalmostuniversal,rarelycollectedonandisusuallycoveredbysuretiesat

noadditionalchargetothecontractor.

x Shorttermperformance.Awarrantybasedontheperformanceofthefinishedpavementproductthatlasts

for27years.Thesewarrantiesspecifyanumberofperformanceparametersthatthepavementmustmeetovertime.Iftheyarenotmetthecontractorisrequiredtorepair/replacethepoorperformingpavement.The

generalintentoftheseshorttermperformancewarrantiesistoplacetheriskofpoorconstructiononthe

contractor.Inmostsituations,poorpavementconstructionwillmanifestitselfinpoorpavementconditionwithinabout25years.

x Longtermperformance.Awarrantybasedontheperformanceofthefinishedpavementproductthatlastsforupto20yearsandbeyond.Thesewarrantiesspecifyanumberofperformanceparametersthatthepavement

mustmeetovertime.Iftheyarenotmetthecontractorisrequiredtorepair/replacethepoorperforming

332





pavement.Theselongtermperformancewarrantiesessentiallymakethecontractorresponsiblefor

maintenanceandrehabilitationofthepavementinquestion.

BenefitsandMarketRealitiesofWarranties

Mostoften,ownerspursuewarrantiesbecauseofaperceivedbenefit.However,theuseofcontractedwarranties

alsocreatesanumberofmarketconditionsthatmayormaynotnegateanyperceivedbenefits.Thefollowingisa

brieflistingofwarrantybenefitsandmarketrealities.

Benefits

Allowevaluationbasedonperformance.Warrantycontractsoftenprovidelittledirectioninmaterialsand

methodsandrelayinsteadondefiningperformanceovertimeasthekeycontractelement.Thisallowsowner

agenciesandcontractorstoconcentratetheireffortsonendresultsratherthanmethods.Thisalignsowner

evaluationofconstructionwiththepublicperceptionoftheconstructionaswellasallowscontractors

substantiallatitudetoinnovatesincemethodsarenotdefinedinthecontract.

Improvedquality.In2004,Bayraktaretal.(2004)showed13stateswereexperiencedwithwarranty

contractingwithvaryingdegreesofsuccess.Michigan,Ohio,Florida,andSouthCarolinahadthehighest

amountofwarrantycontractseachhavinga10to30percentofconstructioncontractscontainingapavement

warranty.Inthesamestudy,69percentofthestatedepartmentsoftransportationthatresponded,notedan

improvementintheoverallqualityofthefinalproduct(BayraktarM.etal.,2004).

Reducedownerrisk.Warrantiestendtoplacemoreoftheriskofpoorconstructiononthecontractor.Typically,evenapoorlyconstructedpavementislikelytolast1year(thetypicaldurationofamaterialsand

workmanshipwarranty)infairlygoodcondition.Withawarranty,anownercancollectfromacontractorforpoorconstructionbasedonpavementconditionmeasuredoverthelifeofthewarranty.

Inclusionofconstructionqualityinacompetitivebid.Inmosttraditionalcompetitivelybiddesignbidbuild

pavementcontracts,pavementqualityisassumedtobeaminimumstandardtobemetratherthanthesubjectofcontractorcompetition.Warrantyrequirementsusuallywillrequirecontractorstobuildtheirperceivedcost

ofthewarranty(theirpricefortheriskincurred)intotheircompetitivebid.Therefore,contractorsthatbuildhighqualitypavementandhavegoodknowledgeoftheirconstructionqualityaretheoreticallyabletoreduce

theirbidamountbecauseofaknownlowerrisk.Inessence,pavementqualitybecomesacompetitivelybiditem.

MarketRealities(AGC,n.d.)

Limitingcompetition.Askingcontractorstoassumeriskforpavementsaftertheyarebuiltgenerallymeans

thatsuretiesarerequiredtoprovidewarrantybonds.Suretiescanbeselectiveintheirissuanceofwarrant

bonds,whichmaylimitcompetition.

Reducedbondingcapacity.Thevalueofthewarrantybondsacontractorcarriescanreduceitsbonding

capacity,thuslimitingthenumberandvalueofjobsitcanbid.Longtermpavementwarrantiescanespecially

taxbondingcapacityandsuretiesbecausethelongdurationtheymustbecarried.Also,thereisconsiderable

pressureonsureties;thosewhobondcontractors.Withawarrantyessentiallyholdingacontractoratriskfor

thewarrantyperiod,thesuretywillalsobeheldliableforthewarrantyperiod.Therequirementofaseparate

warrantybondhasbeenthecommonpracticeforcontractorsparticipatinginpavementwarrantycontracts.Suretieshaveaverydifferentresponsibilitywhenevaluatingcontractorsbiddingonwarrantycontracts.Some

suretiesviewtheprocessasadifficultsituation.Forinstance,theyareessentiallyrequiredtopredictthatthe

contractorsthattheyinsurewillbeinbusinessfortheentirewarrantyperiod.Forsureties,themajorsourcesofriskwhenevaluatingcontractorsforwarrantyprojectsincludewarrantyperiod,financialstrength,project

experience,andpastperformance(Bayraktaretal.,2006).

Increasedcost.Warrantiesmayincreaseconstructioncostsbecause(1)higherqualityconstructionmaycost

morebecausebettermaterialsormoremeticulousmethodsareused,or(2)thecostofwarrantiesarebidinto

333





contracts.Ultimately,awarrantytransfersrisktothecontractorandthatriskispriced.Theinclusionofa

warrantyprovisioncanincreasecontractcostsby510%(BayraktarM.etal.,2004).However,warrantieshave

alsoledtolowerpavementlifecyclecosts(Singhetal.,2007).SpecificallyinIndiana,someestimateshave

shownanincreaseofoverthirtypercentintheexpectedcosteffectivenessofawarrantyprogram(Singhetal.,

2007).

Difficultyinsettingobjectiveperformancemeasures.Itisdifficulttosettleonanobjectivesetofperformancemeasuresbywhichanownercanjudgeapavementanddetermineifdefectsareduetocontractorconstruction.Typicalperformancemeasurescanberoughness,rutdepth,surfacefrictionandcracking.Itis

oftendifficulttoestablishthatsuchitemsaredirectlyrelatedtoconstructionqualityandnotsomeotherfactorsuchasheavierthananticipatedloadingorpoorsubgrade.

Difficultinginstartingawarrantyprogram.Outsidestatesusingwarrantiesregularly,contractorexperienceis

limited.Themajorityofowneragenciesusingwarrantieshaveseenasimilarnumberofbiddersonprojects

comparedtoprojectswithoutwarranties.However,whenWestVirginiabeganitswarrantyprogram,ithad

manyprojectsthatcontainedasinglebidder(BayraktarM.etal.,2006).Contractorsshowedatendencyto

eithernotbidduetobeingconcernedabouttherisk,ortochargemoreonagivenbid.Ultimately,theremay

besometimeinvolvedwherecontractorsandowneragenciesbecomefamiliarwiththetermsofwarranties

andhowthesetermsareenf orced.Duringthistime,itisnotuncommonforcontractorstobidhigherto

compensateforincreasedrisk.

StateofthePractice

TheFederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)maintainsawebsiteonconstructionwarrantiesinfederalaid

contracts.Theyalsoincludeasubsectiononpavementwarranties(FHWA,2009).TableCA8.1listsvariousstates

withwarrantyexperienceinroadwayconstruction.

TableCA8.1:WarrantyProvisionsUsedbyVariousStates(FHWA2007)

Forfurtherdiscussionofwarrantycontracting,seeNCHRPReport451GuidelinesforWarranty,MultiParameter,

andBestValueContracting(Anderson&Russell,2001).

GLOSSARY

HMA/RubberizedHMA 38years AL,CA,CO,FL,IN,ME,MI,MO,MS,OH,NM,UT,WI

HMACrackTreatment 2years MI

PCCPavement 510years KY,ME,MI,MS,UT,WI

BridgeComponents 510years WA,ME,NM

BridgePainting 210years IN,MA,MD,ME,MI,NHChipSealing 12years CA,MI

ITSComponents/Buildings 23years VA,NC

Landscaping/Irrigation 1year WY

Microsurfacing 2years CO,MI,NV,OH

PavementMarking 26years FL,MT,OR,PA,UT,WV

SignSheeting 712years WV

Roofing 10years HI

Warranty Acollateralassuranceorguaranteebyasellerthatapropertyorgoodsareas

representedorpromised.Thisassuranceisoftenbackedbyaspecifically

statedremedyintheeventhepropertyorgoodfailstomeetthewarranty.

334





REFERENCES

Anderson,S.D.&Russell,J.S.(2001).NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)Report451

GuidelinesforWarranty,MultiParameter,andBestValueContracting.TransportationResearchBoard,

NationalResearchCouncil,Washington,D.C.Availableat

http://144.171.11.40/news/blurb_detail.asp?id=5476.

Aschenbrener,T.,Goldbaum,J.,&Shuler,S.(2008).EvaluationofShortTermWarrantyandPrescriptive

SpecificationsforHotMixPavementsAfter8Years.TransportationResearchRecord:Journalofthe

TransportationResearchBoard ,2081(1),130138.doi:10.3141/208114.

AssociationofGeneralContractors(AGC).(nodategiven).PavementWarrantyTaskForceReport .Availableat

http://www.agc.org/cs/industry_topics/additional_industry_topics/pavement_warranties.Accessed31

December2009.

Bayraktar,M.E.,Cui,Q.,Hastak,M.,&Minkarah,I.(2004).StateofPracticeofWarrantyContractingintheUnited

States. JournalofInfrastructureSystems,10(2),6068.

Bayraktar,M.E.,Cui,Q.,Hastak,M.,&Minkarah,I.(2006).WarrantyBondsfromthePerspectiveofSurety

Companies. JournalofConstructionEngineeringandManagement ,132(4),333337.

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2007).Briefing:WarrantyClausesinFederalAidHighwayContracts.

Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/programadmin/contracts/warranty.cfm.Accessed31December2009.

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2009).PavementWarranties.Availableat

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/Pavement/warranty.Accessed31December2009.

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2009).ShortTermPavementWarrantiesProgramforHMACliffNotes.

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/warranty/cliffnotes.cfm.Accessed10October2010.

Gharaibeh,N.,&Miron,A.(2008).WarrantySpecificationsforHighwayConstruction;CurrentPracticesandEvolutiontoAdvancedQualitySystems.TransportationResearchRecord2081,7782.

Moynihan,G.,Zhou,H.,&Cui,Q.(2009).StochasticModelingforPavementWarrantyCostEstimation. Journalof

ConstructionEngineeringandManagement ,135(5),352359.

Sees,E.,Cui,Q.,&Johnson,P.(2009).LegalEnvironmentforWarrantyContracting. JournalofManagementin

Engineering,25(3),115121.

Singh,P.,Oh,J.E.,Labi,S.,&Sinha,K.C.(2007).CostEffectivenessEvaluationofWarrantyPavementProjects.

JournalofConstructionEngineeringandManagement ,133(3),217224.

Thompson,B.P.,Anderson,S.D.,Russell,J.S.,&Hanna,A.S.(2002).GuidelinesforWarrantyContractingfor

HighwayConstruction. JournalofManagementinEngineering,18(3),129137.

335





336




MATERIALS & RESOURCES

337




338



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Materials & Resources

MR-1 Lifecycle Assessment

LIFECYCLE ASSESSMENTGOAL

Createnewlifecycleassessmentinformationforroads.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Conductadetailedprocessbasedlifecycleassessment(ISOLCA)orhybrideconomic

inputoutputlifecycleassessment(HybridEIO)accordingtotheISO14040standard

frameworksforthefinalroadwaydesignalternative.Includeallitemsontheproject

bidlistintheinitialscopeofthestudybeforeanystreamliningofthescopeisdone.

Useprimarydataforallprocesseswherepossible.Wherenoprimarydataexists,use

thebestavailabledataandjustifythesubstitution.Chooseatleastthreeimpact

categoriestoreportforthelifecycleimpactassessment(LCIA)fromtheEnvironmental

ProtectionAgency(EPA)FrameworkforResponsibleEnvironmentalDecisionMaking

(FRED:2000).Useequivalencyfactorsfortheimpactassessmentbasedonthemost

currentversionoftheindicatormodelreferenced.FREDisavailablefromtheAmerican

CenterforLifeCycleAssessmenthere:http://www.lcacenter.org/library/pdf/fred.pdf .

Notethatsomeequivalencyfactorsinthisdocumentareoutdated.SeethefollowingMR1Researchsectionformoredetails.

Details

TheLCAmaybestreamlinedaccordingtothestreamliningprocess

recommendationsfromthe1999SocietyofEnvironmentalToxicologyand

Chemistry(SETAC)report“StreamlinedLifeCycleAssessment:AFinalReportfrom

theSETACNorthAmericaStreamlinedLCAWorkgroup”(Weitzetal.,1999).

Socialimpactassessmentisnotrequiredforthiscredit,butmaybecompletedif

socialmetricsorindicesareappropriateorrelevantfortheproject.

DOCUMENTATION

CopyofthecompletedLCA.Thisdocumentshouldinclude,atminimum,thefollowing

specificinformation.

x Nameandcontactinformationofperson(s)whoconductedtheLCA.Besureto

listanyLCACertifiedProfessionals(LCACP)involvedintheproject.

x Alistofalldatasourcesused,andtheinputdataused.Ifdataisproprietary,list

theownerandcontactinformation,andidentifyallprocessesincludedinthe

proprietarydatasets.

x ListanymaterialinputsnotlistedinPR3butincludedintheLCA(thesewillbe

nonpavementitems).

x Detailedresultsofthelifecycleinventory(LCI).

x Lifecycleimpactassessment(LCIA)resultsshowingaminimumofthreeimpact

categories(i.e.globalwarmingpotential,acidification,photochemicalsmog,

humanhealth,etc.)fromFRED.Listsourcesofequivalencyfactorsused.

x Thedataqualityscoreofthefinalalternative(seeMR1Researchsection.)

x Alistofthetopthreecontributingprocessestotheimpactcategories(basedon

normalizedresults,suchasannualenergyuseperAmericanhousehold,etc.)

x Alistofalllimitationsofthestudyscopeanddataused.

MR-1

2 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR2LifecycleCost

Analysis

9 PR3Lifecycle

Inventory

9 PR6Waste

ManagementPlan

9 EW4StormwaterCostAnalysis

9 CA3SiteRecycling

Plan

9 CA7WaterUse

Tracking

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Economy

9 Extent

9 Expectations

9 Exposure

BENEFITS

9 Improves

Accountability


9 CreatesNew

Information

339



Materials & Resources Greenroads™ Manual v1.5

Lifecycle Assessment MR-1


x Createaspreadsheettocapturealloftheprocessesforproductionoftheroadwayprojectandcompletean

LCAinaccordancewiththereferencedISOstandards.

x HireaprofessionalthirdpartyconsultantifpossibletoreviewtheprojectandproduceafinalLCAreport.The

benefits:sometimestheyhaveaccesstosomeproprietarydataandsoftwarethatismorerecentorhigher

qualitythanpubliclyavailablesources.x UseanopensourcesoftwareprogramforLCA.Thesearebecomingmorecommonandarepublicallyavailable

forfreeviaanumberofLCAorganizations.

x ConsiderusingahybridEIOmodelthatincorporatesbotheconomicsectordataandprocessbaseddata.

x Collectprimaryemissionsdatawhereverpossible.

x Usedatathatiscurrent,localorotherwiseprojectspecifictoimprovedataqualityfortheprojectLCAmodel.

Example: Comprehensive Process-Based LCA Approach (Stripple, 2001)

WhilenotacompleteLCAbecausetheimpactassessmentandinterpretationstepswerenotcompleted,

Stripple(2001)providesthebestavailableexampletodateofwhatshouldbeconsideredinacomprehensive

roadwaylifecycleinventoryanalysisandimpactassessmentbasedonanISOLCAmodel(fromSETACEurope).

Thelifecyclephasesstudiedwereconstruction,operation,maintenanceandassociatedtransportation

activities.Extractionactivitiesandtrafficwereincluded,butdisposalofwasteandproductionofcapitalequipmentwerenotconsidered.Inatrulycomprehensivestudy,wastegenerationandrecyclingactivitiesfor

mostpavementswillhavealargeroleintheoverallassessmentoftheroadway.Capitalequipmentproduction

mayalsobeincludedbutitisnotunusualforittobeexcludedviathestreamliningprocess.

Followingisalistofunitprocesses(andequipment)thatwereconsideredfortheinventoryanalysiswithinhis

definedGoal,Scope,andsystemboundaries(slightlyadaptedforclarity).(Stripple,2001)

TableMR1.1:ExampleunitprocessesinStripple(2001)

x Aggregateproduction(blasting,

crushing)

x Aluminium[sic]production

x Bitumenproduction

x Cementproduction

x Cementstabilizationofbase

courseinconcreteroad

construction

x Landclearingofrightofway

x Clearingsnow

x Coldmixasphaltproduction

x Concreteproduction(mixing)

x Concretetexturing

x Drivingdieselmaintenance

vehicles

x Electricityproduction

x Erectionandremovalofsnowposts

x Extractionofquarrygravelandsand

x Extractionofsaltforwinter

roadmaintenance

x Felling(trees)

x Foundationreinforcement

usingcement/limecolumns

x Foundationreinforcement

usingconcretepiles

x Freighttransportationbysea

x Hotmixasphaltproduction

x Layingofconcretewearingcourseinconcreteroad

construction

x Layingofroadmarkings

x Minoroperationalactivities

(minorrepairs,other)

x Mowingofrightofway

x Operatingasphaltpavers

x Operatingasphaltrollers

x Operatingdumptrucksx Operatingexcavators

x Operatingthetackcoattruck

x Operatingwheelloaders

x Polyethyleneplastic

production

x Quicklimeproduction

x Roadmarking,sign,lighting,

trafficlight,otherrailingand

fenceproduction

x Saltgrittingofroadinwinter

roadmaintenance

x Sandgrittingofroadinwinter

roadmaintenance

x Sawcuttingjointsinconcrete

x Sealingconcretejoints

x Steelproduction

x Surfacemillingofconcreteand

asphaltpaving

x Syntheticrubber(EPDM)

production

x Trenchdigginginroad

maintenancex Trucktransportation

x Washingofroadsigns

x Washingofroadsideposts

x Wildlifefences

x Zincproduction

340





Thefunctionalunitsinthestudywere:

x Theconstruction,maintenanceandoperationovera40yearperiodof1lanekmofroad,13metersin

width,with0.5msurfacecourseand1mbasecoursepavedwithhotmixasphaltandusingvehiclesfor

constructionandmaintenancewithlowemissiondieselengines.


width,with0.5msurfacecourseand1mbasecoursepavedwithcoldmixasphaltandusingvehiclesforconstructionandmaintenancewithlowemissiondieselengines.


width,with0.5msurfacecourseand1mbasecoursepavedwithconcreteandusingvehiclesfor

constructionandmaintenancewithlowemissiondieselengines.

TheresultsoftheinventoryanalysisforenergyuseareshowninFigureMR1.1below.

FigureMR1.1:Resultsoflifecycleinventoryanalysisforenergyofthreetypesofroadways.Dottedlines

representstoredenergyinasphalt.(Stripple,2001)

Thefullreport(2

nd

edition)isavailablefromtheIVLSwedishEnvironmentalResearchInstitute,Ltd.here:http://www3.ivl.se/rapporter/pdf/B1210E.pdf

Example: Impact Assessment for HMA Overlay Using FRED (EPA, 2000; Schenck, 2000)

IntheirdocumentationfortheFREDtool,theEPAprovidesaperfectlyrelevantexampleofanimpact

assessmentforaroadwayproduct,asphaltcement.ThefollowingistakenfromAppendixC:AsphaltCoating

CaseStudyandSchenck(2000).ThearticlebySchenck(2000)providesfurtherexplanationofhowLCA,

especiallytheimpactassessmentstep,canbeusedtomakeprocurementdecisionsforroadmaintenance

activitiesfortheDepartmentofDefense.

341





Goal&ScopeofStudy

Thestudymodeleda1.5inchthickoverlayappliedwithafrequencyof79yearsovera20yeartimeperiodand

estimatedthetemperatureofapplicationatorabove165°F.ForpurposesofthisExample,theinventoryand

impactassessmentresultsforthewaterbasedasphaltemulsionalternative,GSB88(gilsonite),areomittedto

minimizeconfusionwiththeLCIAprocessthatisrequiredforthiscredit.Notethatingeneral,thiswasavery

simplifiedlifecycleassessmentmodelduetothesimplicityoftheproductitself(EPA,2000).Explicitdata

criterialimitsensuredthatInputandoutputdatawasnotcollectedifitrepresentedlessthanonepercentofthetotalmass,energy,orexpectedtoxicityscorecontribution(humanhealthandecosystemhealthindicators).

TableMR1.2belowshowstheprocessesandmaterialdata,sourcesandtypesofdatacollectedforthemodel.

TableMR1.2:DataSourcesforLCAStudy(Schenck,2000;EPA,2000)

ProcessorMaterialData Type Source

Asphalt IndustryAverage IndustryAssociation

Aggregate Primary Manufacturer

Diesel(HMAProduction) Primary:surrogate Applier

Diesel(ConstructionVehicleFuels) IndustryAverage PublishedData

Sand Primary Manufacturer

Gilsonite Primary Manufacturer

Hydrochloricacid(HCl) Primary ManufacturerWater Primary Manufacturer

NP40(Detergent) Primary Manufacturer

Surfactant IndustryAverage PublishedData

LightCycleOil Primary Manufacturer

LandUse(Road,m2) Calculated Thisstudy

LandUse(Manufacturing,m2) Mixed Manufacturer,Engr.Estimate

InventoryAnalysis

TableMR1.3presentstheresultsofthelifecycleinventoryanalysisfortheHMAapplicationonly.Azero

indicatesthataparticularrawmaterialwasusedtomakethe“ThinLayerofHMA”product.

TableMR1.3:SummaryofHMAInventory

SystemDescription(RawMaterials) ThinLayerofHMA(2Applications)lb/lanemi/20yrAsphalt 122,621

Aggegate 2,181,960

Diesel(ConstructionVehicleFuels) 3,063

Diesel(HMAProduction) 884

Sand 0

Gilsonite 0

Hydrochloricacid(HCl) 32

Water 4,779

NP40(Detergent) 0

Surfactant 156

LightCycleOil 0

LandUse(Road,m2

) 5888LandUse(Manufacturing,m

2) <10

ImpactAssessment

TableMR1.4presentstheresultsofthelifecycleimpactassessmentfortheHMAapplicationonly.Notably,the

valuesinTableMR1.3abovetranslatethroughtoTableMR1.4:azeroindicatesthataparticularvalueinthe

inventoryanalysiswasalsozero.ThisisbecausetheMR1.3valuesaremultipliedbyequivalencyfactorsas

definedintheFRED.(Technically,itcouldalsomeanthat:1.theequivalencyfactorassignedtoaparticular

342





impactwaszerothoughgenerallyanimpactwithzeroequivalencywouldnotbereported(i.e.notstudied),or

2.theresultcouldbeconsiderednegligibleandreportedaszero.)

TableMR1.4:LCIAResults

Impact ThinLayerofHMA(2Applications)lb/lanemi/20yr

Indicator LCIAResults

GlobalWarmingPotential(kgCO2e) 40,000OzoneDepletion(kgCFC11e) 0

Acidification(kgSO2e) 300

Eutrophication(kgPO4e) 0.02

PhotochemicalSmog(kgO3e) 80

HumanToxicity

Cancer 0.2

NonCancer 5

Ecotoxicity(dimensionless) 2000

ResourceDepletion

Fossil(tonsoilequivalent) 90000

Mineral(equivalenttons) 0

Preciousmetals(equivalenttons) 0OtherIndicators

LandUse(ha) 0.6

WaterUse(m3) 2

SolidWaste(ton) 800

FigureMR1.2showsanexampleofacontributionanalysis,wheretherelativecontributions(onascaleof100percent)areshownasassignedtoeachlifecyclestage.AcontributionanalysismayalsobedonewiththeLCIA

resultstoshowwhichprocessescontributemosttocertainimpacts.

FigureMR1.2:ExamplecontributionanalysisforLCIAofasphaltcement.(Schenck,2000)

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SomeNotesonResults(Interpretation)

ThisExampleonlyshowshalfthepicture,butthefullLCAwasactuallycompletedonbothtypesof

maintenancetechniquesandisexplainedinSchenck(2000)andtheFREDdocumentation.However,evaluating

thesetwoalternativesbycomparingtheimpactsofthetwoproductsmusttakeintoaccounttherelativedata

qualityavailable.AfewbriefexamplesofnotesthatmightbeusefultoareaderofanLCAreportforthe

interpretationstepfollow:

x InTableMR1.2,secondarydata(averagedata)forasphaltproductionwasusedandmaynotbe

representativeoftheactualproductstudied.InformationfromthemanufacturerfortheGSB88wasfrom

primarysourcesandmaybemorerepresentative.Ifprimarydatawereavailablefortheasphalt,theresults

maybedifferentthanthoseproducedbythemodel.Thisistrueformanydifferentpartsofthedataused.

x Closescrutinyofthedataintheinventoryanalysisshowsthatmanyofthedatavalueswerenotavailableor

notreportedforeitherproduct,asdenotedby“NA”intheFREDcasestudy.

x IftheFREDcasestudyiscomparedtothepublishedresultsoftheLCIA,itisclearthatthereisveryhigh

uncertaintyintheresultsbecausethecomputedresultsreportuptofivesignificantdigits.Theamount,for

example,ofGWPthatwascomputedwas44,368kgCO2e.Thatcomputedlevelofprecisionisnot

reasonable,andthevaluereportedonlyreflectsonesignificantdigit(40,000kgCO2e).

x Itisunclearwhytheinventoryamountreportedfor“ResourceDepletionMinerals”is0.Thisshould

probablyhavebeendocumentedsomewhere.

x Itisunclearwhattheassumedtransportationdistancewasforeitherproduct(bothinSchenckandthe

FREDdocumentation).

Furtherdiscussionandthefulllifecycleinventory,impactassessment,andinterpretationforthisEPAcase

studyareavailableintheFREDguidancedocumentavailableat:http://www.lcacenter.org/library/pdf/fred.pdf .

Thereaderisreferredtothatresourcetomakehis/herowninterpretationsofthecasestudiesprovided.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Missingorotherwiseunavailabledata(suchasfromproprietarysources).Whereverpossible,datashouldbe

collectedfortheproject.Thisincludes(butisnotlimitedto)emissionsandenergyusesuchasemissionsdata

gatheredfromatthehotmixasphalt(HMA)batchplant,amountsofwaterusedinconcretemixes,fueltypes,

tippingfeereceipts,cut/fillvolumes,etc.Ingeneral,secondarydatachoicesshouldbebasedonrealisticprojectbasedinformation.

2. Professionallifecycleassessmentmayincuranaddedcosttotheproject.Projectsshouldbudgetforthis

additionalcostwherepossiblewhenplanningtoattemptthiscredit.

3. DatamanagementinprocessbasedLCAscanrequiremuchmanpower,betimeconsuming,andalsohighcost.

4. Thereisnosuchthingasasimpleproduct.Allproductsandprocessesaremorecomplicatedthanhumans

couldeverconceive.LCAsstillonlypresentasimplifiedmodeloftheactuallifecycle.ThegoalisthattheLCA

modelisrealisticandrepresentative,notexact.

5. StakeholdersinvolvedinLCAtendtosetsystemboundariesandconditionstotheircredit.Thiscanskewor

discreditresultsinsomecases.Transparencyisakeyissueinpart,forthisreason.6. Professionallifecycleassessmentinfersthatfinalresultsmaybeproprietary.Verifyrightstosharethis

informationpriortosubmittingdocumentationforthiscredit.Wherepossible,usedatasourcesorLCAsoftwarethatdoesnotincorporateproprietarydataunless,adequatelyreferencedanddocumentedforthe

project.UsingOpenSourceLCAprogramsmaybeabletohelpavoidsuchissues.7. AnyuncertaintiesorassumptionsmadeintheLCAmustbeclearlyspecifiedordocumented(pertheISO

standards).Additionally,anysubstitutionsorgenericdatausedmustbeexplicitlystated.

8. Allocationproceduresusedforestimationsorassumptionsshouldbetransparentandsupporting

documentation(includingreferences)shouldbeprovided(wherepublishingandproprietaryrightspermit).

9. Comprehensivelifecycleassessmentsrequiredetailedattentiontodataquality.

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RESEARCH

ThisparticularcreditisavailableasasupplementtothethreerelatedProjectRequirements:PR1Environmental

ReviewProcess,PR2LifecycleCostAnalysis,andPR3LifecycleInventory.Thiscreditrepresentsbothanadded

step(impactassessment)tothebasicprocessinvolvedinthesethreecreditsandanexpandedroadwaysystem

scopefortheinventoryanalysisstepcompletedforPR3.PR2andPR3providedecisionmakinginformation

aboutcostandbaselineenvironmentalperformance(specificallyenergyuseandcarbondioxideemissions)fortheroadwaypavementsection.Similarly,socialimpactclassificationandcharacterizationispartoftheenvironmentalreviewprocess(seePR1)formanyroadwayprojects,butgenerallythisprocesswillnotrequireorspecifytheuse

ofanyparticularsocialmetric(e.g.birthanddeathrates,obesityrates,productivityrates,etc.)formeasurementoftheseimpacts.ThiscreditrequiresanexpandedscopeofthesethreeProjectRequirementsthatincludesthe

entireroadwayprojectsystemaswellasanimpactassessmentstepfortheproject.

NotethatanintroductiontoLCA,itsbasicframeworkcomponents,andvarietyofLCAmethodsisprovidedinthe

ResearchsectionofPR3.Thisresearchdiscussionissupplemental.

ExistingLiterature

Mostexistingliteratureforroadwaylifecycleassessmentsfocusontheinitialconstructionandmaintenanceof

pavementsectionsalone.ToourknowledgenostudieshavecompletedafullsystemwideLCAforaroadway

project.However,onestudycompletedbyStrippleetal.(2001),hascompletedafulllifecycleinventory(LCI)thatincorporatesallaspectsofaroadway,fromproductionprocessesofseveralkindsofpavementallthewaytothe

componentsoftheroadwaysuchaselectricutilitiesandwildlifefencing.Thisstudyfollowedthe

recommendationsfortheLCAprocessbytheSocietyofEnvironmentalToxicologyandChemistry(SETACEurope),

butisconsideredanincompleteLCAbecausetheimpactassessmentandinterpretationstepswerenotdone.

However,thepaperservesasagreatexampleofthefirsttwostepsinLCA,butnotethattheapplicabilityand

utilityoftheprimarilyEuropeandatasetisquestionableforapplicationsintheUnitedStates(i.e.itisdifficultto

justifysubstitutionofStripple’sinventorydataintoanonEuropeanLCAstudywithoutclosescrutinyofhisdata).

However,becauseSETACreferencesthesamemethodologyforLCA,namelytheInternationalStandards

Organization(ISO)14040and14044standards,thispaperisagreatexampleoftheframeworkandapproachfor

thiscredit.SeethefirstExampleintheprevioussectionformoredetails.

LCAMethodologySteps

Alifecycleisdefinedas“consecutiveandinterlinkedstagesofaproduct[orproject]system,fromrawmaterial

acquisitionorgenerationfromnaturalresourcestofinaldisposalor[endoflife:EOL]”(InternationalStandards

Organization:ISO,2006a).Generally,therearefourbasicstepstoanytypeoflifecycleassessment.Adifferent

interpretationofthesestepsthanthatshowninFigurePR3.2isshowninFigureMR1.3fromSETAC.Definitionof

thegoalandscope(theboundariesandextentofthestudy)willalwaystakeplaceforeveryLCAproject,andthe

variationinmethodologywillresultfromtheinitialchoicesmadeinthisinitial.InventoryAnalysis,thesecondstep,

willtakeplaceasoneofthreegeneraltypesasnotedinPR3.Thesearebriefly:

x ProcessBasedLCA(alsoISOLCA)

x EconomicInputOutputLCA(EIOLCA)

x HybridLCA(alsoHybridEIOLCA)

Eachoftheseapproacheswillproducedifferentresultsfortheinventoryanalysisandingeneralcannotbecomparedcrossplatformbecausetheprocessesconsideredandsystemboundarieswillvarywidely.

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FigureMR1.3:TheframeworkforLifeCycleAssessment(Consoli,1993)

ThefinaltwostepsoftheLCAaretheimpactassessmentandinterpretationoftheresults.Theimpactassessment

stepinvolvesanassignmentorapplicationofsubjectivevalues,whereinparticularindicatorsormetricsarechosen

toweightheresultsoftheinventoryanalysisaccordingtothosesubjectivevalues.Thesevaluesalsoneedtobe

explicitlydefinedinthegoalandscopeinordertoproduceameaningfulresultforinterpretation.Duetothe

iterativenatureofLCAs,however,itismorepracticaltostatethattheinterpretationstepreallyhappens

throughouttheentireLCAprocess,andoftenresultsinrefiningthescopewhendataiscollectedandanalyzedin

theinventoryanalysis.

ChoosingtheLCAModel

Aprocessbasedlifecycleassessmentisonethatisconducted(usually)accordingtothestandardssetbythe

InternationalStandardsOrganization(ISO)lifecycleassessmentstandards,ISO14040andISO14044(2006a,2006b).TheISOclearlyoutlinesthestepsanditerativeprocessbehindatechnicalLCAinbothofthosestandards.Thebasic

ideaofaprocessbasedLCAisthateverythingismadeofasumofdifferentparts.Thosepartsarealsoresultsof

differentprocesses.Fundamentally,everypartandprocessneedsmaterialsandenergy(e.g.“makes”)inorderto

fittogetherintoawhole(e.g.“takes”).

Forasimpleexample,makingonetonoftheproductcalled“hotmixasphalt”(“HMA”)isactuallytheresultof

takingtwomaterials,“asphaltbinder”and“aggregate”,throughaprocessthatmakesHMA,“mixing.”Sothe

processesthatthattheHMAproductactuallytakesare:asphaltbinderproduction(material),aggregate

production(material),andHMAmixing(aprocess).

Thesethreeprocessescouldbefurtherbrokendownintoevenmorespecificprocesses,called“unitprocesses.”

Forexample,“HMAmixing”iscomposedof“heating,”“drumplantoperating,”and“fuelcombustionforheating,”

etc.Themodel,andalsothedatacollectionrequirement,expandsastheprocessesgetmorespecific.Similarly,eachoftheseprocesses“take”morethanjustasphaltandaggregatetomakeHMA:theyalsorequireenergyfrom

electricity,capitalequipmentandworkers,whoalsoneedfoodandhousing,healthcare,acartodrivetowork,and

soon.Iftheprocessbasedmodelwerecontinuedandscaleduptoincludesuchinformation,itwouldbecome

incrediblycomplexanddifficult.Clearly,thescope,systemboundariesandpurposeoftheLCAarekeyissues.

ThisscopingissueissomewhatalleviatedbyEconomicInputOutputLCA(EIOLCA)models.EIOLCAusesabasisof

economicinputoutput(EIO)analysistomodelhowsectorbasednationalindustriesinteractandhowproductsare

intertwined.LCAwaseasilycombinedwithEIOdatabecausethecomputationalstructurewassimilartotheEIO

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approach.EIOLCAusesonlypubliclyavailableinformationtodetermineeconomywide,systemlevelresults

insteadofprocessspecificresults(Hendricksonetal.,1998).ThismeansthatEIOLCAaggregatessectorlevelof

datatoquantifytheenvironmentalimpactcontributeddirectlyorindirectlybyeachsectoroftheeconomy.Itis

typicallybasedonmonetaryinputsinsteadofdimensionsormassandoutputsahandfulofcommon

environmentalimpacts,dependingontheindexselected.ThismethodwillnotearnGreenroadscredit.

HybridLCAisacombinationofprocessbasedandEIObasedLCA(Bilecetal.,2006),effectivelyeliminatingmostofthedisadvantagesofeithermodelasidefrombuiltinuncertaintiesindata.EIOdataareusuallyusedforcommonproductsorprocesses,whileothersaredescribedbytheprocessbasedmethod.HybridLCAcanbefurther

categorizedintofollowingtypes:tieredhybridanalysis,inputoutputbasedhybridanalysis,integratedhybridanalysis,andaugmentedprocessbasedhybridanalysis(Suh,2004;Bilecetal.,2006).Thesetypesdifferin

technicaldetailssuchashowdataisallocatedoraggregated,wherethespecificboundariesaredrawnbetweenprocessandEIOanalysis,andgeneraldataprocessingtechniques.

StreamlinedLCAisaproposedmethodofminimizingdatacollectioneffortsatthestartofaLCAprojectbyscoping

outparticularprocessesthrougheducatedassumptions(mostofthetime).Thisinevitablyleadstoatechnically

nonISOconformantframework,becausevaluationisappliedatthestart,beforedatahasbeencollectedand

analyzed.Curranetal.(1996)notethatstreamliningisreallypartofacontinuumthatfallssomewherebetween

thelevelofdetailforanISOLCAandanEIOLCA,andalsotechnicallyallLCAsarestreamlinedtosomeextentdue

totheiriterativenature.

AcomparisonoftheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofthecommontypesofLCAareshowninTableMR1.5.

Ultimatelyitisuptotheprojectteamtodeterminewhichmethodwillbemostappropriate.

TableMR1.5:ProcessBasedLCAandEIOLCA(ExpandedfromHendrickson,Lave&Matthews,2006)

LCAMethod Advantages Disadvantages

ProcessBased

LCA(ISOLCA)

(ISO,2006a;ISO

2006b)

x Detailed,processspecificresults x Systemboundariesaresubjective(orprojectspecific)

x Allowsforspecificproductcomparisons x Maybehighcostandtimeintensive

x Identifiesareasinsupplychainforimprovement(weakestlinks,orlackofdata)

x Hardtousewheninitiallydevelopingaprocessorproduct

x Providesabasisforprocessspecificinformationthatmaybeusedforotherdevelopmentprocessesandassessments

x Oftenuseproprietarydata

x Canbedonewithpubliclyavailabledata x Cannotbereplicatedifconfidentialdataisused

x Uncertaintyindataormissingdata

EIOLCA

(Hendricksonetal,

1998;Hendrickson,

Matthews&Lave,

2006)

NOTE:

METHODWILLNOT

EARNTHISCREDIT.DONOTUSE.

x Resultsareeconomywide,comprehensiveassessments

x Productassessmentscontainaggregatedata(suchasfoodthatfeedsworkersandthewoodthatmakestheirhousing)

x Allowsforsystemslevelcomparisons x Processassessmentsaredifficult

x Providesinformationoneverycommodityintheeconomy

x Mustlinkmonetaryvalueswithphysicalunits

x Providesabasisforinformationthatmaybe

usedforotherfuturedevelopmentofproductsandprocessesandassessments

x Economicimportsaretreatedasproducts

createdwithineconomic(region,stateorcountry)boundaries

x Canbedonewithpubliclyavailabledata x Lackofcompletedataforenvironmentaleffects

x Difficulttoapplytoanopeneconomy(withsubstantialnoncomparableimports)

x Uncertaintyindata

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LCAMethod Advantages Disadvantages

TieredHybridLCA

(Suh&Huppes,

2005)

x CombinesprocessandEIOdatatoproducemorerepresentativeresult

x Doublecountingerrorsmaybepresentinresults

x Facilitatesinventoryanalysis x Mayomitimportantprocesses

x Reducesdatacollectiontime x DoesnotalwaysmodelinteractionbetweenprocessandIOdataappropriately

x IncorporatesadvantagesfrombothISOandEIOmodels

x IncorporatessomedisadvantagesfrombothISOandEIOmodels

HybridEIO

(Treloar,1997;Joshi,

2000;Crawford,

2008)


x Requiresiteration

x DisaggregatesIOkeysectorsandsubstitutesdetailedeconomicinformation



x SubstitutionofIOdataformissingprocessesmayreducemodelreliability

x Useanddisposalphasesareaddressed

manuallyinsteadofbysector

x Fillsprocessdatagapswherepreviouslynoinformationexisted

IntegratedHybrid

(Suh,2004;Bilecet

al.,2006)




x Computationallycomplex

x ConnectsprocessandEIOmodelsinmatrix x Difficulttolearn

x Eliminatesneedfortieredanalysis x Dataintensive

x Addressesinteractionsbetweensectorandprocessdata

x Timeintensive

x Consistentcomputationalframework

x Nodoublecounting

AugmentedProcess

BasedHybrid

(Guggemos,2003;

Guggemos&

Horvath,2005)

x Startswithprocessdataandsystemandscalesup


x Useseconomyasultimatesystemboundary

x Usesmostlyprocessdata

StreamlinedLCA

(Curranetal.,1996;

Weitzetal.,1999)

x Maysavemoney x Excludesupstreamand/ordownstreamprocesses

x Maysavetime x Limitsrawmaterialinputconsiderations

x Requiresreasonabledatamanagementefforts

x Resultsmaybemoresubjectiveduetoweightingassignedearly(byscopingoutprocessesordatarequirements)

x Processesassignedsignificanceearlyinscopingandalignwithgoalsofstudy

x Mayignoreimportantimpactsunintentionally

x Providesfocusedassessment x Mayresultinreportingincompleteresultstopublic

AdditionalNotesonLCIA:FREDFramework

EquivalencyfactorsforimpactclassificationandcharacterizationforthisGreenroadscreditareprovidedbytheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency’s(EPA)FrameworkforResponsibleEnvironmentalDecisionMaking(FRED)(EPA,

2000).Thefactorsaresubdividedintoeightcategoriesandthreegeneraltypesofflowsareinvestigated:(1)emissionstoair,(2)emissionstowater,and(3)resourcedepletion(includesrawmaterials,fuels,waterandland).

Werecognizethatthereareanumberofmetrics,indicatorsandindicesavailableforuse;theFREDframeworkis

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flexible,broadlyapplicable,comprehensive,anddocumentedrespectably.Currentlythisisthemosttransparent

andflexibletoolthatispubliclyavailableforimpactassessment.

FREDisbasedonavarietyofdifferentindicatortoolsormetricsthathavebeendevelopedbydifferent

institutions,andreflectglobalaveragesorindicators.However,documentationforsomeoftheindicatorsusedin

thetoolhasnotbeenupdated,likelyduetolackoffunding.Theusermayconsultthoseindividualsourcesinorder

tocheckforupdates,determineapplicability,orsubstituteregionalandlocalindicatorvalueswhereappropriate(EPA,2000).“ThedesignersofFREDconsiderimpactmodelselectiontobeaniterativeprocess.Asthescienceandthedatasupportingthescience[develop],newer,moreenvironmentallyrelevantmodelswillgraduallyreplacethe

currentmodels”(EPA,2000).SomeotherlimitationsoftheFREDtoolareprovidedexplicitlyinthedocumentation.Notably,anydatauncertaintiesintheestablishedequivalencyfactorsthatareusedwithinthe

toolitselfareinherentissues.Also,FREDdoesnotincludeanysocialoreconomicimpacts.

GreenroadshasprovidedsomesuggestedresourcestouseinplaceofthoselistedintheFREDdocumentation.

Eithermaybeusedinsupportofthiscredit(theprocessiswhatwearelookingforhere),butreferencesforthe

selectedindicatormustbecitedtoearnthiscredit.TableMR1.6(nextpage)liststheFREDimpactcategorieswith

sometypicalexamplesthatwouldbefoundinanLCIandusedintheimpactassessment.Notethatthisisonlya

sample,andthattheFREDdocumentationprovidesanumberofchemicalcompoundstotrack.

NotethatideallyFREDisdesignedtocomparetwoormoreproductsthathavethesamefunctionalunit.Theutilityofcompletinganimpactassessmentforjustonesingleprojectisthatthereisnotnecessarilyanyestablished

industryaverageintermsofenvironmentalperformancethatcanbeusedforcomparisonofpavements.This

creditaimstohelpdevelopthisinformationinasystematicwaybyusingtheframeworkprovidedforimpact

assessmentbytheEPA’sFREDtool.Resultsoftheimpactassessmentmaythereforenotbesuitableforevaluative

purposes(EPA,2000),however,thisdoesnotmeanthattwodifferentdesignalternativesshouldnotbecompared

usingLCA.ForreportingpurposesinthisGreenroadscredit,wejustwanttoknowaboutthefinaldesign

alternative.

OtherLCIATools

x AnotherEPAtool,theToolsforReductionandAssessmentofChemicalandOtherReleases(TRACI),isno

longeravailablefromtheEPA.Asofthiswriting,weunderstandthatthistooliscurrentlybeingupdated.

(EPA,2008).x Commonlyusedproprietarysoftwaretoolsmayhavebuiltinimpactassessmentindicators,suchasGaBi

andSimaPro.Thesetoolsoftenreportasinglevalueforallimpacts(anindex)thatdoesnotnecessarily

disaggregatecontributionstothatindexfromeachimpactorprocess,andmaynotbeappropriateforuse

inthiscreditbecausetheweightingcanlacktransparency.

x OthertoolsforimpactassessmentareavailablethroughtheNationalInstituteofScienceandTechnology(NIST),suchastheBEES(BuildingorEnvironmentalandEconomicSustainability)tool.ThecaveatwithBEES

isthatitismostlyusedinthebuildingindustry,sovaluationandweightingsystemsusedbyNISTimpactassessmenttoolsmaynotbeadequateforweightingimpactsofpavementorinfrastructureprojects

withoutfurtheradjustmentandreview.Also,thissoftwaretoolgeneratesonlyoneindexasa“score”

insteadofreportingdisaggregatedimpacts.

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TableMR1.6:FREDImpactCategoriesandIndicatorModelsfortheFREDLCASystem(EPA,2000)

Impact

Category

ImpactIndicator

Model/Source

Indicator* ExampleLCIData

NeededforModel

GreenroadsComment

GlobalWarming

Potential

IntergovernmentalPanelonClimate

Change(IPCC)

CO2e(kg) Carbondioxide(CO2)

Nitrousoxide(N2O)

Methane(CH4)Halons

RecommendusingupdatedequivalencyfactorsfromIPCC2007

FAR(Solomonet.al.),especiallyfor

CH4,N2O.Othersarelessprevalentinroads/paving.

Stratospheric

Ozone

Depletion

World

Meterological

Organization

(WMO)

CFC11e Methylbromide

Chlorofluorocarbons

(CFCs)

Hydrofluorocarbons

(HCFCs)

Recommendusingupdatedindicatorforequivalencyfactors:Effective

EquivalentStratosphericChlorineconcentration(EECl,EESC).SeeEPA’s

2006 AirQualityCriteriaforOzone

andOtherPhotochemicalOxidants

Acidification ChemicalEquivalents

AcidificationPotential

(AP)

Ammonia

Nitricoxide

Nitrogendioxide

Sulfurdioxide

Photochemical

Smog

EmpiricalKinetic

Modeling

Approach(EKMA)

Maximum

Incremental

Reactivity

(MIR)

Acetone

CarbonMonoxide

Formaldehyde

Alkanes

Aromatics(VOCs)

Napthalenes

RecommendusingaboxorEulerian

modelandMIRvaluesfromCarter

(2009)withbinnedreactivitiesbased

uponnalkane,isoalkane,cyclo

alkane,aromaticsandnapthalenes.

SeealsoLeukenandMebust(2008).

Eutrophication RedfieldRatio PO4e(kg) PhosphatesNitricoxide

NitratesAmmonia

HumanHealth Universityof

California,

Berkeley(UCB)

TEPs

Benzene

TEP(cancer)

TouleneTEP

(noncancer)

Toxicchemicals Recommendusingcurrentdatafrom

theEnvironmentalDefenseFund

(EDF)ScorecardandUCBTEPsas

showninFREDdocumentation.SeealsoMcKoneandHertwich(2001)

andHertwichetal.(2006)

Ecological

Toxicity

ResearchTriangle

Institute(RTI)LCIA

Expert(Version1)

N/A Toxicchemicals RecommendRTImodelanddata

fromEPA’sECOTOXdatabaseto

determinespecificweightingas

showninFREDdocumentation(EPA,

2000;2010)

Resource

Depletion

LifeCycleStressor

Environmental

Assessment

(LCSEA)ModelbyScientific

Certification

Systems

Mass,volume

(water)or

landarea

Various Recommendusingcomputed

“resourcedepletion”equivalencyfactorsusingupdatedSCS0022008

(Draft)asshowninFREDdocument(EPA,2000;SCS,2008)

DataQuality

ThemostimportantstepintheinterpretationphaseoftheLCAistheidentificationofthedataqualityand

statementofuncertainties.QualityofdatausedinanLCAcanbeevaluatedduringtheinterpretationstageofthe

LCAusingdataqualityscores.Forthiscredit,eachpieceofdatashouldberatedwithnumbers1to5andscored

accordingtothecriteriasetforwardbytheUniversityofWashingtonDesignforEnvironmentLab(Collegeof

350





Engineering,DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,underthedirectionofDr.JoyceCooper),basedon

ISO14040:2006requirements.ThescoringisshowninTableMR1.7.

TableMR1.7:Dataqualityscores(DQS)bytheUniversityofWashingtonDepartmentOfMechanical

EngineeringDesignforEnvironmentLab(Cooperetal.,n.d.)

Score

ID

ISO14040Data

QualityIndicators

Supporting

Information

ScoringMethod

DQS1 TimeRelated

CoverageData(i.e.

dataage)

Startdateofvalid

timespan

Deviationfromintendedperiod(differenceinyearstoyearof

study)

1. Lessthan3years

2. Lessthan6years

3. Lessthan10years

4. Lessthan15years

5. Ageofdataunknownormorethan15years

Enddateofvalid

timespan

DQS2 Geographical

Coverage

Areaandcountry

names

Deviationfromintendedarea

1. Datafromstudyarea

2. Averagedatafromlargerareawhichincludesstudyarea

3. Datafromareaundersimilarproductionconditions4. Datafromareawithslightlysimilarproductionconditions

5. Datafromunknownareaorareawithdifferent

productionconditions

DQS3 Technology

Coverage

Technology

description

Deviationfromintendedtechnology

1. Datafromenterprises,processesandmaterialsunder

study

2. Datafromprocessesandmaterialsunderstudybutdifferententerprises

3. Datafromprocessesandmaterialsunderstudybutdifferenttechnology

4. Dataonrelatedprocessandmaterialsbutsame

technology5. Dataonrelatedprocessandmaterialsbutdifferent

technology

Includedprocesses

Extrapolations

DQS4 Precision,

completeness,and

representativeness

ofthedata

Samplingprocedure Representativenessforintendedprocess

1. Veryhigh(datarepresentallaspectsofsystemunder

study)

2. High(datarepresentamajoritysubsetofthesystem

understudy)

3. Moderate(datarepresentaminoritysubsetofthesystem

understudy)

4. Low(datarepresentanexampleofthesystemunder

study)

5. Veryloworunknown(theextenttowhichthedatarepresentsthestudyisunknown)

Numberofsamples

Absolutesamplevolume

Relativesample

volume

Extrapolations

Uncertaintyadjustments

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Score

ID

ISO14040Data

QualityIndicators

Supporting

Information

ScoringMethod

DQS5 Consistencyand

reproducibilityof

themethodsused

throughouttheLCA

Descriptionof

methodfordata

collectionanddata

treatment

1. Veryhigh(dataarebasedondirectmeasurementsusinga

widelyacceptedtestmethodoronsoundengineering

modelsrepresentingthecurrenttechnologyandhave

beenextensivelypeerreviewed.Also,thesourceprovidesatransparentaccountoftheassumptionsmade.)

2. High(althoughthedataarebasedonagenerallysound

testmethodormodelandthesourceprovidesa

transparentaccountoftheassumptionsmade,thedata

aredatedorlackenoughdetailforadequatevalidationor

havenotbeenextensivelypeerreviewed)3. Moderate(dataarebasedonanunprovenornew

methodologyorarelackingasignificantamountofbackgroundinformation)

4. Low(dataarebasedonagenerallyunacceptablemethod,

butthemethodmayprovideanorderofmagnitudeflow)

5. Veryloworunknown(dataarebasedonanunknown

method,butthemethodmayprovideanorderofmagnitudevalueoftheflow)

DQS6 Sourcesandtheirrepresentativeness

Referencesusedfordatacollectionand

datatreatment

Typeofreference1. Datafromreviewedsource

2. Datafrompublicwrittensource(notreviewed)3. Datafromclosedwrittensource(notreviewed)

4. Othersources

5. Unknownsource

DQS7 Uncertaintyofthe

information

Meanvalue Coefficientofvariance

1. Below10%2. 1025%

3. 2550%4. 50100%

5. Over100%orunknown

Standarddeviation

UncertaintytypeDescriptionof

strengthsand

weaknesses(e.g.

occurrenceofdata

gaps)

GLOSSARY

CO2 Carbondioxide

CO2e Carbondioxideequivalentemission

e Equivalent

EIO EconomicInputOutputEIOLCA EconomicInputOutputforLifeCycleAssessment

EOL Endoflife

Functionalunit Thequantifiedperformanceofaproductsystemforuseasareferenceunit

(ISO,2006a)

HybridLCA AtypeofLCAthatcombinesbothprocessbasedandeconomicinputoutput

models


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ISOLCA ProcessbasedLCA


LCCA Lifecyclecostanalysis

LCI Lifecycleinventoryanalysis

LCIA Lifecycleimpactassessment

Lifecycle consecutiveandinterlinkedstagesofaproduct[orproject]system,fromraw

materialacquisitionorgenerationfromnaturalresourcestofinaldisposalor[endoflife:EOL](ISO,2006a)

Lifecycleassessment Compilationandevaluationoftheinputs,outputsandthepotential

environmentalimpactsofaproductsystemthroughoutitslifecycle(ISO,

2006a)

ProcessbasedLCA AnLCAconductedaccordingtoISOStandard14040

Referenceflow Themeasureoftheoutputsfromprocessesinagivenproductsystem

requiredtofulfil[sic]thefunctionexpressedbythefunctionalunit(ISO,

2006a)

SETAC SocietyofEnviornmentalToxicologyandChemistry

StreamlinedLCA IdentificationofelementsofanLCAthatcanbeomittedorwheresurrogate

orgenericdatacanbeusedwithoutsignificantlyaffectingtheaccuracyofthe

results(Weitzetal.,1999)Systemboundary Setofcriteriadefiningwhichunitprocessesarepartofasystem(ISO,2006a)

Unitprocess Smallestunitconsideredinthelifecycleinventoryanalysisforwhichinput

andoutputdataarequantified(ISO,2006a)

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355





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MR-2 Pavement Reuse

PAVEMENT REUSEGOAL

Reuseexistingpavementandstructuralmaterials.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Reuseataminimum,apercentageofexistingpavementmaterialsorstructural

elementsbyestimatedvolumeorweightasshowninTableMR2.1.Thematerials

consideredinvolumecalculationscanincludebutarenotlimitedtohotmixasphalt

(HMA),portlandcementconcrete(PCC),unboundgranularbasematerial,stabilized

basematerial,reinforcedconcrete,structuralsteel,andtimber.Ingeneral,pavement

materialswillbeeasiertocalculatebyvolumewhilestructuralmaterialsshouldbe

calculatedintermsofweight,unlessmaterialvolumesareadjustedfordensity.

TableMR2.1:PointsforEstimatedVolumeorWeightofReusedMaterials

CreditMR2Points 1 2 3 4 5

%ReuseofExistingPavementMaterialsorStructuralElements 50 60 70 80 90

Details

“Reuse”isdefinedasacontinueduseorrepurposingofexistingmaterialswithin

theprojectlimits.Specifically,thismeansthematerialinquestionhasnotbeen

transportedbeyondtheprojectlimitsatanytimeduringprojectconstructionand

thatithasbeenminimallyprocessedorchangedfromitsoriginalcondition.

Thisdefinitiondifferentiates“reuse”from“recycle.”Pavementreusemethodsare

intentionallyusedtoextendthelifeoftheexistingpavementstructureinplace.

Similarly,inmostcases,reuseofstructures,suchasbridgesorretainingwalls,is

typicallyknownasa“retrofit,”wherespecificmethodsareimplementedtoextend

thelifeoftheexistingstructureinplace.Reusedmaterialsmaybeusedinplace,or

theymaybetemporarilyremovedfromtheiroriginallocationif:

1. Thematerialssubstantiallyremaininthesameconditionastheywereremoved.

2. Thematerialsarereplacedinthesamelocationontheprojectoraremovedto

anewlocationontheprojectandrepurposedwithoutprocessing.

“Retrofit”isdefinedasthereinforcementofstructurestobecomemoreresistant

andresilienttotheforcesofnaturalhazardsandotherenvironmentalfactorssuch

asagingandweathering.Itinvolvestheconsiderationofchangesinthemass,

stiffness,damping,loadpathandductilityofmaterials,aswellasradicalchanges

suchastheintroductionofenergyabsorbingdampersandbaseisolationsystems.

“Recycle”isdefinedasrecoveringaportionofausedproductormaterialfromthewastestreamforreprocessingand/orrepurposingwithminimalornotransport

offsiteorwithintheprojectlimits.A“recycledmaterial”isanymaterial,fromany

project,thathasbeen:

1. Processedatalocationoutsideoftheroadwayprojectlimits

2. Processedatalocationinsideoftheprojectlimits,butsubstantiallydisplacedor

otherwisemovedorremovedfromitsexistinglocationspecificallyinorderto

processthematerial,suchastemporaryormobileonsiterecyclingfacilities.

MR-2

1-5 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR2LifecycleCost

Analysis

9 PR9Asset

ManagementPlan

9 MR3Earthwork

Balance

9 MR4RecycledMaterials

9 PT1LongLife

Pavement

9 PT6Pavement

Performance

Tracking

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Economy

BENEFITS

9 ReducesRaw

Materials

9 ReducesFossilFuel

Use

9 ReducesAir

Emissions

9 ReducesGreenhouse

Gases

9 ReducesSolidWaste

9 ReducesManmade

Footprint


9 ReducesLifecycle

Costs

357




Pavement Reuse MR-2

3. Materialfromanyoutsidesourcethathasbeenrepurposedforuseontheroadwayproject,evenif

salvagedandstillitsoriginalcondition.

“Existingpavementmaterial”isdefinedasallmaterialwithintheprojectlimitsintheexistingpavement

structure(includingsurfacingandbasematerial).Thisincludestravelledlanesandshoulders,andpavement

structuresforphysicallyseparatedbicycleandpedestrianpathways.

“Existingstructuralmaterial”isdefinedasallmaterialwithintheprojectlimitsinexistingnonpavementstructuressuchasbridges(includingoverpasses),retainingwalls,andstormwaterinfrastructuresuchasvaults,

pipesandculverts.Allexistingstructuralmaterialsincludetheirfoundations,forwhichvolumesmaybedifficulttoestimate.Whereactualweightsarenotavailable,reasonableestimatesmaybeusedorvolumemaybe

estimated.Tocomputevolumeofhollowstructuralsectionssuchasprefabricatedmembersorcorrugatedsteel,estimatethemassofthematerialandadjustformaterialdensitytodeterminevolume.Notethatfor

typicalreinforcedconcretesections,thesteeldoesnotneedtobeseparatedfromthecompositesectionfor

purposesofvolumecalculationsandacompositedensitymaybeused.

Inordertoachievecredit,someactivitymustbedonetoeitherthepavementorastructuresuchthatthe

materialsorassemblyisimprovedorupgradedinsomeway.Cleaning,regularmaintenanceandminorrepairs

doneaspartofroutineoperationsandmaintenancedonotqualifyforthiscredit.

ThiscreditisNOTappropriateforconstructionofanentirelynewroadwayorbridgereplacement,nordoesit

applytomaterialsinexistingsubgrade(naturalinsitumaterial),fillmaterialorsidewalksthatarenotexplicitly

partofthepavementstructureorstructuralelement.Additionally,thisreusecreditdoesnotincludeminor

structuralelementssuchasluminaires,signs,orsignalsbecausetheydonotmakeupasignificantamountof

thetotalvolumeofmaterialsontheprojectandtheydonotbearregularloadsofpeopleorvehicles.

ThiscreditISappropriatefor:

x Pavementrehabilitationactionsthatplacenewmaterialovertheexistingpavementstructuresuchashot

mixasphalt(HMA)overlays,PCCoverlays(eitherbondedorunbounded)andpavementsurfacetreatments(e.g.,chipseals,slurryseals).

x Inplacereprocessingoperations(eventhoughsomearereferredtoas“recycling”)suchashotinplacerecycling,coldinplacerecycling,fulldepthreclamation,portlandcementconcrete(PCC)crackandseat

andrubblization.

x Repurposingofexistingmaterialforotherpurposesinthesameproject.Thematerialmustnotleavethe

projectboundarytobeconsidered.Ifitdoesleavetheprojectboundaryitmaystillbeconsideredinthe

RecycledMaterialscredit.

x Anyofseveralbridgeretrofitmethods:

x Stainlesssteelwiremesh(SSWM)composites

x Fullheightsteeljackets

x Elastomericbearings

x Steelrestrainercables

x Shearkeys

x

Fiberreinforcedpolymers(FRP)wrapsx Shapememoryalloy(SMA)devices

x Metallicandviscoelasticdampers

x Pipeseatextenders

x Reuseandrepairsofstructuralfoundations

x Retainingwallretrofitssuchasleveling,seismicretrofits,andslopestabilizationmethodsthatleavea

majorityoftheoriginalwallinplace.

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MR-2 Pavement Reuse

DOCUMENTATION

Acalculationthatshowsthecomputedpercentofmaterialreusedincludingthefollowingfouritemsatminimum:

1. Totalvolumeofexistingpavementstructure

2. Totalvolumeofreusedpavementstructure

3. Thecomputedpercentageofthetotalreusedvolume,and4. Ashortwrittendescriptionofhowthestructurewasreused.


x Wherefeasible,undertakepavementpreservationefforts(e.g.,overlays,diamondgrinds,etc.)thatpreservea

majorityoftheexistingpavementstructure.Pavementstructureshouldnotbereusedifitsengineering

propertiesareinadequateforthepavement’sintendedfunction.Inthisinstance,thiscreditservesasareward

foranagencymaintaininganactivepavementpreservationprogramthataddressesdeterioratedpavement

earlyenoughsoastoavoidatotalreconstructionastheonlyviableremedy.

x Useinplacerecyclingtechniquessuchashotinplacerecycling,coldinplacerecyclingandfulldepth

reclamation.Thesemethodsqualifyasreusebecausethematerialhasnotcrossedprojectboundaries.

x UseacrackandseatorrubblizationoptionfordeterioratedPCCratherthanremovingandreplacingthe

existingPCC.SuchoperationsusuallyinvolvepavingadditionalstructureoverthecrackedandseatedorrubblizedPCC;therefore,additionalconsiderationswouldbebridgeclearance,drainageflowsandmatching

gradesforcrossstreets,rampsandotheraccessroads.

x Retrofitorrefurbishexistingstructures.Thereareavarietyofmethodsavailableforretrofitsdependingon

existingissues.

x Performalifecyclecostanalysisofretrofitoptionsforbridgeswhenconsideringdesignalternatives.

x Reusethepavementonbridgeswhereitexists.

x Plantoreusefoundationsbecauseitreducesenvironmentalimpacts,especiallyforinwaterwork.

x Reusesubassembliesandcomponentsofstructuresiftheentirestructuralelementcannotbereused.

x Evaluatethestructuralconditionofexistingelementssuchasbridgesandretainingwalls.Thisistypically

determinedbyastructuralengineer.Donotreuseelementsthathavebeendamagedbycorrosionornatural

hazardswithoutreviewbyastructuralengineer.

x

Wherestructuralelementsaredeterminedtobeinadequateforreuse,considersalvagingthemordeconstructingthemforuseonanotherprojectorpurpose.

Example: “Reuse” versus “Recycle”

Greenroadsmakesadistinctionbetweentheterms“reuse”and“recycle.”Thefollowingdiscussionprovides

moredetailsfordistinguishingbetweenthetwo.

Reusedmaterials :Thesematerialsoriginatefromwithintheprojectlimitsandareeithermaintainedinplace(suchasexistingpavementstructure)ordisturbed/removedbutarenottransportedoutsidetheprojectlimits.

Examplesinclude:

x Overlayinganexistingpavementstructurewithnewpavementmaterial.Theexistingstructureiscounted

asreusedmaterial.Thisisspecifictopavementssince,forinstance,astopsignthatremainsundisturbedduringaroadwayprojectdoesnotcountasbeingreused.

x Removingcrushedaggregatebasecoursefromonelocationandreusingitascrushedaggregatebase

courseinanotherlocationwithintheproject.

x Hotinplacerecycling(HIR).TheprocessingandtreatmentofanexistingHMApavementsection(usually12inchesofthesurfaceonly).TreatmentinvolvesheatingtheexistingHMAsurface,theadditionof

bituminousand/orchemicaladditivesand,often,someadditionalnewHMA.Theexistingpavement

materialsremaininplaceandessentiallyservetheiroriginalpurpose.

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Pavement Reuse MR-2

x Coldinplacerecycling(CIR).Theprocessingandtreatmentwithbituminousand/orchemicaladditivesofan

existingHMApavementsectionwithoutheatingtoproducearestoredpavementlayer.Theexisting

pavementmaterialsremaininplaceandessentiallyservetheiroriginalpurpose.Inmanycasesthe

resultantproductisusedasastabilizedbasecoursethatmayormaynotbesubsequentlyoverlaidwitha

newsurfacecourse.

x Fulldepthreclamation(FDR).Theprocessingandtreatmentwithbituminousand/orchemicaladditivesof

anexistingHMApavement(mayalsoincludebasematerial)withoutheatingtoproducearestoredpavementlayer.Theexistingpavementmaterialsremaininplaceandessentiallyservetheiroriginal

purpose.Inmanycasestheresultantproductisusedasastabilizedbasecoursethatmayormaynotbe

subsequentlyoverlaidwithanewsurfacecourse.

Recycledmaterials:Thesematerialsmayoriginatewithinorexternaltotheprojectlimitsandarediverted

fromfinaldisposal(i.e.landfill)andarereprocessedorrepurposedforuseintheproject.Theessential

differencebetween“recycling”and“reuse”isthatrecyclinginvolvesreprocessing/repurposingand,usually,

substantialtransportation(usuallytoandfromthereprocessingfacilityandsometimestoandfromtheproject

site).Also,arecycledmaterialcanoftenoriginatefromoutsidetheprojectlimitsbeforeuseontheproject,

whereasreusedmaterialdoesnot.Examplesinclude:

x HMAfromtheprojectinquestionoranotherproject,commonlycalledreclaimedasphaltpavement(RAP),

istransportedtoastoragelocationorHMAplantlocationandincludedasaconstituentofanewHMA

mixturefortheprojectinquestion.

x Anexistingconcretestructurefromtheprojectinquestionoranotherprojectisdemolishedandcrushed

intoanappropriategradationandusedasacrushedaggregatebasematerialoranaggregatecomponentin

newPCContheprojectinquestion.

x Anindustrialbyproduct(e.g.,coalflyash,silicafume,groundgranulatedblastfurnaceslag)isincorporated

asacomponentinanewmaterial(e.g.,PCC).

x Divertedwastematerial(e.g.,discardedrubbertires,crushedglass)isincorporatedasacomponentina

newmaterial(e.g.,HMA,PCC).

Example: What Is and What Is Not “Existing Pavement Structure”

FiguresMR2.1throughMR2.4showexamplesofwhatshouldandshouldnotbeincludedinthiscalculation.

x FigureMR2.1:ThisbicyclepathshouldNOTbecountedasexistingpavementstructurebecauseitisa

separatebicycle/pedestrianpaththatisnotaccessibletoautomobiles.

x FigureMR2.2:Thisbicyclelaneshouldbecountedasexistingpavementstructurebecausealthoughitis

markedasabicyclelane,itisaccessibletoautomobiles.Specifically,itmustbecrossedbyvehiclesaccessingcurbsideparking.

x FigureMR2.3:ThispavedmedianshouldNOTbecountedasexistingpavementstructurebecauseitisseparatedfromthetravelledwaybyacurbstructureandisnotaccessibletoautomobiles.

x FigureMR2.4:Thispavedmedianareashouldbecountedasexistingpavementstructurebecauseitis

accessibletoautomobileseventhoughthedoubleyellowlineimpliesthattheyshouldstayout.

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MR-2 Pavement Reuse

FigureMR2.1:AbicyclepathinAuburn,AL. FigureMR2.2:Abicyclepathaspartofthe

roadway(imagefromGoogleMaps).

FigureMR2.3:Apavednonaccessiblemedian

(imagefromBingMaps).

FigureMR2.4:ApavedaccessiblemedianonUS101

inWashingtonState.

Example: Calculation for Widening an Existing RoadwayDescription:Fourmilesofanexistingtwolaneroadwith12footwidelanesandnoshouldersistobewidened

toincludea10footwidetwowayleftturnlaneand8footshoulders.Theexistingpavementstructureconsists

of5inchesofHMAover8inchesofcrushedaggregate.Theexistingpavementiskeptinplaceexceptthatthe

top1.5inchesofHMAisremovedbyamillingmachine.Newpavementofthesamestructureisbuiltoneither

sideoftheexistingpavementstructuretoaccommodatethewiderfinalalignment.

Calculationlogic:All8inchesofthebasematerialand3.5inchesoftheHMAarereused.The1.5inches

removedbythemillingmachineisnotconsidered“reused.”Ifitisrecycledthenitmayqualifyfor

considerationunderMR4RecycledMaterials.

Calculation:

Totalvolumeofexistingpavement:

Reusedvolumeofexistingpavement:

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Pavement Reuse MR-2

Percentageofexistingpavementreused:

Thisprojectwouldqualifyfor4points.

Example: Calculation for Bridge Retrofit Project – State Route 99 Aurora Bridge

Description:ThelandmarkAuroraBridgeintheCityofSeattlewasbuiltin1932andhasundergoneseveral

rehabilitationactivities.Currently,itisscheduledforadditionalretrofitof18ofits48uniquecolumns,aswell

asitssupportingtrusses,girdersandbeamsstartinginlate2010.Thecolumnsare“cruciform”shaped,which

makesitdifficulttousetraditionalretrofitoptionssuchassteelcolumnjackets.TheWashingtonState

DepartmentofTransportationintendstospend$2.1milliontocompletetheupgradetheseismiccapacityof

thebridge.

FigureMR2.5:AuroraBridge,Seattle,WA(PhotoCourtesyofWSDOT)

Calculationlogic:Theentirebridgestructureistoremaininplacefortheplanned2010retrofit,therefore

100%ofitisreused.

Calculation:Noneneeded.Allexistingstructuralmaterialsarereused.


Example: Calculation for Bridge Retrofit Project – State Route 104 Hood Canal Bridge

Description:TheHoodCanalBridgeisthelongestfloatingbridgeoversaltwaterintheworld.At1.5miles,the

bridgeiscomprisedoftwoapproaches,twotransitionspansand36pontoons.Thewest“half”ofthebridge

has19pontoonsandtheeasthas17.Thewestapproachspanofthebridgeandsomeoftheexistingpontoon

structureswereretrofitted.Thisportionofthebridgehadbeenreplacedin1982aftersinkingin1979.Theeast

“half”ofthebridgewascompletelyreplacedwithconstructioncompletinginearly2010.

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MR-2 Pavement Reuse

Calculationlogic:Useweightasanindicatorforactualmaterialvolumeofthepontoons.(Totalvolumeof

materialscanbecomputedfromWSDOTdata,butdensityinformationisnotavailable.)Theeastportionofthe

bridge(17pontoons)weighs107,111tonswithanapproachslabweighing3,800tons.Thewestportionofthe

bridgeweighs127,817tonswithanapproachslabweighing1,000tons.Therearetwotransitionspans(steel

truss)thatare800tonseach.

Calculation:Computethetotalweightofthebridge.

[107,111+127,817+3,800+1,000+2(800)]=241,328tons

Computethetotalweightoftheretrofittedsections.(Notethiscalculationpresumes100%ofthewesthalf

featureswereretrofittedforeaseofcalculation.)

[127,817+1,000+800]=129,617tons

Computethepercentageofthetotalbridgeweightoftheretrofittedsection.

129,617tons/241,328tons=53.7%

Thisprojectwouldqualifyfor1point.Additionally,thepontoonsweresoldtoacompanyinCanadaandtheyhavebeenrebornasmarinastructures.Thereplacedbridgetrusseswerenotabletobereusedbutwere

salvagedforscrap.

FigureMR2.6:HoodCanalfloatingbridgeretrofitandreplacementproject.(PhotoCourtesyofWSDOT)

Example: Calculation for Preservation Overlay of an Existing HMA Pavement Description:Sixmilesofanexistingfourlanehighwaywith12footwidelanesand8footshouldersistobe

overlaidwith2inchesofadditionalHMA.Alloftheexitingpavementstructureistoremaininplace.

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Pavement Reuse MR-2

Calculationlogic:Alloftheexistingpavementstructureistoremaininplacetherefore100%ofitisreused.

Calculation:Noneneeded.Allexistingpavementisreused.


Example: Calculation for Rubblization of an Existing PCC RoadwayDescription:Threemilesofafourlanehighwaywith12footwidelanesand8footshouldersistoberubblized

andoverlaidwith6inchesofHMA.Theexistingpavementstructureacrossalllanesandshouldersconsistsof9

inchesofPCCover12inchesofcrushedaggregate.

Calculationlogic:Alloftheexistingpavementstructureistoremaininplacetherefore100%ofitisreused.



Example: Calculation for Hot In-Place Recycling of an Existing HMA Roadway

Description:Twomilesofatwolanehighwaywith12footwidelanesand4footshouldersistobehotinplacerecycled.Hotinplacerecyclingwillbedoneonthetop2inchesofHMApavementusingaheaterscarification

approach(http://pavementinteractive.org/index.php?title=HIPR).Thismethodusesaplantthatheatsthe

pavementsurface(typicallyusingpropaneradiantheaters),scarifiesthepavementsurfaceusingabankofnon

rotatingteeth,addsarejuvenatingagenttoimprovetheasphaltbinderviscosity,thenmixesandlevelsthemix

usingastandardaugersystem.Thepavementisthencompactedusingconventionalcompactionequipment.

Calculationlogic:Alloftheexistingpavementstructureisreprocessedandreusedontheproject,therefore

100%isreused.



Example: Calculation for Reconstruction of One Lane of an Existing Roadway

Description:Onemileoftheoutsidesouthboundlaneofanexistingsixlanearterialwith12footwidelanesis

toberemovedandreplacedwithPCCtoaccommodateabusrapidtransitlane.Thearterialhasnoshoulders

andhasaraisedvegetatedmedianthatisnotaccessibletoautomobiles.Theexistingpavementstructure

consistsof7inchesofHMAover9inchesofcrushedaggregate.Theoutsidesouthboundlaneconstructionrequiresapavementstructureof12inchesofPCCover7inchesofcrushedaggregate.Therefore,allthe

pavementstructureintheoutsidelanemustberemovedandafurtherthreeinchesofexcavationmustbe

donetoaccommodatethethickerpavementsection.Oncetheexcavationisdone,7inchesofthepreviously

removedcrushedaggregateisplaced.Then,12inchesofnewPCCisplaced.Theprojectscopeincludesall

southboundlanesbecauseothermedianworkandrestripingistobedone.Theprojectscopedoesnotinclude

thenorthboundlanes.

Calculationlogic:Theprojectscopeonlyincludesthesouthboundlanes;onlymaterialintheselanesshallbe

includedinthecalculation.Also,since7inchesoftheexistingcrushedaggregatewasreusedasbasecoursefor

thenewPCClane,itcanbeincluded.

Calculation:Totalvolumeofexistingpavementinthesouthboundlanes:

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MR-2 Pavement Reuse

Reusedvolumepavementinthetwolefthandexistinglanes(thosenotreconstructed):

Reusedvolumeofcrushedaggregateinthereconstructedrighthandlane:

Percentageofexistingpavementreused:


Iftheprojectdidnotreusetheexistingaggregateintherightlane,thecalculationwouldbeasfollows:

Theprojectwouldqualifyfor2points.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Aprojectmaymisclassifyamaterialas“reused”insteadof“recycled.”Usuallythisisaminorissuesinceboth

processescanreceiveGreenroadspoints.SeeMR4RecycledMaterialsformoreinformation.

2. Pavementthicknessinolderroadsectionsmaybehighlyvariable;thereforeestimatingexistingvolumemaybedifficult.Insuchcases,itisimportanttoclearlystateassumptionsandthesourcesofinformationyouareusing.

RESEARCH

Reusedmaterialsareavaluableandcosteffectiveresourcethatmaybeusedtohelpreducetheecological

impactsandlifecyclecostsofroadwayconstruction.Inmanyformsofroadwayinfrastructure(especially

pavements)existingmaterialscanbereusedfortheiroriginalintendedpurposeiftheymeetminimumengineering

standards.Badlydeterioratedhotmixasphalt(HMA)pavement,forexample,maybegroundupinplace,stiffened

withabindingagentandrecompactedtoformthebasematerialforanewpavement.Thisprocessistypically

referredtoascoldinplacerecycling.

Forthebuiltenvironment,materialsreusetypicallyreferstotheideaofcarefullydeconstructingabuildinginstead

ofdemolishingit.Deconstructionmeansdisassemblingabuildinginsuchawaythatthematerialscanbereusedfornewconstruction(BMRA,2010).Thus,itemslikefloorjoists,windows,doors,plumbingfixturesandsidingthat

stillhaveremaininglifecanbereusedfornewconstructionratherthandemolishedandeithersenttolandfillor

recycledasmorebasicmaterials(e.g.,wood,steel,etc.).Forinstance,anassemblyofmaterialslikeadoor

(possiblyconsistingofwood,aluminum,brass,glass,plasticandmore)canbereusedratherthandisposedofor

separatedintoitsconstituentcomponentsforrecycling.

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Pavement Reuse MR-2

PavementReuseDefined

PavementReuse:theprocessbywhichpavementmaterialswithintheprojectlimitsareeithermaintainedinplace

(suchasexistingpavementstructure)ordisturbed/removedbutarenottransportedoutsidetheprojectlimits.

BythisdefinitionGreenroadsdistinguishes“reuse”from“recycle”becauserecyclingisdefinedmorebroadlyasthe

processbywhichmaterialswithinorexternaltotheprojectlimitsaredivertedfromfinaldisposal(i.e.landfill)and

arereprocessedorrepurposedforuseintheproject.Theessentialdifferencebetween“recycling”and“reuse”isthatrecyclinginvolvesreprocessing/repurposingand,usually,substantialtransportation(usuallytoandfromthereprocessingfacility).Also,arecycledmaterialneednotoriginatefromtheprojectinquestion.Therefore,

materialreuseasdefinedbyGreenroadsoffersthesamesustainabilitybenefitsofrecycling(seeMR4RecycledMaterialsforadiscussionofbenefits,currentwastestreamsanddiversionrates)withtheaddedbenefitof

reducedtransportationandanassociatedreductioninenergy,emissionsandcost.

Thiscreditfocusesexclusivelyonreuseofpavementmaterialsbecauseof(1)thedominanceofpavements

materialsonroadwayprojects,and(2)theabilitytoreuselargepercentagesofexistingpavementstructures.First,

pavementsarethemostprevalentstructureinroadwayconstruction,accountingforabout70%ofstateandlocal

roadwayexpenditures(BTS,2008).Onmostprojects(exceptforperhapsbridgesandtunnels)theymakeupa

majorityofthematerialbyweight.Second,itisquitecommontoundertakearoadwayconstructionprojectthat

keepsinplacetheentireexistingpavementstructure(essentially100%reuse).Thiscanoccurinroadway

expansionprojects,projectsthatreprocessexistingmaterialsinplaceand,importantly,routinepreservationprojectsthateitheraddtotheexistingstructureoronlyreplacethetopfewinchesofanexistingpavement

structure.ForthepurposesofGreenroads,thesetypesofpreservation“overlays”and“millandfill”(removeathinlayerofpavementandreplacewithacomparablethickness)jobsaredeemedtohavereusedtheentire

remainingpavementstructure.Inthisway,thepavementreusecreditcanserveasarewardforanownerthat

pursuesapreservationprogramdesignedtomaintainpavementnetworkconditionthroughtimelyperiodic

surfaceoverlaysortreatmentsratherthanwholesaleremoveandreplaceprocedures.

PavementReuseMethods

ThissectionbrieflyoverviewssomeofthemorecommonpavementreusemethodsthatmeettheGreenroads

“reuse”definition.Theseare:

x Surfacetreatmentsx Overlay/MillandFill

x Hotinplacerecycling(HIR)

x Coldinplacerecycling(CIR)

x Fulldepthreclamation(FDR)

x CrackandSeatofPCCpavements

x RubblizationofPCCpavements

InthecasesofCIR,FDR,crackandseatandrubblizationtheexistingmaterialiseffectivelydowncycled;thatisitis

reusedforalesserpurpose(asanaggregatematerialinsteadofaboundconcretematerial).Inallcases,thesemethodsareconsidered“reuse”asdefinedbyGreenroadsbecausenoexistingmaterialleavestheprojectsite.

SurfaceTreatments

Pavementsurfacetreatmentsarematerialsplacedontheexistingpavementsurfaceinordertocorrectminor

surfacedefects,improvewearcoursecharacteristics(i.e.,friction)andprovideawaterproofcovering.Surface

treatmentsaregenerallyquitethin(e.g.,lessthan1inchthick)andcanconsistofanumberofdifferent

treatmentsincluding:

x Fogseal(FigureMR2.7).Alightapplicationofadilutedslowsettingasphaltemulsiontothesurfaceofan

aged(oxidized)pavementsurface.

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MR-2 Pavement Reuse

x Slurryseal(FigureMR2.8).Ahomogenousmixtureofemulsifiedasphalt,water,wellgradedfineaggregate

andmineralfillerusedasamaintenancetreatmentorwearingcourse.Microsurfacingisanadvancedform

ofslurrysealthatusesthebasicingredientsandcombinesthemwithpolymeradditivestoachievebetter

engineeringproperties.

x Chipseal(FigureMR2.9andMR2.10).Alsoknownasasealcoatorbituminoussurfacetreatment,achip

sealisathinprotectivewearingsurfaceappliedtoapavementsurface.Atitsmostbasic,achipsealconsists

ofalayerofasphalt(oftenappliedasanemulsion)appliedtotheexistingpavementsurfaceinwhichasinglelayerofaggregateisembedded.Moreexoticchipsealscanuseseverallayers(e.g.,doublechipseal),

differentstonesizes(e.g.,rackedinseal),andbecombinedwithothersurfacetreatments(e.g.,capeseal–

combinedwithaslurryseal)(Gransberg&James,2005).

FigureMR2.7:Nofogseal(left),fogseal(right). FigureMR2.8:Microsurfacing(fromthe

WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation).

FigureMR2.9:Chipsealasphaltemulsion

application.

FigureMR2.10:Chipsealaggregateapplication.

Overlay/Mill&Fill

Overlays(FigureMR2.11)areoperationswhereeitherPCCorHMAisplacedoveranexistingpavement.

Overlayscanbeusedtoaddadditionalstructuretotheexistingpavement(called“structuraloverlays”)orcanbeusedtoprovideanewpavementsurfacefreeofdefects(called“nonstructuraloverlays”).A“millandfill”is

avariationofanoverlaywheretheexistingpavementsurfaceispartiallyremovedbyapavementmilling

machine(coldplaner,FigureMR2.12)beforetheoverlayisapplied.Thisisusuallydonetoeither:

1. Removeexistingsurfacedefectsinordertoimproveoverallpavementquality,or

2. Maintainexistingpavementelevationsaftertheoverlayiscomplete.

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Pavement Reuse MR-2

Inmanyinstances(especiallythesecond)themillingdepthisthesameasthesubsequentoverlaydepth.For

HMApavements,overlaysandmillandfillsarethemostcommonformofpavementpreservationandcan

constitutethemajorityofHMAplacedformostowners(asopposedtonewpavements).PCCoverlayscan

consistofbondedorunboundedoverlays.Bondedoverlays,oftenreferredtoas“whitetopping”whenplaced

onexistingHMApavements,consistofathinPCClayer(usually2to7inches)thatisbondedtotheexisting

underlyingpavement.AnunboundedoverlayisaPCClayerplacedoveranexistingpavementwithoutbonding.

Sincethereisnobonding,thenewPCClayeressentiallyperformslikeanindependentstructureandthereforemustbethicker;oftentheminimumthicknessforanunboundedoverlayis5to7inches.

FigureMR2.11:1.8inchoverlay. FigureMR2.12:Millingmachine.

HotInPlaceRecycling(HIR)

HIRinvolvesinplacereprocessingofthetopofanexistingHMApavement.Theprocessisaccomplishedbyheatingtheexistingpavementsurfacetoaidinremixing,additiveadditionandremovalofdefects.Despiteits

name,GreenroadsconsidersHIRtobereusesincetheexistingmaterialdoesnotleavetheprojectsite.There

aregenerallythreemethodsofHIR:

x Heaterscarification.Heatsthepavementsurface(typicallyusingpropaneradiantheaters),scarifiesthe

pavementsurfaceusingabankofnonrotatingteeth,addsarejuvenatingagenttoimprovetherecycledasphaltbinderviscosity,thenmixesandlevelstherecycledmixusingastandardaugersystem.Therecycled

asphaltpavementisthencompactedusingconventionalcompactionequipment.

x Repaving.Heatsthepavementsurface(typicallyusingpropaneradiantheaters),removes(byscarification

and/orgrinding)thetop1to2inchesoftheexistingHMApavement,addsarejuvenatingagenttoimprove

therecycledasphaltbinderviscosity,placestherecycledmaterialbackontheremainingexistingpavement

usingaprimaryscreed,andmaysimultaneouslyplaceaHMAoverlay.

x Remixing(FiguresMR2.13andMR2.14).SimilartorepavingbutaddsnewvirginaggregateornewHMA

totherecycledmaterialbeforeitisreplaced.

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MR-2 Pavement Reuse

FigureMR2.13:HIRheatingequipment. FigureMR2.14:HIRequipmentheatingand

removingthetoplayerofexistingHMA.

ColdInPlaceRecycling(CIR)

CIR(FigureMR2.15)involvesmillingandcrushingtheexistingHMApavement,mixinginmeasuredamountsof

emulsifiedliquidasphaltandlimeslurry,andplacingandcompactingthereprocessedmaterialtoconstructa

newroadwaybase.FollowingCIR,thebaseisoverlaidwithHMAor,insomecases,achipseal.Thedepthofmillingisgenerally2to4inchesand,importantly,doesnotextendbeyondtheexistingHMAlayer.

FigureMR2.15:CIRprocesstrain(photofromtheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation).

FullDepthReclamation(FDR)

FDR(FiguresMR2.16andMR2.17)involvespulverizingthefullexistingpavementstructureandaportionof

theunderlyingsubgradeandcombiningtheresultantmaterialwithwaterand/orastabilizingagenttoforma

uniformstabilizedbasecourse(ARRA,n.d.).TypicalFDRdepthsare6to9inches(ARRA,n.d.).AfterFDR,itis

typicaltopaveeitherathinHMApavementorchipseal.

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Pavement Reuse MR-2

FigureMR2.16:RoadreclaimerusedinFDR

(photofromGracePacific,Inc.).

FigureMR2.17:FinishedFDRmaterialbefore

overlay(photofromGracePacific,Inc.).

PCCCrackandSeat

CrackandSeatisamethodforrehabilitatingfailedplainjointedPCCpavementthatinvolvesbreakingupthe

existingPCCpavementintosmallpieces(typically1to4f ootpieces),seatingthosepieceswithaheavyproof

rollerandthenoverlayingthecrackedandseatedPCCwithnewHMA.ThismethodavoidsremovingtheoldPCC;insteadusingitasahighqualitybasematerial.Typically,PCCiscrackedusingadrophammertruck

(GuillotineBreaker,FigureMR2.18)thatrepeatedlydropsaheavyweightontothepavementsurface.

FigureMR2.18:Guillotinebreakerusedforcrackandseat.

Crackandseatprojectshaveperformedrelativelywelltodate.Forinstance,Rajagopaletal.(2004)showed

thatthecrackandseattechniquereducedreflectioncrackingoveratleasta9yearperiodfortheconditionsanalyzed.

PCCRubblization

RubblizationisamethodforrehabilitatingfailedPCCpavement(typicallyplainjointedPCCpavement)thatinvolvesrubblizingtheexistingPCCpavement(particlessizesof2to15inchesindiameterdependinguponthe

specificmethodused)andthenoverlayingtherubblizedPCCwithHMApavement.Thismethodavoids

removingtheoldPCC;insteadusingitasahighqualitybasematerial.Rubblizationistypicallyaccomplishedby

oneoftwomethods:

x Resonantbreaker(FigureMR2.19).Amachinethatstrikesthepavementatahighfrequency(around44

Hz,theresonantfrequencyofthePCCpavement)andlowamplitude(0.50.75inches)usingtheresonant

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MR-2 Pavement Reuse

frequencytofracturetheexistingPCCintosmalldiameterparticles.Thebreakingshoecanbe2to12

incheswide.

x Multiheadbreaker(FigureMR2.20).Amachinethatstrikesthepavementwithaseriesofdrophammers

(1to5footdropheight)andusestheimpactenergytofracturetheexistingPCCpavementintosmall

diameterparticles.

FigureMR2.19:RMIresonantbreaker

(photofromResonantMachines,Inc.).

FigureMR2.20:Antigomultiheadbreaker

(photofromAntigoConstruction,Inc.).

Limitedevidencesuggeststhatrubblizedpavements,ifconstructedproperly,canperformwell.Woltersetal.

(2005)examinedrubblizedpavementsin2005thatwere38yearsoldandfoundthemtobeingoodcondition

withtheexceptionofthosesectionsthatdidnothavewelldrainedbaselayers.

GLOSSARY

CIR Coldinplacerecycling(sometimesCIPR)

ColdInPlaceRecycling InplacereprocessingofaportionofexistingHMApavement(usuallythetop204inches)intoahighqualitybasematerialbymilling,crushingandstabilizing.Usually

thisbaseisthencoveredbyathinHMAlayerorsurfacetreatment.

CrackandSeat MethodforrehabilitatingfailedplainjointedPCCpavementthatinvolvesbreakingup

theexistingPCCpavementintosmallpieces(typically1to4footpieces),seating

thosepieceswithaheavyproofrollerandthenoverlayingthecrackedandseated

PCCwithnewHMA.

Downcycling Therecyclingofamaterialtoamaterialoflowerqualityorreducedfunctionality.

FDR Fulldepthreclamation

FullDepthReclamation InplacereprocessingofaHMApavementstructure(includingthegranularbase

courseandsomesubgradematerial)intoahighqualitybasematerialbypulverizing

andstabilization.UsuallythisbaseisthencoveredbyathinHMAlayerorsurface

treatment.

HIR Hotinplacerecycling(sometimesHIPR)

HMA HotmixasphaltHotInPlaceRecycling Inplacereprocessingofathintoplayer(usuallylessthan2inches)ofanexisting

HMApavementbyscarification,rejuvenationandrepaving.

MillandFill AvariationofanoverlayforexistingHMApavementswheretheexistingpavement

surfaceispartiallyremovedbyapavementmillingmachinebeforetheoverlayisapplied.

Overlay AlayerofeitherPCCorHMAthatisplacedoveranexistingpavement.Overlayscan

beusedtoaddadditionalstructuretotheexistingpavement(called“structural

overlays”)orcanbeusedtoprovideanewpavementsurfacefreeofdefects(called

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Pavement Reuse MR-2

“nonstructuraloverlays”).


Recycle Aprocessthatdivertsmaterialswithinorexternaltotheprojectlimitsfromfinal

disposalinalandfillbyreprocessingorrepurposingthemforuseintheproject.

Reuse Aprocessthatmaintainsmaterialsinplace(suchasexistingpavementstructure)or

disturbsorremovesthembymeansthatdoesnotincludetransportoutsidethe

projectlimits.Rubblization MethodforrehabilitatingfailedPCCpavement(typicallyplainjointedPCCpavement)

thatinvolvesreducingtheexistingPCCpavementtosmallparticles(215inchesin

diameterdependinguponthespecificmethodused)andthenoverlayingtherubblizedPCCwithHMApavement.

SurfaceTreatment Materialsplacedontheexistingpavementsurfaceinordertocorrectminorsurface

defects,improvewearcoursecharacteristics(i.e.,friction)andprovideawaterproof

covering.

REFERENCES

Andrawes,B.,&Desroches,R.(2007).ComparisonbetweenShapeMemoryAlloySeismicRestrainersandOther

BridgeRetrofitDevices. JournalofBridgeEngineering. 12(6),700.

AsphaltRecyclingandReclaimingAssociation(ARRA).(n.d.).FullDepthReclamation:ACenturyofAdvancementfor

theNewMillennium.ARRA,Annapolis,MD.

BiniciB.(2008).DesignofFRPsincircularbridgecolumnretrofitsforductilityenhancement.Engineering

Structures. 30(3),766776.

BuildingMaterialsReuseAssociation(BMRA).(2010).Website.Availableathttp://www.bmra.org.

BureauofTransportationStatistics(BTS).(2008).TransportationStatisticsAnnualReport2007 .TABLEG8Public

ExpendituresonConstructionofHighwaysandStreets:January2006May2007.Washington,DC:Researchand

InnovativeTechnologyAdministration(RITA),U.S.DepartmentofTransportation(USDOT).

Choi,JunHyeok.(2008).Seismicretrofitofreinforcedconcretecircularcolumnsusingstainlesssteelwiremesh

composite.CanadianJournalofCivilEngineering, 35(2),140147.

EarthquakeEngineeringResearchCenter(EERC),UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.(n.d.)NorthridgeEarthquake.

AccessedJune2,2010.Availableathttp://nisee.berkeley.edu/northridge/

Gransberg,D.&James,D.M.B.(2005).NCHRPSynthesis342:ChipSealBestPractices.Washington,DC:NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram,TransportationResearchBoard.

InternationalStrategyforDisasterReduction(ISDR).(2004,March31).ISDR:Terminology.AccessedJune5,2010.

Availableathttp://www.unisdr.org/eng/library/libterminologyenghome.htm

PadgettJ.E.,&DesRochesR.(2008).Threedimensionalnonlinearseismicperformanceevaluationofretrofit

measuresfortypicalsteelgirderbridges.EngineeringStructures. 30(7),18691878.

Padgett,J.E.,Dennemann,K.,&Ghosh,J.(2010).Riskbasedseismiclifecyclecostbenefit(LCCB)analysisfor

bridgeretrofitassessment.StructuralSafety .32(3),165.

Rajagopal,A.,Minkarah,I.,Green,R.&Morse,A.(2004).LongTermPerformanceofBrokenandSeated

Pavements.TransportationResearchRecord.(869),315.

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MR-2 Pavement Reuse

Stanton,J.F.,Roeder,C.W.,MackenzieHelnwein,P.,White,C.,Kuester,C.etal.NationalCooperativeHighway

ResearchProgram(NCHRP).(2008).NCHRPReport596Rotationlimitsforelastomericbearings. Washington,

D.C.:TransportationResearchBoard.

Volpe,JohnA.NorthridgeEarthquakePreliminarySummaryReport.EffectsofCatastrophicEventson

TransportationSystemManagement.22Apr.2002.AccessedJune2,2010.Availableat

http://ntl.bts.gov/lib/jpodocs/repts_te/13775.html

WashingtonDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2010).WSDOT–SR99–AuroraBridgeSeismicRetrofit

Project.AccessedAugust20,2010.Availableat

http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/SR99/AuroraBridgeSeismicRetrofit/projectPhotos

WashingtonDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2010).WSDOT–SR104–HoodCanalBridge–2009

FrequentlyAskedQuestions.AccessedAugust20,2010.Availableat

http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/SR104HoodCanalBridgeEast/faq.htm

WashingtonDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2010).SR104–HoodCanalBridge–BytheNumbers.

AccessedAugust20,2010.Availableat

http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/SR104HoodCanalBridgeEast/numbers.htm

Wolters,A.S.,Smith,K.D.&Peterson,C.V.2007.EvaluationofRubblizedPavementSectionsinMichigan.

TransportationResearchRecord.(2005),1826.

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374




MR-3 Earthwork Balance

EARTHWORK BALANCEGOAL

Reduceneedfortransportofearthenmaterialsbybalancingcutandfillquantities.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Minimizeearthworkcut(excavation)andfill(embankment)volumessuchthatthe

percentdifferencebetweencutandfillislessthanorequalto10%oftheaveragetotal

volumeofmaterialmoved.Forpurposesofthiscredit,usethemethodanddefinitions

detailedinChapter8(Earthwork)oftheRoadDesignManualfromtheSouthDakota

DepartmentofTransportation(SDDOT),orequivalent,tocomputecutandfillvolumes.

Includemiscellaneousadditionalcutandfillsuchasoutletditchesandmuck

excavations(seedefinitionsinChapter8oftheManual)andaccountformoistureand

densityaswellasshrinkandswell.

Balancecutandfillmaterialvolumes:

A=VolumeofCrossSectionCutB=VolumeofCrossSectionFill

C =VolumeofMiscellaneousCut

D=VolumeofMiscellaneousFill

Forpoints,showthatdesignvolumesANDactualconstructionvolumesmeet:

Notethatforpurposesofthiscredit,allvolumesarepositivequantities.SDDOT’s

Chapter8isavailablehere:

http://www.sddot.com/pe/roaddesign/plans_rdmanual.asp

Details

x Projectswithminimalearthworkorwithnoearthworkdonotqualifyforthis

credit.“Minimalearthwork”meansthatthetotalexcavatedcutorimportedfill

volumeislessthanonefulldumptruckvolume,basedonthesmallestdump

truckusedontheproject.

x Wheresoilstabilizermaterialsorothersoiladditivesareused,includethe

volumeofthosematerialsinthetotalimports.Mechanicalstabilizerssuchas

rockboltsandgeotextilefabricmaterialsdonotneedtobeincludedinvolume

calculations.

x Removedtopsoilmaterialsmustbeincludedincalculations.

x Unusedcutorimportedfillmaterialsplacedinstockpilesthatservenopurpose

ontheprojectmustbetreatedasexportedmaterialsandmaynotbeusedto

counttowardthefinal“balanced”sectionforpurposesofcalculatingthiscredit.

Sometimesthispracticeiscalled“soilbanking”sincethesematerialsareoften

placedinembankmentsthatmaybeusedatsomelatertime,oftenondifferent

nearbysites.Thispracticeoftenhelpssuccessfullyavoidimportofnew

materials,soitstillmayqualifyfor1point.

x Structuralaggregateforbasecoursesinpavements,foundations,or

MR-3

1 POINT

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR8LowImpact

Development

9 MR2Pavement

Reuse

9 MR4Recycled

Materials

9 MR5RegionalMaterials

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Economy

9 Extent

9 Experience

BENEFITS

9 ReducesFossilFuelUse

9 ReducesAir

Emissions

9 ReducesGreenhouse

Gases

9 Reduces Solid Waste

9 ReducesManmade

Footprint

9 ReducesFirstCosts

9 ReducesLifecycle

Costs

375

9 Econo

9 Extent

9 Experi




Earthwork Balance MR-3

superstructuressuchasbridgesneednotbeincludedinthetotalvolumecalculations.

x Structuralbackfillanddrainrockspecificallyintendedforutilitytrenchesandstormwaterinfrastructure

neednotbeincludedinthetotalvolumecalculations.

x Rock(StableRock,definedbytheOccupationalHealthandSafetyAdministration)cutssourcedwithinthe

projectboundarythatareintendedforuseasstructuralaggregatewithintheprojectboundarydonot

counttowardthetotalcutvolumeofmaterials.

DOCUMENTATION

x Copyofthegradingplan.Thegradingplanmustreporttotalcutandfillquantities,totalmiscellaneouscut/fill,andshowthattheyarewithin10%ofoneanother.

x Calculateandreportactualconstructionearthworkvolumefortheproject.Thiscalculationshallshowthefollowing:

x Actualcutandfillvolumesduringconstruction.

x Actualvolumeofunusedembankmentmaterials(includeexcessimportandexcesscutmaterials)

x Actualvolumeofearthworkmaterialimportedtotheprojectsite.

x Actualvolumeofearthworkmaterialexportedfromthesite.

x Showthat:


x Useaprojectdesignthatbalancescutandfillvolumes.Thisassumesthatcutmaterialfromoneareaofthe

projectsiteissuitableforuseasfillmaterialinanother.Thismaynotalwaysbepossible.

x Usesoilimprovementorstabilizationtechniquesinanefforttoavoidremovingexistingsoil.

x Applybindingagents,additivesandotherprocessestounsuitablesoilssuchthattheybecomesuitablefor

use.Thisofteninvolvesimprovingtheirbearingcapacitysotheycanacceptoverburdenorstructures.

x Useinsitumitigationtechniquestosolveproblemswithunsuitablesoilsthroughgroundimprovement

solutionssuch.Usuallythisinvolvesformsofcompacting,preloading,installeddrains(tolowermoisture

levels)orothersimilarmethods.

x Improveloadbearingcapacityofsoilsbyplacinggeosyntheticsoverthem.Thiscanforcethepotential

bearingcapacityfailuresurfacetodevelopalongalternate,higherstrengthsurfaces.

x Userecycledmaterialfromotherstructures(e.g.,crushedrecycledconcretematerial–RCMorreclaimed

asphaltpavement–RAP).

x Usedesignsoftwareandcomputeraideddrawings(CAD)tocalculatethedesignvolumesofearthworktobe

reportedinrelationtothiscredit.Notethatthesedrawingsandcalculationswillbesupersededbyfinalvolume

calculationsinthefieldintheeventthattheydiffer.

Example: Sample Calculation

TheSouthDakotaDepartmentofTransportationRoadDesignManual,Chapter8,containsadetailedexample

ofbalancingcutandfillvolumesusingcomputersoftware,titled“ExampleofEarthworkQuantitieswith

Moisture&DensityControl(Undercut)”(p.86).Theexamplebelowshowshowthecalculationcanbedoneby

handforthiscredit.Thereareanumberofadditionalsamplecalculationsinthereferencedchapter.

Variable Description Volume(cy)

A Normalcrosssectionexcavation 54,889

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A Adjustmentformoistureanddensity 9,233

C Miscellaneousextraexcavation(unstable

materialbelowundercut)

805

B Normalcrosssectionembankment 49426

B Adjustment formoistureanddensity 11079

D Miscellaneousadditionalembankment

(unstablematerialbelowundercut)

1490

D Adjustmentformoistureanddensity 298

A+C Totalvolumeofexcavatedmaterials 64927

B+D Totalvolumeofembankmentmaterials 62993

½( A+B+C +D) Averagetotalvolumeofmaterials 63557

?��

Example: O’Hare Airport Modernization Program – Phase 1

TheChicagoO’HareAirportModernizationProgram(OMP),whichwasongoingasofearly2010,madeasubstantialefforttobemoresustainableintheirapproachtoairportdesignandconstruction.Oneofthe

featuresoftheirsustainabilityeffortsisbalancedearthwork.Phase1moved15millioncubicyardsofsoilunder

a“balancedearthworkplan”thatreportedlysavedover$100millionbyreducingtrucktripsandfeesfor

dumpingatlandfills.

FigureMR3.1:Runway10C28CPavingandElectrical(West):ExcavationinAreaG5(PhotoCourtesyChicagoO’HareModerizationProgram)

377





FigureMR1.2:June2010Runway10C28CPavingandElectrical(West):PlacingandcompactingBitconcretebasecourseontaxiway(PhotoCourtesyChicagoO’HareModerizationProgram)

Example: Wattstown Business Park Road Extension

TheWattstownBusinessParkRoadExtensionProjectinColeraine,Irelandimplementedabalancedcutandfill

strategythatallowedalloftheexcavatedmaterialstobereusedonsiteincludingexcavatedtopsoilsinorder

tominimizewasteandhauling.Theverticalalignmentoftheroadwasalsokepttoaminimuminorderto

minimizeearthwork.

FigureMR3.3:WattstownBusinessPark(CEEQUAL,n.d.)

Example: Kicking Horse Canyon – British Columbia Ministry of Transportation

TheKickingHorseCanyonprojectnearGolden,BritishColumbia,isa26kmcorridorupgradethatbegan

constructionin2002.Oneoftheprojectgoalswastominimizetheneedforearthworkalongtheentirecorridor

inordertoreducegreenhousegasemissionsfromhaulingtrips(andtosavemoney)inaccordancewith

378





objectivesoftheBritishColumbiaMinistryofTransportation(BCMoT)ClimateActionProgram.Thisbalanced

earthworkprogramalsoincludedaddressingsafetyconcernsontheproject,whichcalledforimprovementsto

slopestabilityonroadwayexcavationsaswellasavalanchecontrolandrockfallprotectioninseverallocations

alongthecorridor’snewalignments.

SlopestabilizationonPhase2oftheprojectwasaccomplishedinsomesteepareasusing11,000m3ofhigh

tensilestrengthsteelmeshthatalsoallowedforseedingtogrow,whichcanaddstabilitytouppersoillayers(BCMOT,n.d.).Themeshistiedtorocklayersbelowtheslopetostabilizethehillside(seeFigure4).Rockfall

areasareprotectedbyapproximately20,000m3ofdraperymesh(BCMOT,n.d.).Excessfillsoilswerealso

stockpiledwithinthecorridorforfuturelanesofhighway(BCMOT,2006).ConstructionofPhase3EastBrakeChecktoYohoNationalPark(underway)isalsofollowingabalancedearthworkdesignprogram(seeFigures

MR3.6andMR3.7).

FigureMR3.2:Tecco®highstrengthsteelmeshusedforslopereinforcement.(BCMOT,2010)

FigureMR3.3:WestAlignmentofPhase2,KickinghorseCanyon,showingapproximatecutandfillboundaryfor

corridorsegment(BCMOT,2006)

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FigureMR3.4:Phase3ofTheKickingHorseProject:Excavationonnorthsideofthehighway(BCMOT,2010)

FigureMR3.5:Phase3earthworkoneastsideofhighway(BCMOT,2010)

Example: Software Tools for Designers

Themoststraightforwardmeansofbalancingearthworkistodesignandconstructtheprojectsuchthatthe

volumeofcutwithintheprojectisequaltothevolumeoffill.Fordesignersandcontractorsthereare

numeroussoftwarepackagesthatcanprovideexactand/orestimatedearthworkquantities.Thefollowingare

examplesofsoftwarepackagingthatcanbeusedtoachievebalancedcutandfill.

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x TrakwareInc.EarthworksSoftware

x PizerInc.EARTHSoftware

x TrimbleInc.PaydirtSoftware

x VertigraphInc.SiteWorx/OS

x RoctekInc.WinExMasterSoftware

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Whenusingstabilizationmaterialitispossiblethatthelifecycleinputsforsuchmaterial(e.g.,energyuseand

emissionsassociatedwiththeirmanufacture,transportanduse)maybegreaterthanthatassociatedwith

movingsoilassociatedwithunbalancedearthwork.

2. Subsurfaceconditionsmaynotbewellknownfortheprojectsite.Therefore,abalancedearthworkdesignthat

assumesacertainsoiltypeandcharacteristicsmaynotbefeasibleif,duringearthwork,differentsoiltypes,

moistureconditionsorothercharacteristicsarefound.

3. Geosyntheticsandstabilizationadditivesmayaddsignificantcostoverconventionalmethods.

4. Contractorfamiliarityandexperiencewithalternativemethodsandmaterialscanbehighlyvariable.

5. Someroadworkdoesnotlenditselftoabalancedearthworkplan.Forinstance,workinanurbanareamaynot

workbecausetheprimaryconcernistypicallymaintainingexistingelevation.Therefore,ifathickerpavement

sectionisplaced,someearthmustberemoved.

6. Inawaterwaycorridor(areanearariverorotherwaterway)balancedearthworkmaynotbesufficient.Itismoreimportanttoensurethatearthworkdoesnotreduceeitherthefloodstorageorfloodcarryingcapacityofthewaterwayarea(CityofBrisbane,n.d.).

7. Raineventsorprolongedwetperiodscanrenderonsitematerialunsuitableforfilluntilitissufficientlydried.

Theremaynotbeenoughtimeintheconstructionscheduletoallowadequatedryingtime.

8. Designersmayneglecttoconsiderorpoorlyestimateshrinkorswellofsoilmaterial.

9. Earthworkonaphasedprojectmaynotbecompletedbythesamecontractor.

10. Effortsacrossphasesmaybedifficulttocoordinatewithoutcleardocumentationofintentofstockpiled

materials.

RESEARCH

Mostroadwayconstructioninvolvessomeearthwork(movingofsoilmassfromonelocationtoanother).

Earthworkcanrepresentasignificantprojectexpense,especiallyinroadwayprojects.Becauseofthecostof

landfillandtrucktransportmostroadwaydesignsseektominimizeearthworkasmuchaspossible.Whenother

ecologicalcostsareadded(i.e.,landfilledwaste,fueluse,truckemissions)theincentivetominimizeearthwork

grows.Thus,thegoalistominimizetheearthmovedandtominimizethedistanceitismoved.Ideally,abalanced

earthworkprojectisonethatmatchescutandfillvolumesandthereforedoesnotrequiredcutexportorfill

import.Thissectionreviewstypicalmethodsusedtoachievebalancedearthwork.

BalancingEarthwork

Themoststraightforwardmeansofbalancingearthworkistodesignandconstructtheprojectsuchthatthe

volumeofcutwithintheprojectisequaltothevolumeoffill.Inruralprojectsthiscanof tenbeaccomplishedby

choosingtheappropriategradeline(roadwayprofile)sothatcutvolumesareroughlyequaltofillvolumes.For

urbanenvironments,thismaybemoredifficultasurbanprojectsareoftenseverelyconstrainedbyrightofwayor

requiredtomatchexistingabuttingelevations(e.g.,otherstreets,parks,drainageconveyances,etc.).Fordesignersandcontractorstherearenumeroussoftwarepackagesthatcanprovideexactand/orestimated

earthworkquantities.

Onceinconstruction,abalancedearthworkdesignmaynotbeachievableforseveralreasons.First,earthwork

ofteninvolvesunknownquantities.Althoughgeotechnicalengineerscanattempttocharacterizeexistingsoilwith

testpits,soilboringsandlaboratorytests,thesecharacterizationsareusuallyonlydoneonafewlocationswithin

theprojectsiteandcannotguaranteetheconditionofuntestedlocations.Therefore,itispossiblethatunexpected

soilisencounteredthatwhenexcavatedisunsuitableforuseasfillelsewhere.Second,environmentalconditions

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canchangecausingpreviouslyacceptablesoiltobecomeunacceptable.Forinstanceprecipitationcansubstantially

alterthemoisturecontentofinsitumaterialmakingitunsuitableforuseasfillelsewhere.Finally,design

estimationmaybeinaccurateor,morelikely,changestothedesignduringconstructionmayaddcutorfill

quantitiessuchthattheoveralleffectisunbalancedearthwork.

UnsuitableMaterial

Oneofthemostcommonimpedimentstobalancedearthworkisinsitumaterialthatiseither(1)unsuitabletobeusedasfillelsewhere,or(2)unsuitabletobeusedasafoundationforotheritemssuchasstructures(bridges,walls,etc.)andpavements.Themoststraightforwardoptioninthesecasesisoftentoremovetheunsuitable

materialandreplaceitwithsuitablefill.Whilethisisfeasible,itmayresultinunbalancedearthwork.Itmaybeadvantageoustotreattheinsitusoilratherthanremoveandreplaceit.Thissectiondiscussesseveraltreatment

options.

TraditionalSoilStabilization

Soilstabilizationistheprocessofimprovingtheengineeringpropertiesofsoilsthroughtheuseofadditives

thataremixedintothesoil(Army,Navy,AirForce,1994).Theseimprovedengineeringpropertiescaninclude:

x Reducedplasticity

x Drying

x Reducedswelling

x Improvedstability

Stabilizationcanbedonebymixingsoilsoftwodifferentgradationstoachievedesirablequalities(mechanical

stabilization)orbyaddingbindingmaterials(additivestabilization).Thissectionbrieflyreviewsthreecommon

soilstabilizationadditives.TheArmy,NavyandAirForceSoilStabilizationforPavements(1994)offersameans

tochoosebetweenportlandcement,limeandasphaltassoilstabilizationadditives.

x Portlandcement.Whenaddedwithwater,portlandcementhydratesandbindsadjacentsoilparticles

togetherresultinginastifferandperhapsstrongerstabilizedmaterial.Portlandcementcangenerallybe

usedwithwellgradedgranularmaterialswithsufficientfinestomixwiththeportlandcement(Army,Navy,

AirForce,1994).

x Lime.Addedintheformofquicklime(CaO),hydratedlime(Ca[OH]2)orlimeslurry.Limedoesthreebasicthings:drying(throughhydrationwithexistingwaterinthesoil),modification(Caionsmigratetoclay

particlesurfacesanddisplacewatermakingthesoilmoregranular),stabilization(increasesthepHofthe

soilcausingclayparticlestobreakdown).TheNationalLimeAssociation(2004)states,“Whenaddedwith

Ingeneral,finegrainedclaysoils(withaminimumof25percentpassingthe#200sieve(74mm)anda

PlasticityIndexgreaterthan10)areconsideredtobegoodcandidatesforstabilization.”

x Asphaltemulsions.Mostsuitableforsiltysandandgranularmaterialssincethesearemorelikelytohave

allparticlesfullycoatedbytheemulsion.

EcologicalImpactsofSoilStabilization

Mrouehetal.(2001)reviewedseveraldifferentcombinationsofindustrialbyproductsforuseinearthwork.

Resultsgenerallyshowthatsoilstabilization(asMrouehetal.describeitthisinvolvescementstabilization)

generallyhasahigherenvironmentalloadingthansimplesoilreplacementinmostallareas(e.g.,fueluse,

energy,CO,particulate,SO2,CO2,VOC)excepttheamountofnaturalmaterialsused.

GLOSSARY

Additives Manufacturedcommercialproductsthat,whenaddedtothesoilintheproperquantities,improvesomeengineeringcharacteristicsofthesoilsuchasstrength,texture,workability,and

plasticity(Army,Navy,AirForce1994).

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REFERENCES

BritishColumbiaMinistryofTransportationandInfrastructure.(2010).KickingHorseCanyonProjectFactSheet.Accessed14August2010.Availableathttp://www.th.gov.bc.ca/kickinghorse/updates/KHCP_Fact_Sheet.pdf .

BritishColumbiaMinistryofTransportationandInfrastructure.(2010).KickingHorseCanyonProject:Photo

GalleryPhase3EastConstruction.Accessed14August2010.Availableat

http://www.th.gov.bc.ca/kickinghorse/khc_gallery01Phase3_east.htm

BritishColumbiaMinistryofTransportationandInfrastructure.(2010).KickingHorseCanyonProject.Accessed14

August2010.Availableathttp://www.th.gov.bc.ca/kickinghorse/index.htm

BritishColumbiaMinistryofTransportationandInfrastructureandPartnershipsBritishColumbia.(2006,June).

ProjectReport:AchievingValueforMoneyKickingHorseCanyon–Phase2Project.Availableathttp://www.th.gov.bc.ca/kickinghorse/reports/0606_PBCKickingHorse.pdf

BritishColumbiaMinistryofTransportation.(n.d.).DidYouKnow?AccessedAugust15,2010.Availableat

http://www.th.gov.bc.ca/kickinghorse/documents/KHCP_Did_You_Know_080304.pdf

CEEQUAL.(2010).WattstownBusinessParkRoadExtension:InterimClientandOutlineDesignAward.Accessed13

August2010.Availableathttp://www.ceequal.co.uk/awards_063.htm

CityofBrisbane.(n.d.).CompensatoryEarthworkPlanningSchemePolicy.Accessed12January2010.Availableathttp://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/bccwr/lib181/appendix2_compensatoryearthworks_psp.pdf .

CityofChicago,Aviation.(2010).CityofChicago:ConstructionProgress.AccessedAugust16,2010.Availableat

http://www.cityofchicago.org/city/en/depts/doa/provdrs/omp/svcs/blank.html

DepartmentoftheArmy,theNavyandtheAirForce.(1994).SoilStabilizationforPavements.ARMYTM582214,

AIRFORCEAFJMAN321019.

Mroueh,UM.,Eskola,P.&LaineYlijoki,J.(2001).Lifecycleimpactsoftheuseofindustrialbyproductsinroad

andearthconstruction.WasteManagement ,21,271277.

NationalLimeAssociation.(2004).LimeTreatedSoilConstructionManual:LimeStabilizationandLime

Modification.NationalLimeAssociation.

PizerInc.EARTH:EarthworkQuantitySoftware.Accessed14August2010.Availableat

http://www.earthworksoftware.com/

RoctekInc.Excavation/CutandFill:WinExMaster.Availableathttp://www.roctek.com/

TrakwareInc.EarthworksExcavationSoftware.Accessed14August2010.Availableathttp://www.trakware1.com/

TrimbleInc.TrimblePaydirt.Accessed14August2010.Availableathttp://www.trimble.com/paydirt.shtml

VertigraphInc.SiteWorx/OS.Accessed14August2010.Availableat

http://www.interworldna.com/vertigraph/siteworx_os.php

Stabilization Processofblendingandmixingmaterialswithasoiltoimprovecertainpropertiesofthesoil.Can

bedonemechanically(blendinggradationsofsoils)orbyusingadditives(Army,Navy,AirForce

1994).

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MR-4 Recycled Materials

RECYCLED MATERIALSGOAL

Reducelifecycleimpactsfromextractionandproductionofvirginmaterials.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Userecycledmaterialsasasubstituteforvirginmaterials.Thefractionofrecycled

materialsusedcanbecalculatedusingoneoffouroptionsbelow:

1. Consideronlythepavementbindermaterials.Thistypicallymeansthecementor

asphaltinthepavementsection.Noothermaterials(e.g.,aggregateinthe

pavement,granularbase,fill,walls,bridge, signs, other structures, etc.) are

considered.

2. Consideronlythehotmixasphalt(HMA)orportlandcementconcrete(PCC)

pavementmaterials.ThisencompassesthematerialinOption1plustheaggregate

aswellasanyotheradditivematerials.Noothermaterials(e.g.,granularbase,fill,

walls,bridge,signs,otherstructures,etc.)areconsidered.

3. Considerallpavementmaterialsincludinggranularbaselayers.ThisencompassesthematerialinOptions1and2plusthegranularbaselayers(eitherunboundor

boundwithabindingagentsuchaslime,cementorasphaltemulsion)aswellas

anyotheraddedmaterials.Noothermaterials(e.g.,fill,walls,bridge,signs,other

structures,etc.)areconsidered.

4. Considerallprojectmaterials.ThisencompassesthematerialinOptions1,2and3

plus,asaminimum,allmaterialsinthefillandwallstructuresoftheproject.Other

structures(e.g.,bridges)andmaterial(e.g.,signs,trafficcontroldevices,etc.)may

beconsideredifdesired.

Calculatetheaveragerecycledmaterialcontentbyweightusingoneoftheabovefour

methodsandEquationMR4.1.TableMR4.1showsthepointscale.

TableMR4.1:PointsforAverageRecycledContent(PercentbyWeightofMaterials)

PointsEarned 1 2 3 4 5

Percentrecycledmaterialrequired

forOptions1and210% 20% 30% 40% 50%

Percentrecycledmaterialrequired

forOptions3and420% 30% 40% 50% 60%

UseEquationMR4.1tocomputetheaveragerecycledcontent(ARC)thatwillbe

achievedbythepavementsectionorbythebinders.

(EquationMR4.1)

Where:

x r nisthetotalweightofrecycledmaterialsforthatindividualmaterialorassembly

x W nisthetotalweightofeachindividualmaterialorassembly

x nrepresentsthenumberofmaterialsusedinthepavementsection

Details

Itmaybedifficulttomeasuretherecycledcontentofamaterialinplace.Forthe

MR-4

1-5 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR2LifecycleCost

Analysis

9 PR3Lifecycle

Inventory

9 MR1Lifecycle

Assessment

9 MR2PavementReuse

9 PT3WarmMix

Asphalt

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Economy

9 Expectations

9 Experience

BENEFITS

9 ReducesRaw

Materials

9 ReducesAir

Emissions

9 Reduces Greenhouse

Gases

9 ReducesSolidWaste

(Equation MR4.1)

Where:

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Recycled Materials MR-4

purposesofthiscredit,itissufficienttousetheapprovedmixdesignorspecifiedamountofrecycledmaterial

asanestimateofthefractionofrecycledmaterial.Therefore,ifpavingrubberizedHMA(RHMA)andthe

asphaltrubbermixdesignspecifies20%crumbrubbermodifier(CRM)byweightthenthisnumbercanbeused

asthepercentrecycledmaterialinthebinderprovidedthatstandardqualitycontrolandqualityassurance

testingshowstheproducedmaterialmeetsthemixdesignspecifications.

Similarly,ifthePCCmixdesignspecifies20%recycledconcreteaggregate(RCA)asaminimumthenthisnumbercanbeusedasthepercentrecycledmaterialinthePCCprovidedthatstandardqualitycontroland

qualityassurancetestingshowstheproducedmaterialmeetsthemixdesignspecifications.Ifaminimum

recycledcontentisspecifiedbutacontractorchoosestousemorethantheminimumamount,recordsshowing

theactualrecycledcontentmustbesubmittedifcreditfortheactualamountistobegiven.Otherwise,the

minimumspecifiedshallbeassumedtobepresentinthematerial.

DOCUMENTATION

x Aspreadsheetthatclearlynoteswhichcalculationmethodisusedandlists:totalweightofeachmaterialused,

totalweightofrecycledmaterials,andcomputedARCfortheproject.

x Copyoftheapprovedmixdesignforthepavementmaterialsand(ifoptions3or4arechosen)copiesofthe

specificationsfortheadditionalmaterialsthatstatetherequiredorminimumrecycledcontentifavailable.

x Supportingtestdocuments(usuallyfromqualityassuranceorqualitycontroltesting)suchasplantproportioningrecords,mixtickets,andmanufacturer’sdocumentationforproducts(steel,rebar,etc.)that

statetheactualrecycledmaterialcontent(ifnominimumisspecifiedorifthecontractorchoosestousemore

thanthespecifiedminimum).


x Specifythetotalpercentageofrecycledmaterialtobeusedinthemixdesignandthetypeofallowablewaste

materialsinthecontractdocuments.Manystatedepartmentsoftransportation(DOTs)alreadyallowacertainpercentageofrecycledcontentintheirstandardspecificationsforcertainmaterialmixturessuchasPCCor

HMA.(SeetheFiguresandexplanationsprovidedinthe“Research”sectionofthiscredit.)

x Updateagencystandardspecificationstospecifyacertainpercentageofrecycledmaterial.

x Duringconstruction,keepupdatedrecordsofallmaterialsandrecycledmaterialsusedontheproject.

x Buildabasicspreadsheetorothermechanismtotrackweightsofmaterialsfortheproject.Usethe

spreadsheettocomputethesumofweightoftherecycledmaterials,compareittothesumoftheweightofall

materials,andcomputetheaveragepercentrecycledcontent.

Example: Calculation for a Rubber-Modified Hot Mix Asphalt

Description:A1.5mile,onelaneHMAconstructionprojectusesCRMasabindingmaterialadditive.Bymix

design,theCRMis20%ofthebindingmaterialbyweight.Nootherrecycledmaterialsareused.TheHMAmix

designcallsfor9.2%binderbytotalweightofmix.

Calculationlogic:Sincethebindermaterialonlyconstitutes9.2%ofthetotalmixtureweight,evenifitwere

100%recycledmaterialitwouldstillnotqualifyforanypointsinthiscreditifmethods2,3or4areusedforthe

calculation.Therefore,useOption1.

Calculation:

Thisprojectwouldqualifyfor2pointsaccordingtoOption1.NotethatitisnotnecessarytoweightheCRM

andasphaltbindersincethatisnormallynotdone.Inthiscasethemixdesign,iffollowed,issufficient.

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Example: Calculation for HMA using Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP)

Description:A1.5mileurbanarterialpreservationprojectconsistsofremovingandreplacing(millandfill)the

top2inchesofpavementwithHMA.ThedesignfortheHMAisasfollows:5.4%bindercontent;PG7022

asphaltbinder.Theprojectuses2,720tonsofHMAofwhich630tonsisreclaimedasphaltpavement(RAP).No

otherrecycledmaterialsareused.

Calculationlogic:SinceRAPisincludedinthemixtureandnorecycledmaterialisincludedinthebinder,the

highestpercentageofrecycledmaterialwouldbeobtainedbyusingOption2forthecalculation.

Calculation:

Thisprojectwouldqualifyfor2pointsaccordingtoOption2.

Example: Calculation for PCC Using Type 1-SM Cement

Description:A0.75milelongroadisbeingconstructedtoconsistoftwo12ftwidelanesandnoshoulders.The

pavementstructureis8inchesofPCCplacedontopof10inchesofgranularbasematerial.ThePCCmixdesignisasfollows:

x Type1SM(slagmodified)cement:565lbs/yd3.

x ThecementmanufacturerprovidesdocumentationthatshowsType1SMcementcontains80%Type1

portlandcementand20%groundgranulatedblastfurnaceslag(GGBFS).

x Courseaggregate#1:631lbs/yd3of1.5to0.75inchaggregate

x Courseaggregate#2:1,354lbs/yd3of0.75inchto#4aggregate

x Coursesand:682lbs/yd3

x Finesand:464lbs/yd3

x Water:237lb/yd3

x Water/cementratio:0.42

x Nootherrecycledmaterialsareusedinthepavementstructure.

Calculationlogic:SincetheGGBFSisonlyinthebindingagent,Option1willgivethehighestpercentage.

Calculation:StartbycomputingthevolumeofPCCpavementtobeplaced.

Next,determinethetotalweightofcementitiousmaterialandthetotalweightofGGBFS.

Then,computetheaveragerecycledcontentforthecementitiousmaterial.

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Notethattheresult,20%,logicallymatchesthepercentageofGGBFSinthecement.Therefore,analternate

wayofdoingthiscalculationistousethemixdesignratio,whichiscomputedasfollows:

Thisprojectwouldqualifyfor2pointsbasedonOption1.

Example: Calculation for an Aggregate Base Using 100% Recycled PCC

Description:A1milehighwayrehabilitationprojectisgoingtousecrushedrecycledPCCfromanearby

pavementdemolitionsiteasthebasematerial.Theexistinghighwayisconsistingoffour12footwidelanes.

Existingshouldersaretobeleftinplace.Thesurfacecourseis9inchesofPCC,thebasecourseis6inchesof

crushedrecycleconcretematerial(RCM).Nootherrecycledmaterialisused.ThedensityofthePCCis150

lb/yd3andthedensityoftheRCMbasecourseis132lb/yd

3.

Calculationlogic:Sincetherecycledmaterialisinthebasecourse,Option3shouldbeused.

Calculation:StartbycomputingthevolumeofPCCpavementtobeplaced.

ComputetheweightofnewPCCpavement:

ComputethevolumeofRCMbasecourse:

ComputetheweightofRCMbase:

Computetheaveragerecycledcontent:

Thisprojectwouldqualifyfor2pointsbyOption3.Notethatbyvolumetherecycledcontentis40%butthe

densitydifferenceresultsina37%recycledmaterialcontent.

Example: Calculation for Rubber-Modified Hot Mix Asphalt with RAP

Description:5milesofa6laneInterstatehighwaywillbeoverlayedwitharubbermodifiedHMAinone0.75

inchlift.Lanesare12feetwide.Theasphaltbindercontains20%CRMbyweightofbinder.TheHMAmixturecontains15%ofRAPbytotalweightofmixtureandhasadensityof2.05tons/yd

3inplaceaftercompaction.

Thetargetasphaltcontentis9.1%.Asmallsectionofpavementisfailingstructurallyandmustbereplaced.The

replacesectioninvolves:

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x 1,200yd3PCCsurfacecoursewiththefollowingmixdesign:

x Type1cement:565lbs/yd3

x Courseaggregate#1:631lbs/yd3of1.5to0.75inchaggregate

x Courseaggregate#2:1,354lbs/yd3of0.75inchto#4aggregate

x Coursesand:682lbs/yd3

x Finesand:464lbs/yd3

x Water:237lb/yd3x 1,000yd

3ofcrushedbasematerialthatis50%RAPbytotalweight,withtherestbeingvirgincrushedrock.

x ThedensityoftheHMAis145lb/yd3=1.96tons/yd

3

x ThedensityofthePCCis146lb/yd3=1.97tons/yd

3

x Thedensityofthevirginbasecourseis135lb/yd3.

x ThedensityoftheRAPbasecourseis136lb/yd3.

Calculationlogic:Thisscenarioinvolvesrecycledmaterialinthebinder,HMAandbasematerial.Sincethereis

nobaselayerbeingplaced,Option3isnotapplicable,butOptions1,2or4couldbeused.

Option1Calculation

WeightofrubbermodifiedHMApavementtobeplaced.

Weightofrubbermodifiedbinderat9.1%bindercontentbytotalweightofmix:

WeightofCRMat20%byweightofbinder:

WeightofPCCbinderinpavementrepairsection:

Percentrecycledmaterialinthebinder:

NotethatitisgenerallyassumedthatthebindercontentoftheRAPcontributestothemixturebinder.

Therefore,ifthebindercontentoftheRAPisdeterminedthenitcanbecountedasrecycledmaterialinthe

binder.Inthiscase,asisoftenthecaseinRAPadditions,thebindercontentoftheRAPisessentiallyignored.

Theprojectwouldqualifyfor1pointaccordingtoOption1.

Option2Calculation

WeightofRAPtobeplaced(15%ofvolumeofrubbermodifiedHMAtobeplaced:

WeightofthePCCtobeplaced:

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PercentrecycledmaterialintheHMAandPCC:

Theprojectwouldqualifyfor1pointaccordingtoOption2.

Option4Calculation

Thismethodincludesthesmallpavementrepairsectionmaterials.

Computetheweightofmaterialsinthepavementrepairbase:

PercentrecycledmaterialintheHMA,PCCandbase:

TheprojectwouldnotqualifyforanypointsaccordingtoOption4.

BestOption

ChooseeitherOption1or2.Theprojectqualifiesfor1pointwithbothoftheseOptions.Dependingonthe

typeofprojectandtheextentofthework,oneofthesemethodsmayrequirelesspaperworkorbesignificantlylesscomplicatedtocompute.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Workability,compactionandotherperformancequalitieschangeasamountsofrecycledmaterialsincludedin

thematerialchange.

2. Additionaltestingandinspectionisoftenrequiredforhighercompositionsofrecycledmaterialsforsomecases

andmayrepresentanaddedcost.

3. Weather,performance,locationandavailabilityissuesmaylimittheamountofrecycledcontentthatcan

feasiblybeincludedinprojectmaterials.

4. Transportofrecycledmaterialsissometimescostly,dependingonavailabilityanddistanceoftransport.Occasionallythiscostexceedsthetotalbenefitofusingtherecycledmaterial.

RESEARCH

Recycledmaterialspresentavaluable,common,andcosteffectivematerialresourcethatmaybeusedtohelp

reducetheecologicalimpactslifecyclecostorroadwayconstruction.Inmanyformsofroadwayinfrastructure

(e.g.,pavements,basematerial,walls,etc.)recycledmaterialscanbeusedinplaceofvirginmaterialswithout

degradingfinalproductperformance.Ultimately,thisreducestheneedforproductionofvirginmaterial,including

extraction,processingandmanufacturing,whicheliminatesrelatedcosts,wastedisposal,emissionsandenergy

390





use.Anumberoflifecycleassessments(Carpenteretal.,2007;Chuietal.,2008;Horvath,2003;Mrouehetal.,

2001;Rajendran&Gambatese,2007)havequantitativelyshownatleastsome,ifnotall,ofthesebenefits.

Thisresearchsectionoutlinesoverallrawmaterialsuse,wastegeneratedfromthatuse,theunsustainablenatureofthisuseorwaste,currentrecyclingpractices,andwastematerialsthataretypicallyusedinaroadway

constructionproject.

RawMaterialsUse

Rawmaterial(nonfoodandnonfuel)useintheU.S.hasgrowntremendouslyoverthelastcenturyandcontinues

togrowasinfrastructureandmanufacturingrequireevermoreamountstomeetcurrentdemand(FigureMR4.1).

FigureMR4.1:MeasurementoftheamountofrawmaterialsconsumedintheUnitedStates.

(FromMatos&Wagner,1998)

Consumptionin1995was2.8billionmetrictons,over17timesmorethanconsumedin1900.Noticeably,

constructionmaterialshavebeenthelargestcontributortothegrowthinmaterialsproduction;especiallysince

WorldWarII.

Notonlyhastheamountofrawmaterialsconsumedgrownbutthecompositionofthoserawmaterialshas

changedsignificantlytoo(FiguresMR4.2andMR4.3).Ofnote,whilein1900abouthalfoftherawmaterials

consumed(byweight)werefromrenewableresources(e.g.,wood,agriculturalproducts),onlyabout8%ofthe

totalrawmaterialsconsumedwerefromrenewablesources(Matos&Wagner,1998).Sincethe1970s,U.S.raw

materialconsumptionhasleveledoffabit(growingatrateof1%from1970to1995).However,worldwide

consumptioncontinuestogrowat1.8%,almostdoubletheU.S.rate(1.8%(Matos&Wagner,1998).

391





FigureMR4.2:Measurementoftheamountofrenewableandnonrenewablematerialsconsumed

intheUnitedStates.(FromMatos&Wagner,1998).

FigureMR4.3:MeasurementoftheamountofmaterialsconsumedintheUnitedStatesandtheworld.

(FromMatos&Wagner,1998)

Insum,thislevelofdomesticandworldwiderawmaterialsextractionisgenerallythoughttobeunsustainablefor

anumberofreasons(Fiksel,2006):

x Depletionofnonrenewableresources.Theseresources(e.g.,oil,gas,coal,etc.)canbeextractedatanytimebutcannotbereplenished(atleastnotonatypicalhumantimescale).

x Overexploitationofrenewableresources(e.g.,timber).Renewableresourcesareoftenreferredtoas“naturalcapital”becausetheycanbereplenishedovertimeaslongastheexistingstockisnotexhausted.

x Lifecycleimpactsassociatedwithmaterialsextraction,transportationanduse.

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Waste

Theotherendofatypicallinearmanufacturingflowiswaste.Aftermaterialsareextractedandusedthey

eventuallyendupaswaste.Worldwide,generalestimatesarethatindustrializedcountries(looselydefinedas

thosebeingmembersoftheOrganizationofEconomicCooperationandDevelopment–OECD)generatewasteat

about12lbsperdaypercapitawhiledevelopingcountriescanbeaslowasabout2lbperdaypercapita.

EstimatesofwastestreamcompositionintheU.S.varybuttheyaregenerallysimilartoFigureMR4.4.The

contributionofconstructionanddemolitionwaste(thetypeofwasteassociatedwithroadwayconstruction)isgenerallyestimatedatbetween20and40%ofthetotalwastestream(CascadiaConsultingGroup,Inc.,2004;

GDRC,n.d.).Thisfractionissecondonlytoorganic(e.g.,food,etc.)waste.Inabsolutenumbers,a2003EPA

estimateputconstructionanddemolitionwastefrombuildings(notincludingroads)atabout170milliontonsor

about3.2lbs/daypercapita.Informationonroadwayconstructionanddemolitionwasteisessentiallyspeculative,

butitisnotunreasonabletoassumethatthetotalamountwouldapproachthatforbuildings.Moredetailabout

infrastructureconstructionwasteisgiveninProjectRequirementPR6WasteManagementPlan.

FigureMR4.4:MaterialclassesinCalifornia’soveralldisposedwastestream,2003.

(CascadiaConsultingGroup,Inc.,2004)

CurrentMaterialsExtractionandDisposalPatternsareGenerallynotSustainable

Onesimplemeasureofsustainabilityoftensitedisanecologicalfootprint,whichinthiscasereferstotheamount

ofnature’sproductivecapacity(intermsoflandarea)neededtosupportourhumandemands.Wackernagel

(2001)estimatestheamountofbiologicallyproductivecapacityavailableworldwideat2.1hectarespercapita.He

alsoestimateshumandemandonaverageacrosstheplanetat2.8hectarespercapita.Thus,bythisestimate

currenthumanactivitycannotbesupportedbynatureindefinitely.Thenumbersareworseforindustrialized

countries:12.3hectaresfortheU.S.,6.3forGermanyand5.9forJapan(Wackernagel,2001).

RecyclingOnemeanstoreducetherequiredrawmaterialsandwastestreamvolumesaretorecover,processandrepurpose

wastematerialsasasubstituteforrawmaterials.Generally,thisisreferredtoasrecycling.Generally,“recycling”

impliessomesortofwastestreamrecoveryordiversionaswellassomesortofappliedprocesstoconditionthe

recoveredmaterialintoausableform.Thisisdistinctfrom“reuse,”whichinGreenroadsreferstoamaterialthatis

eitherusedagainwithnoprocessingoratleastisusedagainwithnosignificanttransportoutsideofsite

boundaries.McDonough&Braungart(2002)gofurtherandmakeacleardistinctionbetween“recycling”(reusing

thematerialforthesamepurposeforwhichitwasoriginallymade)andwhattheyterm“downcycling”(reusing

393





thematerialforalesserpurposethanforwhichitwasoriginallymade)arguingthatrecyclingissuperiorto

downcycling.

QuantificationofRecycling

RecyclingratesarevariableworldwideandintheU.S.accordingtogeographicregionandmaterial.Intermsof

municipalsolidwaste(thisexcludesindustrial,hazardousandconstructionwaste)Americansrecycledabout

onethirdofallgeneratedwastein2008(EPA,2009).FigureMR4.6givesabreakdownoftherecyclingratesforcertainMSWproducts.

FigureMR4.5:ManagementofMSWintheU.S.,2008(EPA,2008).

FigureMR4.6:Recyclingratesofselectedproducts,2008–doesnotincludeenergyrecoverybycombustion.

(EPA,2009)

394





Dataonrecyclingintheconstructionanddemolitionfieldislessexact;howeversomenumbersexistforcertain

materials.Recyclingratesforhotmixasphalt(HMA)andportlandcementconcrete(PCC)arequitehigh.The

mostcommoncitationintheHMAindustryisthatabout80%oftheHMAwastestreamisrecycled(Bloomquist

etal.,1993).PCCrecyclingratesaresimilar,ifnothigher.DatafromtheWashingtonStateDepartmentof

Ecology(DOE)showthatPCCandHMAtogetherarethelargestcontributorstothedivertedwastestream

(wastethatiseitherrecycledorreusedandthus,keptoutoflandfills).About30%ofalldivertedwastein

WashingtonState(byweight;2.3milliontonscombined)wasPCCandHMA(WashingtonDOE,2007).Ferrousmaterialsat1milliontonsweresecond.

FigureMR4.7:DispositionofgeneratedwasteinWashingtonState(datafromWashingtonDOE,2007).

UsingRecycledMaterialsinRoadwayConstructionMaterials

Asubstantialfractionofroadwaymaterialsarerecycled(about80%inthecaseofHMA).Muchofthisisusedin

roadwayconstructionand,thus,replacesatleastsomevirginrawmaterial.Additionally,otherwastematerials

outsideofconstructionanddemolitionwastecanalsobeusedinroadwayconstructionmaterials.Thissection

brieflyreviewsthemajormaterialsinapavementstructureandthetypesofrecycledmaterialsusedineach.

Withallofthesematerials,oneoftheprimaryissuestoovercomeisthegeneralnonuniformityofrecycled

materials.Theirvariabilityisoftengreaterthanthatofthevirginrawmaterialswhichtheyreplace,andthisvariabilitycanmakequalitycontrolmoredifficult.Often,thisissueleadstoalimitormaximumfractionofrecycled

materialsthatisallowedinaconstructionmaterial.Inotherinstancesamaximumfractionisspecifiedsoasto

preventasubstantialundesirablechangeinmaterialpropertiesfromthatofamaterialmadeentirelyfromvirgin

rawmaterials.

RecycledMaterialsinGranularBase,SubbaseandFill

Recycledmaterialscanbeusedingranularmaterialandinsomeinstancescanimpartdesirablequalities.Table

MR4.2listtypicalmaterialsthatcanandhavebeenusedingranularorstabilizedbasematerials.

0.89 1.12 1.45 1.60 2.00 1.782.30

3.023.15

3.463.63

4.235.28

5.39

6.58 6.23

6.086.12

7.06

8.12

7.91

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

M i l l i o n s o f

T o n s

Year

Landfilled

OtherDivertedWaste

DivertedHMAandPCC

30%of

diverted

waste

395





TableMR4.2:SomeExamplesofBaseandSubBaseAssemblies(FHWA,1997)

Assembly PossibleRecycledMaterials

GranularBaseandEmbankmentFill

GranularBase BlastFurnaceSlag

CoalBoilerSlag

MineralProcessingWastes

MunicipalSolidWasteCombustorAshNonferrousSlags

ReclaimedAsphaltPavement

ReclaimedConcrete

SteelSlag

WasteGlass

EmbankmentorFill CoalFlyAshMineralProcessingWastes

NonferrousSlags


ReclaimedConcrete

ScrapTires

StabilizedBase

CementitiousMaterials CoalFlyAsh

CementKilnDustLimeKilnDust

SulfateWastes

Aggregate CoalBottomAsh

CoalBoilerSlag

FlowableFill

CementitiousMaterial CoalFlyAshCementKilnDust

LimeKilnDust

Aggregate CoalFlyAsh

FoundrySand

QuarryFines

AccordingtoroughestimatesbytheU.S.GeologicalSurvey(2000),abouthalf(53%)ofrecycledHMAisusedas

agranularbasematerial.Whilethisiscountedas“recycling”itmaybemoreappropriatelyclassifiedasdowncyclingsinceusingreclaimedasphaltpavement(RAP)asagranularfilldoesnottakeadvantageofthe

asphaltbinderinthemixture;themostexpensive(intermsofcostandecologicalimpact)component.ThepredominantbeliefisasRAPcontentincreasestohigherlevels,theshearstrengthofthebasematerial

decreasesandothermaterialpropertieschangetoo(McGarrah,2007).Becauseofthis,manystateslimittheRAPcontentinbasematerialsto50%orlower(McGarrah,2007).

Similarly,accordingtoroughestimatesbytheU.S.GeologicalSurvey(2000),abouttwothirds(68%)ofrecycled

PCCisusedasagranularbasematerialorotherrocklikematerialsuchasfillorriprap.TheMichigan

DepartmentofTransportationhasfoundthatportlandcementconcretehasshowntohavesimilarpropertiestothatofaggregatewhenusedinbase(Venner,2004).Moststatesuseoratleastallowcrushedrecycledconcretematerial(RCM)asbasematerial(FigureMR4.8).

396





FigureMR4.8:StatesrecyclingPCCasaggregatebase(fromFHWA,2004).

RecycledMaterialinHotMixAsphalt

RecycledmaterialscanbeusedinHMAandinsomeinstancescanimpartdesirablequalities.TableMR4.3list

typicalmaterialsthatcanandhavebeenusedingranularorstabilizedbasematerials.

TableMR4.3:SomeExamplesofBaseandSubBaseAssemblies(FHWA,1997)

Assembly PossibleMaterials

HotMixAsphalt(HMA)

AsphaltBinder Modifiers

RecycledasphaltbinderfromRAP

Aggregate BlastFurnaceSlag

CoalBottomAsh

CoalBoilerSlag

FoundrySand

MineralProcessingWastes

MunicipalSolidWasteCombustorAshNonferrousSlags


RoofingShingleScrap

ScrapTires

SteelSlag

WasteGlass

Byfar,themostcommonrecycledmaterialinnewHMAisRAP(reclaimedasphaltpavement,or“oldHMA”).In

theU.S.thequalitiesofRAParegenerallyassumedtobeidenticaltothatofvirginrawmaterialsandthusno

additionaltestingonHMAmixturesthatcontainRAPisrequired.However,inbothgradationandasphalt

qualityRAPisdifferentthanvirginaggregateandasphalt.Therefore,aspercentagesgethigher,theytendto

affectoverallmixturebehavior,whichnecessitatesspecialtesting.Asaresult,mostagenciessetlimitsforthe

amountofRAPallowedbutrequirenospecialmixdesignifyouuseRAP.AsurveybytheNationalAsphaltPavementAssociation(NAPA,2008)identifiedallowableRAPpercentagesandtypicallyRAPinclusionratesin

theU.S.ResultsaresummarizedinFiguresMR4.9andMR4.10.

397





FigureMR4.9:RAPuseinHMAbasecourses(fromNewcomb&Jones,2008).

FigureMR4.10:RAPuseinHMAsurfacecourses(fromNewcomb&Jones,2008).

Notethatinalmostallcasesthe averageRAPcontentinHMAmixturesissomewhatlessthanthemaximum

allowed.

RecycledMaterialinPortlandCementConcrete

RecycledmaterialscanbeusedinPCCandinsomeinstancescanimpartdesirablequalities.TableMR4.4lists

typicalmaterialsthatcanandhavebeenusedingranularorstabilizedbasematerials.

398





TableMR4.4:SomeExamplesofPortlandCementConcrete(PCC)Assemblies(FHWA,1997)

Assembly PossibleMaterials

PortlandCementConcrete(PCC)

CementitiousMaterial CoalFlyAsh

SilicaFume

GroundGranulatedBlastFurnaceSlag

Aggregate ReclaimedConcreteWasteGlass

FoundrySand

Onlyabout9%ofRCMisusedinnewPCC(USGS,2000)andfewstatesdoit(FigureMR4.11).Whenusedinnew

PCC,RCMhasseveralkeypropertiesthatdistinguishitfromvirginaggregate(Celeen,2007):

x Lowerspecificgravity.Specifically,itisabout510%lower.

x Highabsorption.Theconstituentcementpasteismoreabsorptivethanvirginaggregate.Typicalabsorptionfor

virginaggrgateisinthe12%rangewhileRCMmaybefrom28%.

x Lowerslump.Thisreallymeanslowerworkability.LikelythisisduetothemoreangularshapeoftheRCM.

x Alkaliasilicareactivity(ASR)potential.Thisisreallydependentontheoldconcrete’ssusceptibilitytoASR.RCM

willnotnecessarilybesusceptibletoASRbutoneshouldcheckontheoldconcretesourcesincetherecycledstuffislikelytohavethesameissues.

x Dryingshrinkage.About40100%moreforRCMduetothemortarandcementpasteintheRCM.

Ingeneralthereseemstobeanunofficial“30%rule”thatwhennaturalsandisused,itisgenerallyacceptedthatupto30%ofnaturalcrushedcoarseaggregatecanbereplacedwithcoarserecycledaggregatewithout

significantlyaffectinganyofthemechanicalpropertiesoftheconcrete.Someagenciesgoabovethisrulebutitisstilloftenfollowed(Celeen,2007).

.

FigureMR4.11:StatesrecyclingPCCasaggregatenewPCC(fromFHWA,2004).

Coalflyashandgroundgranulatedblastfurnaceslag(GGBFS)arethemostrecycledmaterialsusedinPCCforroadwayapplications.HeadwatersResources(n.d.)reportsthatall50statesallowflyashinPCC.Inpavementuse,

typicallyflyashreplacementislimitedto1525%ofthecementitiousmaterialbyspecification(FHWA,n.d.).

Groundgranulatedblastfurnaceslaglimitsaresimilar.

GLOSSARY

Diversion Avoidingplacementinalandfillthroughrecoveryprocessessuchasrecycling

orreuse

399





Downcycling Recoveringaportionofausedproductormaterialinamannerthatreduces


manufacturingorconstructionprocess(McDonoughandBraungart2002)

HMA Hotmixasphalt


RAP Reclaimedasphaltpavement

RCA Recycledconcreteaggregate(seealsoRCM)RCM Recycledconcretematerial(seealsoRCA)

Recycling(recyclable,recycled) Recoveringaportionofausedproductormaterialfromthewastestream

andprocessingsuchthatthosesamematerialscanbereintroducedintothemanufacturingorconstructionprocess(CIWMB2009)

Reuse(reusable) Recoveringaportionofausedproductormaterialfromthewastestream

thatrequiresminimal,ifany,processingtobereintroducedintothe


Waste Anymaterialthatmustbehauledoffsitefordisposalorreprocessing,or,if

disposedwithintheprojectrightofway(ROW),isnotintendedfor

engineereduseonsite

REFERENCES

Bloomquist,D.,Diamond,G.,Oden,M.,Ruth,B.,&Tia,M.(1993).EngineeringandEnvironmentalAspectsof

RecycledMaterialsforHighwayConstruction.WesternResearchInstituteforU.S.DepartmentofTransportation,FederalHighwayAdministration,McLean,VAandU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,

Cincinnati,OH.

CaliforniaIntegratedWasteManagementBoard(CIWMB).(2009).Recycle:CIWMB .Accessed21December2009.

Availableathttp://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/Recycle.

Carpenter,A.C.,Gardner,K.H.,Fopiano,J.,Benson,C.H.&Edil,T.B.(2007).LifeCyclebasedriskassessmentof

recycledmaterialsinroadwayconstruction.WasteManagement 27,14581464.

CascadiaConsultingGroup,Inc.(2004).StatewideWasteCharacterizationStudy .PublicationNo.34004005.FortheCaliforniaIntegratedWasteManagementBoard(CIWMB).

Celeen,S.(2007). AReviewoftheCurrentSpecificationsandPracticesoftheUseofRecycledConcreteAggregate

Nationwide.Unpublishedgraduateresearchpaper,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,WA.

Chui,CT.,Hsu,TH.&Yang,WF.(2008).Lifecycleassessmentonusingrecycledmaterialsforrehabilitatingasphaltpavements.Resources,ConservationandRecycling52,545556.

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(1997).UserGuidelinesforWasteandByproductMaterialsinPavement

Construction.FHWARD97148,U.S.DOT,FHWA,Washington,D.C.

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2004).TransportationApplicationsofRecycledConcreteAggregate,FHWAStateofthePracticeNationalReview.U.S.DOT,FHWA,Washington,D.C.

FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(n.d.).FlyAsh.Accessed8January2010.Availableat

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/materialsgrp/flyash.htm.

Fiksel,J.(2006).AFrameworkforSustainableMaterialsManagement. JOM58(8),1522.

400





402




MR-5 Regional Materials

REGIONAL MATERIALSGOAL

Promoteuseoflocallysourcedmaterialstoreduceimpactsfromtransportation

emissions,reducefuelcosts,andsupportlocaleconomies.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Makeanitemizedlistofallmaterials,parts,componentsandproductsintendedfor

permanentinstallationontheprojectincludingweights,totalcosts,shippingcosts,and

locationofpurchaseand/orsourceofthesematerials.Usingaspreadsheetortableis

recommendedfordocumentationofthiscredit.Showthatyourprojectmeetsthe

requirementsofOption1orOption2below.

Option1.Chooselocalmaterialsandproductsuppliers.

Computethetotalcostofallmaterials,parts,componentsandproductsusedfor

projectconstructionincludingallshippingandtransportcostsbasedontheprojectbid

list.Computethepercentageofthistotalcostthathasbeenpaidtomaterials

suppliers,processors,distributorsandproducerswithina50mileradiusofthegeographiccenteroftheproject.Pointsareawardedaccordingtotheminimum

percentagesshowninTableMR5.1.

Option2.Minimizetraveldistanceforprojectconstructionmaterials.

Disaggregateeachmaterial,part,componentorproductintoits“basicmaterials”by

weightandexpressasapercentageofthesumoftheseweights.Computethe

cumulativefronthauldistancetraveledforeachbasicmaterialfrompointoforiginto

thefinalendpointontheproject.Notethisdistanceincludesallintermediarypoints,

suchasassemblyordistribution,betweentheoriginalsourceandthefinalplacement

ontheproject.Reportthetotaldistanceintermsoftotalfreightmiles(road,air,railor

barge)traveledforeachbasicmaterial.Showthatatleast95%ofthesebasicmaterials

byweighthavetraveledlessthanthemaximumhauldistancesshowninTableMR5.1.

TableMR5.1:PointScale*

CreditMR5Points 1 2 3 4 5

Option1by%oftotalcost 60 75 84 90 95

Option2bymaximumfronthauldistance(miles) 500 337.5 225 150 100

Bothoptionsassumeexponentialdifficultyassociatedwithachievingthiscredit.

Details

A“basicmaterial”usedintheprojectmayinclude(butisnotlimitedto):anyandall

binders(asphalt,cementproducts,etc.),aggregate,baseandsubbaseor

embankmentmaterials,metal,finishedplasticandwoodorwholecomponents

assembledwiththesematerials.Theruleofthumbfordetermining“basic”isthatitcannotbetakenapartwithoutchangingthechemicalcompositionofthematerial

componentitself.Forexample,typicalnewasphaltpavementismadeoftwobasic

materials:rocksandanasphaltbinder.However,existingasphaltpavementisa

basicmaterialwhenusedasrecycledasphaltpavement(RAP).Thisisbecauseitis

difficulttoseparatetheasphaltbinderfromtherocks.

Generally,the“origin”or“source”ofabasicmaterialmeanswhereitcameoutof

theEarthorwasinitiallyfabricated.“Fronthaul”meanstravelingfromtheoriginof

MR-5

1-5 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR2LifecycleCost

Analysis

9 MR1Lifecycle

Assessment

9 MR2Pavement

Reuse

9 MR3EarthworkBalance

9 MR4Recycled

Materials

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Equity

9 Economy

9 Extent

BENEFITS

9 ReducesFossilFuel

Use

9 ReducesAir

Emissions

9 ReducesGreenhouse

Gases

9 ImprovesLocal

Economies

9 ReducesFirstCosts

9 ReducesLifecycle

Costs

403




Regional Materials MR-5

thebasicmaterialandanyoftheplacesithastraveledonitswaytothefinaldestinationintheproject.This

includesanymaterialthatissourcedatthesiteandtakenoffsiteforreprocessing,suchasrecycling,laterto

returnatthesiteinadifferentform.Bycontrast,theterm“backhaul”istypicallyusedtodescribematerials

takenawayfromthesite,usuallydestinedforlandfill,butsometimesisjustanemptytruckreturningtoits

pointoforiginforanotherload.Thedistancetraveledbyemptiedvehiclesleavingthesite(backhaul)neednot

beconsideredforpurposesofthiscredit.Also,wastematerialsnotintendedforreuseorrecyclingonthe

project(i.e.theyaretransportedoffsiteanddonotcomeback)neednotbeincludedincalculations.MaterialsthatqualifyforcreditMR2PavementReusemaynotbecountedtowardthiscredit.However,recycled

materialsthatoriginatefromtheprojectsiteandaretransportedoffsiteforreprocessingbeforebeing

returnedtothesiteareconsidered.Besuretotrackweightsofanyaddedorlostmaterialsduringsucha

recyclingprocess.

Twooptionsareavailableforthiscreditandprojectsmayelecttodemonstrateeitherofthem,whicheveris

mostbeneficial.Notethata50mileradiushasa100milediameter,sothehighestpotentialpointsavailablein

bothOptionsareessentiallyconsistent.Also,mostpavementandstructuralmaterialsarehighinweight,and

constitutethemajorityofmostroadwayprojectmaterialsbycost.However,mosthighvalueitems,suchas

binders,maynotbeaseasilylocallysourced,andrepresentalimitedamountofthetotalmaterialweight.In

somecases,bothOptionsmayearnthesamenumberofpoints,butinmostcasesonewillgoverndepending

ontheprojectlocation.Also,dependingonthelocationandthetypesofmaterialsusedontheproject,one

optionmaybesubstantiallyeasiertodocumentandtrackthantheother.Option1,forexample,addresseswheretheprojectmoneyformaterialsactuallygoes.Forlargeprojectsthismaybealesscomplexapproach

andsimplyrequirestrackingmaterialcostsaccordingtotheprojectbidlistandpickinganearbymaterials

contractor.Ontheotherhand,Option2forthiscreditintendstominimizethetotaltransportation(and

thereforefuelcosts,energyandemissions)associatedwithtransportationofmaterialstothesite.Thismaybe

easierforsmallerprojectswithlimitedcomplexityofmaterials,orforprojectsthatarenotnearurbancenters.

Forconsistencybetweenallprojects,mapandcomputehauldistancesusingtheGoogleMapstool

(http://maps.google.com).Forproductsthatareshippedbyair,barge,orrail,useweightsanddistances

reportedbyshippingagencyororganization.

DOCUMENTATION

Option1x Aspreadsheetincludinganitemizedlistofallpurchasedbasicmaterialsusedontheprojectandthebilling

addressofthesourceforeach.

x Acomputationofthetotalpercentageofbasicmaterialssourcedwithina50mileradiusoftheproject.

x Amapshowingthegeographiccenter(inlatitudeandlongitude)oftheproject.Thismay,inmanycases,bea

milepostorstation.Themapmustshow:

x Thenameandlocationoftheproject.

x Thegeographiccenteroftheproject.Showthelatitudeandlongitudeormilemarker.

x Aclearlydrawncirclewitharadiusof50milesdrawntoscale.

x Ascale.

x Labelsoriconsforeachbasicmaterialwithabillingaddressthatlieswithinthe50mileradius.

Option2x Aspreadsheetshowing:

x Thenameandlocationoftheproject.

x Anitemizedlistofeachbasicmaterialanditsweight.

x Cumulativefronthauldistanceforeachbasicmaterial.

x Alistofthelocationsthatthebasicmaterialvisitedduringfronthaul.

x Acomputationshowing95%ofthetotalmaterialweightmeetsthemaximumhauldistancerequirementsto

qualifyforpointsinTableMR5.1.Fuelreceipts,mixtickets,dumptickets,andsimilarsupportingdocuments

mayberequestedtoverifyspreadsheetcalculations.

404






x Establishadocumentationpipelineformaterialsextractionandfabricationbeforeconstructionstarts.

x Ensurethatalocalmaterialsclauseiswrittenintothespecialprovisionsintheconstructioncontract.

x Makesurethattheprojecthaslocalcontractorsthatcanperformthework.

Example: Option 1 Calculation – New Roadway in Suburban NeighborhoodAsmallnewroadisbeingconstructedinasuburbanneighborhooddevelopment.TheHMAaggregateismined

atthelocationoftheasphaltplant,whichis35milesawayfromtheproject.Theasphaltbinderissourcedfromanoutoftownsupplierthatislocated220milesawayfromtheprojectsite,andthemarkingpaintwasshipped

from86milesnorthofthegeographiccenteroftheproject.Noelectricalorstormwaterinfrastructurematerialsareincludedinthescopeofwork,becausetheseutilitiesarealreadyinplace.

Thebidlistcostsforallmaterialcomponentsorproductsontheprojectare:

HMAAggregate Asphalt AggregateBase Paintfor

Markings

Weight(ton) 21,200 896 17,300 0.21

Distance(mi) 25 220 25 86UnitCost($/ton) $7.50 $100 $7.50 $153,377

TotalCost($)withshipping $159,000 $89,600 $129,750 $32,080

Thetotalcostformaterialsis$410,430.Thetotalcostoftheitemsthatoriginatefromwithina50mileradius

ofthegeographiccenteroftheproject(theHMAaggregateandaggregatebase)is$288,750.Thisequatesto

70.3%ofthematerialsbycostbeinglocatedwithina50mileradius,whichwouldallot1pointtotheproject.

Example: Option 2 Calculation – Rural Overlay with Stormwater Treatment

Anewprojecttooverlaytwomilesofaruralcountyroadwillbeoccurringinthenextfewmonths.Stormwater

istobetreatedinlinearditchesalongtheroadwayusingcompostamendedsoilprovidedfromafarmerwhoseplotisapproximately120milesfromtheproject,whereitisproducedandmixed.TheHMAaggregatesare

beingtruckedintoamobileplantlocated45milesfromthequarryand35milesfromtheproject.Theasphaltbinderisbeingtruckedviatankerfromthenearestrefinerywhichislocated295milesawaytothemobile

plant.Paintformarkingsisprovidedfromthenearestcitycenterwhichis410mileswestoftheproject.

Aggregate

forHMA

Asphalt

Binder

HMA Compost Soil Compost

AmendedSoil

Paintfor

Markings

Weight(ton) 5,200 200 350 325 0.25

Distance(mi) 45 295 35 0 0 120 410

%ofTotalWeight 85.6% 3.3% 88.9% 5.8% 5.3% 11.1% 0.0%

Thetotaldistancetravelledbytheaggregatefromsourcetoplanttoprojectsite(fronthaulonly)is80miles

andthismaterialaccountsfor85.6%ofthetotalweightofmaterialsforthisoverlay.However,sincethisisless

than95%ofthetotalweightofmaterials,thecriticalmaterialcomponentisactuallythecompostamendedsoil.Thetotaldistancetraveledbythecompostamendedsoilis120miles,meaningthat96.7%ofthetotal

materialsbyweighthavetraveled120milesorlessfrompointoforigintotheprojectsite.Thisqualifiesthe

projectfor4pointsaccordingtotableMR5.1.

Forthisexample,notethatthetotaldistancetravelledbytheasphaltbinderfromsourcetoplanttoproject

siteis330miles,butthisonlyaccountsfor3.3%ofthetotalweightofmaterials.Thepaintmaterialsalsodid

notcontributemeasurablytothetotalweightofmaterialstransportedtothesite.Theseproductsarelikelyto

havehighunitcost,makingitunlikelytheprojectwouldscoreashighlyaccordingtotheOption1method.

405





Example: Case Study - I-5 James to Olive Project (Mixed Pavement)

TheI5JamestoOliveprojectwasconstructedindowntownSeattlein2005.Thisprojectconsistedof

constructing2milesof13inchconcretepavementover3inchesofHMA.TheHMAwassuppliedapproximately

30milesfromthejobsitebyroad.AggregatesforHMAwereminedatthebatchplantlocation.Steelwas

suppliedfromalocalsupplierthatwasapproximately35milesfromthejobsite.Portlandcementconcrete

aggregateswerequarriedwithinaradialdistanceof30milesfromtheproject,butweretrucked25milestoa

concretebatchplantlocated12milesfromtheprojectbyroad.Asphaltwastruckedfromoutoftown150milesawaytotheHMAplant.Portlandcementconcreteandgroundgranulatedblastfurnaceslag(GGBFS)

wereproduced5milesfromtheconcretebatchplantandina10mileradiusfromtheprojectsite.

ForOption1thematerialscostbreakdownwouldlooklike:

MaterialorComponent Aggregate

forHMA

Asphalt

Binder

Aggregate

forPCC

Cement

Binder

GGBFS Steel

Weight(ton) 2,400 100 7800 3250 1950 35

RadialDistance(mi) 30 150 30 10 10 35

CostofMaterials($/ton) 7.50 100.00 7.50 50.00 30.00 650.00

Cost $18,000 $10,000 $58,500 $162,500 $58,500 $22,750

Thetotalcostforthesematerialswas$330,250.Thetotalcostofmaterialsthatwerelocatedwithin50miles

was$320,250whichamountsto96%ofthematerialscost.Thiswouldscore5pointstowardsthiscredit.

ForOption2thematerialsbreakdownwouldlooklike:

Materialor

Component

HMA

Aggregate

Asphalt

Binder

HMA Aggregate

forPCC

Cement

Binder

GGBFS PCC Steel

Weight(ton) 2400 100 2500 7800 3250 1950 1,000 35

TravelDistance(mi) 30 180 30 37 17 17 12 35

TotalWeight(ton) 2500 13000 35

Thetotalweightofthematerialsis15,535tons.Theasphaltbinder,whichtraveledfarthest(180milesfromsourcetoplanttoprojectsite),accountsfor0.6%ofthetotalweightofpavementassemblymaterials.The

remaining99.3%ofmaterialstraveledlessthan100milestotheirfinaldestinationonsite.Thismethodwould

alsoscore5points.

Example: Case Study - Mountlake Terrace Freeway Station, Mountlake Terrace, WA

TheMountlakeTerraceFreewayStationprojectbeganconstructioninMay2009toprovideI5medianaccess

totherecentlyconstructedMountlakeTerraceTransitCenter.Currently,busesmustmergeacrossI5toexit

andusesurfacestreetstoreachthetransitcenter.Thefreewaystationwillallowbusestoloadandunload

riderswithoutstrayingfromtheHOVlanes.Thecoveredfreewaystationwillconnecttothetransitcenter

throughapedestrianbridge,andisdesignedtoincreasebusspeedandreliability.Theroadwayprojectconsists

ofundergroundutilityworkforinfrastructureimprovements,soundwalls,andalsostandardpavements.

Option1isusedtocomputethepointsforthisproject.Thecomputationisshowninthetableonthefollowing

page.Theprojectqualifiesfor4points,with94%ofmaterialsbycostbeingsourcedfromwithina50mile

radiusoftheprojectsite.

406





Materialsand

ComponentsQuant. Unit

Unit

Cost($)Total($)

%ofTotal

CostOrigin

Miles

toSite

Within50

miles?

Conc.Class4000for

retainingwall2800 cy 576 1,612,800 30.5 Seattle 20 Yes

HMACl1/2inPG6422 15520 ton 83 1,288,160 24.4Bremerto

n38 Yes

Conc.Class4000forstation

1407 cy 706 993,342 18.8 Seattle 20 Yes

St.Reinf.Barfor

retainingwall229970 lb 1 229,970 4.4 Seattle 18 Yes

PrestressedConc.

GirderW74G663 lf 285 188,955 3.6 Spokane 299 No

CrushedSurfacingBase

Course7060 ton 25 176,500 3.3 Monroe 26 Yes

GravelBackfillforWall 6060 cy 29 175,740 3.3 Monroe 26 Yes

QuarrySpalls 8686 ton 20 173,720 3.3 Monroe 26 Yes

36inClV.Reinf.Conc.

StormSewerPipe1149 lf 113 129,837 2.5 Spokane 299 No

36inDuctileIronStormSewerPipe

456 lf 210 95,760 1.8 Marysville 21 Yes

24inCorrugated

PolyethyleneCulv.Pipe2291 lf 41 93,931 1.8 Edmonds 2 Yes

ProfiledPlasticWide

LaneLine16040 lf 4 64,160 1.2 Edmonds 2 Yes

CementConc.

Pavement221 cy 287 63,427 1.2 Seattle 17 Yes

TotalCost $5,286,302 %byCostin50mileRadius: 94.0%

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Aswritten,thiscreditcurrentlydoesnotincludecontributionfrombackhauldistancesofemptiedvehiclesbecausetheycarryzeromaterials.Additionally,thereishighvariabilityinvehiclesusedfortransportwhichmakestrackingdistances(inameaningfulway)travelledbasedongasmileageorengineefficiencyquite

tedious.ThesetwoissuesmaybeaddressedmorecomprehensivelybypursuingtheMR1LifeCycleAssessmentcredit.

2. Aswritten,thiscreditcurrentlydoesnottrackwasteproductsleavingthesite.ThisvalueofsuchanactivitycanbeaddressedintheCustomCreditscategory.However,materialgatheredonsiteandtakenoffsitefor

reprocessing(e.g.fillmaterial,recycledasphaltpavementfrommillingwaste,etc.)needstobeconsideredandhasbeennoted.Thisrecyclingactivityassumestheinitialproductionstageoccursatthesite,goesthrough

additionalproductionattheprocessingfacility,andislaterconstructedbackatthesiteinadifferentform.3. Aswritten,thiscreditdoesnotrequireprojectstoincludedistancestraveledfromtheextractionsitesofraw

materialsusedtomakebasicmaterialproductssuchasasphaltbinder(petroleumextraction).

RESEARCH

Usinglocalmaterialsonprojectscannotonlylowerthetransportationcostsoftheproject,butwillalsoreducethe

amountofemissionsassociatedwithtransportbyreducingtransportdistancesforhaulingmaterials.Thispractice

canthereforedecreasetheoverallgreenhousegasemissionsandenergyuseassociatedwithroadconstruction.

Reducinghauldistancesdecreasesemissionsandfossilfueluse.Accordingtomostlifecycleassessments

completedforpavementconstruction,transportationofmaterialsaccountsfor738%ofenergyuseand410%of

CO2emissionsontypicalroadwayprojectsmodeled(Muench&Anderson,Submitted).Thismeanstransportation

407





ofmaterialsusesabout8timestheenergyandproducestwiceasmanyCO2emissionsastheconstruction

processesfortheroad.Therefore,limitinghauldistanceshasasizableimpactonenergyandgreenhousegas

emissions,aswellasreducingemissionsofmanyotherharmfulairpollutantsfromburningfossilfuelsthatare

detrimentaltohumanhealth(Bilecetal.,2006).(SeealsoProjectRequirementPR3LifeCycleInventory).

Localeconomiesalsobenefitfromprojectsusinglocalmaterials.Usinglocalsupplierscreatesormaintainsjobs,

establishescommunityidentity(SustainableSites,2009),andoftensupportslocalsmallbusinessowners.Typicallymanypavingcompaniesthatbidlargescaleroadprojectsarelocatedlessthan100milesawayfromaprojectduetolocalspecificationrestraintsonmaterialproperties(e.g.standardbindergradesandaggregatequality),and

becausetransportationofheavymaterialsisfuelintensiveandexpensive.Also,mostpublicworkpavingprojectsuselocalmaterialsuppliersduetothecostimplicationsofcompetitivebidding.Thatbeingsaid,usinglocal

contractorsandsupplierswillnotalwaysresultinthelowestbid.Thecostofsocialexternalitiesfortheresultanttransportationemissionsisnotnormallyincludedinabidandcanbesignificant(Bilecetal.,2006).

BoththeLeadershipinEnergyandEnvironmentalDesign(LEED™)RatingSystemandtheSustainableSitesInitiative

awardcreditforminimizingtransportdistance.InLEED,theradiusthatdeterminesa“regional”productis

establishedat500milesfromthesite.LEEDhasexperiencedissueswiththeirspecificationduetoincorrectreports

ofhauldistancesduringextractionandmanufactureprovidedbycontractors.Thisislargelyacommunicationissue

betweenthecontractor,materialssupplierandtheprojectteamattemptingaLEEDcertification(DavisLangdon,

2004).ThereisalsosomedifficultyinunderstandingtheLEEDcreditcalculationrequirementsforcomputingsupplychainresponsibilitybycost:manybuildingproductsareextractedorproducedinonelocationthatmaybe

outsidetheradius,andthentheyareassembledlocally(DavisLangdon,2007).InSustainableSites(2009),the

radiusvariesdependingonthetypeofproductfrom50miles(soilsandaggregate)to500miles(forspecialty

products).Forthiscredit,a50mileradiusisusedandcalculationsaredonebyweight,becausesoiland

aggregatesrepresentthelargestpercentageofmaterialsonmostpavingprojects,aretypicallysuppliedlocallydue

tocosteffectiveness,andweightsofthesematerialsarealreadytracked.Additionally,weightofmaterialsdirectly

correspondstototalfueluseandthusbidcostforthemostcommonhaulingequipmentusedinconstruction.

GLOSSARY

Backhaul Thereturntripafteragoodhasbeendelivered

Basicmaterial Amaterialcomponentthatcannotbetakenapartwithoutchangingthechemicalcompositionofthematerialcomponentitself

Fronthaul Thetripassociatedwithdeliveryofagood

Hauldistance Thedistanceagoodtravelstogettothelocationofintendeduse

Waste Unwantedmaterialproducedasaresultofconstructionactivity

REFERENCES

Bilec,Melissa;Ries,Robert;Matthews,Scott&Sharrard,Aurora.(2006).ExampleofaHybridLifeCycle

AssessmentofConstructionProcesses.ASCEJournalofInfrastructureSystems,Volume12,Issue4.pp207

215.

DavisLangdon.(2004).CostingGreen:AComprehensiveCostDatabaseandBudgetingMethodology.Availableat:

http://www.usgbc.org/Docs/Resources/Cost_of_Green_Full.pdf

DavisLangdon(2007).TheCostofBeingGreenRevisited:ReexaminingthefeasibilityandCostImpactof

SustainableDesignintheLightofIncreasedMarketAdoption.Availableat:

http://www.davislangdon.com/USA/Research/

Muench,S.T.&Anderson,J.L.(n.d.).WeightingaSustainabilityPerformanceMetricforRoadways:Greenroads.

Manuscriptsubmittedforpublication.

408









409





410




MR-6 Energy Efficiency

ENERGY EFFICIENCYGOAL

Reducelifetimeenergyconsumptionoflightingsystemsforroadways.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Installlightingsystemswithluminairesthatmeetorexceedthe2009EnergyStar

standardforroadwaylightingandarecompliantwithallsafetyrequirements

applicabletotheroadwayproject.The2009EnergyStarStandardisavailableat:

http://www.drintl.com/htmlemail/ESOutdoorDraft2_01Jul09.pdf .

Pointsareawardedbasedonthefractionoftotalluminairesinstalledontheproject

withenergyefficientfixturesthatare2009EnergyStarcompliantinthefollowing

manner:

x 1point:20%

x 2points:40%

x 3points:60%x 4points:80%

x 5points:100%

Details

Lightingfacilitiesandsystemsmustbeappropriatefortheproject.Thismeansthat

installingpedestriansafetylightingonaprojectwithnopedestrianaccessibilitywill

notbeawardedcredit.Similarly,lightingfornewand/orimproveddrivewaysand

parkinglotsaresubjecttothecreditsonlyiftheyareincludedwithintheproject

scopeandbudgetboundaries.Projectsthatdonotincludelightingwithintheir

scopecannotachievethiscredit.

DOCUMENTATION

Provideacopyofthespecificationand/orcutsheetsoftheluminairesbeinginstalled

ontheproject.ShowthattheseareEnergyStar2009compliant.Showthatthelighting

designcomplieswithallapplicablesafetyregulationsfortheproject.

MR-6

1-5 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 EW8LightPollution

9 AE3Context

SensitiveSolutions

9 AE5Pedestrian

Access

9 PT4CoolPavement

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Economy

9 Extent

BENEFITS

9 ReducesFossilFuel

Use

9 ReducesAir

Emissions9 ReducesGreenhouse

Gases


9 ReducesLifecycle

Costs

411




Energy Efficiency MR-6


x Installluminairesthatare2009EnergyStarcompliant.

x Uselightemittingdiode(LED)lamptechnologies.

x Considernotinstallinglightingsystemswhereaveragedailytrafficcountsdonotwarrantlightinginstallation

foraparticularroadwayconfiguration,orwherepedestriansafetyisnotanissue.

x

ReviewandapplyChapter2oftheAASHTORoadwayLightingDesignGuidetoachieveaMasterLightingPlan.x PerformalightinganalysisoftheprojectlightingsystemaccordingtotheAmericanAssociationofState

HighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)RoadwayLightingDesignGuidemethodortheIlluminatingEngineeringSocietyofNorthAmerica(IESNA)RoadwayLightingstandard“RP800”method.Thesemethods

canhelpdetermineifsolidstatelightingtechnologieswillbeappropriatefortheproject.Designtablesforthe

referencedluminanceorilluminancemethodsarenotedinTableMR6.1.Notethatacombinationof

luminanceandilluminancemethodsmaybeappropriateforsomeprojects,andthatsomeprojectsinclude

multipavementtypes,whichmustbeconsideredintheanalysis.Theanalysisshouldincludeconsiderationof

initiallumens,lamplumendepreciationfactor,anddirtdepreciationfactor.

TableMR6.1:LightingAnalysisMethods

ReferenceSource Luminance Illuminance

AASHTORoadwayLightingDesignGuide Table35a Table35a

IESNARP800,RoadwayLighting Table2 Table3

Example: Solid State Lighting Case Study - I-35 Bridge in Minneapolis, Minnesota

ReplacementoftheI35BridgeinMinneapolis,whichtragicallycollapsedin2007,wasusedasanopportunity

bytheU.S.DepartmentofEnergyandMinnesotaDepartmentofTransportationtodemonstratetheuseof

solidstateroadwaylightingonahighprofileproject.LEDswereusedwiththegoalofprovidingadequate

uniformlightingwhilereducingoperationalenergyuseandmaintenancerequirements.(PacificNorthwestNationalLaboratory:PNNL,2009)AnaerialphotoofthebridgeatnightisshowninFigureMR6.1andFigure

MR6.2(nextpage)showsapairofluminaires.

FigureMR6.1:AerialViewofLEDLightingonI35.PhotobyBetaLighting.

(http://www.ledwaystreetlights.com/Benefits/pdf/casestudy/ledwayI35WCaseStudy.pdf)

412





FigureMR6.2:LitLEDluminairesatnightonI35.PhotobyFiggEngineeringGroup.

(http://www.ledwaystreetlights.com/Benefits/pdf/casestudy/ledwayI35WCaseStudy.pdf)

Somehighlightsoftheprojectinclude(PNNL,2009):

x Bridgeilluminationwasaccomplishedusing20luminairesoftwodifferentdesigns.

x OperationalenergyrequirementsoftheLEDluminaireswereestimatedtobeaminimumof13%lowerthan

thoseofMinnesota’sstandard250watthighpressuresodiumluminaires.

MoreinformationaboutthisprojectisavailablefromPNNLandtheU.S.DepartmentofEnergyat:

http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/ssl/gateway_i35wbridge.pdf

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Atradeoffexistsbetweenprovidingenoughluminanceforsafety,limitinglightpollution,andreducingor

conservingenergy.

2. Compliancewithveilingluminanceratiosmayalsoberequiredinsomejurisdictions.

3. Incolderclimates,LEDlightingmaynotprovideasmuchheatthatassistswithdeicingofluminairesortraffic

signalsasdoincandescentbulbs.

RESEARCHWithalargeproportionoftheworld’selectricitybeingproducedbyunsustainablemethods,reductionof

electricityconsumptionisanimportantgoalinthepursuitofsustainableinfrastructure.Afterconstructionis

completed,thedirectelectricityconsumptionofvirtuallyallroadwayscanbeprimarilyattributedtoroadway

lightingsystems.TheU.S.DepartmentofEnergyestimatesthatroadwaylightingsystemsconsume31terawatthoursofelectricityeachyearintheUnitedStates(USDOE,2008).

413





SolidStateLighting

Inrecentyears,lightingtechnologieshavebeenrefinedtoprovidefeasiblealternativestotraditionalmethodsthat

canprovidecomparableperformancewithsignificantlyreducedenergyuse.Solidstatelighting,whichuseslight

emittingdiodes(LED),canreplacetypicalsodiumormercuryluminairesaboveroadwaystomeetlightingneeds.

Notably,theopticalefficacy(lightoutputinlumensperwattofelectricity)ofLEDshasbecomecomparableor

betterthancurrentalternatives,andlightfromLEDscanbemoreeffectivelydirectedandthereforeusedtolight

anareawithlessenergy(Wuetal.,2009).Inaddition,theincreasedlifespanofLEDsdecreasestheneedforreplacementandmaintenance.

Solidstatelightingisatechnologystillverymuchunderdevelopment.Becauseofthis,theefficiencyofLEDluminairesiscontinuallyincreasingasdevicesarerefined.In2006,LEDsweredevelopedthatapproximatedthe

sameopticalefficacyastypicalmoderndaymercurylamps,about70lumensperwattofelectricity(Wuetal.,2009).In2007,commercialluminaireswereproducedthatcouldperformat80lumensperwatt(Craford,2008).

Efficacylevelsreachedaround130lumensperwattexperimentallyby2008anditisexpectedthatalongterm

feasiblemaximumforLEDefficacyisabout150lumensperwatt(Longetal.,2008;Schubertetal.,2006).In

additiontoenergysavings,LEDroadwaylightingprovidesalongerlastingalternativetotraditionalluminaires,

reducestheneedforreplacementandmaintenance,anddecreasesmaterialwasteandpollution.

EnergySavings

LEDswithcomparablelevelsofopticalefficacycanprovidesignificantenergysavingsovertraditionallightsourcessuchasmercuryandsodiumbulbs.ThisisduetotheincreasedabilitytofocusoraimLEDlightthrough

design.Over85%ofthelightfromanLEDmaybedirectedtohittheroadwaysurface,whileonlyabouthalfofthelightfromconventionalfixturesdoesso(Wuetal.,2009).Therefore,lesstotallightoutputisrequiredto

illuminatetheroadwaysurface,reducingenergyuseaswellaslightpollutionandtrespass.

Inroadwaylightingfieldtests,LEDluminaireshaveshownenergysavingsbetween30%and75%(Wuetal.,

2009;USDOE,2008,Longetal.,2008).Decreasedenergyusealsoallowsforreductionintheamountofcopper

wireusedforelectricaltransmission(Huangetal.,2009).AssumingthattheopticalefficacyofLEDswill

continuetoimproveandsurpassthatofmercuryandsodiumlamps,LEDluminairespromisetobeavery

attractivealternativetotraditionalsystems.

IncreasedServiceLifetimeInadditiontoreducingelectricityconsumption,LEDshavesubstantiallylongerfunctionallifetimesthansodium

andmercurybulbs.LEDluminairescanprovideadequatelightlevelsforabout50,000hours(nearlysixyears),

oraboutfourtimeslongerthancurrentalternatives(Wuetal.,2009;McClear,2007).Thismeansdecreased

longtermcostsandlessneedforreplacement,whichisadifficult,dangerous,andsometimesfatalprocess,

particularlyonbusyhighways(NewJerseyDOT,2005).

OtherBenefits

Ratherthanburningoutliketraditionalbulbs,LEDsslowlylosebrightnessovertime.Thisincreasesthesafety

ofLEDlitroadways,eliminatingperiodsofcompletedarknessbetweenbulbfailuresandreplacements.Finally,

incontrasttosomecommonlyusedluminaires,LEDluminairescontainnomercury,meaningreducedmercury

pollutionattheendoftheusefullifetimeofthelight(Longetal.,2008).TheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy(2008)

estimatesthatifallhighpressuresodiumluminairesinthenationwerereplacedwithLEDluminaires,8.1

terawatthourswouldbesavedannuallyatminimum,amountingto5.7millionmetrictonsofatmosphericcarbondioxide.

LifecycleCostSavings

ThemostsignificantbarriertouseofLEDroadwaylightingistheincreasedinitialcapitalcostsofsuchsystems.

However,decreasedelectricityandmaintenancecostsmeanthatthesesystemsarecapableofpayingfor

themselvesinthelongterm,evenwithoutconsideringenvironmentalbenefits.Studiesofdifferent

technologiesandmethodsonvariousroadwayprojectshavefoundpaybacktimesrangingfrom1.2to6.3years

414





(Wuetal.,2009;USDOE,2008).ThesedurationswillcontinuetodecreaseasLEDtechnologybecomesless

expensiveandmoreefficient.

WhatisInductionLighting?

Inductionlightingisanotheralternativetotraditionallightingsystems,andusesinducedmagneticfieldstocause

mercuryvaportoemitlight.Becauseofthelackoffilamentsandelectrodes,inductionlightscanhaveextremely

longlifetimesof100,000hrs(Lippert,2009).Thisisespeciallyattractiveforapplicationswheremaintenanceisdifficultordangerous,suchasroadwaylighting.Inductionlightscanprovideenergysavingsovertypicalluminaries

whilemaintainingsafeconditions(Dahuaetal.,2008).However,largescaletestingandcomparisonisstillneeded

beforethistechnologycanbewidelyimplemented.

GLOSSARY


IESNA IlluminatingEngineeringSocietyofNorthAmerica

InductionLighting Atypeoflightingthatusesinducedmagneticfieldstocausemercuryvaportoemitlight.

Illuminance Quantityoflightthatreachesagivensurface

LED Lightemittingdiode

Lumen Unitofluminousflux

Luminaire Acompletelightingunitthatincludes lightsource,covering,mounting,

wiring,etc.

Luminance Quantityoflightreflectedbyagivensurface(measureofbrightness)

Opticalefficacy Numberoflumensanelectricallightsourceproducesperwattofenergyused

Solidstatelighting Atypeoflightingproducedbylightemittingdiodes

REFERENCES

AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO).(2005)RoadwayLightingDesign

Guide.Washington,DC.

BetaLED.(2009,March6)LEDwayStreetlightsProjectSummary:I35WSt.Anthony’sFallsBridge,Minneapolis,MN.AccessedDecember23,2009.Availableathttp://www.ledwaystreetlights.com/benefitscase

studies.html

Craford,M.(2008)HighPowerLEDsforSolidStateLighting:Status,TrendsandChallenges. JournalofLightand

VisualEnvironment ,2,5862

Dahua,C.,Liping,G.,Wencheng,C.,Yandan&L.,Zheng,H.(2008)PerformanceofinductionlampsandHPSlampsinroadtunnellighting.TunnelingandUndergroundSpaceTechnology ,23,139144.

ENERGYSTAR.(2009).ENERGYSTARProgramRe quirementsforSolidStateLightingLuminaires:ProposedCategory

“A”AdditionsOutdoorArea&ParkingGarage.Availableat

http://www.drintl.com/htmlemail/ESOutdoorDraft2_01Jul09.pdf

IlluminatingEngineeringSocietyofNorthAmerica(IESNA).(2000).RoadwayLighting(RP800).NewYork,NY.

Lippert,J.(2009)InductionLighting:AnOldLightingTechnologyMadeNewAgain.RetrievedNovember18,2009,FromDepartmentofEnergy:EnergySaversBlogwebsite:

http://www.eereblogs.energy.gov/energysavers/post/InductionLightingAnOldLightingTechnologyMade

NewAgain.aspx

415





Long,X.,Liao,R.,Zhou,J.(2008)DevelopmentofStreetLightingSystemBasedNovelHighBrightnessLEDModules.

IETOptoelectronics3,4046

McClear,M.(2007,September)RiseoftheLEDCity.LightingDesignandApplication.4850

NewJerseyDepartmentofTransportation(NJDOT).(2005).UseofLEDorOtherNewTechnologytoReplace

StandardOverheadandSignLighting.NJDOTResearchReportNo:FHWANJ2005029.

PacificNorthwestNationalLaboratory(PNNL).(2009).DemonstrationAssessmentofLightEmittingDiode(LED)

RoadwayLightingattheI35Bridge,Minneapolis,MN.(PNNLDoc.No.18687).PreparedforUnitedStatesDepartmentofEnergy.

Schubert,E.,Kim,J.K.,Luo,H.&Xi,J.Q.(2006)SolidStateLightingABenevolentTechnology.ReportsonProgress

inPhysics,69,30692099

U.S.DepartmentofEnergy.(2008).LEDStreetLightingHostSite:CityofSanFrancisco,California

Wu,M.S.,Huang,H.H.,Huang,B.J.,Tang,C.W.&ChengC.W.(2009)EconomicFeasibilityofSolarPoweredLEDRoadwayLighting.RenewableEnergy ,34,19341938

416




PAVEMENT TECHNOLOGIES

417




418



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Pavement Technologies

PT-1 Long-Life Pavement


x Considerdesigninglonglastingpavementthatmeetstherequirementsofthiscredit.Anynumberofpavement

designmethodscanproducepavementsectionsthatmeettherequirementsofthiscredit.

x Havearehabilitation/preservationprogramthatstrivestokeepexistingpavementsinsatisfactorycondition

suchthattheymayremaininplaceforoverlaysordiamondgrinds.Thisallowssimplerehabilitationssuchas

diamondgrindsandoverlaystoqualityforthiscredit.Ultimately,thisgivescreditforaroadbeingdurableenoughsuchthatitdoesnotneedtobeentirelyreplaced.

Example: Sample Calculation using Figure PT-1.1

Apavementistobedesignedforaroadwaythatwillhavealoadingof5millionequivalentsingleaxleloads

(ESALs)overa40yearperiodbuiltonasubgradewithanaverageCBRof11.ESALcalculationmethodsand

definitionsarefoundinthe AASHTOGuideforDesignofPavementStructures(1993).Determinetherequired

pavementthicknessasfollows:

a. EnterFigurePT1.1at5millionESALs.NotethattheESALscaleisalogscaleso5millionismorethanhalf

waybetween1millionand10million(FigurePT1.2).

b. Findwhere5millionESALsintersectstheplottedlinesforHMAandPCC.Inthiscasebothplottedlineslieontopofoneanother.

c. FindwherethispointliesontheThicknessaxis.Inthiscase,itis10inches.d. SincetheaverageCBRis11,thegraphnoteallowsthesurfacingthicknesstobereducedby1inchleavinga

finalsurfacingthicknessof9inches.e. Notethe5itemsthepavementmusthaveaslistedintheupperleftcornerofthegraph(minimum

subgradeCBRof5,basematerialCBRof80orgreater,minimumbasethicknessof6inches,surfacing

materialofeitherHMAorPCC,andaminimumsurfacingthicknessfromthegraph).

f. Thefinalpavementshouldbe9inchesofHMAorPCC,placedonatleast6inchesofbasecoursewithaCBR

ofatleast80,placedonthesubgrade.

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Pavement Technologies Greenroads™ Manual v1.5

Long-Life Pavement PT-1

FigurePT1.2:Examplecalculation.

Example: HMA Pavements

Currently,theAsphaltPavementAlliance(APA)hasa“PerpetualPavementAward”givennearlyannuallyto

provenlonglastingpavements.TheAPAdefinesa“PerpetualPavement”as“…anasphaltpavementdesigned

andbuilttolastlongerthan50yearswithoutrequiringmajorstructuralrehabilitationorreconstruction,andneedingonlyperiodicsurfacerenewalinresponsetodistressesconfinedtothetopofthepavement.”(APA,

2002).AllpavementsthatreceivethePerpetualPavementAwardareevaluatedforstructure,condition,

maintenanceandrehabilitationeffortstoensuretheymeettheAPArequirements.Awardeesfor2006,which

canserveasexamplesofinservicelonglastingpavementswere:

x CaliforniaDepartmentofTransportationforasectionoftheSanDiegoFreeway(Interstate405)between

HarborBoulevardandBeachBoulevard

x MinnesotaDepartmentofTransportationforTownHighway(TH)61betweenWabashaandKellogg

x MontanaDepartmentofTransportationfora10milelengthofInterstate90overHomestakePass

x NebraskaDepartmentofRoadsfora5milesectionofStateHighway35inWayneCounty

x TennesseeDepartmentofTransportationfora14milesectionofStateRoute14inTiptonCounty

x

VirginiaDepartmentofTransportationfora6.5mileportionofInterstate81inFrederickCounty

Whilethesepavementsareallgenerallyhighervolume,examplesofalowvolumeHMAlonglastingpavement

canbefoundinMuenchetal.(2004).TheyinvestigatedtheWSDOTpavementnetworkandfound1,339lanemilesoflowvolumepavementofwhichamajority(about64%)hadbeeninserviceforover35yearswithout

havingundergonereconstruction.Thesepavementswerealsofoundtoexistinallareasofthestateandbein

goodcondition.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000 100,000,000 1,000,000,000

T h i c k n e s s ( i n c h e s )

Lifetime Eqivalent Single Axle Loads (ESALs)

Portland Cement Concrete Surfacing

Hot Mix Asphalt Surfacing

PCC Minimum7 inches (175 mm)

PCC Maximum13 inches (325 mm)

HMA Maximum14 inches (350 mm)

HMA Minimum6 inches (150 mm)

The pavement must have:

1. Minimum subgrade CBR = 52. Base material CBR = 80 or better 3. Minimum base thickness = 6 inches (150 mm)

4. Surfacing material = HMA or PCC5. Minimum surfacing thickness = f rom this graph

If subgrade CBR � 10 then surfacing thicknesscan be reduced by 1 inch (25 mm) from thatshown on graph.

inflection point: 500,000 ESALs

inflection point: 870,000 ESALs

inflection point: 50,000,000 ESALs

inflection point: 28,000,000 ESALs

T h i c k n e s s ( m m )

100

200

400

300

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Example: PCC Pavements

ItmaybemorelikelythataPCCpavementwillbedesignedforatleast35years.TheNCHRPReport132lists7

statesin1997thatalreadyusedPCCpavementdesignlivesofatleast35years.EvenPCCpavementsdesigned

forshorterlivesoftenlastinexcessof35years.Forinstance,mostoftheStateownedPCCpavementsin

WashingtonStateweredesignedfor20yearsbuthavelastedmuchlonger:thereareover400lanemilesof

PCCpavementinWashingtonStatethatarealreadyolderthan35yearsandarestillfunctioning.Thereare

manyexamplesofthistypeofperformancenationwideincluding:

x I80(GrundyCounty),I70(ClarkCounty),I290(CookCounty),I80(GrundyCounty)andI74(Peoria

County)inIllinois(Winkelman,2006).

x TheMotorwayE40fromBrusselstoLeigeinBelgium(Caestecker,2006)

x US40/I80inFairfield,CA(Rao,etal.,2006)

Additionally,manycitiesthatsurfacetheirresidentialstreetswithPCChaveexperiencedlonglife.Forexample,

theCityofSeattlepavedmanyurbanstreetswithconcretebefore1940andmanyofthosearestillinservice

(Flynn,2002).Someremainintheiroriginalstatewhileothershavebeencoveredupbysubsequentlayersof

HMA.However,innearlyallcasestheoriginalPCCpavementremainsinsomefashion.

POTENTIAL ISSUES1. Inmanyapplicationsanadequatepavementdesignmaynotcallforhotmixasphalt(HMA)orportlandcement

concrete(PCC)surfacing.Theseincludegravel,dirtorbituminoussurfacetreated(BST)roads.Thiscreditdoes

notapplytotheseroadseventhoughthesesurfacesmaybethemostappropriateforthegivenproject.

However,thedesignapproachisstillapplicableandappropriateforsuchprojects.

2. Somecommonlyusedpavementdesignmethodsmayproducepavementthicknessesthatdonotmeetthe

requirementsofthisgraph.Suchdesignsdonotqualifyforthiscrediteventhoughtheyconformtocommon

pavementdesignpractice.

3. Theideathatpavementdesigncanbereducedtoasinglegraphmaybecontroversialamongexperts.However

itisanecessarycompromiseinordertoengagedecisionmakerswhomayotherwisearriveatinadequate

pavementdesignsdrivenbybudgetaryconstraintsorunfamiliaritywiththeconceptsoflonglastingdesign.

RESEARCH

A“longlastingpavement”isonewherethebulkofthepavementstructureisdesignedtolastforatleast35years.

Theonlyrequiredmaintenanceandrehabilitationactionsareperiodicsurfacerenewalstoaddressroughnessand

surfacedistress.ThisdefinitionistakenlargelyfromtheAsphaltPavementAlliance(APA,2002).

Thisisincontrasttothehistoricalpracticeofdesigningpavementsforshorterlives(often10to20years)andthen

reconstructingtheentirepavementstructureattheendoflife.PartofNationalCooperativeHighwayResearch

Program(NCHRP)Project132,SystemsforDesignofHighwayPavements(1997),consistedofasurveyofU.S.

statedepartmentoftransportation(DOT)pavementdesignpractices.ThissurveyshowedthatmoststateDOTs

usepavementdesignlivesof20to30years(FigurePT1.3).Basedonthe35yearcutoffofthiscredit,mostof

thesedesignlivesdonotqualifyas“longlife.”However,since1997thegeneraltrendhasbeentodesign

pavementsforlongerlife.Forexample,theMinnesotaDOThasextendeditsPCCpavementdesignlifestandard

from35to60years(Burnhametal.,2006).

Longlastingpavementsgenerallyleadtohigherinitialcosts(duetomorematerialbeingused)butlowerlifecycle

costsbecauselessrehabilitationandmaintenanceisneededovertime.BothHMAandPCCsurfacedpavements

canbelonglastingaccordingtothisdescription.

ForlowvolumeHMApavementsMuenchetal.(2004)performedalifecyclecostcomparisonconformingtothe

guidelinesofWallsandSmith(1998)betweenanarchtypelonglastinglowvolumepavementwithonethatwas

423





designedtobereconstructedafter25years.TheyusedtypicalWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation

(WSDOT)designcharacteristicsandfoundacostsavingsover50yearsofabout25%forthelonglastingpavement.

FigurePT1.3:PavementdesignlivestakenfromNCHRPProject132survey.

Lookingatjusttheperformancelifeofthepavementsurface(oftencalledthe“wearingcourse,“theOrganisation

forEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD)(2005)concludedthatdevelopinglonglastingsurface

coursesthatcostthreetimesasmuchastraditionalones(e.g.,theonesinusetoday)thatwouldonlyrequire

resurfacingevery3040yearswouldgenerallybeeconomicallyviablefortrafficlevelsofatleast70,000to80,000

AADTinbothdirections.Withdiscountratesbelow6%theycouldbeviablebetween40,000and60,000AADTin

bothdirections.Ingeneral,economicsavingsincreasesastrafficlevelsincreaseandasdiscountratesdecrease.

DevelopmentofFigurePT1.1

FigurePT1.1wasdevelopedbasedonoutputfromanumberofgenerallyacceptedpavementdesignmethods

(AASHTO,1993;Muenchetal.,2007;Timm,2007;AsphaltInstitute,1981;Nunn,1998)andisanattemptto

capturethebasicpavementstructurethatislikelytoresultinlonglife.FigurePT1.4showshowFigurePT1.1was

developedusingthesedesignmethods.PavementsdesignedaccordingtoFigurePT1.1arelikelytobelonglasting

pavementsandthusresultinlowerlifecyclecosts.Additionally,designthicknessesandsubgraderequirementsare

straightforward.

ThedesignassumptionsthatwereusedtodevelopFigurePT1.4aresummarizedhere.

1993AASHTORigidDesign(AASHTO,1993)

x Reliability=75%fordesignsof500,000ESALsorless.

x Reliability=85%fordesigns>500,000and<20,000,000ESALs.

x Reliability=95%fordesignsof20,000,000ESALsormore.

x PCCmodulus(Ec)=4,000,000psi

x PCCmodulusofrupture(S'c)=700psi

x Drainagecoefficient(Cd)=1.0

x Loadtransfercoefficient(J)=3.2

x Modulusofsubgradereaction(k)=200psi/inch

x Basethickness=6inchesofgranularbasematerial

3

1

27

6

2

18

13

5

2

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 More

N u m b e r o f S t a t e s

DesignLife

HMA

PCC

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FigurePT1.4Developmentofgraphusingexistingdesignmethods.

1993AASHTOFlexibleDesign(AASHTO,1993)

x Reliability=75%fordesignsof500,000ESALsorless.

x Reliability=85%fordesigns>500,000and<20,000,000ESALs.

x Reliability=95%fordesignsof20,000,000ESALsormore.

x Changeinservicabilityoverthepavementlife(deltaPSI)=1.5

x HMAstructuralcoefficient(aHMA)=0.44

x Granularbasematerialstructuralcoefficient(abase)=0.13

x Granularbasematerialresilientmodulus(MR)=30,000psi

x Basethickness=6inchesofgranularbasematerial

x SubgradeCBR=5,equivalenttoasubgradeMR=7,500psi

AsphaltInstituteMS1(AsphaltInstitute,1981)

x Designtable:HMAover6inchesofuntreatedgranularbasematerialwithMAAT=60F

x DesignChartA29inMS1

LowVolumeroads(Muenchetal.,2007)

x Theplotfor“Honolulu,lowvolume”comesfromtheCityandCountyofHonoluludesignstandardsthat

weredevelopedasdescribedinthispaper.

TRLstandards(asreportedbyNunn,1998)

Theplotsforthevarious“Nunn,1998”comefromtheTRLstandards.

x Thefullreport(Report250)canbefoundat:

http://www.trl.co.uk/online_store/reports_publications/trl_reports/cat_highway_engineering/report_desi

gn_of_longlife_flexible_pavements_for_heavy_traffic.htm

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x Aversionofthegraphused(fromFigure8onpage9of10)togetthevaluesplottedabovecanbeseenat:

http://www.transportlinks.org/transport_links/filearea/publications/1_764_PA3736_2001.pdf .

GLOSSARY

AADT Annualaveragedailytraffic

AASHTO AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials ADT Averagedailytraffic

APA AsphaltPavementAlliance

BST bituminoussurfacetreatment

CBR CaliforniaBearingRatio

DOT departmentoftransportation

ESAL Equivalentsingleaxleload

HMA Hotmixasphalt

Longlifepavement anypavementdesignthatfallsonorabovetheplottedlineforthegiven

pavementtypeandmeetsthecriteriadescribedinthePT1.1graph

MR Resilientmodulus

NCHRP NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram

PCC PortlandcementconcreteRvalue Resistancevalue

REFERENCES

AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO). AASHTOGuideforDesignof

PavementStructures.AASHTO,Washington,DC,1993.

AsphaltInstitute.ThicknessDesign.MS1.AsphaltInstitute,Lexington,KY,1981.

AsphaltPavementAlliance(APA).(2002).PerpetualPavements:ASynthesis.AsphaltPavementAlliance,Lanham,

MD.

Burnham,T.,Izevbekhai,B.&Rangaraju,P.R.(2006).TheEvolutionofHighPerformanceConcretePavement

DesigninMinnesota.ProceedingsoftheInternationalConferenceonLongLifeConcretePavements,Chicago,IL,

2527October2006.P.135151.

Caestecker,C.(2006).TheMotorwayE40(FormerlyE5)FromBrusselstoLiege.ProceedingsoftheInternational

ConferenceonLongLifeConcretePavements,Chicago,IL,2527October2006,pp.221232.

Flynn,P.A.(2002).Seattle’sEarlyStreets18701920.Researchpaper,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,WA.

Muench,S.T.,Mahoney,J.P.,Wataru,W.,Chong,L.&Romanowski,J.(2007).BestPracticesforLongLastingLow

VolumePavements. JournalofInfrastructureSystems,Vol.13,No.4.pp.311320.

Muench,S.T.,White,G.C.,Mahoney,J.P.,Pierce,L.M.&Sivaneswaran,N.(2004).LongLastingLowVolumePavementsinWashingtonState.Proceedings,InternationalSymposiumonDesignandConstructionofLong

LastingAsphaltPavements,Auburn,AL,June79,2004,pp.729773.

Nunn,M.(1998).DesignofLongLifeRoadsforHeavyTraffic.Proceedings,AustralianAsphaltPavementAssociationIndustryConference,SurfersParadise,Queensland,Australia.

OrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD).(2005).EconomicEvaluationofLongLife

Pavements,Phase1.OECDPublishing,

426





Rao,C.,Darter,M.I.&Pyle,T.(2006).ExtendedServiceLifeofContinuouslyReinforcedConcretePavementin

California.ProceedingsoftheInternationalConferenceonLongLifeConcretePavements,Chicago,IL,2527

October2006,pp.6178.

Timm,D.H.PerRoad3.2.PerpetualPavementDesignSoftware.NationalCenterforAsphaltTechnology(NCAT),

AuburnUniversity,Auburn,AL,2006.

Walls,J.&Smith,M.R.(1998).LifeCycleCostAnalysisinPavementDesign–InterimTechnicalBulletin.FHWA

reportFHWASA98079.FederalHighwayAdministration,Washington,D.C.

Winkelman,T.J.(2006).DesignandConstructionofExtendedLifeConcretePavementsinIllinois.Proceedingsof

theInternationalConferenceonLongLifeConcretePavements,Chicago,IL,2527October2006,pp.318.

427





428



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Pavement Technologies (PT)

PT-2 Permeable Pavement

PERMEABLE PAVEMENTGOAL

Improveflowcontrolandqualityofstormwaterrunoffthroughuseofpermeable

pavementtechnologies.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Useapermeable(porous)pavementorpaverstocontrolandtreatatleast50%ofthe

90th

percentileaverageannualrainfalleventpostconstructionrunoffvolumeto25

mg/Lconcentrationoftotalsuspendedsolids(TSS)orless.

Details

Lowimpactdevelopment(LID)stormwatercontrolsmustbeconsideredinthe

scopeandbudgetoftheprojectforthiscredittobeapplicableANDpermeable

pavementmustbeconsideredafeasibledesignbestmanagementpracticewithin

thestormwatermanagementplan.Thismeansthatthefeasibilitystudycompleted

forPR8LowImpactDevelopmentmustclearlyshowthatpermeablepavement(ofanytype)isappropriateforapplicationontheproject.

DOCUMENTATION

x Copyofthedrainageorhydrologyreportandsupportingcalculationsshowing

treatmentareaandpercenttreatmentachieved.Thisdocumentmaybeincludedas

partofthesubmittalrequirementsforPR8LowImpactDevelopment,butrelevant

permeablepavementcalculations,areas,andtreatmentlevelsshouldbe

highlightedforthiscredit.

x Copyofthepermeablepavementmixdesign.Themixdesignshouldhavethe

followingitemshighlighted:

x Nameofpermeabletechnology,ifused(e.g.pavers,turf,etc.)x Totaltonsofpavementontheproject,includingportlandcementconcreteand

asphaltconcrete(hot,warmandcoldmix)

x Totalairvoidsinthemix(ormanufacturertestedvoidsspecificationsforpavers

basedonmethodofinstallation)

x Totaltonsofpermeablepavementused

x Copyofthemaintenanceplaninplaceforthepermeablepavement(s).

x Photoofthepermeablepavement(s)installedontheproject.

PT-2

3 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR8LowImpact

Development

9 EW2RunoffFlow

Control

9 EW3RunoffQuality

9 EW4Stormwater

CostAnalysis9 PT4CoolPavement

9 PT5QuietPavement

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Expectations

9 Experience

BENEFITS

9 ReducesWaterPollution

9 RestoresHabitat

9 CreatesHabitat

9 ReducesManmade

Footprint


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Pavement Technologies (PT) Greenroads™ Manual v1.5

Permeable Pavement PT-2


Followingsomeofthesekeydesignandmaintenanceelementswillpromotemaximumperformanceofpermeable

pavements.(PennsylvaniaDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection:PDEP,2006)

DesignElements

x Useamixdesignforthepavementwithsignificantpermeability(>8inchesperhr).

x Useanopengradedsubbasewithminimum40%voidspace(typicallyawashedaggregate).

x Designthepavementsurfaceandstonebedtosuitablefordesigntrafficloads.

x Ensureplacementonuncompactedsubgrade.

x Usenonwovengeotextileunderlayments.

x Uselevelinfiltrationbedbottomstopreventpooling.

x Donotplaceontraffickedslopeswithgradesover>5%(withoutcarefuldesign).

x Providepositivestormwateroverflowfrombeds.

x Donotplacebedbottomoncompactedfill;fillwithstone,asneeded.

x Protectfromsedimentationduringconstruction.

x Linebedwithnonwovengeotextile.

x Provideperforatedpipenetworkalongbedbottomfordistribution.

x Allowthreefootbufferbetweenbedbottomandseasonalhighgroundwatertableandtwofeetforbedrock.

x Placeinfiltrationbedsonuplandsoilswhenpossible.

x Attempttomakeperiodicmaintenanceeasyforownersinthedesignprocess.Pavementareasshouldbe

accessibleandslopegraduallytoaccommodatestandardmaintenancevehicles.

ClogPreventionMaintenance

x Vacuumthepavementtwiceperyear(oralignwithrainyseason).

x Maintainplantedareasadjacenttopavement.

x Immediatelycleananysoildepositedonpavement.

x Donotallowconstructionstaging,soil/mulchstorage,etc.onunprotectedpavementsurface.

x Cleaninletsdrainingtothesubsurfacebedtwiceperyear.

WinterSnow/IceRemoval

x Monitorthepermeablepavementinthewinter.Porouspavementsystemsgenerallyperformbetterandrequirelesstreatmentthanstandardpavements.

x Donotapplyabrasivessuchassandorcindersonoradjacenttoporouspavement.

x Placesnowplowbladesslightlyhigherthanforconventionalpavements.

x Applysaltasnecessary;however,keepinmindthatsaltswillinfiltrate,soorganicdeicersarepreferable.

MaintenanceRepairs

x Donotsealcoatpermeablepavementsurfaces.

x Patchdamagedareaslessthan50squarefeetwithporousorstandardpavement.

x Patchdamagedareaslargerthan50squarefeetwithanapprovedpermeablepavement.

Example: Types of Permeable Pavement

PorousAsphalt

Porousasphalt,developedabout1970,greatlyresemblesnonporousasphaltexceptthefines(veryfinesand

anddust)havebeenremoved,leavingadditionalairvoidswherethefineswouldhavebeen.Thisleavesspace

forwatertoflowthroughandcollect.Largeaggregateisalsousedtoraisethevoidspace.Asphaltistypically

designedwithasmallamountofairvoids,typically4%ofthetotalmixvolume,inordertoallowthebinderto

migratealittle.Thebinderremainssomewhatsoftlongafterpavementislaid,andsometimesmovesinto

thesevoids,whichiscalledmigration.Therewereproblemsinthepastwithearlyporousasphalt,asthebinder

wouldmigrateintothehighervoidspaces,blockingthetravelpathofthewater.Thishasbeenameliorated

430





withtheuseofadditivesandadditionalbinders.(NorthCarolinaDepartmentofEnvironmentandNatural

Resources,2007;HunDorris,2005)

Additivesandadditionalbindersareoftenusedtoenhancethecharacteristicsofporousasphalt.Polymers

keepthebinderfrommigratingintothevoidspaces.Polymerreinforcingfibersassistwithcohesionofthemix.

(HunDorris,2005)

FigurePT2.1:Theappearanceofporousasphaltismuchthesameasnonporousasphalt.Theporous

asphaltisplacedovercourseofporousaggregatebeneathatemporarygeotextilefabric,whichistoprevent

cloggingissuesduringconstruction.(PhotobyK.Hansen,NationalAsphaltPavementAlliance)

PorousConcrete

Porousconcrete,muchlikeporousasphalt,hasthefinesremovedinordertocreatevoids.Itwasalso

developedinthe70s.Portlandcementconcrete(PCC)istypicallymadewithcoarseaggregate(gravel),fine

aggregate(sand),water,cement,andoptionaladditives.Inporousconcrete,thefinesaregreatlyreducedor

entirelyremoved.Fifteentotwentyfivepercent(1525%)voidspacesmaybeachieved,withanaverageflow

rateofaround480inchesperhr.(HunDorris,2005)TheappearanceofporousPCCisgenerallyrougherthan

nonporous.SeeFigurePT2.2.Finishingduringtheconstructionprocessmaycreateanimperviouslayeronthe

surfaceandattentionneedstobepaidtotheprocesstopreventthisfromhappening.

431





BlockPavers

Concretepavers,orporouspaverblocks,areinterlockingunitswhicharepartiallypervious.Waterdrains

throughtheareasbetweeneachblock.Thesespacescanbefilledwithgravelorgrass,andofferdrainageand

anattractivefinish.Voidspace(openarea)ofpaverstendstobe1315%(HunDorris,2005).Paverblocksare

typicallyusedinlowtrafficareas,suchaswalkingpathsordriveways,andareeasytoinstall.SeeFigurePT2.3.

FigurePT2.3:Avarietyofpermeablepavers,bricks,andnonporousasphalt.(PhotobySeanThayer)

OtherPermeablePavements

Otherpermeablepavementsincludeopengradedaggregates,artificialturfandturfreinforcement.

Opengradedaggregate.Opengradedaggregateiswashedtoremovefinesandistypicallymadeofsingle

sized,angularpieces.Thisallowsforlowsettlingcompaction,andvoidspacesmayconstituteupto40%ofthe

FigurePT2.2:PorousconcretesurfacecourseinWestSeattle,Washington.Quarterprovidedforscale.

(PhotobyJ.Anderson)

432





material.Opengradedaggregateisextremelypermeable.Thiskindofbasehasastrongtendencytosegregate

andstepsmustbetakenthroughproduction,transport,andplacementtooffsetthistendency.Regularly

wettingthestonethroughthelaydownandcompactionprocesseskeepsthematerialmorestable.

FigurePT2.4:Washedaggregatebasewithkeysforscale.

Artificialturf.Artificialturfistypicallythetopmostlayerofoneormoreotherpermeablelayers,suchasopen

gradedaggregate.Artificialturfisrolledoutinlargesheets(seefollowingphotos)andpinnedtothe

underlayer.Theseamsbetweenlengthsofturfarestitched.Artificialturftypicallylastsfor12to15years.

FigurePT2.5:Permeableartificialturf(keysfor

scale).Thismaterialistypicallylaidoverabaseof

washedopengradedaggregate.

FigurePT2.6:Undersideofpermeableartificialturf,

showingdrainageholes.

Turfreinforcement.Similarly,turfreinforcement(commonlycalled“geogrid”)istypicallyachievedviaanopen

plasticgridorhoneycombmatrixthatisfilledwithgravelatthesurface,placedonawelldrainingaggregate,

overalayerofgeosyntheticfilterfabric,andfinallyontopofawelldrainingsoilsubbase.Usuallythese

installationsaremostcommoningravelparkingareasoremergencyaccesswaysthatneedabitofextra

reinforcementinordertocarrya(lowvolume)vehicleload.WedonotexpectmanyGreenroadsprojectstobe

madeofturforgeogridsorgravel,butthesemethodsaretechnicallyvalidandmaybeappropriatefor

pedestrianareaswithintheprojectrightofway.SeeFigurePT2.7.

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FigurePT2.7:TurfreinforcinggridinstalledingravelparkingareainPennsylvaniatoalleviateponding

issues.(BlairCountyConservationDistrict,n.d.)

SemiPermeableMaterialsNotSuitableforRoadwayTraffic

Forpurposesofthiscredit,wedonotexpectmanyGreenroadsprojectstobemadeoftimberdecking,wood

mulch,shellsorturf.Thesematerialsmaybeinstalledonaprojectaspartofalowimpactdevelopment

scheme(toreduceactualimpervioussurfaces,suchasconventionalconcretesidewalks);however,areasmade

withthesematerialsdonotcounttowardpointsinthiscredit.

Softmaterials.Softpavingmaterials,suchaswoodmulchandcrushedshells,aretypicallyusedforfoottraffic.Highvoidspacesallowforgoodpermeability,andsuchmaterialstendtooffergreataestheticbenefits.

TimberDecking.Decksallowforeaseofwalkingthroughswampyorsandyareaswhilecreatingverylow

environmentalimpactstructures.Woodenstructuresarealsonaturallookingandaestheticallypleasing.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Cloggingofvoidsinthepavement.Routinemaintenanceisrecommendedtohelppreventcloggingand

optimizeinfiltrationrates.

2. Qualitycontrolandcontractorfamiliarityvarieswidelywithlocation,contractorandpavementtype.

3. Preexistinggroundwaterissuesmaynotallowpermeablepavementswithincertaindistancesofaquifers.

However,qualitytreatmentisprovidedbypermeablepavementstosomeextent.

4. Longtermdataisgenerallynotavailable.

5. Permeablepavementsmaynotbesuitableforhighvolumetrafficloadsorarterials.However,shoulderareasandsidewalksmaybeappropriateapplicationstoconsider.

RESEARCH

Permeablepavementisalowimpactdevelopmenttechniquethatcanbeusedaspartofacomprehensiveroadwaystormwatermanagementplan.Theterms“permeable,”“porous”or“pervious”areusedinterchangeably

todescribeapavementstructuralsystemthathasmorevoidsthanaconventionalpavedsurfacesuchasconcrete

orasphalt.Forstormwaterdesign,permeableimpliesthatthecurvenumber(CN)forareaspavedwiththese

surfacematerialsislowerthanaconventionallypavedsurface.Forcompositemixes,suchasasphaltandconcrete,

thisgenerallymeansintentionallydesigningforahighervoidratiointhemix,i.e.fewerfineaggregates,larger

coarseaggregateorintroductionofairduringmixing.

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Apermeablesurfacemayalsobeachievedthroughastrategiclayoutofstoneormasonrypaversandfillingpaver

gapswithawelldrainingmaterial,whichmaybedesignedtowithstandvehicularloading.Thisalsoprovidesan

increaseinoverallvoidratiooveralargesurfacearea.Further,artificialturforgridreinforcementareothertypes

ofsurfacesthatmayalsobeconsideredpermeable“pavements,”butingeneralforroadwaysthatcarryhigh

volumesoftraffic,thereisnolongtermperformancedatatojustifythattheyofferenoughstructuralcapacityto

carrythoseloads.Generally,thelatterapplicationswillbeseenmostcommonlyinpedestrianareasorareaswith

verylowtrafficvolumes.

HowDoPermeablePavementsWork?

Duetotheincreasedvoidratio,waterisconveyedthroughthesurfaceandallowedto(1)infiltrate,(2)evaporate,whereasconventionalsurfaceswillnotdoso.(NCDWQ,2007)Apermeablepavementsurfacethereforebecomes

anactiveparticipantinthehydrologicalcycle:rainfallandsnowmeltareconveyedbackthroughsoilsintogroundwater.Therefore,permeablepavementscanbecomepartofastormwaterinfiltrationsystemif

appropriatelydesigned,constructedandmaintained.Thismeansthatkeyelementsofthepavementmustbe

considered:(1)longtermhydrauliccapacityofthematerial,and(2)infiltrationcapacityofthebasematerial.(City

ofSeattle,2008)

Permeablepavementsallowrainwater,snowmeltandairtopassthroughthematrix,rechargingthegroundwater

tableandrefreshingsoilnutrients.Thisreducestotalvolumeofrunoffflowsleavingthepavedsurface.Thevoid

spacecaptureswaterandslowlyreleasesittoinfiltratethesubgrade.Thisfiltrationprocessreducesthetotalquantityandconcentration(generally)ofpollutantsthatwouldotherwiserunoffthepavedsurfaceandrequire

treatment,volumecontrolandflowattenuation.Typicalpollutantsremovedorimprovedarehydrocarbonsandheavymetals,(HunDorris,2005)aswellasanumberofotherchemicalcompoundsthatareconsidered

deleterious.(GeosyntecConsultantsandWrightWaterEngineers,2008)

Theairvoidsalsoallowforevaporation,whichoffersacoolingprocessonthesurfaceandtothestormwater

runoff.Thisisespeciallybeneficialincitieswhichexperienceextremelyhightemperaturesinsummertraditional

"blacktop"temperaturescanmakesomepublicspacesunusableinwarmerweather.(HunDorris,2005)

ExistingLiterature

Stormwaterqualityandquantityperformancedataisrelativelysparseforpermeablepavements,especiallyfor

longtermdata.“Longterm”performancedata(6years)isavailablefromfourdifferentperviouspaverandturfreinforcinggridsystemsinstalledinurbanparkinglotsinwesternWashingtonfromBratteboandBooth(2003).

TheselotswereoriginallytestedbyBoothandLeavitt(1999)in1997.Sitesoilsweresandswithahighhydraulic

conductivitytoisolatethepavementhydraulicconductivity.Thesetwostudiesshowedsignificantlyorcompletely

reducedsurfacerunoffforwinterstormconditionsevenlongterm,exceptinoneconditionmeasuredintherevisit

byBratteboandBooth:a72hourstormproducedaboutfourmillimetersofsurfaceflow.

IntheUK,aporousasphaltparkinglotwastestedinplaceandmonitoredforflowcontrolperformanceovera13

monthperiod.Theresultsindicatedthatthepavementsreducedpeakflowsandincreasedtimeofconcentration.

(Abbott&CaminoMateos,2003)ArelativelyrecentstudyofanotherporousasphaltparkinglotinRhodeIslandby

Bovingetal.(2008)investigatedthepotentialforcontaminantstoleachfromthelotintothegroundwatertable

directlybelowthelot’sinfiltrationbed.Theyfoundaretentionrateofmorethan90%formetals,nobacteria,and

amuchlowerratefornutrients(27%).However,theydetectedpolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons(PAHs)atnear

minimumallowablelevels.

Informationonpavementstructuralperformanceinhightrafficvolumeroadwayenvironmentsisverylimited.

Opengradedsurfacecourses(OGFC)inOregonhavetraditionallybeeninstalledtoreducenoiseandspray.

However,theymaytheoreticallyalsoreducesurfaceflowsviahorizontalhydraulicconductivity,whichoccurs

belowthesurfacecourseandmoveswatertotheshoulderareas,butthishasnotbeenwellstudied.(Cityof

Seattle,2008)

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However,theInternationalStormwaterBMP(BestManagementPractice)database(BMPDB)reportsthat,ofsix

reportingpermeablepavementsites,qualityindicatorsforeffluentheavymetalandtotalsuspendedsolid

concentrationwereasfollows(showncomparedtoadetentionpond)basedonmedianvaluesfrommeaneffluent

concentrations.Forcomparison,rangesarealsoprovided.

TablePT2.1:Constituentremovalperformancedatafor6permeablepavementinstallationsand25detention

ponds.(GeoSyntecConsultantsandWrightWaterEngineers,2008)Constituents Unit Value PermeablePavementEffluent

(6reporting)

DetentionPondEffluent

(25reporting)

Relative

Removal(%)

SuspendedSolids (mg/L) Median 16.96 31.04 183

Range 5.90– 8.72 16.07– 46.01

TotalCopper (μg/L) Median 2.78 12.10 435

Range 0.88– 8.78 5.41– 18.80

TotalLead (μg/L) Median 7.88 15.77 200

Range 1.64– 37.96 4.67– 26.87

TotalZinc (μg/L) Median 16.60 60.20 363

Range 5.91– 46.64 20.70– 99.70

TotalPhosphorus (mg/L) Median 0.09 0.19 211

Range 0.05– 0.15 0.12– 0.27 TKN (mg/L) Median 1.23 1.89 154

Range 0.44– 3.44 1.58– 2.19

Inallsixqualitymeasurestested,permeablepavementinstallationstreatedeffluentstormwatertoahigherlevel

oftreatmentthanconventionaldetentionponds.Notethatdataforthesestatisticscomesfrom15U.S.statesandalsotheUnitedKingdom(UK)andSweden,butneitherthelocationsnorthetypesofthesepermeablepavements

werespecified,norwerethestormconditionswhenthesedataweremeasured.Additionally,datawasnot

providedforinfluenttreatmentlevelsbecauseitwasnotmeasuredforthepavementsortherewerenotenough

samplesforstatisticalanalysis.However,theBMPDBmaintainsaworkingdatabaseanditiscurrentlyupdating

statisticsfor2009.

Finally,studiesonsafetyarealsolimited.OnestudyofsafetyofsurfacecourseporousasphaltinEurope(where

permeablepavements)aremorecommonwasinconclusiveduetoinconsistentreporting.(ElvikandGreibe,2005)

PermeablePavementBenefits

Permeablepavementsoffermanybenefits,bothaestheticandpractical.Theseinclude(CharlesRiverWatershed

Association:CWRA,2008):

x Reducesstormwaterrunoff,totalwatervolume,andflowrate

x Treatswaterrunoff,includingreductionoftemperature

x Increasesgroundwaterinfiltrationandrecharge

x Provideslocalfloodcontrol

x Improvesthequalityoflocalsurfacewaterways

x Reducessoilerosion

x Reducestheneedfortraditionalstormwaterinfrastructure,whichmayreducetheoverallprojectcostx Increasestractionwhenwet

x Reducessplashupintraffickedareas

x Extendsthelifeofpavedareaincoldclimatesduetolesscrackingandbucklingfromthefreezethawcycle

x Reducestheneedforsaltandsanduseduringthewinter,duetolittleornoblackice

x Requireslesssnowplowing

x Reducesgroundwaterpollution

x Createsgreenspace(grassgroundcover,shadefromtreecanopies,etc.)

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x Offersevaporativecooling

x Porouspavementsreducethevolumeofstormwater,increasetherecharge,controlthepeakrate,andoffera

highoutflowingwaterquality.

x Pollutantsareremoved:totalsuspendedsolidsarereducedby85%,NO3by30%,andtotalphosphorousby

85%.(PDEP,2006)

CostConsiderationsWithapermeablepavementsystem,traditionalstormwatersystemsmaybereducedorbypassedentirely.This

mayreducethetotallifecyclecostoftheprojectsignificantly.Costdependsonthesystemchosen,andvaries

widely.Awashedaggregategravelpathwaythatmaybeappropriateinsomepedestrianareaswillbeextremely

inexpensiveandhaveextremelyhighhydraulicconductivities(HunDorris,2005).Forsurfacecourses,permeable

asphaltismoreexpensivethantraditionalasphalt.Theprojectspecificsalsosignificantlydictatethecost,andmust

beconsideredindividually.(EPA,2000)

x Porousasphalt,withadditives,maycostmorethanstandardasphaltonaunitareabasis.Generallythis

dependsonavailabilityandcontractorfamiliarity.(PDEP,2006)

x Porousconcreteasamaterialisgenerallymoreexpensivethanporousasphaltandrequiresmorelaborand

experienceforinstallationduetospecificmaterialconstraints.(ibid.)

x

Porouspaverblocksvaryincostdependingontype,manufacturer,ordervolumeandsitelayout.(ibid.)

DesignElements

Designofpermeablestructuresgenerallyincludesapermeablesurfacesuchasasphaltorportlandcement

concreteoverabaseoffines,whichhelptofilterthewater,anduniformlygradedgravel,whichstoresthewaterasitinfiltratesthroughthegroundbelowthestructure.Anuncompactedsoilbaseishighlyrecommended,and

constructionpracticeswhichemphasizethisarecriticalforgroundwaterrecharge.(CRWA,2008)

Thedesignofpermeablepavementsvariesconsiderablyduetolocationandcostconsiderations.However,three

thingsmustbeconsideredregardlessofwhichdesignisbeingconsidered:(1)thelocationandanyuniquefeatures,

hydrogeologicandgeotechnicalcharacteristics,localcodes,etc.;(2)properstructuraldesign;(3)andqualityconstruction(HunDorris,2005).Soilbeneaththepermeablepavementstructuremustallowtheaccumulated

watertodrain,meaningthesesoilsmustnotbeovercompacted.Caremustalsobetakentoensurethatdebrisand

waterdrainsawayfromthepermeablestructure,inalldirections,toensurethatcloggingdoesnotbecomeaproblem.

MaintenanceRequirements

Regularmaintenanceisrecommendedforpermeablepavements.Thismayincluderesodding,layinggravel,and

othersmallrepairs.Othertypicalconcernsformaintainingthepermeablepavementarelimitedtoaesthetics,

snowandiceconditionsandtheprevention/repairofclogging.

ClogPrevention

Moretypically,maintenanceofapermeablestructurereferstovacuumsweeping,pressurewashing,orair

blowingtoremovedebris.Vacuumingisrecommended(PDEP,2006).Dependingonthesite,thismayneedto

happen24timesayear(CRWA,2008).Cloggingcanbepreventedormitigatedthroughproperroutine

maintenanceofplantedareas,cleaningupsoilspills,thoughtfulconstructionstagingandstorageofsoils,

coveringpermeablepavementinstallationsduringconstructionandcleaningdrainageinletsatleasttwicea

yearorseasonally(PDEP,2006).Properdesignmaypreventclogging,suchasdesigningfordrainageawayfrom

theporoussectionofpavement.Thiswillkeepdebrisfromsweepingontothepavementwhileallowingrainto

infiltratethesoilbelow(PDEP,2006).

WinterMaintenance

Wintermaintenanceforpermeablepavementsissimplerthanthatfortypicalpavementsbecausethe

increasedairvoidsandheatretentioninthestonebedbeneaththepavementtendstoprovidegoodsnow

437





melt,leadingtoreducedsnowandiceproblems.Abrasivesthatmightpromotelocalizeclogging,suchassand,

onorneartheporouspavementshouldbeavoided.Snowplowingmaybeusedwithcaution,settingtheblade

aboutaninchhigherthannormal.Saltmaybeused;however,nontoxicorganicdeicersarepreferred,asthe

contaminatedwaterwillgodirectlytothewatertable.

Repairs

Drainagestructurerepairhasthehighestpriority,inordertokeepthesystemworkingasdesigned.Pavementstructuralrepairswilllikelybelimitedprimarilytoareasthatmayhavesettledduetosoftsoils.Theseareas

maybepatchedwithstandardorpermeablepavement.Potholeswillrarelybeaproblem,duetothelackofa

freezethawcycleasintypicalpavements.Sealcoatsoughtnottobeused,astheywouldnullifythebenefitofapermeablepavement.

GLOSSARY

OGFC Opengradedfrictioncourse

CurveNumber Ahydrologicalparameterthatisusedtomodelrunoff

TKN TotalKjeldahlNitrogen

Permeablepavement Apavementstructuralsystemthathasmore voidsthanaconventionalpaved

surfacesuchasconcreteorasphalt

REFERENCES

Abbott,C.L.&CominoMateos,L.(2003).InSituHydraulicPerformanceofaPermeablePavementSustainable

UrbanDrainageSystem.WaterandEnvironmentalManagement:JournaloftheInstitutionofWaterand

EnvironmentalManagement.17,187190.

BlairCountyConservationDistrict.(n.d.)StormwaterBestManagementPractices.AccessedJanuary9,2010.

Availableathttp://www.blairconservationdistrict.org/SWBMP.htm

Booth,D.B.&JenniferLeavitt.(1999).Fieldevaluationofpermeablepavementsystemsforimprovedstormwater

management. JournalofPlanningLiterature.14(2).

Boving,T.,Stolt,M.,Augenstern,J.,&Brosnan,B.(2008).Potentialforlocalizedgroundwatercontaminationina

porouspavementparkinglotsettinginRhodeIsland.EnvironmentalGeology.55(3),571582.

BratteboB.O.&BoothD.B.(2003).Longtermstormwaterquantityandqualityperformanceofpermeable

pavementsystems.WaterResearch.37(18),436976.

CharlesRiverWatershedAssociation(CRWA).(2008)LowImpactBestManagementPracticesInformationSheet:

PermeablePavement.AccessedJanuary9,2010.Availableat

http://www.crwa.org/projects/blackstone/maintenance_brochure_web.pdf

CityofSeattleDepartmentofPlanningandDevelopmentandSeattlePublicUtilities.(2009,June30).

EnvironmentallyCriticalAreas:BestAvailableScienceReview.(SupplementalReport).StormwaterCode&

GradingCodeRevisions.AccessedNovember22,2009.Availableathttp://www.seattle.gov/DPD/Planning/Stormwater_Grading_and_Drainage_Code_Revisions/Overview/

ElvikR,&GreibeP.(2005).Roadsafetyeffectsofporousasphalt:asystematicreviewofevaluationstudies.

Accident;AnalysisandPrevention.37(3),51522.

GeosyntecConsultantsandWrightWaterEngineers.(2008)BMPDB:BMPPerformanceSummaries.Tableof

PerformancebyBMPCategoryandCommonPollutantType.AccessedJanuary9,2010.Availableat

http://www.bmpdatabase.org/BMPPerformance.htm

438





HunDorris,T.(2005,March1).AdvancesinPorousPavement|stormh20.comStormwater.AccessedJanuary9,

2010.Availableathttp://www.stormh2o.com/marchapril2005/pavementmaterialswatershed.aspx

NorthCarolinaDivisionofWaterQuality(NCDWQ).(2007).NCDWQStormwaterBMPManual.N.C.Divisionof

WaterQuality.Availableathttp://h2o.enr.state.nc.us/su/bmp_updates.htm

PennsylvaniaDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection.(PDEP).(2006).PennsylvaniaStormwaterBestManagementPracticesManual.(3630300002).Availableat

http://www.elibrary.dep.state.pa.us/dsweb/View/Collection8305

UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2000,October).FieldEvaluationofPermeablePavements

forStormwaterManagement.(EPA841B00005B)Washington,D.C.:OfficeofWater,EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.

439





440




PT-3 Warm Mix Asphalt

WARM MIX ASPHALTGOAL

Reducefossilfueluseatthehotmixasphaltplant,decreaseemissionsattheplant,and

decreaseworkerexposuretoemissionsduringplacement.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Reducethemixingtemperatureofhotmixasphaltbyaminimumof50°Ffromthat

recommendedasthemixingtemperaturebytheasphaltbindersupplier.Mixing

temperatureshallbemeasuredasthetemperatureofthemixtureasitexitsthemixing

drum(fordrumplants)orpugmill(forbatchplants).Thisreducedtemperaturemix

mustcompriseaminimumof50%ofthetotalprojectpavement(hotmixasphaltor

portlandcementconcrete)byweight.

Details

ThiscreditrequiresarecommendedHMAmixingtemperaturetobeprovidedby

theasphaltbindersupplier.ThisrecommendedtemperatureshouldbeasifnoWMAtechnologyweretobeused.Iftherecommendedmixingtemperatureis

providedasarange,usehighendoftherangeforcalculationoftherequired50°F

degreereduction.

Notethatconcreteproductsdonotqualifyforthiscredit.

SeveraladditivesandplantequipmentoptionsareavailableforWMAtechnology.

Allareacceptable.Basedonregionalavailability,oneadditiveorequipmenttype

maybepreferredoveranother.

DOCUMENTATION

x AcopyoftheWMAmixdesignshouldbesubmitted.Themixdesignshouldhavethefollowingitemshighlighted:

a. NameofWMAtechnologyused

b. Ifanadditivewasused,percentagebyweightofbinderorbyweightofmix

c. Totaltonsofhightypepavementontheproject,includingPortlandcement

concreteandasphaltconcrete(hot,warmandcoldmix)

d. TotaltonsofWMApavementused

e. WMAmixtemperatureasitexitsthedrum(drumplant)orpugmill(batchplant)

f. Recommendedasphaltbindermixingtemperaturefromtheasphaltbinder

supplier.

g. TotalfuelusedintheburnerpertonofWMA

h. TotalfuelusedintheburnerpertonofHMAifHMAwasused.IfHMAwasnot

used,ageneralplantaverageisacceptable.

x Aphototakenduringplacementofthemix,clearlylabeledtoidentifytheWMA.

PT-3

3 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 MR4Recycled

Materials

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology9 Equity

9 Experience

BENEFITS

9 ReducesFossilFuel

Use

9 ReducesAir

Emissions

9 ReducesGreenhouse

Gasses

9 ImprovesHuman

Health&Safety9 ReducesFirstCosts

441




Warm Mix Asphalt PT-3


x Considerspecifyingatemperaturereductionattheplantofaminimumof50°Finthedesigndocumentsand

listallapprovedadditivesormethodsallowedtoachievethistemperaturereduction.

Example: Case Study – Warm Mix Asphalt on I-90 in Vantage, WA

TheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT)recentlycompleteda10.6milemillandoverlayprojectontheeastboundtrucklaneofInterstate90betweenVantageandGeorge,WA(WSDOT,2008).Partof

theproject(approximately5.0miles)waspavedusingconventionalHMA,whiletheremainingfinal5.6miles

waspavedusingWMA.Thesamecontractor,productionplant,trucksandpavingequipmentwereusedfor

bothmixes.Bothmixeswereplacedinonetwoinchliftandcontained20percentrecycledasphaltpavement(RAP),themaximumallowedbyWSDOTwithoutspecialtesting.ThemixdesignwashalfinchSuperpavewith

5.2percentPG7628binder.Sasobit®wasaddedtothewarmmixat2.0percentbyweightofthebinder.TheSasobit®additivewasprovidedbySasolwax,Inc.andproducedattheSasolSouthAfricaplantinSasolburg,

RSA.Theadditivecostwasroughly$25,000(includingshipping),orabouttwopercentofthetotal$1.36millionpavingportionoftheproject.

Basedonfielddatacollected,theWMAwasmixedat300°FandtheHMAwasmixedat350°F.Thisresultedina

23.5percentreductionofdieselfueluseintheburner.Themanufacturingprocessesforthesetwotypesof

asphaltpavementweregenerallyidentical,savethattheWMAincludestheSasobit®additivetoallowalower

productiontemperaturetobeusedintheburner.(Itisworthnotingthatthistemperaturewasmuchhigher

thantheminimumtemperaturenecessaryfortheadditive,accordingtoSasolwax)(SasolWaxGmbh,1997).

Othernotesonthisproject:

x Fieldcompactiontestresults(usingstandardWSDOTprocedures)averaged93.7forWMA(11lotswith5

randomsamplesper400tonlot)and93.6percentforHMA(19lots),withWMAallowingmoretimeforthe

rollerstoreachcompaction.

x Duringplacement,infraredphotographstakenduringobservationsindicatedthattemperaturesweremore

uniformacrosstheWMAmatthantheHMAmat.

Moreinformationonthatprojectcanbefoundhere:http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/I90/WGeorgePaving/

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Monitortheplantoperationstoensurethatthetemperatureismaintainedat50°Fbelowtherecommended

mixingtemperature.

2. Donotuserecommendedmixingtemperaturesthatmightresultinasphaltbinderthermaldegradation,

typicallydefinedbytheAsphaltInstituteastemperaturesabove350°F(175°C).

RESEARCH

Warmmixasphalt(WMA)isarelativelynewtechnologytotheUnitedStates’pavingindustrythatshowsgreat

promisetoreduceboththeamountofenergyusedinconstructinghotmixasphalt(HMA)pavementsandtheair

emissionsassociatedwithpavementconstruction.WMAiscommonlyusedinEurope,wherenonrenewableresourcesarestrictlyregulatedandoftenheatandfuelenergyrequiredforconventionalhotmixasphalt(HMA)

arecostprohibitive(D'Angeloetal.,2008).Lately,WMAhasbecomeanintriguingenvironmentalmarketing

incentive,bothpopularizedandheavilyadvocated,andthematerialisbecomingmoreacceptedduetothe

relativelynewsustainabilitymovementamongengineeringandconstructionprofessionals.Emphasisonclimate

change,energyconservationandhumanhealthimpactshasbroughtWMApavingtotheforefrontofthis

newfoundenvironmentalmovement.Recentfieldandlaboratorystudies(Hurley,2006;Wasiuddin,Selvamohan,

Zaman,&Guegan,2007)conductedintheU.S.haveproducedpositiveresults,indicatingthatWMAisaviable

optiontoreducethepotentialenvironmentalandsocietalimpactsassociatedwithpavingandconstruction.

442





Mostofthewarmmixasphaltstudiesandresearchciteseveralpositiveandfewnegativetraitsofthematerial.

ParticularlydetailedresearchandreferencescanbefoundintheKristiandottir’sthesis(2006)andGhandi’s

dissertation(2008).Bothoftheseresearchersreviewtheexistingtypesofwarmmixadditivesavailable,discuss

theengineeringpropertiesofthematerialsandadditivesindetail,andaddresspotentialapplicationssuchascold

weatherpavingandhighrecycledcontentmixes.Themostcommonincentivescitedarelowerfuelconsumption

duringthemixproductionandimprovedcompactionandworkabilityduringplacementofthemix(Kristjansdottir,

2006).Bothofthesetraitsallowformoreuniformmattemperaturesandextendedcompactiontime.

However,longtermWMAperformancedatainU.S.applicationsisscarcebecausethetechnologyissorecent.

Noteddrawbacksgenerallyincludeslightlyheightenedconcernforruttingpotential,thoughttobeduetoinadequatedryingoftheaggregatesforuseinthelowertemperaturemixes(Hurley,2006;Kristiandottir,2006;

Wasiuddin,Selvamohan,Zaman,&Guegan,2007;Ghandi,2008)and,simply,cost(Muench,Kristiandottir,Pierce,&Willoughby,2007).

Morerecently,interestinwarmmixmaterialhassparkedfieldexperimentsforperformancetestingwithusinga

highercontentofrecycledasphaltpavement(RAP)toalleviatestiffmixes(Mallick,Bradley,&Bradbury,2007)and

anoteworthyshortdurationhighloadstudyattheNCATtrack(Prowell,Hurley,&Crews,2007).Generally,the

resultsshowagreementwiththebenefitsnotedaboveforcomparingperformanceofWMAwithasimilarly

designedandplacedmatofHMA.

Airemissionscontributetoglobalwarming,acidrainandsmogformationthroughoutthelifecycleofapavement.

Additionally,studieshaveshownthatasphaltpavingmayhavedetrimentaleffectsonhumanhealth(Herrick,

McClean,Meeker,Zwack,&Hanley,2007;Gasthauer,Maze,Marchand,&Amouroux,2008)duetothepresence

ofvolatilehydrocarbons(PAHs,polycyclicaromatichydrocarbons)releasedwhentheasphaltisheated.For

example,themostcommongasemittedfrombituminouspavementsisnaphthalenewhichisclassifiedbythe

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)asacarcinogen.Lifecycleemissionscomefromtransportationsources,any

constructionordemolitionequipment,stationarymanufacturingequipmentandanypartofthemanufacturing

processthatusesfossilfuelsasanenergysource(includingelectricity).Othersubstanceemissionscomefrom

fumesofthepavementitselfduringboththemanufacturingprocessandconstruction,whichcanadverselyaffect

humanhealth.AiremissionsarethushighlyregulatedbytheEPA.Ofparticularinterestareemissionsduringthe

pavingprocess,whichareknowntodirectlyimpactworkerhealth(NIOSH,1997).

Fossilfuelderivations,suchascoal,dieselfuel,andgasolinearemajorinputstoallprocessesintheproductionof

asphaltpavements.Thesefuelsareusedinmanytypesofpavingequipmentduringaggregateexcavation,truck

andrailtransportation,manufacturingequipment(suchasburnersandcrushers),pavingconstruction(and

deconstruction),andindisposalatlandfills.Also,electricityandheatattheplantaregeneratedusingmostlynon

renewablefossilfuelsourcesinmostU.S.locations.Thiscreditfocusesonreducinglifecycleairemissionsonly

fromthemixproductionandplacementprocessesbyencouragingreducedfueluseattheplantthroughuseofa

temperatureloweringwarmmixadditive.

Lifecycleassessments(LCA)havebeencompletedbyvariousinstitutionsattemptingtoidentifyandquantifyair

emissionsandenergyuseforasphaltpavements(Zapata&Gambetese,2005;Meil,2007;Horvath,2007).Zapata

&Gambetese(2005)notethatbecauseexistingLCAsvaryinmethod,theytendtoproducecontradictoryresults

accordingtotheirinputvariablesandmodelassumptions.Further,reliableandpubliclyaccessibledataon

environmentalemissionsorfuelconsumptionforanytypeofHMApavement,includingWMA,israre,outdatedorsimplydoesnotcurrentlyexist.However,theEPApublishedgeneralemissionsestimationtechniquesforstandard

hotmixplantsbasedonaverageU.S.datacollectedforthe1997industrycensus(EPA,2000).Sinceairemissions

increasewithhighertemperatures,andWMAallowsforlowertemperaturestobeusedinproduction,itfollows

thatWMAapplicationswillgenerallyreduceemissionsduringthepavementproductionprocess.

443





GLOSSARY


HMA Hotmixasphalt


PAH Polycyclicaromatichydrocarbon

WMA Warmmixasphalt

REFERENCES

D'Angelo,J.etal.WarmMixAsphalt:EuropeanPractice.ReportNo.FHWAPL08007

http://www.warmmixasphalt.com/submissions/68_20080223_FHWAPL08007.pdf .(28June2008).72pp.

Gandhi,T.(2008).Effectsofwarmasphaltadditivesonasphaltbinderandmixtureproperties.Thesis(Ph.D.)

ClemsonUniversity,2008.

Gasthauer,E.,Maze,M.,Marchand,J.P.,&Amouroux,J.(2008).Characterizationofasphaltfumecompositionby

GC/MSandeffectoftemperature.Fuel:Guildford .87(7),14281434.

Herrick,R.F.,McClean,M.D.,Meeker,J.D.,Zwack,L.,&Hanley,K.(2007).PhysicalandChemicalCharacterizationofAsphalt(Bitumen)PavingExposures. JournalofOccupationalandEnvironmentalHygiene.4,209216.

Horvath,A.UniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.PaLATE.PavementLifecycleTool.

http://www.ce.berkeley.edu/~horvath/palate.html5June2007(20May2008).

Hurley,G.C.&Prowell,B.D.(2006).Evaluationofpotentialprocessesforuseinwarmmixasphalt.Journalofthe

AssociationofAsphaltPavingTechnologists.ProceedingsoftheTechnicalSessions,2006AnnualMeeting.75,

4190.

InternationalOrganizationforStandardization.ISO14040:2006(E)EnvironmentalManagement—Lifecycle

Assessment—PrinciplesandFramework.2nded.2006:IHS.

InternationalOrganizationforStandardization.ISO14044:2006(E)EnvironmentalManagement—Lifecycle

Assessment—RequirementsandGuidelines.1sted.2006:IHS.

Kristjansdottir,O.(2006).Warmmixasphaltforcoldweatherpaving.Thesis(M.S.C.E.)UniversityofWashington,

2006.

Kristjansdottir,O.,Muench,S.,Michael,L.,&Burke,G.(2007).AssessingPotentialforWarmMixAsphaltTechnologyAdoption.TransportationResearchRecord .(2040),9199.

Mallick,R.,Bradley,J.,&Bradbury,R.(2007).EvaluationofHeatedReclaimedAsphalt.PavementMaterialand

WaxModifiedAsphaltforUseinRecycledHotMixAsphalt.TransportationResearchRecord .(1998),112122.

Meil,Jaime.AthenaResearchInstitute.ALifecyclePerspectiveonConcreteandAsphaltRoadways:EmbodiedPrimaryEnergyandGlobalWarmingPotential.SubmittedtotheCementAssociationofCanada.15November

2006.

NationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealth(NIOSH).(1997)EngineeringControlGuidelinesforHotMixAsphaltPaversPart1NewHighwayClassPavers.PublicationNo.97–105.

Prowell,B.,Hurley,G.,&Crews,E.(2007).FieldPerformanceofWarmMixAsphaltatNationalCenterforAsphalt

TechnologyTestTrack.TransportationResearchRecord .(1998),96102.

444





SasolWaxGmbh.Sasobit.TheBitumenAdditiveForHighlyStableEasilyCompactibleAsphalts.

http://www.sasolwax.com/sasolwaxmedia/Downloads/Bitumen+Modification/Sasobit+since+1997.pdf(28July

2008).

UnitedStatedEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.HotMixAsphaltPlantsEmissionAssessmentReport(EPA454/R

00019).FinalreportdatedDecember2000.http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch11/related/eareport.pdf

(28July2008).

UnitedStatesDepartmentofEnergy(USDOE).DepartmentofEnergy–Homepage.http://www.doe.gov/(31July

2008).

UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.IndividualEmissions–PersonalEmissionsCalculator.http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/ind_calculator.html25February2008(31July2008).

WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation.“WSDOTProjectI90WestofGeorgePaving.”

http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/I90/WGeorgePaving/27July2008).

Wasiuddin,N.,Selvamohan,S.,Zaman,M.,&Guegan,M.(2007).ComparativeLaboratoryStudyofSasobitand

AsphaMinAdditivesinWarmMixAsphalt.TransportationResearchRecord .(1998),8288.

Zapata,P.&Gambatese,J.A.(2005).EnergyConsumptionofAsphaltandReinforcedConcretePavementMaterials

andConstruction.JournalofInfrastructureSystems.11(1),920.

445





446




PT-4 Cool Pavement

COOL PAVEMENTGOAL

Reducecontributiontolocalizedincreasedairtemperaturesduetopavement

reflectanceandminimizestormwaterrunofftemperatures.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Useapavementsurfacewithaminimumalbedoof0.3(measuredusingASTME903)

foraminimumof50%ofthetotalprojectpavementsurfacingbyarea.

OR

Useaporouspavementorpaversforaminimumof50%ofthetotalprojectpavement

surfacingbyarea.

Ineithercase,thesurfacesintendedforusebyvehicles(e.g.,roads,parkinglots)must

allbeincludedinthecalculation.Othersurfaces(e.g.,sidewalks)maybeincludedif

desired.Acombinationofmaterialsmaybeusedtomeetthe50%arearequirement.

Details

Calculatethepercentofcoolpavement(CP)surfaceareaontheprojectusing

EquationPT.4.1.

Where:

x LSAisthetotallightcoloredorhighalbedosurfaceareatestedtohavea

minimum0.3albedo

x PSAisthetotalpermeableorporoussurfaceareax Aisthetotalpavedsurfaceareaontheproject.

Areacalculationsmustbeconsistentacrossallcreditsrequiringcomputationsof

thistype(i.e.thetotalarea,A,mustmatchthroughout).Notethatcombinationsof

materialsmaybeusedtoachievethiscredit.

DOCUMENTATION

Providethefollowingsupportinginformation,asapplicable:

x Copyorcopiesofalbedotestresults.

x Copyoftheporouspavementmixdesignnotingtotalairvoidsinthemix,orvoids

specificationsforpaverblocksbasedonmethodofinstallation.

x Aphotoofthepavementwithcoolpavementareasidentifiedeitherwithtext

describingthemorgraphicshighlightingthem.

x Aplanshowingthelocationsofthecoolpavementsontheprojectwithcool

pavementareashighlighted.

PT-4

5 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 MR6Energy

Efficiency

9 PT2Permeable

Pavement

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Equity

9 Economy

9 Extent

9 Expectations

9 Experience

BENEFITS

9 ReducesFossilFuel

Use


9 ReducesGreenhouse

Gases


(Equation PT-4.1)

447




Cool Pavement PT-4


x Considerspecifyingahighalbedoaggregatewearingcourseforthepavementsection(especiallyforHMA),

highalbedopavements(likePCC)orconsiderhighalbedosurfacecoatings.

x Considerporousorpermeablepavementmaterialsorproducts.

Example: CalculationA2milesectionofInterstatehighwayisreconstructedconsistingoftwo12ftwidetravelledlanespavedwith

PCC(albedomeasuredat0.46)andan8ftwideoutsideshoulderpavedwithHMA(albedooftheHMAmeasuredat0.18).Inthisinstance,thePCCcountsasacoolpavement.Thetotalcoolpavementareais

calculatedusingequationPT4.1:

Thisprojectwouldsatisfythecreditrequirements.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Albedoisnottheonlyindicatorofapavement’scontributiontotheUHIeffect.

2. Forapavementinaruralarea,itmaynotbeappropriatetopursuethiscreditsincetheUHIeffectisadistinctly

urbanphenomenon.

3. Pavementalbedoschangeovertimeastheyweatherandage.

4. Pavementalbedosalsovarywithsurroundingssuchastimeofdayandshadecover.

5. Retentionofheatinthepavementsectionsvarywiththickness.

6. Permeablepavementscanbecomelesspermeableovertimewithoutpropermaintenance.

RESEARCH

Theurbanheatisland(UHI)effectis“…ameasurableincreaseinambienturbanairtemperaturesresulting

primarilyfromthereplacementofvegetationwithbuildings,roads,andotherheatabsorbinginfrastructure.”(EPA2009).Thisoccurrence(FigurePT4.1)isduetothereductionofnaturalvegetation,increasedhumanactivityand

theabsorptionandradiationofsolarenergyinallbuiltsurfaces.Roofs,parks,waterbodiesandpavementsallhavedifferentpropertiesthatdeterminehowmuchofthesun’sheatisabsorbedandreleased,andtheyallinteract

togetherandwithothersystemsinanurbanareatoproduceatotalHeatIslandEffect(HIE).TheUHIeffectshouldnotbeconfusedwithclimatechange(globalwarming);theyareseparateandratherunrelateditems.TheUHI

effectisspecificallyalocaltemperatureincrease(generallythedifferencebetweenurbanandsurroundingrural

areas)whileclimatechangereferstolargerscalevariationsinglobalclimatecaused,ingeneral,bygreenhousegas

emissionsresultingfromhumanactivity.Studiesandsimulationsperformedfor10largecitiesintheU.S.indicateanaverageUHIeffectofabout3.5°F(2°C),comparedtosurroundingruralareas(Pomerantzetal.,2000)andsome

citiesareasmuchas10°F(5.6°C)warmerthansurroundingnaturallandcover(EPA2008).UHIcanimpact

sustainabilityinthefollowingways(EPA,2009):

x Energyconsumption.Highertemperaturesincreaseartificialcooling(airconditioning)demand.Akbari(2005)

claimsthatincreasedcoolingdemandcanaccountfor510%ofurbanpeakelectricitydemand.FigurePT4.2

showshowenergyloadscanincreaseastemperaturerises.

448




PT-4 Cool Pavement

x Emissions.Increasedelectricitydemandresultsinmorepowerplantoperationandresultantairpollutionand

greenhousegasgeneration.

x Humanhealth.TheUHIeffectcancontributeto“…generaldiscomfort,respiratorydifficulties,heatcrampsand

exhaustion,nonfatalheatstroke,andheatrelatedmortality.”(EPA,2009).

x Waterquality.Higherpavementtemperaturescanheatstormwaterrunoff.Higherwatertemperaturescan,in

turn,affectmetabolismandreproductionofaquaticspecies.

FigurePT4.1:UrbanHeatIslandEffect(UHI).Thegraphshowshownighttimetemperaturesremainwarmerin

theurbanareasduetotheUHI(fromEPA,2009).

FigurePT4.2:Increasingelectricalloadswithincreasingtemperatures.

ThisisanexampleofNewOrleansfromSailor(2002).

449




Cool Pavement PT-4

Impacts

Inshort,UHIeffectsustainabilityimpactsaredrivenbyenergyconsumption(forenergyandemissionsimpacts)

andheat(forhumanhealthandwaterqualityimpacts).

Energy

Increasedlocalurbantemperaturestypicallyleadtohigherelectricalloadsandmoreresultantenergyuseand

emissions.Forevery1°F(0.6

°C)increaseinsummertimetemperature,peakutilityloadsinmediumandlarge

citiesincreasebyanestimated1.52.0%(EPA,2008).Areductionof1.83.6°F(12°C)inregionalaveragetemperaturescanresultina10%decreaseofthepeakenergydemand,hencelessenannualenergycostandall

impactsrelatedtoenergyextraction.Rosenfeldetal.(1996)estimatedthateliminatingtheUHIeffectinLosAngeles(areductionof5.4°F(3°C))couldreducepeakpowerconsumptionby1.6GWresultinginasavingsof

about$175million/year.Ofnote,Rosenfeldetal.(1996)estimatedthecontributionofcoolerpavements(atheoreticalincreaseofallpavementalbedoby0.25)tothistotalat$15million/year.

HumanHealth

Higherurbantemperaturesleadtotheformationofmoresmog.Specifically,thechemicalreactionbetween

sunlight,nitrogenoxides(NOx)andvolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs)intheatmospherethatleadstothe

formationofparticulatematter(PM)andgroundlevelozoneisatemperaturesensitivereaction;productionofPMandsmogisincreasedwithincreasedtemperature.Theimpactsofthisreactiononhumansaresignificant

andincludebreathingdifficulties,headaches,fatigueandexacerbatedrespiratoryproblems.Thus,theUHIeffectcanincreasePMandgroundlevelozoneinanurbanareabyraisingthelocaltemperature.Inmodeling

theLosAngelesBasin,Rosenfeldetal.(1996)estimatedthateliminationoftheUHIeffectinLosAngeles(areductionof5.4°F(3°C))couldreducesmogexceedanceby12%(reducetheamountoftimetheareaexceeds

theCaliforniastandardof90ppbvatthetimeofthestudy)resultinginasavingsofabout$360million/year.Of

note,Rosenfeldetal.(1996)estimatedthecontributionofcoolerpavements(atheoreticalincreaseofall

pavementalbedoby0.25)tothistotalat$76million/year.

PavementContributiontotheUrbanHeatIslandEffect

PavementsarefoundtobeasignificantcontributortotheUHItemperatureincreasebecause(1)theyconstitutea

substantialportionoftotalurbanlandcoverageand(2)pavementscanstoreandradiateasignificantamountof

heat.Inlookingatfourcities(Sacramento,Chicago,SaltLakeCityandHouston)Roseetal.(2003)found

pavements(roads,parkinglots,sidewalks,etc.)makeup2945percentofthetotallandcoverage,andabouthalfthetotalUHIcontributingsurfacecoverage.Roseetal.(2003)furtherreportthatroads(theitemmostdirectly

addressedbyGreenroads)makeup3359percentofthetotalpavementcoverage.Thus,asagrossapproximation,roadpavementsconstituteaboutonequarterthetotalsurfaceareacontributingtotheUHI(about3359%ofone

halftheUHIcontributingsurfacecoverage)inurbanareas.Thenextsectiondiscussestheimpactcooler

pavementscanhaveontheUHIeffect.

CoolPavementImpacts

Coolpavementsaredesignedtoreducetheabsorptionofthesun’senergyandconsequentlyradiatelessheatto

thesurroundingenvironment.Solarenergyisabsorbedbythepavementsurfaceandbecomesstoredasheatin

thepavement.Pavingmaterialscanreachasmuchas150°F(EPA,2005)onsunnydays,radiatingthisheatduringthedayandduringthenightbackintotheairaswellasheatstormwaterthatreachesthepavementsurface.

Inadditiontotheimpactsmentionedintheprevioussection,studiesinCalifornia(Pomerantzetal.,2000)haveestimatedthatifthesolarabsorptionofallpavementswerereducedfrom90%to65%,thepeakairtemperature

inanurbanareawoulddecreaseby1°F(0.6°C).Thisdecreaseisroughlyequivalenttoanalbedoof0.25on25%of

allpavementsinacertainurbanarea(Pomerantzetal.,2000).Experimentallyandbycalculationitisfoundthatan

increaseinalbedoof0.1producesachangeinpavementsurfacetemperatureofabout7°F(4°C)(Pomerantzet

al.,2003).Itmayalsobe,althoughithasnotbeenseenexperimentally,thatifpavementsurfacetemperaturesare

decreasedonhotdaystheresultingcoolerpavementsmayalsohavelongerlifetimesduetoreducedthermal

stresses.

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PT-4 Cool Pavement

PropertiesofCoolPavements

Coolpavementstrategiesarethosethatseektopurposelyreducepavement’simpactontheUHIeffectby

affectinghowpavementsabsorb,storeandradiateheat.FigurePT4.3illustratestherelationshipofheat

transfermechanismsinapavementstructure.

FigurePT4.3:Heatrelatedcharacteristicsandprocessesinpavement(CambridgeSystematics,Inc.,2005).

Therearetwomaintypesofcoolpavementstrategies:

1. Reducesolarreflectance.Uselightercoloredmaterialsbecausetheyhavehighersolarreflectance(as

measuredbyalbedo)sotheyabsorblessofthesun'senergyandstaycooler.

2. Improvecooling.Useporousmaterialsbecausethey(1)allowforconvectivecoolingbecauseaircanflow

throughthepavementvoidsand(2)allowforevaporativecoolingbecausewatercanalsoenterthepavementvoidsinarainevent.

ReduceSolarReflectance

Moststudiesmentiontheeffectofheatislandmitigationtakingplaceinthetoplayerduetovariationsinsolar

reflectanceandporosity.However,otherstudieshaveshownthatachangeinsolarreflectancealonemaynot

betheonlyimportantfactorindeterminingthepavementsurfacetemperaturethroughawholeyear.Factorssuchaspavementthickness,heatstoragecapacity,thematerial’sthermalconductivityanddensityarealso

importantconsiderations(Golden&Kaloush,2006;CambridgeSystematics,Inc.,2005).

Thesolarreflectanceofapavementiscorrelatedtoanumberofpavementpropertiesincluding(Pomerantzet

al.,2000):

x Pavementage.Asalightpavementgetsolderitgetsdarker.Forinstance,concreteisdarkenedbythe

presenceofironoxideanddirt.Asadarkpavementgetsolderitgetslighter.Forinstance,astheasphalt

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Cool Pavement PT-4

binderwearsofftheaggregateonthepavementsurfacetheaggregateshowsandthealbedoofthe

pavementapproachesthealbedooftheaggregate.Also,theasphaltitselfbecomeslighterduetooxidation.

x Aggregatecolor.Pomerantzetal.(2000)examinedseveraldifferentchipsealsandfoundthattheiralbedo

wasapproximately5080%thatofitsconstituentaggregate.

x Nonpavementfactors.Otherfactorssuchaswind,seabreeze,shadowingtrees,buildings,andeven

vehicleshadows.Thus,thepropertiesofthepavementarenottheonlypropertiesthatcontributeto

pavementsolarreflectivity.

FigurePT4.4showsseveraldifferentpavementsandtheircorrespondingalbedointhePhoenix,Arizonaarea

(CambridgeSystematics,Inc.,2005).

FigurePT4.4:Surfacetemperatureandalbedoforselectedtypesofpavementsin

Phoenix,Arizona(CambridgeSystematics,Inc.,2005).

DesignOptions.Thereareanumberofwaystoprovidehighlyreflectivepavementsurfaces.Thissectionlistsa

fewofthemorepopular:

x Useamorereflectivematerialsuchasportlandcementconcrete(PCC)forthepavementsurface.The

averageofPCCalbedoisusuallyhigherthanthatofagedhotmixasphaltorbituminoussurfacetreatments

(Pomerantzetal.,2003).Therearealsoanumberofadditivesthatcanbeusedtofurtherlightensurface

colorandincreasereflectivityincludingslagcement,whitecementandlightflyash.

x Usealightercoloredaggregate.Forbituminousmixtures(e.g.,hotmixasphalt,HMA)thebinderisusuallyquitedark.Thiscanbeatleastpartiallyoffsetbyusingalightcoloredaggregatelikelimestone.

x Changethepavement’ssurfacecolor.Thereareanumberofexistingtechniquesthatcanbeusedtocolora

pavementmixtureorsurfacetreatment.Theseusuallyinvolvepigmentdyesmixedwiththinsurface

treatmentstobeappliedoverthepavementstructure.

ImproveCooling

Usingporouspavementmixturescanalsoreduceapavement’scontributiontotheUHIeffect.HMA,PCCand

blockpaverscanbeusedtomakepavementsporous(orpermeable).Porous/permeablepavementsare

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PT-4 Cool Pavement

designedwithahighairvoidcontent(usually1525%ofthetotalvolume),whichresultsininterconnected

voidsandapavementthatisessentiallypermeabletowater.Theseairvoidsalsoprovideanopportunityfor

convectivecooling(asairflowsthroughthem)andevaporativecooling(iftheycontainwater,e.g.,afterarain

event).

Designoptions.Thereareessentiallytwomainoptionstoimprovepavementcooling:

x Porouspavement.Buildtheentirepavementstructurewithaporous/permeablematerial(e.g.,block

pavers,permeableHMAorPCC).Generallythisisdoneforstormwatertreatmentreasons;howevera

secondarybenefitisareductioninthepavement’scontributiontotheUHIeffect.

x Permeablewearingcourses.Buildanormalimpermeablepavement(e.g.,traditionalPCCordensegraded

HMA)andcoverthesurfacewithalayerofpermeablematerial.Whiletheentirepavementstructureisnot

permeable,thesurfaceis.Thereissomeevidencetosuggestthatthishelpspavementscoolmorequicklyat

night.

AdditionalInformation

TheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)maintainsanextensivewebsiteontheUHIeffect

(http://www.epa.gov/hiri).OfspecificinterestistheCoolPavementReport(CambridgeSystematics,Inc.)available

at:http://www.epa.gov/hiri/resources/pdf/CoolPavementReport_Former%20Guide_complete.pdf .

GLOSSARY

Albedo Ameasure ofamaterial'sabilitytoreflectsunlightonascaleof0to1.An

albedovalueof0.0indicatesthatthesurfaceabsorbsallsolarradiation,anda1.0albedovaluerepresentstotalreflectivity.

UrbanHeatIslandEffect “…ameasurableincreaseinambienturbanairtemperaturesresulting

primarilyfromthereplacementofvegetationwithbuildings,roads,andother

heatabsorbinginfrastructure.”(EPA2009).

REFERENCES

Akbari,H.(2005).EnergySavingPotentialsandAirQualityBenefitsofUrbanHeatIslandMitigation(PDF)(19pp,

251K).LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory.

CambridgeSystematics,Inc.(2005).CoolPavementReport–EPACoolPavementsStudyTask5.PreparedforHeat

IslandReductionInitiative,EPA,Washington,D.C.

Golden,J.S.&Kaloush,K.E.(2006).Mesoscaleandmicroscaleevaluationofsurfacepavementimpactsonthe

urbanheatislandeffects.InternationalJournalofPavementEngineering7(1).

Gui,J.,Phelan,P.E.,Kaloush,K.E.,&Golden,J.S.(2007).ImpactofPavementThermophysicalPropertieson

SurfaceTemperatures. JournalofMaterialsinCivilEngineering,19(8),683690.

Levinson,R.&Akbari,H.(2002).Effectsofcompositionandexposureonthesolarreflectanceofportlandcement

concrete.CementandConcreteResearch,32(11),16791698.

Marks,H.(2009).UrbanHeatIsland:NotaBlackandWhiteIssue.HMAT ,November/December2009,4041.

PomerantzM.,AkbariH.,ChangS.C.,LevinsonR.,&PonB.(2003).Examplesofcoolerreflectivestreetsforurban

HeatIslandMitigation:PortlandCementConcreteandChipSeals.LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory,

LBNL49283.

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Cool Pavement PT-4

Pomerantz,M.,B.Pon,H.Akbari,&S.C.Chang.(2000).TheEffectofPavementsTemperaturesonAir

TemperaturesinLargeCities.LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory,LBL43442.

Rose,L.S.,H.Akbari,&H.Taha.(2003).CharacterizingtheFabricoftheUrbanEnvironment:ACaseStudyof

GreaterHouston,Texas.PaperLBNL51448.LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory,Berkeley,CA.

Rosenfeld,A.H.,Romm,J.J.,Akbari,H.,Pomerantz,M.,&Taha,H.(1996).PoliciestoReduceHeatIslands:MagnitudesofBenefitsandIncentivestoAchieveThem.LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory,LBL38679.

Sailor,D.J.(2002).UrbanHeatIslands,OpportunitiesandChallengesforMitigationandAdaptation.SampleElectricLoadDataforNewOrleans,LA(NOPSI,1995).NorthAmericanUrbanHeatIslandSummit .Toronto,

Canada.14May2002.DatacourtesyEntergyCorporation.

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2008).ReducingUrbanHeatIslands:CompendiumofStrategies.EPA,

Washington,D.C.

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2009).HeatIslandEffectwebsite.http://www.epa.gov/hiri.Accessed

9June2009.

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PT-5 Quiet Pavement

QUIET PAVEMENTGOAL

Improvehumanhealthbyreducingtirepavementnoise.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Designatleast75%ofthetotalneworreconstructedpavementsurfaceareafor

regularlytraffickedlanesofpavementwherethespeedlimitmeetsorexceeds30miles

perhour(mph)withasurfacecoursethatproducestirepavementnoiselevelsator

belowthoselistedinTablePT5.1,whichdescribestestvehiclespeedparametersand

thepointscorrspondingtothelevelofnoisereductionachieved.Testthepavements

accordingtotheonboardsoundintensity(OBSI)methoddesribedbythecurrent

versionofAASHTOTP76.Computethetotalsurfaceareaofalltraffickedlanesthat

meetsorexceedspeedlimitsof30mphandshowthataminimumof75%ofthisarea

meetsthetabulatedcriteriafortirepavementnoise.Donotincludeshoulders,

medians,sidewalksandotherpavedareasoutsideofthetravelledwayinthe

computation.

TablePT5.1:TestingSpeedsandMaximumAverageOBSINoiseLevels

MaximumAverageNoiseLevel

FacilityPostedSpeedLimit TestSpeed 2points 3points

55mphormore 60mph 99dBA 95dBA

30to54mph 35mph 91dBA 88dBA

lessthan30mph Doesnotqualifyforcredit

Details

x OneOBSImeasurementshouldbedoneforeachroadwaysection.Aroadway

sectionisdefinedashavingthefollowingattributes:

x Thesamespeedlimitoveritsentirelength

x Astraightsectionatleast500ftlong(thetestrequires440ft)

x Thesamenominalsurfacingmaterialovertheentirelength

Therefore,insomeinstancesaprojectwillneedtoconductseveralOBSI

measurementsdependinguponthenumberofsectionsidentified.Portionsof

roadwaythatdonotmeetthesectiondefinition(usuallythismeansportions

thatdonotcontainatleasta500ftstraightsection)shallbedeemedtohave

metthecriteriafor2pointsprovidingtheprojecthasatleastonesectionthat

hasbeentestedandmeetsthecriteriafor2points.

x OBSItestingneedonlybedoneononelaneofagivenroadwayinonedirection.

Forinstance,onafourlanedividedhighwaytestingneedonlybedoneononelaneforonedirectiononly.

x OBSItestingmaybecompletedatanytimeonthefinalpavementsurface.

x ThenoiseleveltocomparewithTablePT5.1valuesistheweightedaverageof

alltestedsections(weightedbythelengthofeachsection).Forasectionthat

doesnothaveastraightportionofatleast500ft,butdoesmeettheothertwo

sectiondefinitionrequirements,theOBSImeasurementvalueshallbeassumed

equaltothe2pointvalueinTablePT5.1.

PT-5

2-3 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR5Noise

MitigationPlan

9 PT2Permeable

Pavement

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Ecology

9 Equity

9 Experience

BENEFITS

9 ImprovesHuman

Health&Safety


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Quiet Pavement PT-5

DOCUMENTATION

x Alistofpavementsectionstobebuilt(orreconstructed)andtheirassociatedsurfacematerialtype,AASHTOTP

76testresults,andsurfaceareas,andifdesignwasintendedtobequietornotinaccordancewiththerequirementsofthiscriterion.Thismaybeincludedaspartofthestandardprojectdocumentationorasa

separatedocument.

x

Acalculationtoindicatethetotalpercentageoftraffickedlanepavementsurfaceareassurfacedwithquietpavement.

x Adrawingorprojectmapshowinglocationsofquietpavements.Thesepavementsshouldbehighlightedon

theplan,ascaleshouldbeontheplan,andthetotalsurfaceareaofeachpavementsectionshouldbecalled

outasanoteontheplan.


x RefertoSandbergandEjsmont(2002),whichisanexcellentoverviewofquietpavementoptions,

fundamentalsandresearch,includingacomprehensivelistof33differentpavementdesignguidelinesfor

reducingtirepavementnoise.Wherenoisereductionlevelsarementionedtheyrefertoanewlyconstructed

quietpavementsurfaceandrelateittoamorestandardsurface;oftenthesurfacethatwaspreviouslyusedor

previouslymeasured.Thesenoisereductionlevelsaredifficulttocomparefairlyfromonetest/experimentto

anotherbecausethereferencenoiselevelisdifferentinmanycases.x Forconcretepavements,refertoRasmussenetal.(2008)fortypicalmeasurementvaluesandmethodsto

reducetirepavementnoise.

x Useopengradedhotmixasphalt(HMA)andportlandcementconcrete(PCC).Ingeneral,opengraded

pavementshaveshownnoisereductionsfrom38dBAalthoughnumbersvarygreatlydependingupon

materials,designandmeasurementtechniques(Sandberg&Ejsmont,2002).Thefollowingmixturequalities

generallyleadtolesstirepavementnoise:

x Highporosity.Thismeansahighlevelofinterconnectedairvoidsonandnearthesurface.Typically

effectiveairvoidcontentrangesare1530%withairvoidcontentsabove20%beingbetter.

x Smallermaximumaggregatesizes.Sizesunder0.4inchestendtoworkwellwithevensmallersizesworking

evenbetter.

x Smoothsurfaces.Especiallyimportantintherangeof“Megatexture”and“Macrotexture.”Megatexture

referstopavementsurfaceelevationchangesontheorderof220inchesinwavelength,whichisoften

perceivedasunevenwavinessorroughsurfaceimperfections.Macrotexturereferstopavementsurface

elevationchangesontheorderof0.220inches,whichisintherangeofmaximumaggregatesize.

x Morecoverage.Opengradedmaterialplacedoutsidethetravelledlanescanreducetirepavementnoise

propagationbyitssoundabsorbingcharacteristics.(Sandberg&Ejsmont,2002)

x UsetexturingmethodsforPCC.Ingeneral,transversetining(themostpopulartexturingmethodintheU.S.)producestheloudestsurfaceswithalternativemethodssuchaslongitudinaltining,carpetdragsanddiamond

grindingproducingquietersurfaces.(Sandberg&Ejsmont,2002)

x Usefinesurfacetreatmentswithaggregateontheorderof0.05to0.25inches.Thissurfacetexturegenerally

canalsoreducenoise.ExamplescitedinSandbergandEjsmont(2002)includedanumberofproprietarymaterials(e.g.,EPGrip,EpoxyDurop,Pavetex,ITALGRIP,Novachip,Colsoft,Safedress,Masterpave,Tuffgrip,

Hitex,Smatex,ULM,Euroduit,Ultraflex,Microduit,Microflex,Microchape,Microvile,Microvia,Mediflex,Miniphone,Citychape,Colrug,Viaphone,Tapiphone)andshowednoisereductionsintherangeof16dBA.

Example: Sample Calculation

Anexistingfourlanedividedfreewayistoberesurfacedwithasphaltrubberopengradedfrictioncourse

(ARFC).Tenlanemilesoffreeway(5ineachdirection)with12footwidelanesaretoberesurfaced.Also,two

14footwideofframps,each2,000feet(ft)long,andtheexisting10ftwideshouldersaretoberesurfaced

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PT-5 Quiet Pavement

withdensegradedHMA(notaquietpavement).Thepostedspeedlimitforthefreewayis65mphwhilethe

postedspeedlimitfortheofframpsis40mph.

��

��

��

Theareaoftheshouldersisexcludedbecauseitisnotintheregularlytraffickedlanes.OBSItestsafter

constructionweredoneat60mphinaccordancewithAASHTOTP76ontheinsidenorthboundlane.Theentire

jobconsistedofonedefinedsection.Withinthatsectiontherewereseveralcurvesbutatleastonestraight

stretchofover500ft.ResultsshowedthatthemeasuredOBSIsoundlevelonthissectionwas96.5dBA.No

testswererunontherampsbecausetheywerenotsurfacedwithquietpavementandwereexcludedfromthe

quietpavementsurfaceareacalculation.

Thisprojectwouldearn2pointsbecausetheminimumarearequirementof75%wasmet(91.2%was

achieved)andthemaximumsoundlevelasmeasuredbyOBSIof99dBAwasnotexceeded.

Example: States with Quiet Pavements

SomeofthelargestusersofquietpavementintheU.S.areArizonaandCaliforniaAfewspecificexamplesare:

x TheArizonaDOThasplacedover4.2milliontonsofrubberizedasphalt(muchofwhichisasphaltrubber

frictioncourse–ARFC–usedfornoisereduction)since1988(seemapof19882001locationsat:

http://www.asphaltrubber.org/ari/Performance/ADOT_Projects_19982001.pdf ).Surfacelivesaretypically

1012years(MorrisandCarlson,2001)withnoisetypicallyinthe96101dBArangedependingon

conditionsandage.

x Caltranshasplacedasignificantamountofopengradedfrictioncoursethroughoutthestate.SpecificlocationsofsectionstoberesearchedintheCaltransQuieterPavementResearchPlancanbefoundat:

http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/Translab/ope/QuieterPavements.html.ThelongestcontinuallymonitoredquietpavementintheU.S.isasectionofI80nearDavis,CA

(http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/noise/pub/IH80_davis_ogacpvmntwtudy_7yrrpt.pdf ).

x TheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT)hasseveralpavementsurfacesunder

evaluation(http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/QuieterPavement).PCClocationsareat:http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/NR/rdonlyres/5F022BDBB9B3437F9016

2F1624EA0589/0/QuieterconcreteinWA.pdf .OpengradedHMAsurfacesat:http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/QuieterPavement/Maps.htm.

OtherstatesandareasalsohaveactivequietpavementuseandresearchprogramsincludingGeorgia,

Alabama,Florida,NewJersey,NewMexico,Minnesota,Kansas,UnitedKingdom,Belgium,theNetherlands,Denmark,Germany,Austria,Swedenandmore.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Withoutadequatepriortestingonthesurfacecoursemixdesign,thereissomeriskthattheconstructed

surfacecoursewillnotmeettherequiredmaximumaveragenoiselevelsforthiscredit.

2. Ingeneral,opengradedsurfacecourseshaveshorterperformancelivesthantraditionalsurfacing.Therefore,

lifecyclecostingoftheroadwaysurfaceshouldbecarefullyconsideredandthepotentialforshorterservicelife

shouldbeconsidered.

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Quiet Pavement PT-5

3. Whileothermethodsmaybesuccessful,opengradedsurfacecourseshavebeenthemostthoroughly

researchedandarereasonablywellunderstoodalthoughtherearestillmanyunknowns.

4. Finesurfacetreatmentscanimprovepavementsurfacetexture,butingeneralthesearesurfacesusedfor

primarypurposesotherthannoisereduction.Theyoftenhavenoisereductionvaluesassociatedwiththembut

thesevaluesoftenhavenotbeenadequatelytestedorindependentlyverified.

5. Measurementofnoise“reduction”canbeinconsistent.Usuallynoisereductionsarereportedinrelationto(1)

anestablishedreferencepavement,(2)acomparabledensegradedpavement,or(3)thepreviouspavementsurface.Inallcasesthesereferencesareusuallynotwelldefinedortheirdefinitionsvaryfromlocationto

location.Forinstance,severalEuropeancountrieshavestandardreferencepavementsfromwhichreference

noiselevelsaremeasured,butthesereferencepavementsvaryfromcountrytocountry.Becauseofthis

referenceleveldilemma,twopavementswiththesamemeasuredtirepavementnoisemaybereportedas

havingentirelydifferentnoisereductions.

RESEARCH

Thiscreditfocusesonroadwaynoisefromtrafficthatisgeneratedfromaroadwayprojectafterconstructioniscomplete.Inparticular,certainroadwaysurfacingmaterialscanbeusedtoreducetirepavementnoise.For

purposesofthiscredit,surfacingmethodsthatreduceaveragetirepavementnoisebelowdefinedOnBoardSoundIntensity(OBSI)levels(showninTablePT5.1)aredefinedas“quietpavements.”Itisworthnotingthatthe

aestheticterms“quiet”and“noise”arebasedentirelyonsubjectivehumanperceptionsanddependonanumberofvariables.However,thedecibelcriteriausedinthiscreditisnecessarytodistinguishandrecognizeroadway

projectswhereteamsintentionallyapproachlongtermnoisemitigationthroughpavementdesign.

Noisemitigationeffortsandalternativesforminimizingtemporaryconstructionnoiseandlongtermtrafficnoise

areaddressedinProjectRequirementPR5NoiseMitigationPlan(NMP)andalsogenerallyinthefirstProject

Requirement,PR1EnvironmentalReviewProcess.Quietpavementsmaybeaviablestrategyforoperationalnoise

mitigationfortheroadwayproject,andmaybeincludedinboththeNMPanddocumentationfortheproject

environmentalreviewprocess.Detailsandbasicdefinitionsofnoise,howitismeasured,anddiscussionofadversehumanhealthimpactsareprovidedinPR5andarenotrepeatedhere.

Thefollowingdiscussionfocusesondetailsofroadwaytrafficnoiseandvariousmethodsofdesigningthe

pavementsectiontobequieterthanconventionallydesignedpavements.Othertrafficnoisemitigationefforts,

suchaspermanentsoundwallsorothercommontechniques,arenotaddressedbythiscredit.

TrafficNoise

Noisefromaroadwayisgeneratedlargelybythetrafficactivitiestakingplaceontheroad.Noisegeneratedfrom

trafficdependsontrafficvolume,trafficspeed,vehiclemix,enginetypes,tiretypes,vehiclecondition,roadway

geometryandphysicalfeaturesalsodependsonthecharacteristicsofthesurroundingenvironmentsuchas

topography,developmentandpopulationdensity.Trafficnoisecanbedisturbingeitherasaconstantnoisesuchas

asteadystreamoftrafficsuchasfromahighwayorassingleeventssuchaspassbyofatruck,busorevenacar.

Sometypicalnoiselevelsyoumightexpectifyouwerestanding50feetawayfordifferentvehicleclassestraveling

at55mph(MichaelMinor&Associates,n.d.):

x Passengercars:7274dBA

x Mediumtrucks:8082dBAx Heavytrucks:8486dBA

Trafficnoisegeneratedfromvehiclescanbefurthercategorizedintofourmajorsources(Bernhardetal.,2005):1)engineanddrivetrainnoise,2)exhaustnoise,3)aerodynamicnoiseand4)tirepavementinteractionnoise.Above

about30mphtirepavementnoiseisthepredominantsource(Bernhard&Wayson,2005).

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PT-5 Quiet Pavement

PavementSurfaceandNoiseGeneration

Tirepavementnoiseisinfluencedbyboththetireandpavementtypeandcondition(Sandberg&Ejsmont,

2002).Whileitmaynotberealistictoregulatetiretypesandconditionforaparticularproject,pavementtype

canbespecifiedinprojectdesign.Someofthecharacteristicsofapavementsurfacethatcaninfluencenoise

generationare(Sandberg&Ejsmont,2002):textureofthesurface,skewing(orientationofpavementtexture),

thicknessofthepavement,porosity,tirepavementadhesionandelasticityofthepavementsurface.Also,as

thepavementagesthesecharacteristicsoftenchangewhichcancausechangesinnoisereductionproperties(Munden,2006).

PavementSurfaceNoiseMeasurement

Tirepavementnoisecaneitherbemeasuredfromthesideoftheroadasavehiclepassesbyorfromapoint

(orpoints)verynearastandardtireasitdrivesdowntheroad.ThereareanumberofvariationsofnoisemeasurementsthatcanbemadeinthesetwomannersbutIntheU.S.theonboardsoundintensity(OBSI)

measurementmethod(FigurePT5.2)enjoysgrowingpopularityandisthemeasurementuponwhichthis

creditisbased.Thismethodismostusefulforcomparingpavementsurfacesandisrelativelyportableandcost

effective.SincetheOBSImethodmeasuresnoiseverynearthetire,OBSIreadingsarenotequivalenttonoise

readingsalongsidetheroadway.However,thetwocanberoughlycorrelated(FigurePT5.3).Additionally,OBSI

measurementscanvarybyseason(summergivesslightlylowervalues–Illingworth&Rodkin,2005),weather

(wetpavementsarenoisier)andlocation(measurementsmayvaryalongtheroadwaysurfacebyabout2dBA:

Bennertetal.,2004).

FigurePT5.2:OBSImeasurementdevice(picturefromIllingworth&Rodkin,Inc.)

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PT-5 Quiet Pavement

FigurePT5.4:ComparisonofsoundintensitylevelsforvarioustypesofHMAopengradedsurfacecoursesin

California,ArizonaandEuropeat97km/hr(60mph).(FromDonovan,n.d.)

Ingeneral,opengradedpavementsurfaceshaveequalorshorterservicelivesthanastandardpavement

surfaces.Specifically,opengradedpavementsmayhavemaximumservicelivesinthe8to10yearrangewith

thelengthofeffectivenoisereductionbeingsomewhatless.Bendtsenetal.(2008)reportthatthetimehistory

ofquietingeffectonnoiselevelsofvariousEuropeanopengradedpavementsvarieswidelybutthaton

averageoneshouldexpectnoiselevelincreasesperyearasseeninTablePT5.2.Harveyetal.(2008)studied54CaliforniaquietpavementHMAsurfacesandfoundthatforanyspecificmaterialolderpavementsweregenerallylouderthanyoungerones.However,theolderpavementsstilltendedtoproducelesstirepavement

noisethansimilarnonquietpavements.

TablePT5.2:OverallTimeHistoryofNoiseIncrease(indBAperyear)ofPavementServiceTimeforVarious

PavementTrafficConditions(FromBendtsenetal.,2008).

LightVehicles HeavyVehicles

Surfacing Highspeedtraffic Lowspeedtraffic Highspeed traffic Lowspeedtraffic

DenseHMA 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

PorousOpengradedHMA 0.4 0.9 0.2

Studdedtirewearisamajorconcerninthelongevityofopengradedpavements.ObservationsinWashington

Stateindicateaneartotallossinnoisereductioninjustovertwoyearsforanexperimentalasphaltrubberfrictioncourse(similartothosepavedinArizona)placedonI5,andBendtsenetal.(2008)alsodescribe

durabilityunderstuddedtiretrafficasamajorconcernnotingthatwearincreasesbyapowerof2withan

increaseinspeed.Cloggingoftheinterconnectedairvoidscanalsobeaproblem.Forhigherspeedfacilities

(ontheorderof60mph)aselfcleaningeffecthasbeenfound(Ongeletal.,2008)resultingfromthe

combinationofwater(contributedbyrainfall)andasuctioneffectcreatedbytirepavementcontact.However,

onsomepavementsOngeletal.(2008)didnotseeacleaningeffectwhereonewasexpectedbecauseofhigh

speedtraffic.Finally,Chibaetal.(2008)foundthatinJapansnowremovalequipmentandtirechainstendedto

damageopengradedpavementsurfacesandcausealossofpermeabilityafterabout2years.Thisseemsto

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Quiet Pavement PT-5

haveledtoanincreaseinnoiselevelbutmeasurednoiselevelsafter6yearswerestillslightlybelowthatfora

conventionalpavementsurface.

Costsforopengradedpavementsurfacesaretypicallyreportedasabovethosefortraditionalsurfacingand

cancommandapremiumonapertonbasisof20200%dependinguponmixtype,locationandavailability.

PCCSurfaceTexturingQuietpavementoptionsforPCCcaninvolveopengradedPCCbutcanalsoinvolvevariousmeansoftexturing

thePCCsurface.Surfacetexturingcanhaveasignificanteffectontirepavementnoiseandtherearecertain

techniquesthatarebetterthanothers.TablePT5.3listssurfacetexturingandtypicalnoiselevels.Ofnote,

transversePCCjointsalsocontributesignificantlytonoiselevels.

TablePT5.3:TypicalPCCSurfaceTexturingandAverageNoiseLevels.MeasuredbyRasmussenetal.(2008).

Technique TypicalNoiseLevel Notes

Transversetining 104dBA Small,shallowgroovesacrossthepavementsurface

transversetothedirectionoftraffic.Themostpopularmeans

ofPCCpavementtexturingintheU.S.

Longitudinaltining 102dBA Small, shallowgroovesacrossthepavementsurfaceinline

withthedirectionoftraffic.

Carpetdrag 100.5dBA Uneventexturecreatedbydraggingapieceofartificialturf

acrossthepavementsurface.

DiamondGrinding 99dBA Removesthesurfacewithagangmountedspindleofsaw

blades.Theresultingsurfacetypicallyhasagrooved

appearancewiththespacinganddepthofgroovesbeing

controlledbythetechniqueused.

PCCtexturinglifedependsontrafficandthepresenceofstuddedtires.Tiningcanlastinexcessof6years

(WSDOT,2006)ifnosignificantstudtrafficexistswhileexperienceinWashingtonStatehasshowntiningtolast

only36years(dependingupontrafficlevels)becauseofstuddedtirewear.Thedurabilityofcarpetdrag

surfacesisnotyetwellunderstood.Finally,TheAmericanConcretePavementAssociationexpectsatypical

diamondgrindtolast14yearswhileresultsfromIdaho(wherestudsareallowed)pointto10yearsandresults

fromCalifornia(wherestuddedtirewearisinsignificant)pointto1617years(Cotter,2007).

PCCtexturingisgenerallynotasquietasopengradedoptionsbutmosttechniquescanachievesomenoise

reductionwhencomparedtotransversetining.Rasmussenetal.(2008)pointoutthatconstructiontechnique

anddetailscanalsoinfluencetexturingeffectsonnoise.Noisereductionstrategiesthatrelyondiamond

grindingusuallydesigntheoriginalpavementthickerthanneededtocompensateforthelossinthickness

resultingfromeachgrinding.Whilethistechniqueworks,itmaynotbesustainablebeyond23grinding

operations.Finally,studdedtirewearcangreatlyreducethelifeexpectancyofanysurfacetexturingtechnique.

Withtheexceptionofdiamondgrinding,PCCsurfacetexturingisastandardprocedureandthus,doesnot

commandapremium.Diamondgrindingcostscanvarywidelydependinguponquantity,aggregatehardness,

contractoravailabilityandgeometry.Someexample5yearaveragecostsprovidedduringtheopencomment

periodforVersion1.0are:

x Washington:$9.45/yd2

x Kentucky:$2.67/yd2

x Washington:$2.27/yd2

OtherTechniques

Othersurfacingtechniquesthatarenotengineeredprimarilyfornoisereductionhavebeenshowntobe

somewhatquieterthanconventionalmethods.Proprietarythinsurfacingandstonematrixasphalt(SMA,which

isagapgradedmixture)arethetwomostcommonlycitedsurfaces.Bothworkbycreatinganegativetexture

462




PT-5 Quiet Pavement

(whereamajorityofthesurfacetextureisatthesameheightwithsmallairvoidindentations)and/orusing

smallermaximumaggregatesizes(e.g.,3/8inchorsmallerinHMA).Oneconcernwiththesetypesofsurfacing

methodsisthattheymaylosetheirnoisereductioncapabilitiesmorequicklythanpavementsspecifically

engineeredtoreducenoise.Harveyetal.(2008)foundthatCaltransRACGmixes(agapgradedmixture)

increasednoiselevelsoverthefirstseveralyearstowheretherewerecomparabletoatypical1/2inchdense

gradedHMA.

Pricesforthesesurfacingmethodsvarywidely.ProprietarymixturesaregenerallynotpredictablewhileSMAsmaycost2030%morethantraditionaldensegradedHMAsurfacingonapertonbasis.

GLOSSARY

AASHTO AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayTranportationOfficials

dB Decibel

dBA Aweighteddecibels

Ft foot(feet)

HMA Hotmixasphalt

Mi mile(s)

Mph milesperhour

Noise Unwantedsound

OBSI OnBoardSoundIntensity


SMA Stonematrixasphalt

REFERENCES

Bendtsen,H.,Kragh,J.,&Nielsen,E.,ed.(2008).Useofnoisereducingpavements–Europeanexperience.

Technicalnote69,DanishRoadInstitute,Denmark.http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/Translab/ope/DRIDK

TechNote69Report.pdf .

Bennert,T.,Hanson,D.,&Maher,A.(2004).DemonstrationProject–TheMeasurementofPavementNoiseonNew

JerseyPavementsUsingtheNCATNoiseTrailer .ReportNo.FHWANJ2003021.NewJerseyDepartmentofTransportation,Trenton,NJ.

Bernhard,R.J.&Wayson,R.L.(2005). AnIntroductiontoTire/PavementNoiseofAsphaltPavement .Departmentof

Civil&EnvironmentalEngineering,UniversityofCentralFlorida,SQDH20051.Accessed18September2008.AvailableattheAsphaltAlliancewebsiteathttp://www.quietpavement.com/docs/AnIntroductiontoTire

PavementNoiseofAsphaltPavement.pdf

Cotter,A.(2007).BestPracticesforPCCPavementsinWashingtonState:StuddedTireWearMitigation.Master’s

Thesis,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,WA.

Donavan,P.R.&B.Rymer.(2003).AssessmentofHighwayPavementsforTire/RoadNoiseGeneration.SAENoise

&VibrationConferenceandExhibition,GrandTraverse,MI,USA,Session:DriveByNoise.

Donovan,P.R.(nodategiven).ComparativeMeasurementsofTire/PavementNoiseinEuropeandtheUnited

States:ASummaryoftheNITEStudy .Illingworth&Rodkin,Inc.preparedfortheCaliforniaDepartmentof

Transportation,Sacramento,CA.

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(1973,July)PublicHealthandWelfareCriteriaforNoise.(550/973002).

OfficeofNoiseAbatementandControl(ONAC).Washington,D.C.:EPA,ONAC.AccessedJanuary1,2010.

Availableathttp://www.nonoise.org/epa/Roll1/roll1doc3.pdf

463




Quiet Pavement PT-5

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(1978).Noise:AHealthProblem.EPA,OfficeofNoiseAbatementand

Control,Washington,DC.OfficeofNoiseAbatementandControl(ONAC).Washington,D.C.:EPA,ONAC.

AccessedJanuary1,2010.Availableathttp://www.nonoise.org/epa/Roll15/roll15doc152.pdf

Illingworth&Rodkin,Inc.(2005).I80DavisOGACPavementNoiseStudy:TrafficNoiseLevelsAssociatedwith

AgingOpenGradeAsphaltConcreteOverlay,7 th

YearSummaryReport .PreparedfortheCaliforniaDepartment

ofTransportation,DivisionofEnvironmentalAnalysis,Sacramento,CA.

MichaelMinorandAssociates.TrafficNoiseBackgroundInformation.MichaelMinorandAssociates,Portland,OR.

Accessed24September2008.Availableathttp://www.drnoise.com/PDF_files/Traffic%20Noise%20Primer.pdf .

Morris,G.R.&Carlson,D.D.(2001).TheArizonaRubberProjectReviewPart1:EvaluationofARPavements

ConstructedBefore1992.ArizonaDepartmentofTransportationandtheRubberPavementsAssociation.

Munden,H.(2006).LowerNoisePavementOptionsForWashingtonState.MasterThesis,DepartmentofCivil&

EnvironmentalEngineering,UniversityofWashington.

PasschierVermeer,W&Passchier,W.F.(2000).NoiseExposureandPublicHealth.Environ.HealthPerspect .Vol.

108,Suppl1,pp.123131.

Rasmussen,R.O.,Garber,S.I.,Fick,G.J.,Ferragut,T.R.,&Wiegand,P.D.(2008).HowtoReduceTirePavement

Noise:InterimBetterPracticesforConstructingandTexturingConcretePavementSurfaces.NationalConcrete

PavementTechnologyCenter,Ames,IA.

Sandberg,U.&Ejsmont,J.A.(2002).Tyre/RoadNoiseReferenceBook .InformexEjsmont&SandbergHandelsbolag,

Sweden.

WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2006).PavementsandStuddedTireDamage.WSDOT

MaterialsLaboratory,Olympia,WA.Accessed25September2008.Availableat

http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/biz/mats/pavement/PavementsStuddedTiresFinalv2.pdf

464




PT-6 Pavement Performance Tracking

PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE TRACKINGGOAL

Allowformorethoroughperformancetrackingbyintegratingconstructionqualityand

pavementperformancedata.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

Useaprocessthatallowsconstructionqualitymeasurementsandlongtermpavement

performancemeasurementstobespatiallylocatedandcorrelatedtooneanother.This

impliesfourrequirements:

1. Constructionqualitymeasurementsmustbespatiallylocatedsuchthatthelocation

ofthequalitymeasurementisknowntowithin25ftoftheactuallocationwhere

thematerialorprocessthatwasmeasuredisactuallylocated.

2. Pavementconditionmeasurementsmustbetakenatleastevery2yearsandmust

bespatiallylocatedtoaspecificportionofroadwayorlocationwithintheroadway.

3. Anoperationalsystem,computerbasedorotherwise,thatiscapableofstoring

constructionqualitymeasurements,pavementconditionmeasurementsandtheirspatiallocations.

4. Thedesignatedsystemmustbedemonstratedinoperation,becapableofupdates

andhavewrittenplansforitsmaintenanceinperpetuity.

Details

Thisgenerallymeansspatiallylocatingconstructionqualitymeasurementsina

permanentlocationsystemandmaintainingthoserecordsindefinitely.Examplesof

constructionqualityrecordsincludebutarenotlimitedto:

x Densitytests

x Watercontenttests

x Aircontenttestsx Slumptests

x Compressivestrengthtests

x Asphaltcontenttests

x Gradationtests

Examplesofpavementconditionmeasurementsinclude,butarenotlimitedto,the

extentandseverityof:

x Cracking

x Permanentdeformation(rutting)

x Bleedingorflushing(inrelationtohotmixasphaltpavements)

x Faulting(inrelationtoportlandcementconcretepavements)x Jointspalling(inrelationtoportlandcementconcretepavements.

DOCUMENTATION

x Asignedletterfromanownerofficialstatingthattheperformancetrackingsystem

isoperationalandhasbeenpopulatedwiththerequireddata.

PT-6

1 POINT

RELATED CREDITS

9 PR4QualityControl

Plan

9 PR9Asset

ManagementPlan

9 CA1Quality

ManagementSystem

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Extent

9 Expectations

9 Experience

9 Exposure

BENEFITS


9 ReducesLifecycle

Costs9 Improves

Accountability

9 CreatesNew

Information

465




Pavement Performance Tracking PT-6


Developandimplementapavementperformancetrackingsystem.Offtheshelfsystemsthatmeetthecredit

requirementsaredifficultifnotimpossibletofind.

Example: Sample Systems

Twoexamplesofsystemsthatcouldaccomplishtheintentofthiscreditare:

HMAView.AwebbasedsystemdevelopedattheUniversityofWashingtonbetween2000and2004(Whiteet

al.,2002).Nosignificantdevelopmenthashappenedsinceabout2005anditisnotreadyforcommercialuse.

However,itdoesdemonstratethatsuchasystemcanbecreatedanddoeswork.Itiscapableofmaintaining

constructionqualityandpavementconditionrecordsinthesamedatabase.Thespatiallocationfeaturewas

neverfullydeveloped.ThesystemwasusedforatimebytheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation

(WSDOT)andtheMarylandStateHighwayAdministration(SHA).

PavementInteractive(PI)Maps.Ansysteminproofofconceptstagedevelopedin20089andaccessibleat:

http://maps.pavementinteractive.org.PIMapsisatoolforstoringandsharingspatialdata.Itiscurrentlyina

publicbetatestingperiod,sothefunctionalitymaychangefromtimetotime.PIMapsusestheGoogleMaps

APItoallowviewingandinputofpoints,lines,andpolygons.PIMapsrunsonGoogleAppEngine,soittakes

advantageofGoogle'srobuststorageandserverinfrastructure,whichallowsuserstohaveconfidenceintheir

data'swellbeing.

GoogleMyMapsorWindowsLiveLocalApplication.Attheverysimplestlevel,aGoogleMyMaps

(http://maps.google.com)couldbecreatedandaplacemarkercouldbeusedtodesignatetestingwiththe

associatedtextusedtodescribethetestandtestresult.Pavementconditioncouldbedescribedinassociation

withalinethatisdrawnovertheparticularsectionofroadwaybeingdocumented.Whilethissystemissimple

itcouldquicklybecomeunwieldyforlargerorganizationssuchaslargecities,countiesandstates.

POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Thegeneraltrendinroadconstructionistodisposeofconstructionrecordsafteraprescribedamountoftime.

Usuallythistimeissetbylegalobligations,butforthiscredit,recordswouldnotbeabletobedisposed.2. Therearenoexistingcommerciallyavailablesystemsforaccomplishingtheactionsofthiscredit.Whereno

systemexists,implementingthiscredit(i.e.creatingasystemfromscratch)willlikelybeverydifficult.Theprojectteamhastodevelopasystemortheownermustwanttodeveloporoperateasystemlikethis

independentoftheGreenroadscredit.However,longtermbenefitsofsuchasystemmayoutweighthecostsofdesigningandimplementingone.

3. Itisdifficulttodefinetheconceptsofperformanceandqualityinsimpleterms.Tyingconstructionqualityand

pavementperformancedatatogethercaninvolvesomeveryspecificideas.

4. Thelocationoftheconstructionqualitytestshouldbethefinallocationofthematerialorprocessassociated

withthetestandnotthelaboratoryortestinglocation.

5. Currentlythereisnomajororganizationthatintegratesconstructionqualitycontroldatawithlongterm

pavementperformancedata.Asaresult,itisdifficulttotracepavementperformanceissuesbackto

constructionquality.

RESEARCH

Manyotherindustries(e.g.,computers,automobiles,etc.)areabletotraceeachelementoftheirfinalassembly

backtooriginalconstruction.Theabilitytoaccomplishthiswouldimprovepavementperformancethrougha

betterunderstandingofhowconstructionqualityinfluenceslongtermpavementperformanceandallowexisting

datatobebetterusedtoevaluatetheperformanceofnewmaterials,conceptsanddesignmethods.Duetothe

limitedresearchinthisareaforpavements,thissectionisnecessarilyshort.

466




PT-6 Pavement Performance Tracking

CurrentMeansofPerformanceTracking

Almostallagenciesthattrackpavementperformancedosobymeasuringsurfacedefectsandtheirqualities

includingsuchitemsas:cracking(longitudinal,transverse,reflective,alligator),rutting,raveling,faulting,spalling,

roughness,etc.).However,databasesthatcontainthisinformationdonot,asageneralrulecontainconstruction

informationandthereforeareunabletolinkpavementperformancewithconstructiondata.Typicallyconstruction

dataissavedforafiniteamountoftime(e.g.,3or5years)andthendiscarded.

TheProblemwithUnlinkedData

Hudsonetal.(2002)describetheproblemwhenreferringtotheirinterviewresultswithseveralstatedepartments

oftransportation(DOTs):

“Oneofthemainchallengesdiscoveredinallthestatesvisitedistheabsenceofaconvenientlinkbetween

essentialdataonmaterialscharacteristicsusedineachprojectontheonehandandPMS[Pavement

ManagementSystem]dataincludingperformancedataontheother.Thisismostoftencausedbythefactthat

thefirstgroupofdata(informationondesign,testing,inplaceproperties,thickness,andQAdata)iscommonly

storedinflatfiles,difficulttoaccessandsometimesincomplete…Performancedatacanonlybelinkedto

materialsandconstructiondatawhenuseismadeofacommonlocatorreference.”

TheGeneralSolution

Provideapavementperformancedatabasethatislinkedspatiallytoapavementconstructiondatabase.Thismeansthatbothperformanceandconstructiondatamustbeavailableelectronically.Whereas10yearsagothis

wasnotlikely(constructionfileswereoftenpaperfiles),todayitismorelikelysincemostfilesarenowstored

electronically.Ideally,linkingandstoragecouldbeaccomplishedinawebbasedsystem(Whiteetal.,2002).To

improveefficiency,Whiteetal.(2002)proposedthatconstructiondatabeinitiallyrecordedinelectronicformand

geotaggedattheconstructionsite.ThiswouldtypicallyinvolvehandhelddataentrydevicesandGPSunits.Atthe

time(2002)thesetypesofGPSunitswerelesscommon,howevernowtheyarerelativelycheapandareroutinely

includedinpersonalelectronicssuchassmartphones.

DemonstrationofaPavementPerformanceTrackingSystem

BothHudsonetal.(2002)andWhiteetal.(2002)describethesystemdevelopedprimarilybyWhiteetal.called

“HMAView”thatallowsintegratedperformancedatatobeuploaded,displayedandanalyzedontheweb.Figure

PT6.1showsthebasicarchitectureofwhatbecameHMAView(atthetimeitwassimplyknownasthe“hotmixdatabase”).Thisbasicarchitecture(minusthemobilefieldsetup)wasdemonstratedonalimitedbasiswiththe

MarylandStateHighwayAdministration(MDSHA)andtheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation

(WSDOT)inthemid2000sbuthasnotbeenreceivingnewdatasince2005andhasnotbeenoperationalsince

about2007.Currently,therearenoplanstorestartthesystemorrefineit.

467




Pavement Performance Tracking PT-6

FigurePT6.1:OverviewofcontentacquisitionanddeliveryforHMAView(fromWhiteetal.,2002).

REFERENCES

Hudson,W.R.,Monismith,C.L.,Dougan,C.E.,&Visser,W.(2002).UseofPMSDataForPerformanceMonitoring

WithSuperpaveAsAnExample.Volume1.FHWAContractDTFH6198C00075,B98C75007Battelle

Subcontract156421TRDIProject001.http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/management/pms.cfm.Accessed

8January2010.

White,G.C.,Mahoney,J.P.,Turkiyyah,G.M.,Willoughby,K.A.,&Brown,E.R.(2002).OnlineToolsforHotMix

AsphaltMonitoring.TransportationResearchRecord ,No.1813,TransportationResearchBoard,National

ResearchCouncil,Washington,D.C.p.124132.

468




CUSTOM CREDIT

469




470



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Custom Credit

CC-# [Your Title Here]

[YOUR TITLE HERE]GOAL

Recognizeinnovativesustainableroadwaydesignandconstructionpractices.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS

1. Comeupwithanideaforadesignorconstructionbestpracticeforroadwaysthatis

notcurrentlyincludedinGreenroadsandismoresustainablethanstandardor

conventionalpractices(bepreparedtojustifywhy).

2. DownloadandcompletetheGreenroadsCreditTemplate.Besuretofollowthe

guidelinesprovidedinthebodyofthisdocumentonhowtofillintheareasofthe

Templateandformatyourinformation.

3. UsetheweightingschemedevelopedforGreenroads(seetheIntroductiontothis

Manual)todeterminehowmanypointsthecreditisworth.Justifyyourresponse

withempiricaldataormatchacurrentlyexistingweightingscheme.

4. Submitthetemplateforpeerreviewbythereviewteamandmakeadjustmentsif

requestedorasneeded.

Inthissection(yes,thisone;theonecalled“CreditRequirements”atthetoptherein

the“WhiteonGreenHeader”fontstyle),youmust:

1. Answerthequestionhere:Whatmeasureablethingingeneralneedstobedoneto

meetthegoalyoustate?

2. Hint:Sometimesitiseasytodisplaywhatneedstobedoneinabulletedor

numberedlist.(Youcanusestylescalled“Bullet”or“ListNumber;”tryitout.)

YoucanalsousetheStylescommandtochooseTemplatestylesasshownbelow,like:

BodyTextstyle.Thisstylecanbeitalized ,boldedandunderlined,ifyouwish.

Details

Thissection,called“Details,”maynotbenecessaryforallcredits(forexample,no

moreexplanationthanwhatisnotedaboveisneeded),butshouldanswerthe

question:whatspecificationcurrentlyexists(national,international,state,local)

thatcanbeused/mettomeetthecreditgoalabove,ifany?Useabolded“OR”

betweendifferentoptions,ifany.Youmightwanttoincludeanyequationshere.

Note:Donotspecifytechnologiesorbrandsordimensions(unlessitmatchesor

mimicsanexistingacceptedstandard).Forthemaintextinthissection,useBody

TextIndentStyle.Similartoabove,youcanuseBodyTextIndentstyle.Thisstyle

canbeitalized ,boldedandunderlined,ifyouwish.Thedefaultindentincrementis

0.2inches,whichalsoappliestonumberingandletteringandbullets.

DOCUMENTATION

x CopyofthespecificationXX.Beveryspecificandindicatewheresuchadocument

maybefoundinastandardsetofplansandspecifications,orifitneedstobe

createdandsubmittedseparately.Photosareanexampleofaseparateitem.

x Thisis“Bullet”style.

x NOTETHATEVERYTHINGINTHEFIRSTTHREESECTIONSCANFITONTHIS1PAGE.

CC-#

1-5 POINTS

RELATED CREDITS

9 Listrelatedcreditsas

XX#TitleorNone

SUSTAINABILITY

COMPONENTS

9 Choosewhichapplythendeletethisline

9 Ecology

9 Economy

9 Equity

9 Extent

9 Expectations

9 Experience

9 Exposure

BENEFITS

9 Choosefromlist

(pickfrombracketeditems),thendelete

9 Reduces[Water,

FossilEnergy,Raw

Materials]Use

9 Reduces[Soil/Solid

Waste,Wastewater,

Air]Emissions

9 OptimizesHabitat&

LandUse

9 Improves[Human

Health&Safety,

Access&Mobility,BusinessPractice]

9 Increases[Lifecycle

Savings,Lifecycle

Service,Awareness,

Aesthetics]

9 Creates[New

Information,Energy]

471



Custom Credit Greenroads™ Manual v1.5

[Your Title Here] CC-#


Explainsomecommonapproachesandstrategiesinthissection.Thisiswherepracticalexperiencecomesinvery

handy,especiallywhenitcanbeexplainedinafewshortwords.Theheadingaboveisinthestylecalled“Heading

BlueLine.”Thereshouldbeapagebreakbeforethissection,evenifthefirstpageofthecreditoverlapsontoa

secondpage(seelastsentenceonfirstpagethough).

x Bulletstyleisoftenaneasywaytodisplayapproachesandstrategiesinthissection.

x YoucanuseBulletIndentstyletonotesubtopicsundereachstrategyorapproach,too.

Belowisanexampleofatablefortextornumbers.Tablebordersshouldbeoutlinedwithsimpleboxesusingthe

officialGreenroadscolorofgray(ifyoushouldneedtoknowthecolorpalettetomakeadjustmentswhichyou

shouldnotpleasecontactyourGreenroadsreviewer).Importantitemsinthetablecanbeboldedoritalicized

manuallyforemphasis,suchasheadings.TextinthetablesisstyleNoSpacing.Notethatalltableshavea0.2”

bottomseparationfromtextonthebottom,whichisaccomplishedbyaddingacarriagereturn(ablankline)inthe

NoSpacingstyle,followedbyBodyText,BodyTextIndent(iftableisindented),oroneoftheheadingfontsfora

newsection.

TableXX#.1:TableofValuesorTextItemsItem1 SampletextornumbersinNoSpacingstyle XX.XX

Item2 Sampletextornumbers XX.XX

AlineunderneathtablesshouldhavenotextandbeinstyleNoSpacing,

Note:Ifthisisanindentedtable,useBodyTextIndentfollowingthesingleNoSpacingline(justlikethisparagraphandtheprecedingline).

Example: Case Study [or Calculation]

Thissectioncanbeusedtodemonstratehowacreditwasachieved.Itisoptional,butagoodidea,especiallyif

youareprofilingsomethingyoudidonyourownprojectthatsupportsthecaseforawardofthiscredit.Ifnumbersareusedtocomputeacredit,thisiswhereexamplesareworked.(Besuretotitletheheader

appropriately.Notealsothatyoucanhavemorethanoneexampletoo!)Thisis“BodyTextIndent”style.The

headingstylefortheExamplessectioniscalledIndentedHeadingOrangeLine.

x Thisis“BulletIndent”style.

x Avoidhighlightingspecificproductswherepossible.

Hereisanexampleofaphoto(theycanbebiggerorplacedinpairsintablecells).Itisembeddedinatablecell

thatisalignedforthewidthoftheheadedsectionandcenteredinthecell.Figuresarelabeledsimilartotables,

withthestylecalledCaption,buttheFigureandtheFigurecaptionarecenteredbelowimageinthesamecell.

FigureCC#.1:Asnowystockphoto.(Windows2000)

472





POTENTIAL ISSUES

1. Write“None”hereorprovideashortsummaryofwhatmightgowrongwhentryingtoimplementthecredit

(basedontheresearchorpilotprojects).Ifyouhavemisgivingsaboutthiscredit,orareawareofanytradeoffs

thathavebeenencounteredalongtheway,putthemonthetablebyincludingthemhere.

2. Explanationofanotherpotentialissueifany.Thisis“ListNumber”style.

RESEARCH

TheGreenroadsRatingSystemisacollectionofbestpracticesfordesignandconstructionofroadwayprojects.

Greenroadssupportssustainableperformanceanddesigngoalsthatgobeyondmostexistingfederal,state,and

localregulations.IfyoufindyourselfwritingaGreenroadscredit,whatyouwriteshouldfitwithinthisframework.

CreditWriting101

Greenroadsunderstandsthatwehavenotbeenabletorecognizeallpossiblesustainableinnovationsandbest

practicesbecauseroadwayprojectsareverydiverseandspecialized.Thiscreditcategory,CustomCredits,is

designedtorepresentusercontributionstotheongoingdevelopmentofGreenroadsviacuttingedgeresearchand

innovativedesignandconstructionpractices.

BeforeYouWriteBeforeyouwritethecredit(andasyouarewritingit)considerwhetherornotthiscreditshouldevenexist.

Coulditbereplacedbyanothercreditthatmakesmoresense?Shoulditbefundamentallydifferent?Isit

neededatall?Wearehopingthatthecreditwriterexercisesher/hisexpertisehereandgivesthissomegood

thought.ACustomCreditmustdemonstratebeneficialimpactsontheoverallsustainabilityoftheroadway

systemanddemonstrateatleastoneofthesevencomponentsofsustainability:Ecology,Equity,Economy,

Extent,Expectations,ExperienceandExposure.Ifyouarewonderingwhatthoseideasareallabout,readthe

introductiontotheGreenroadsManualonemoretimeandgetfamiliarwiththephilosophythatunderliesallof

thecreditsandrequirementsinthesystem.

WritingaGoodCredit

Ultimately,Greenroadscreditshavethefollowingcharacteristics.

x Straightforwardandunderstandable.Simplicityisvaluedoverexcessivedetailbecauseitismoreunderstandable.Creditsareoftensimplisticinterpretationsofcomplexideas;theyareboundtocontainsome

controversy,howevertheinterpretationshouldholdtruetothefundamentalideaandintent.

x Supportedbyempiricalevidenceandexistingevaluativetechniques.Creditsshouldbethoroughlyresearched,basedonempiricalevidencewhenavailable,and,totheextentpossible,capableofevaluation

usingexistingtools,techniquesanddocumentation.Greenroadsdoesnotseektodevelopevaluationtoolsor

subsetsofmetricsatthecreditlevel.

x CommensuratewithImpact. Highinvestmentlongtermimpactitemsaregivenmorecreditthanlow

investmentshorttermimpactitems.Theweightingschemeisexplainedlaterinthisdocument.

x Flexibleanddynamic.Thesystemshallcontinuallyevolve.Overtime,betterideas,morecompleteknowledge,

andtechnologyadvanceswillrequireGreenroadstobeupdatedandchanged.

x Supportedbyexistingprojectdocumentswherepossible.Mostcredits,withveryfewexceptions,shouldbe

abletobeclearlyspecifiedandincorporatedintoaprojectusingtypicalcontractdocumentationsuchasplans,specificationsanddesignreports.Anyadditionaldocumentsshouldbesimpleandinexpensivetoproduce(and

digitalwhereverpossible)andalsomayuseotherstandardreportssuchasstandardconstructionquality

controlreports,changeorders,etc.Noneworunfamiliartypesofdocumentationshouldbenecessaryto

satisfycreditintent.

x Verifiablebyadesignprofessionalorinspectionagency.TheGreenroadssystemshallpresupposetheintegrityofindividuals,unlessprovenotherwise,andholdaccountabletheprofessionalsinvolved.

473





Onceyouhaveyourideareadytoputintowords,downloadthisGreenroadsCreditTemplateandstarteditingitin

place.Ifyouhavereadthisfar,youhaveprobablynotedthesuggestionsforwhattoincludeinpreviouspartsof

thetemplateasfarascontent,aswellassuggestionsforformattingandpresentingyourideas.

ThenecessarysectionsofaGreenroadscreditarelistedbrieflyinTableCCX.2.Eachpartlistedbelowisessential

tomakingthecreditcomplete.

TableCCX.2:GreenroadsCreditStructure

MAINBODY OPTIONAL FRONTPAGESIDEBAR

CreditTitle CreditNumber

Goal Points

CreditRequirements Details RelatedCredits

Documentation SustainabilityComponents

Approaches&Strategies Examples Benefits

PotentialIssues

Research Glossary

References

Theremainderofthisdocumentprovidesguidanceregardingcontentandintentofeachofthesectionslistedabove.Additionally,thereareformattingsuggestionsfortheResearchsection.

CreditTitle

Nameyourcreditinthreewordsorless.

Goal

Statetheoverallgoalofthecredit.

x Thisshouldbenomorethantwofullsentences,writtenconcisely,inplainlanguageandinimperativetense.

x Theoverallgoalofthecreditshouldbewritteninthesimplesttermspossibletomakeitcleartoeventhecasualobserverwhatisdesired.Itshouldbefreeoftechnicaljargonorlong,ramblingsentences.Forinstance,

thegoalfortheRoadwaySafetyAuditcreditwouldbebetteras"Reduceroadwaycrashesandfatalities"rather

than"Improvethesafetyoftheroadwaycorridorthroughamultidisciplinaryauditwhosepurposeistoreduce

pedestrian,bicycleandmotorvehiclesafetyissuesrelatedtopublicmobility."Itisobviousthatthefirstismore

simpleandstraightforward.Thesubtletiesofcreditmaynotbeobviousbythegoalstatementbutthegoal

shouldbecrystalclear.

x Ifthecreditisbasedonsomeotherstandardmethodofpracticeordocumentation(liketheAE1Roadway

SafetyAuditcreditisbasedonNCHRPSynthesis336)thenitishelpfultolookinthatdocumentforasimple

goalstatement.(Seealso“Research”below.)

CreditRequirements

Writethesimpletextdescribingwhatmustbedone.

x Ifyouthinkthereshouldbedifferentpointvaluesassociatedwithdoingdifferentsteps,specifyhowmany

pointsthatactivityisworth.Forexample,theMR4RecycledMaterialscreditisworthupto5points,butitisawardedin10%incrementseachworth1point.

x Thecreditrequirementsshouldbewritteninclear,simpletermstomakeitobviouswhatmustbedonetoearn

thecreditorcredits.Again,simplicityisthekey.Thelitmustestisthatadecisionmaker(e.g.,politician,

executive,departmenthead,etc.)withoutdetailedknowledgeoftransportationdesignorconstructionshould

understandwhatmustbedone.Theymaynotunderstandthedetailsbuttheyshouldhaveageneralidea

aboutwhatactionmustbetakentoachievethecredit.

x Donotdevelopstandardsofpractice,measurementtechniquesoranyotherregulatoryliketext.Rather,use

existingstandardsthathavebeenprovenrobustandworthyandthenaskGreenroadsapplicantstocomply

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withsomethingthatexceedsthosestandardsbysomemeasurableincrementorverifiableaccomplishment.In

mostcasesthereisastandardsomewherethatworkswelloriswellworded.Theadvantageofusingthese

standardsisthattheyaregenerallywellthoughtoutandvettedforpossiblelegal,design,regulatory,etc.

conflicts.Forexample,ProjectRequirementPR8LowImpactDevelopmentusesexistingguidelinesfromthe

WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcology.Inthisinstance,theguidanceusedappliesspecificallytoonestate

butmaybeeasilyrewordedtobegenerallyapplicabletoanytypeofprojectorlocation.

Details(Optional)

Providefurtherexplanationofthecreditrequirements.

x Thistextaddsdetails,suchasdefinitions,totheCreditRequirementswherenecessary,orshowsan

equation,ifany.Noteinthissectionwhenaparticularcreditmaybeinappropriateornotapplicable.

x Besuretonoteinstanceswhereacreditmaynotbeappropriateorapplicable.Creditsshouldreward

intentswhichfallwithincontextsensitivedesign.Forexample,aprojectteammighttrytoearntheAE7

TransitAccesscreditbyputtingabusstopandshelteronaruralforestroad,milesfromthenearestcity,

claimingpotentialforfuturegrowth.Or,perhapstheAE8ScenicViewscreditshouldonlyapplytonon

urbanenvironments.Itisimportanttoclearlyidentifytheseissuesinthetextofthecreditonthefrontpage:providingthesedisclaimersisultimatelyacourtesytofutureusersofthecredit.

Documentation

Providedabulletedlistoftheitemsrequiredtoprovethatthecreditwascompletedandthatthegoalwasmet.

x ThepurposeistousestandardprojectdocumentstoverifythattheintentofeachGreenroadscreditisbeing

met.ProjectsapplyingforGreenroadscertificationwillprovidethefollowingdocumentation:

a. Fullprojectplansanddrawings(90%minimumforinitialreview).b. Projectspecifications(90%asabove).

c. Projectdesignreport(whereavailable).d. Alinktoanonlinegallerywithphotosoftheconstructionprocess.

e. Achecklistshowingwhichcreditsarebeingattempted,andwhereevidenceofeachcreditmaybefoundin

theabovedocuments.(Thisistostreamlinethereviewprocessforcertification.)

x Anyadditionaldocumentationisdiscouraged.Theideaistousedocumentationthatalreadyexistsinatypical

roadwaydesignandconstructionproject.Creditsshouldbeabletoberepresentedwithintheplans,

specificationsordesignreport(biddocument,etc.)orwithaphotograph.Forexample,thecompliancewith

NEPA(arequirement)usesachecklistwhichcanbeattachedasanAppendixtothedesignreportorXeroxedontoasheetofthedrawings.

x However,someConstructionActivitiescreditsmayrequireadditionaldocumentation,suchascompactiontest

reportsormixdesigns.Notethatthesetypesofreportsarecommonlyavailableoninfrastructureprojects,and

shouldbeabletobesubmittedscannedorotherwisedigitized.DonotaskforaCityInspectororengineerto

writeanessaydescribingtheconstructionprocess.Instead,youmayrequestacopyofadailyreport(if

absolutelynecessarytoverifyyourcreditintentwasmet).

x ThewebbasedsystemforGreenroadswillallowdocumentationtobesubmittedviatheweb(e.g.,file

attachments,links,etc.).Nopaperorphysicaldocumentation(e.g.,apaintsample)willbeaccommodated.File

formatshouldbeAdobePDFfordocumentsanduniversalimageformats(GIF,JPG)forphotos.

Approaches&Strategies

Suggestthingsthatmaybedonetoachievethecreditrequirements.

x Inthissection,youshouldidentifyanypotentialcreditsynergies,especiallyifyouhavelistedthemas“Related

Credits”inthefrontpagesidebar.Forexample,aprojectusingporousasphaltorconcreteshouldbeableto

satisfytheintentofthePermeablePavement creditandalsomeetatleastoneofthepointsforEW3Runoff

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Qualitywithminimaltomoderateadditionaleffort.Wheresometechnologiesareunfamiliar,thesetypesof

relationshipsareveryimportanttonoteforprojectteamstoconsidergoingbeyondtheirstandarddesignsto

maketheoverallroadwaysystemmorecomprehensive.

x Mostofthetime,anactualexampleisthebestwaytoportrayanideaorstrategy.Considerusingtheoptional

Examplessectionasmanytimesasnecessarytoillustrateyourideamoreclearly.

x Also,photosandtablesareencouraged.

Examples(Optional)

Giveanexample.

x Examplescanhavedifferentlevelsofquality.Thefollowingisalistthatgoesfromhighestqualitytolowest

qualityofexamples.

a. Anexamplethathasactuallybeendoneonaprojectsuccessfullyandyoucanshowevidence(e.g.,

pictures,documents,etc.)thatithas.

b. Anexamplethathasactuallybeendoneonaprojectsuccessfullybutyoucannotshowanyevidenceofit

otherthanthedescription.Youshouldstillhavestrongevidencethatishasactuallybeendone.

c. Anexamplethatisplannedtobedoneonaprojectandyoucanshowevidence(e.g.,projectdocuments)

thatitis.

d. Anexamplethatisplannedtobedoneonaprojectbutyoucannotshowanyevidencethatitis.You

shouldstillhavestrongevidencethatisactuallyplanned.

e. Anexamplethatismadeupbutrealistic.Ithasnotbeendoneonanyprojecttoyourknowledge.

PotentialIssues

Stateanytypicalproblemsorsituationsthatmayhavebeenidentifiedintheresearchoranypotentialproblems

thatcouldbeforeseen.

x Thisisalsoagoodplacetostateanymisgivingsyoumayhaveorcommentsaboutpotentialmisinterpretationsforthecredit.Also,besuretostateanyuncertaintiesthatresultfromunderlyingassumptionsmadeabout

particularprojecttypes,places,agencies,etc.

x Fromtheresearch,youshouldbeabletonoteproblemsthatwereencounteredduringconstructionor

limitationsofatypeofmaterial,etc.ItisimportanttoidentifythesefortheReviewTeamtounderstandthefulldepthoftheissueyouaretryingtopresent.Also,useyourimaginationtoidentifythingsthatcouldpossibly

gowrongifadesignteamorconstructioncrewistryingtoimplementthecredit.Thingsthatcanbeoverlooked

ormisinterpretedareimportanttonote.

Research

Researchyourtopicandwriteaboutit.

x Ingeneral,startwithaneedorpurposestatement,discusscurrentavailableknowledge,andpresentperceived

costsandbenefits.

x Inthissectionyoushouldbrieflydescribetheempiricalevidenceandexistingresearchthatsuggeststhiscredit

isfeasibleandcontributestosustainability.Thissectioniscrucialandshouldlikelyinvolvethebulkofyourtimewritingacredit.However,thekeywordhereistheword“briefly”andthekeyconceptis“contributesto

sustainability.“Ifempiricalevidenceisunavailable,besuretonotethishere.

x Thepointofthissectionistodemonstratethatsignificantsleuthingwascompletedinordertosupporteach

credit.So,ifyouhaveapopulartopic,youmightfindquiteabitofexistingresearch.(Ifthisisthecase,

sometimesitiseasiertopresenteachdocumentinatablewithabriefsummaryinasecondcolumn.)Ifyou

havearecenttechnologyyoumightnotfindanything.Dothebestyoucanandpleasebesuretociteyour

documentssowecanalwaysgobackandcheckthemlater.Whatwe’relookingforhereisafewshort

paragraphsthatsummarizetheexistingresearchonyourtopicinaclearandconcisemannerthatwillbe

understandabletosomeoneusingtheGreenroadssystem.

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EvidenceGuidelines

WehavehighstandardsforvettingandapprovingGreenroadsCustomCredits.Followingaresomeguidelines

forresearchthatwillhelpbackupeachcredit.

Researchandevidenceshouldbeproperlydocumentedandreferenced.Evidenceshouldbereferencedtothe

report,study,etc.whereitwasoriginallyinvestigated.Referencesshouldbeincludedinthissection(atthe

end)justastheyareincludedattheendofarefereedjournalarticle.APAcitationformatispreferred.(Additionally,adigitallibrarywillbeimplementedontheGreenroadswebsitetomanageandmaintainallof

thesesupportingdocuments.)

Researchandevidenceshouldbecredible.Differentsourcesofevidencehavedifferentsourcesofcredibility.

AgenerallistofmostcredibletoleastcredibleisasfollowsinTableCC#.3(thisisnotstrictlytruebutcanserve

asagoodguide).

TableCC#.3:TableofValuesorTextItems

BEST Peerreviewedjournalarticle,publishedpeerreviewedconferencepaper,orotherindependent

research.Keepinmindthattheseoftencomefromlargerstudyreports.Ifthisisthecase,find

thelargerstudyreport.Certainly,thesethingscanbeoutrightwrongtoo,buttheprobabilityofanyblatanterrorsissubstantiallyreducedduetothereviewprocess.

STRONG Publicagencyreportorstudy.Again,thesecanbewrongorincompleteorbiasedbutthe

possibilityofanyblatanterrorsissubstantiallyreducedbecausetheytendtobereviewed.

GOOD Substantiatedcommercialortradeorganizationwork.Thisissimilartothe"STRONG"work

abovebutcomesfromasponsor(e.g.,companyortradeorganization)withanobviousinterest

intheresultsandhowtheycomeout.Forinstanceatradeorganizationthatsponsorsa

professortodoastudythatprovestheirmaterialissuperiorfallsintothiscategory.

FAIR Tradepublicationsorothernewsitemswrittenforthegeneralpublic.Duetotime/space

constraintstheseitemscanoftenglossovertheimportantdetailsbecausetheyarewrittenfora

moregeneralaudience.Thiswritingstyleisfineandeffectivebutnotidealforthisevidencesection.Oftenyoucanfindthemoredetailedworkonwhichsuchpiecesarebased.

POOR Unsubstantiatedclaims.Thesecancomeintheformofstatementsbycommercialentitieswitha

vestedinterestintheevidence(eitherproorcon),blogs,YouTubeorothervideo,claims

overheardinconversation,marketingclaimsandthelike.Thekeyisunsubstantiated .

Anecdotesareinsufficient.Somethingthathappensonceortwiceisnotevidencethatitsoccurrenceiswell

established.Oftenanecdotescan,however,provideleadstobetterevidence(seeabovelistfromBESTto

POOR),sofurtherdiggingmighthelp.

Researchandevidenceshouldbecorroborated.Thereshouldbemorethanonecredibleindependentsource

foryoursupportingevidence.Twopapersbythesameresearchteaminvolvingthesamestudyarenotconsidered"independent."SeeTableCC#.4.

TableCC#.4:RulesofThumbforCorroboratingEvidence

No.ofIndependentSources CredibilityofEvidence

3orMore Threeindependentsourcesallarrivingatsimilarconclusionsislikelytomeanthattheefficacyofaconcept,ideaorpracticeiswellestablished.

2 Thereisevidencethattheefficacyofaconcept,ideaorpracticeisestablished

butitmaynotbefullyvetted.

1 Itispossiblethataconcept,ideaorpracticeisproperandunderstoodbut

thereisnotyetenoughevidencetosayitiswellestablished.

Dissentingviewsshouldbeincluded.Sometimesthereisqualityevidenceformorethanoneinterpretationof

aparticularthing.Iftherearedissentingviewstheyshouldallbelistedanddiscussedinthecommentssection

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ofthecredit.Itisbetterbothfortheenduserandthecreditdevelopertobeawareofthesethannot.Issues

arisewhenthereareoneormorepiecesoffair/good/bestevidencewithopposingviewsordifferent

interpretations.Forinstance,theremaybethreestudiesthatgiveonepointofviewandtwostudiesthatgive

anoppositepointofview.Inthesecases,itisuptothecreditwritertousehis/herbestjudgmenttodetermine

thequalityoftheevidenceandrenderadecision.(Ifthedecisionisthattheremaynotbeenoughevidenceto

suggestacreditcontributestoroadwaysustainability,thenitisbesttoremovethatcredit.)

Glossary

Includedefinitionsofunfamiliarterms.

x ThisiswheredefinitionsofjargonornonplainEnglishlanguagetermsshouldbedefined.

References

Citeyoursources.

x Attheendofthecredit,providealistofallthereferencesused.

CreditNumber

AssignaGreenroadscreditnumber.

x CreditsarenumberedonaprojectbasisforpurposesofyourCustomCreditapplication.Forexample,ifyouare

applyingforyourprojecttoearntwodifferentCustomCredits,thefirsttemplatewillbenumberedCC1[Your

Title1]andthesecondwillbeCC2[YourTitle2].

Points

Determinethetypeofcreditandhowmanypointsthecreditisworth.

x CustomCreditsarevariableinpointvalueandmaybeworth1to5pointsdependingontheiroverallimpactoncomprehensiveroadwaysustainability.

x AsfarascreditweightingandthevaluationsystemusedinGreenroadscredits(includingsupportingresearch),wehavewrittenaboutthisinexcruciatingdetail.Wewillsparethatdetailhereandgiveyoubasichintsonhow

tochoosethepointvalueforyourcredit.x TherearethreegeneraltypesofGreenroadsrequirementsandcreditsshownanddescribedinTableCC#.5

(nextpage).

x ForGreenroads,thedefaultminimumforanypracticeis1point,andthedefaultmaximumis5points,butyour

creditcanfloatanywhereincludingorinbetweenthosevalues.

x AgoodwaytoapproachweightingyourowncreditistolookforsimilarcreditsalreadyincludedinGreenroads.

Trytoidentifycharacteristicsthatmightwarrantdifferentpointvaluesforyourowncredit.TableCC#.6may

offersomeinsight(nextpage).

x Ultimately,theReviewTeamwillvalidatethispointvalueinlinewiththeexistingweightingandreservesthe

righttomodifythispointvalueasappropriate.Formoreinformation,thereisalsoabriefdiscussiononthis

weightingtaxonomyintheIntroductiontothisManual

.

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TableCC#:5:HintsaboutAssigningGreenroadsPoints

Type CreditCharacteristics Example

Binary ThisisthesimplesttypeofGreenroadscredit.The

projectteameithermeetstherequirements(1)and

getspoints,ordoesnot(0)anddoesnotgetpoints.

TheentireProjectRequirements

categoryisagooddefaultexampleof

thebinaryapproach:ifanyrequirement

isunmet,nocertificationispossible.

ThereareanumberofVoluntaryCreditsthatalsousethisbinary

approach,suchastheCA1Quality

ManagementSystemcredit.

Incremental Thisisanextensionofthehigherlevelofthebinary

credit.Stillawardedintheallornothing(binary)fashion,thesecreditsareearnedbasedonspecified

percentagesofachievement.Ingeneral,theincrementislinearorexponentialdependingonthe

levelofdifficultyperceivedoreffortrequiredto

completesuchatask.

Agoodexampleofthistypeofcreditis

MR4RecycledMaterials,where1pointisawardedbasedonevery10%added.

Buffet Thesecreditsallowyoutopickandchoosefroma

numberofdifferentspecifiedpracticesortechnologiesinordertoearnbetweentheminimumandmaximumpointsforthatactivity.Ingeneral,

thesetypesofcreditsrecognizethattherearea

numberofgoodpracticesinexistence,butnotallof

themarefeasible,costeffective,oreasytoimplementatonce,anditwouldberarethatany

singleroadwayprojectwouldfindallofthem

appropriate.However,implementingmorethanone

mightresultinamoresustainableroadwayoverall.

AgoodexampleofaBuffetstylecredit

isAE2IntelligentTransportationSystemsbecauseyoucanpickanumberofcategoriesandapplicationsthatmay

beappropriatetoyourproject.

Foundation Thesecreditsbuildonone(ormore)particularcredit

asanextensionofanexistingbestpractice.Inorder

forthiscredittobeawarded,thisprerequisitecredit

stepmustbecompletedandachieved.Thistypeofcreditisinfrequentandoftendifficulttoimplement,

measureorotherwisespecify.Usesparingly.

TheAEseries(AE4,5,6,and7)credit

setisagoodexampleofaFoundation

credit.CreditAE3ContextSensitive

Solutionsmustbeachievedinordertoqualifyforthese4credits.Generally,

though,all11ProjectRequirementsare

alsoexamplesofFoundationcreditswith0pointvalue.

TableCC#:6:HintsaboutAssigningGreenroadsPoints

Points CreditCharacteristics

1 Defaultpointvalue.Shortterm impacts.Generallylowcostoreasyprocesswithlittletono

additionaleffortneeded.Mightberegulatedinmoststatesbutnotall.Mostconstructioncreditsfallherebasedonlifecycleassessmentdata.

2 Incentivebased(fordatacollection)orinfluentialatorganizationoragencylevel.Access

andmobilityimprovementcredits.3 Mostecologyandwatercreditsfallhere,includingcontextsensitivity,noiseandhuman

perceptionsofenvironmentalquality.Moderateefforttoimplement,possibleextensions

toscopeofworktoachieve.

4 Usuallyacombinationof1,2and3pointcredits,orthiscanbeachievedthroughcredits

withincrementalpoints.

5 Influencesphasemostcitedinlifecycleassessmentsforroadways:materialsuseortraffic

operations.Longtermorpermanentimpacts.Couldbehighcost,orhighlevelofperceived

difficultyduetoneededchangesinscopeorbeingagainstexistingregulationorstandard.

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RelatedCredits

Identifycreditsynergies.

x Listanycreditsthatmightbepartofarelatedpracticeoractivity.Usetheformat“XX#:CreditTitle”andSide

Checkmarkstyle.NotethatitisagoodideatodiscusstheseintheApproaches&Strategiessectionaswell.

SustainabilityComponentsIdentifysustai nabilitycomponents.

x Pickthemajorsustainabilitycomponentsthataresupportedbythiscredit.Thereareseventochoosefrom:

9 Ecology

9 Equity

9 Economy

9 Extent

9 Expectations

9 Experience

9 Exposure

x Thissectionofthesidebarhelpsidentifywhatresourcesandprinciplesofsustainabilityapplytoaparticular

credit.Pickatleastoneresourceandoneprinciplefromthelistsbelowthatareinfluenced,supportedorenhancedbyyourcredit.Itislikelythatthecreditwillhavemorethanonesustainabilitycomponents.

However,itisrarethatasinglecreditwilladdressallsustainabilitycomponents.

x Notethat,whilewerecognizethatallprojectstaketime(Extent)andcostmoney(Economy),thesetwo

principlesshouldnotbenotedforeverycreditunlessthereisasignificantimpactduetoimplementationofthe

credititselfontimeormoney.Forexample,theLongLifePavementcreditdirectlyconsiderstheprinciples

ExtentandExpectations,whereastheEnergyEfficiencycreditprobablyfallsunderbothEconomyandEcology.

Benefits

Highlightdirectandindirectbenefits.

x Themajorbenefitsthatrepresentinfluencedresourcesandneedsmetbyyouractivityorpractice.Thereare

16tochoosefrom:

9 ReducesWaterUse

9 ReducesFossilEnergyUse

9 ReducesRawMaterialsUse9 ReducesAirEmissions

9 ReducesWastewaterEmissions

9 ReducesSoil/SolidEmissions

9 ImprovesHuman

Health&Safety


9 ImprovesBusiness

Practice

9 IncreasesLifecycle

Savings



9 Aesthetics

9 OptimizesHabitat

&LandUse

9 CreatesNewInformation

9 CreatesEnergy

x Essentiallythissectionofthesidebaranswersthequestion:Whatisachievedorimprovedbyattemptingto

satisfythecreditrequirements?Ausercanlookbrieflyatthefrontpageofthecreditandhaveaquick

understandingofthebeneficialconsequencesassociatedwithimplementingthecredit.

x Thesebenefitscanbequalitativeor,moreoften,quantifiableattributesofthecredit.Forexample,isairquality

improved?Isthereanovelimpactonlifecycleserviceorsavings?Foranybenefitwheretherelationshipisnot

immediatelyobvious,pleaseprovidesomesupportingresearchtomakethatconnectionclear.Sometimes

thesebenefitsmaybeindirectlyachievedordifficulttoquantify,buttheseshouldstillbenotedinthesidebar.

AnexampleisachievingAE5PedestrianAccesswhichhasthedirectbenefitofimprovedaccessandmobility,butalsotheindirectbenefitofreducedgreenhousegasairemissions.

ApplicationReviewProcess

Yourteam’screditapplicationwillbereviewedbyGreenroadsdevelopersbasedonthefollowingcriteria.

1. GreenroadsCreditTemplateissubstantiallycompleted.

2. Goalstatementisclearandconcise.

3. CreditRequirementsareclear,concise,andactionable.

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4. Documentsneededareclearandconciseandeasytoproduce.

5. PotentialIssuesandassociatedsustainabilitytradeoffsarestated.

6. Atleastonestrategyandoneexampleareprovided.

7. Researchisthoroughlyreferencedorhasclearlydenotedlimitations.

8. Researchclearlyexemplifiesoneormorecomponentofsustainability.

9. Researchclearlyexemplifiesoneormorebenefitduetothesuggestedpracticeandnotesanytradeoffs

associatedwithimplementationofsuchpractice.10. Allsourcesusedarelisted.

x YouwillbenotifiedofcommentsandquestionsbyamemberoftheReviewTeam.

x Afterthat,yourcreditwillbesubmittedtoapanelofprofessionalsforreviewandcomment.Thismightbea

longprocess,anditwilllikelybeiterativeandrequireinteractionbetweenGreenroadsReviewersandyour

projectteam.

WhatHappensNext?

x Ifyourapplicationisaccepted,yourcustomcreditwillbeputintheGreenroadsbankofideasandpublishedonlineathttp://www.greenroads.usinaformsimilartootherexistingcredits.Itwillbereassigneda

numberbasedonotherCustomCreditsthathavealsobeenapproved.Itwillbemadeavailabletoother

projectstousefollowingapproval.Therefore,pleasetakecaretopreserveproprietaryknowledgewhere

necessary.

x Ifyourapplicationisnotaccepted,youarewelcometoreviseandresubmit,orwriteanentirelynewcredit.

FormattingfortheResearchSectionintheTemplate

Thisisanexampleofthestandardstyle,inparagraphs,ofBodyText.Besuretodefinetermsorprofessionaljargon

usedtomakeyourcaseintheglossary.PresentanyvocabularyterminboldfaceanddefineitintheGlossary.

ThisisResearchHeadingstyle

BodyText,ListNumber,Bullet

ThisisResearchHeadingIndentstyle

BodyTextindent,ListNumberIndent,BulletIndent

ThisisResearchBlockquote.Useitwhendisplayinglargeamountsofdirectlyquotedorverbatimtext

fromotherreferences.

FinalComments

Besuretochangebothheadersandfooterstoincludeyourcredittitleandcreditnumber.Thistemplateis

designedtoprintdoublesidedandbound(orholepunched)ontheleftsideofthefrontpageofeachcredit.

GLOSSARY

Thissectionisoptional.DefinewordsthatmightbeunfamiliartoawideaudienceofGreenroadsusersinthis

section.Vocabularyisdefinedina2columntable,termsonleft(2”column),definedonright(theremaining

width).Donotusecaptionsforthistable.Orangetextiscalled“Vocabulary”styleandthedefinitionisinthestyle

called“NoSpacing.”Alltableshavea0.2”bottomseparationfromtextonthebottom,whichisaccomplished.Nointrotextingiveninthissectionbelowtheheader,sodeletethisparagraphwhenwritingyourowncredit.This

glossarycontainsanexampleofthewordsustainability.

Sustainability Asystemcharacteristicthatdescribesthesystem’scapacitytosupportnaturallawsandhumanvalues

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REFERENCES

Forthissection,useAmericanPsychologicalAssociation(APA)referencestyleandapplyReferencesstyle.

Therearemanyresourcesavailableonlinetohelpyouformatyourreferences.Hereisagoodonewithmany

examplesfromtheOnlineWritingLabatPurdueUniversity:

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

Hereisanexampleofhowtoformattheabovereferencefromthewebcorrectly:

PurdueUniversityOnlineWritingLab(2009,Nov.11). APAFormattingandStyleGuide–TheOWLatPurdue.

RetrievedNovember25,2009,fromhttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/.

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