Declaration of originality

I declare that this document and the work described are my own work except where otherwise stated.

Padraig Doyle

____________________________________________________________

i

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the following people for their part in helping me:

- Dr. Patrick Tobin, GMIT, for his ready guidance.

- John Keary, GMIT, for his advice on test equipment.

- Siobhan Piercy, GMIT for her time and advice on printing

- Brian Crudden, A1 Signs, Galway for his advice on printing

- Peter Nee, GMIT for the spraying

- Jarlath King, GMIT for his help in the workshop

- Jeremy Madden for general advice

- Aisling Hurley, Teamwoodcraft for her advice and time and participation on panel

- Liam Dileen, EZ Living for his advice and time and participation on panel

- Charles O’Toole, Charles Furniture, for his advice and time and participation on panel

- John Jenkins, for his advice and time and participation on panel

- Colin Farmer, Unthink Graphic Design for his advice and time and participation on panel

- Conor Nolan, Conor and David Graphic Design for his advice and time and participation on panel

- everyone in FDM for being in FDM

and Mary for her support.

ii

Summary

In recent years, an increase was perceived in graphics on many interior decorative accessories

from kitchen ware to wallpaper. It was noticed that this did not apply to cabinetry, tables and

the other hard faces of furniture but the reason was unclear. In pursuit of an explanation and

the hope of identification of a niche in the furniture market, this research was undertaken.

Such research needs a context and Chapter 1 combs the history of furniture for evidence of

graphics – pictorial or patterned – examining the techniques employed, the types of furniture

and the surfaces to which they are applied and the meaning behind their use. Three key

observations are made – i) Much historical graphical ornament serves a purpose other than

decoration, ii) contemporary interiors do not necessarily honour the meaning behind a

historical style and iii) historical techniques are used in situations appropriate to their

individual properties and this should hold true for modern techniques.

Historical profiling of graphic furniture leads onto analysis of contemporary use. Styles of

furniture vary between geographies so Chapter 2 uses several approaches to assess whether a

market exists for graphical furniture and where it might be. Forgetting graphics for a

moment: the UK is identified as a huge market, to a great extent untapped by Irish furniture

manufacturers while other large European countries are very accessible but have been

completely ignored. When graphic furniture was assessed in these markets (Ireland and the

UK in particular) practically none was found. The suggestion is made that graphic furniture

may not be widely appreciated. The suggestion is also made that the scarcity might present

niche market opportunities.

The need for expert input is acknowledged in Chapter 3 when a panel of experts from varied

and relevant backgrounds discuss the extent to which graphical furniture exists and the

driving factors behind this. They consider potential markets and the suitable use of graphics.

A formal technique is used to moderate the group discussion and for each question, a

surprisingly strong consensus emerges: i) Solid furniture endures and so must be designed

transcend fashion trends, otherwise its lifetime might be limited, and ii) Graphics must have a

meaning other than pure decoration (this resonates with one of the findings from chapter 1).

iii

Techniques of applying graphics to all products have moved with technology. The techniques

identified in Chapter 1 are beautiful and enduring and still relevant today Chapter 4 presents

modern alternatives and assessed them for cost and quality.

Chapter 5 takes one such technique that could be employed by any furniture designer. The

quality and suitability are assessed through experiment and testing. The technique performs

better than expected, is very accessible and (assuming the durability can be proved beyond

doubt) requires no special knowledge, skill or research. The chapter ends by informing the

furniture maker how to employ the technique.

While some of the findings do not support the use of graphics on furniture, the author is left

with the conclusion that markets exist. The use of graphics is seen as a means for a customer

to express individuality. Furniture of this nature can command a higher price, but requires

corresponding quality and design input. To quote Liam Dileen, people buy what they see.

Graphics are eye catching so, with appropriate placement of an attractive product with an

enduring graphic, this will sell.

iv

Table of contents

DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY...................................................................................................................... I

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................................................. II

SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................... III

TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................................................... V

TABLE OF FIGURES...................................................................................................................................... VII

GLOSSARY.................................................................................................................................................... 9

INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................... 10

BACKGROUND.....................................................................................................................................................10PURPOSE...........................................................................................................................................................10OBJECTIVES........................................................................................................................................................10SCOPE...............................................................................................................................................................10RESEARCH METHODOLOGY....................................................................................................................................11

1 HISTORY OF GRAPHICALLY ENHANCED FURNITURE............................................................................13

1.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................................131.2 BEFORE THE 20TH CENTURY..........................................................................................................................131.3 20TH CENTURY...........................................................................................................................................221.4 CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................................................25

2 CONTEMPORARY TRENDS.................................................................................................................. 28

2.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................................282.2 TRENDS IN WHICH MARKET?.......................................................................................................................282.3 CONTEMPORARY USE OF GRAPHICS IN INTERIORS AND FURNITURE.......................................................................302.4 DESIGN BLOGS..........................................................................................................................................352.5 IRISH AND UK FURNITURE RETAILERS.............................................................................................................352.6 THE “BILLY” ANOMALY...............................................................................................................................362.7 EUROPEAN TRENDS....................................................................................................................................382.8 CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................................................40

3 INDUSTRY EXPERTS............................................................................................................................ 43

3.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................................433.2 METHOD..................................................................................................................................................433.3 RESULTS...................................................................................................................................................453.4 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS.................................................................................................................................473.5 OTHER APPLICATIONS.................................................................................................................................503.6 CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................................................50

4 GRAPHIC APPLICATION TECHNIQUES..................................................................................................52

4.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................................524.2 TECHNIQUES.............................................................................................................................................524.3 CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................................................58

5 INVESTIGATION OF DIRECT INKJET TECHNIQUE..................................................................................60

5.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................................605.2 LIGHT FASTNESS.........................................................................................................................................61

5.2.1 How to perform a Light fastness test...........................................................................................625.3 RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS.......................................................................................................................70

v

5.3.1 Preliminary observations:............................................................................................................705.3.2 Analysis of Fading........................................................................................................................705.3.3 Analysis of other Effects...............................................................................................................72

5.4 OTHER PROPERTIES....................................................................................................................................735.5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS..........................................................................................................74

CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................................................. 77

RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................................................................................................77

WORKS CITED............................................................................................................................................. 78

BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................................................ 81

APPENDICES............................................................................................................................................... 84

APPENDIX (I). LOG OF DAILY CHECKS OF TEST PROGRESS............................................................................................84APPENDIX (II). VISUAL GRADING OF SAMPLES...........................................................................................................85APPENDIX (III). SAFETY STATEMENT FOR UV TESTING................................................................................................89

Risk of Fire..................................................................................................................................................89Tipping.......................................................................................................................................................89UV light......................................................................................................................................................89Electric shock..............................................................................................................................................89Other relevant considerations:...................................................................................................................90

APPENDIX (IV): TREND PREDICTIONS OF URSULA GEISMANN.......................................................................................93APPENDIX (V) ANALYSIS OF THE CURRENT FURNITURE RETAIL MARKET FOR GRAPHICS ON FURNITURE:..................................95APPENDIX (VI) TRANSCRIPT OF DISCUSSION WITH INDUSTRY EXPERTS..........................................................................103

Question 1................................................................................................................................................103Question 2................................................................................................................................................107

vi

Table of figures

FIGURE 1-1 ECCLESIASTICAL THRONE WITH BACK OVERLAID WITH FAIENCE, GLASS, SEMI-PRECIOUS STONES AND PANELS OF EBONY AND IVORY (HAYWARD, 1969 P. FRONTICEPIECE).................................................................................................14

FIGURE 1-2 EBONY GAMING BOARD WITH BAND OF GILT INLAID SYMOLS (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 16)........................................14FIGURE 1-3 BOX WITH WHITE PAINT ON GESSO INTENDED TO IMITATE MORE EXPENSIVE IVORY INLAY (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 13). 14FIGURE 1-4 EBONY SEAT INLAID WITH IVORY TO IMITATE ANIMAL PELT, COMPLETE WITH TAIL (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 12)...........14FIGURE 1-5 13TH CENTURY CHEST WITH CARVED CHIVALRIC SCENE (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 27)................................................15FIGURE 1-6 14TH CENTURY CHEST WITH CARVED ARCHITECTURAL THEME..........................................................................15FIGURE 1-7 12TH CENTURY PAINTED SACRISTY CUPBOARD (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 24)..........................................................15FIGURE 1-8 14TH CENTURY PAINTED BED FROM ITALY....................................................................................................15FIGURE 1-9 INLAID PANEL FROM 16TH CENTURY CHEST (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 40)................................................................17FIGURE 1-10 GILDED AND PAINTED PANELS ON ITALIAN CASSONE (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 37).................................................17FIGURE 1-11 ITALIAN CUPBOARD WITH INTARSIA DECORATIONS, 1502 (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 38)..........ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT

DEFINED.FIGURE 1-12 DETAIL OF INTARSIA FROM THE FAMOUS 16TH WRANGELSCHRANK CABINET (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 49).................17FIGURE 1-13 1649 ITALIAN TABLE TOP INLAID WITH SEMI-PRECIOUS STONES (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 64)..................................17FIGURE 1-14 17TH CENTURY CABINET WITH PAINTED PANELS (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 57)......................................................18FIGURE 1-15 ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY JAPANNED LEGS (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 87)...............................................................18FIGURE 1-16 PAINTED LATTICE ON DELICATE 18TH CENTURY TABLE (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 116).............................................18FIGURE 1-17 JAPANESE LACQUERED CASE ATOP FRENCH STAND, 1664 (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 80)..........................................18FIGURE 1-18 1690 JAPANNED CABINET ON GILTWOOD FRAME (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 88).....................................................19FIGURE 1-19. 1788 CABINET, EBONY VENEERED, WITH JAPANESE LACQUERED PANELS (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 122)....................19FIGURE 1-20 MID 18TH CENTURY AMERICAN QUEEN ANNE HIGH CHEST IS PAINTED IN IMITATION OF ORIENTAL LACQUERING

(HAYWARD, 1969 P. 192)..............................................................................................................................20FIGURE 1-21 PAINTED PINE CHEST FROM PENNSYLVANIA, 1780 (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 192)...............................................20FIGURE 1-22 PAINTED BEECH 1796, AMERICAN COPY OF HEPPLEWHITE STYLE CHAIR (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 192).....................20FIGURE 1-23 1854 TABLETOP INLAID WITH IVORY, MOTHER-OF-PEARL AND 20 DIFFERENT WOODS, CHARACTERISING THE INTRICACY

(HAYWARD, 1969 P. 214)..............................................................................................................................21FIGURE 1-24 CABINET WITH IVORY AND MOTHER OF PEARL INLAY, 1887. (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 217).....................................21FIGURE 1-25 PHILIP WEBB CABINET PAINTED BY WILLIAM MORRIS 1862 (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 220)....................................21FIGURE 1-26 1862 CABINET BY BURGESS, PAINTED BY BURNE JONES AND OTHERS. (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 224).......................21FIGURE 1-27 PAINTING BY BRANGWYN 1910 ON A CABINET BY TURPIN (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 231).......................................22FIGURE 1-28 MACKINTOSH CABINET WITH OPAQUE GLASS INLAY, 1902 (HAYWARD, 1969 P. 230)......................................22FIGURE 1-29 CHAIR OF UNKNOWN ORIGIN SHOWS GEOMETRIC PATTERNS DONE IN MARQUETRY, IN THE ART DECO STYLE (ROGERS,

2008)..........................................................................................................................................................24FIGURE 1-30 LACQUERED SCREEN BY EILEEN GRAY, 1930 (DUNCAN, 1984 P. 40).............................................................24FIGURE 1-31 ART DECO BED BY DUNAND, 1930 (DUNCAN, 1984 P. 35).........................................................................24FIGURE 1-32 ART DECO COMMODE BY DUNAND (DUNCAN, 1984 P. 35)........................................................................24FIGURE 1-33 ART DECO BAR, TORN LACQUER AND EGGSHEL, DUNAND 1928 (DUNCAN, 1984 P. 36)...................................24FIGURE 1-34 DUNAND LACQUER SCREEN 1928 (DUNCAN, 1984 P. 36)..........................................................................24FIGURE 1-35 PRATT CHAIR (PESCE, 1984, (MOMA, 2010)).........................................................................................25FIGURE 1-36 QUEEN ANNE (VENTURI, 1983, (MOMA, 2010)).....................................................................................25FIGURE 1-37 MISS BLANCHE (KURAMATA, 1988, (MOMA, 2010))................................................................................25FIGURE 2-1 ANNUAL FURNITURE CONSUMPTION (£STG) PER CAPITA BY COUNTRY................................................................30FIGURE 2-2 DESTINATIONS OF IRISH FURNITURE EXPORTS................................................................................................30FIGURE 2-3 PINK TOILE CHEST WITH WALLPAPER BY TIMOROUS BEASTIES (PORTER, 2009).................................................31FIGURE 2-4 CRISP BOXES (PORTER)............................................................................................................................31FIGURE 2-5 FLY TIP TABLE (CAYLESS, DATE UNKNOWN).................................................................................................32FIGURE 2-6 PERISHED COLLECTION, LASER CUT INLAY, STUDIO JOB, (LOVELL, 2007 P. 16)..................................................33FIGURE 2-7 ROCKING CHAIR, EMBROIDERED WOOL FELT ON BOARD, MOA JANTZE 2005 (LOVELL, 2007 P. 40)......................33FIGURE 2-8 POSSESSION CHEST, SILK SCREEN ON BLACK LACQUER, ANTOINE + MANUEL (LOVELL, 2007 P. 41)........................33FIGURE 2-9 RENOVATED SOFA, RAW NERVE, (LOVELL, 2007 P. 42).................................................................................33

vii

FIGURE 2-10 HACKNEY SHELF, RECLAIMED LONDON HOARDING, RYAN FRANK (LOVELL, 2007 P. 43).....................................33FIGURE 2-11 BOULE SIDEBOARD. HAND-PAINTED, STEVEN SHELL (SHELL, 2010)................................................................33FIGURE 2-14 LICHEN TABLE, LICHEN WITH ACRYLIC RESIN, FARM 21 (SYKES, 2010)............................................................34FIGURE 2-15 FAIRY TREE WINDOW BLIND, FARM 21.....................................................................................................34FIGURE 2-12 HUMMINGBIRD GRAPHIC DRESSER (IANNONE, 2006)..................................................................................34FIGURE 2-13 EAT GRAFFITI TABLE (CHARLES, DATE UNKNOWN)......................................................................................34FIGURE 2-16 RIO SIDEBOARD FROM FURNITURE GRAPHICS..............................................................................................35FIGURE 6-1 POSITION OF BASE COATS ON BOTH SUBSTRATES (MDF AND POPLAR PLY).........................................................65FIGURE 6-2 CLAMPING MECHANISM SHOWING 16 SAMPLES ON EITHER SIDE OF THE CLAMPING STRIP......................................68FIGURE 6-3 BLUE WOOL STANDARDS SHOWN AFTER TESTING, ARRANGED 8 TO 1, LEFT TO RIGHT..........................................68FIGURE 6-4 SECTION THROUGH LIGHT BOX SHOWING SAMPLE POSITIONING.......................................................................69FIGURE 6-5 PROCESSED IMAGE OF BW8.....................................................................................................................71FIGURE 6-6 PROCESSED IMAGE OF BW7.....................................................................................................................71FIGURE 6-7 BREAK DOWN OF BW EQUIVALENTS OF 32 TESTED SAMPLES...........................................................................72FIGURE 6-8 FURTHER BREAKDOWN BY MATERIAL..........................................................................................................73FIGURE 0-1 TABLE OF FADE TEST GRADING FOR MDF SAMPLES......................................................................................85FIGURE 0-2 TABLE OF FADE TEST GRADING FOR POPLAR PLY SAMPLES..............................................................................86FIGURE 0-3 MARIMEKKO TRAY TABLES........................................................................................................................99FIGURE 0-4 OCCHIO COFFEE TABLE VIEWED FROM ABOVE...............................................................................................99FIGURE 0-5 MICKI STORAGE BOX...............................................................................................................................99INCLUDE CHAPTER NUMBER WHEN REFERENCING FIGURE 0-1 PICTURE OF CAR FIGS AND TABLE...ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

viii

Glossary

Contemporary furniture: Strictly speaking, this is furniture of today but is understood in

this work to refer to furniture which is on the market now, but can be stretched to include

furniture that has been regarded as avante garde in recent years. To be specific it will, in this

work, refer either to avante garde furniture of the 21st century or in another context, if

referring to less cutting edge furniture, it can be taken to refer to furniture that it currently on

the market. Hence, the definition here varies with context.

Japanning (Japan Work): “This is a term used in England and America to describe lacquer

made in imitation of Oriental lacquer. Both Chinese and Oriental lacquer was widely

collected by European patrons in the late 17th and earlier part of the 18th centuries but the

Japanese was of higher quality. As demand exceeded supply, European craftsmen were quick

to provide for the fashion by their own efforts. English Japan work was often in bright

colours such as scarlet or yellow and much of it was exported to Portugal. Normally designs

were raised on the surface but inferior work was merely varnished.”(Hayward, 1969 p. 309)

Graphics: Graphics are defined by Lucie-Smith ((2003 p. 105) as Illustrations, diagrams or

designs accompanying printed matter. In this work, however, the term is stretched to include

any two dimensional form of pictorial or patterned ornament. In this work, it further implies

coverage of an area with the ornament rather than simply highlights or details such as

borders. Though two dimensional, it can include for this work, relief carving, particularly in

the context of older furniture.

Marquetry: “Wood Inlay used on Furniture” (Lucie-Smith, 2003 p. 135)

Intarsia: “A type of Marquetry used in Italy... It often has figurative subjects or shows

elaborate perspective effects” (Lucie-Smith, 2003 p. 119)

Light Fastness: The resistance of subject to colour change and degradation due to exposure

to light (Barnett, 2005)

Scumble: To apply a thin layer of semi-opaque paint over a colour to modify it. A scumble is

a layer of paint used in this way. Removing some of the scumble with combs or brushes can

leave a wood-grain effect.

9

Introduction

BackgroundAn increase was perceived in the quantity and quality of graphics applied to a wide range of

fashion-led items such as clothing, upholstery, soft furnishings and kitchen ware. The nature

of the imagery applied to consumer products seemed to have expanded from sketched,

printed, painted or illustrated graphics to include photographic imagery. It appeared that the

proliferation of graphics on such commodities was not as widespread in contemporary

furniture. Thus, the graphical enhancement of furniture was initially perceived as a

potentially under-developed market warranting further research.

PurposeFor a furniture designer or manufacturer

Objectives

- To understand the market for applying graphics to furniture based on the history of

graphically decorated furniture and on current trends in a broader range of graphically

decorated commodities and current trends in furniture.

- To identify and assess an accessible process to apply customised graphics to wood

based material.

- Based on the preceding research, recommend appropriate furniture applications for

graphically enhanced sheet material and methods of producing these graphics.

Scope

- Graphics and pattern is widely used on fabric. This is an established and successful

method of decoration and so, while some references are made to upholstery and soft

furnishing in context, this is outside the scope. This research is confined to the use of

graphics on hard surfaces in furniture.

- This research does not consider wall art as furniture though it is understood that the

line may be blurred in some cases. A painting on a wall is outside the scope while the

same painting applied to a piece of functional furniture is within the scope.

- Artistic Printing-making and Graphic design are individually focused skills which

take concentrated training to perfect. Aesthetic appreciation of a particular image or

pattern is personal and the outcomes of this research should not be coloured by

10

personal appreciation of a graphic and without good understanding of these fields,

creation of a graphic design for application to furniture, would introduce this risk. For

this reason, design of a furniture item is outside the scope.

- Children’s furniture will be touched upon as a potential market but this is one of many

possible markets, each of which would need focused market research and could be

separate bodies of work in themselves. Because of the breadth of the research needed

for children’s furniture, this is outside the scope.

Research methodology

History: A comprehensive assessment of the history of graphical ornament – pictorial and

patterned of solid surfaces of furniture is needed to provide a context for the use of graphics

today. Many books have been written on furniture history but to assess the historical

application of graphics on furniture, a comprehensive, high level resource was chosen as a

starting point. The book chosen, “World Furniture” (Hayward, 1969) provides a

comprehensive history with good imagery for quick identification of graphical furniture. This

overview was cross-referenced with “Furniture: a concise history” (Lucie-Smith, 1979) and

“The History of Furniture” (Orbis Publishing, 1976). Other references are also cited where

appropriate.

Market Research: Recent and current use of graphics was assessed through several channels:

- Retail review through visits to furniture stores in Ireland and reviews of Irish and UK

and some international furniture retailers’ websites.

- An online discussion group was set up to conduct a “Delphi Study” to find consensus

on the market possibilities for graphics in furniture.

Techniques of applying graphics to furniture were assessed through visits to manufacturers,

consultation through email with equipment manufacturers and interviews with print

professionals. The process and suitability of one of the more accessible techniques for a small

furniture maker was assessed through testing.

11

1 History of graphically enhanced furniture

1.1 Introduction

It is commonly known that furniture has been graphically embellished throughout history, at

least as far back as ancient Egyptian times. However, the methods of applying these graphics

as well as the forms and functions of the decorated furniture have varied greatly and the

breadth of these variations should be understood to guide decisions on the use of graphics in

new furniture design. This chapter will highlight the techniques used to apply graphics to

furniture through each period in history. The chapter will also analyse the situations in which

graphics are applied – the broad function of the furniture – be it table, chair or storage,

functional, decorative or ceremonial, for wealthy or poor users, and the types of surfaces they

are applied to, be they panels, structural members, high-traffic/horizontal surfaces such as

seats or table tops or low-traffic such as a vertical panels. This chapter looks for the

emergence of trends from this analysis to assist in deciding later on the most appropriate uses

of graphics on furniture.

1.2 Before the 20th Century

From as far back as ancient times, craftsmen applied graphical embellishment to interior

furnishings and vessels (Hayward, 1969 pp. 10-17). Detailed wood, metal and stone inlays as

well as gesso and paint were not uncommon on luxury furniture and were often used to mask

inferior timbers. Relief carving also commonly formed part of the embellishment. Ancient

Egyptians typically sat and slept on mats of reeds and rushes while evidence of more exalted

furniture such as beds, stools, chairs, armchairs (and thrones) and boxes, is seen in carvings

and tombs of the elite. Thrones in particular were more a symbol of status (Hayward, 1969 p.

10) than functional objects suggesting that comfort and durability was not the prime concern.

Thrones from the tomb of Tutankhamen are adorned on every flat surface with detailed

wood, metal and stone inlay (Figure 1-1). Less intricate patterns were also created on the less

ceremonial furniture with chair seats often made from woven cord keeping the graphic

embellishment to the chair back. One striking exception comes again from the tomb of

Tutankhamen; a stool with its seat made of ebony, inlaid with ivory in a vaguely floral

pattern, and shaped to suggest real animal hide (Figure 1-4). Figure 1-2 shows a more

subdued band of inlaid symbols around an ebony gaming board while Figure 1-3 shows a box

12

of lighter wood coated in black gesso and painted white in imitation of ebony inlaid with

ivory.

CHANGE PIC

Figure 1-1 Ecclesiastical Throne with back overlaid with Faience, glass, semi-precious stones and panels of ebony

and ivory (Hayward, 1969 p. Fronticepiece)

Figure 1-2 Ebony gaming board with band of gilt inlaid symbols (Hayward, 1969 p. 16)

Figure 1-3 Box with White Paint on Gesso intended to

imitate more expensive ivory inlay (Hayward, 1969 p. 13)

Figure 1-4 Ebony seat inlaid with ivory to imitate animal pelt, complete with tail(Hayward, 1969 p. 12)

Ancient Greek and Roman furniture is an evolution from that of Egyptian times. Egyptian

beds evolved into Greek couches inlaid with fine woods, gems and precious metals for

decoration, though vessels often had more intricate, painted scenes. The Greek klismos and

diphros also have Egyptian origins. Another form of low stool used by working classes is

said to have geometric designs or human figures painted on the upright members (Hayward,

1969 p. 15). Other footstools and chests were similar to Egyptian predecessors though from

the evidence in friezes, carving and engraving seems to have been more common on Greek

furniture. While wooden furniture was preserved inside Egyptian tombs, there are few

examples of wooden furniture from these later civilisations, though it is suggested that it must

have been the most common material (Hayward, 1969 p. 14). It could be interpreted that

painting of wooden furniture would have been as common if not more so, in Greek and

Roman times as in Egyptian times but the organic material was not preserved. The ornament

13

of furniture depicted on terracotta and stone friezes could as easily represent painted pattern

as the well known carving and etching.

Medieval furniture was typically of heavy wooden members and often architectural in nature.

Much of the ornament was carved but there is also evidence to suggest panelling was

sometimes elaborately painted. Similar to ancient Egyptian to Roman furniture, such

embellishment would be the preserve of the ruling classes or the church. The furnishings that

might be ornately painted include wooden thrones, chairs, architectural cupboards and wall

shelving of massive timbers, chests and boxes (Hayward, 1969 pp. 21,22). Desks were

sometimes combined with a lectern – wooden and elaborately painted with geometric

patterns. A chair following the classical tradition with “x-supports” is also said to have been

elaborately painted when made of wood. It seems that much of the warmth and colour in

these castles, great houses and religious buildings was provided by patterned wall hangings

and curtains and by tapestries.

Figure 1-5 13th Century chest with carved chivalric scene(Hayward, 1969 p. 27)

Figure 1-6 14th Century chest with carved architectural theme

Figure 1-7 12th Century Painted sacristy cupboard (Hayward, 1969 p. 24)

Figure 1-8 14th century painted bed from Italy

As is common throughout history, the poorer classes had crude if any furniture but the Gothic

furniture of wealthy classes was commonly decorated with relief carvings across most of

14

Europe. Ornament was usually architectural (Figure 1-6) though chivalric scenes were also

often used (Figure 1-5). The influence did not fully take hold in Italy however, and here,

furniture decoration was often painted rather than carved, as shown in Figure 1-7. Italian

painting skill developed before the Renaissance and chests were often painted with such skill

that they were disassembled and the panels displayed as pictures. Furniture generally was still

quite bulky – constructed usually with panels. It was these panels that were usually

ornamented, whether they were on beds, chests, ceremonial chairs, desks or cabinets as they

later developed (Hayward, 1969 pp. 26-34).

The Renaissance saw great advances in art. Furniture ornament became more elaborate.

French furniture was rarely without carved ornament. Italian furniture of the same period was

decorated quite differently. Chairs, table-tops and credenzas would have been covered with

boldly patterned fabrics such as damask cloth. The furniture beneath these covers was often

rough and ready (Hayward, 1969 p. 36). Uncovered furniture was intricately decorated with

both carved patterns and with pictorial panels – painted or with intarsia decoration (Figure 1-

9). The general functions of the adorned furniture did not change much but as cabinet making

techniques evolved from simple mortise and tenon joints and grooved panels to include finer

dovetail and mitre joints and concealed (rather than through) tenons, furniture became more

refined and less bulky. Table tops were often inlaid but otherwise, most graphical ornament

was restricted to vertical panels as seen in Figure 1-10 while and Figure 1-12 are examples

of the intricacy of intarsia of the period. Spanish and Portuguese furniture exhibited many of

the same traits, particularly in the level of intricacy of ornament but the subject of the

ornament was much more influenced by the Moors and the Orient (Portugal’s main trading

partner). These influences created more examples of geometric pattern than was evident in

the rest of Europe.

15

Figure 1-9 Inlaid panel from 16th Century chest (Hayward, 1969 p. 40)

Figure 1-10 Gilded and painted panels on Italian Cassone (Hayward, 1969 p. 37)

Figure 1-11 Italian Cupboard with Intarsia decorations, 1502(Hayward, 1969 p. 38)

Figure 1-12 Detail of Intarsia from the famous 16th Wrangelschrank cabinet(Hayward, 1969 p. 49)

Figure 1-13 1649 Italian table top inlaid with semi-precious stones (Hayward, 1969 p. 64)

16

The 17th and 18th centuries saw a tendency toward greater comfort and even further

elaboration of furniture design. The use of upholstery allowed pattern to be applied to the

seats of chairs and chaises longue – which up to now was not common. On solid surfaces,

traditional painting was still in use (Figure 1-14) but marquetry, intarsia, oystering and other

forms of inlay, became more intricate and more common, with Lacquering influenced by the

Orient becoming popular particularly in the 18th century. Furniture-making techniques

evolved to allow lighter structures as shown in Figure 1-15 and Figure 1-16. The typical

panel-construction as seen in Figure 1-10 which provided large flat surfaces suitable for

displaying expansive ornamentation was now only used in casework. The supporting legs or

frames could be much lighter. These frames, while sometimes embellished graphically were

more typically, elaborately carved and the carcases they supported were very often inlaid

with marquetry, oystering and with japanning becoming more popular, especially in the 18th

century.

Figure 1-14 17th Century Cabinet with painted panels(Hayward, 1969 p. 57) Figure 1-15 English 17th Century Japanned Legs

(Hayward, 1969 p. 87)

Figure 1-16 painted lattice on delicate 18th Century table(Hayward, 1969 p. 116)

Figure 1-17 Japanese Lacquered case atop French stand, 1664(Hayward, 1969 p. 80)

17

Figure 1-17 to Figure 1-19 shows the enduring fashion of Japanese lacquering or for

European copies as can be seen in figure 17.

Figure 1-18 1690 Japanned cabinet on gilt-wood frame (Hayward, 1969 p. 88)

Figure 1-19. 1788 Cabinet, ebony veneered, with Japanese lacquered panels (Hayward, 1969 p. 122)

In parallel to this accelerated development of European furniture, the remote settlers in

America were continuing the traditions brought with them in the 17th century. Without the

catalysing influences of Europe, the styles were less flamboyant and progressed much more

slowly. Painted decoration was very popular on furniture panels in America at this time. The

patterns applied by American cabinet makers in the 17th century were almost “tribal” in

comparison to the intricate floral imagery in vogue with their European contemporaries.

Some examples are shown below. The 18th century saw a closer match in techniques with

painting becoming more intricate where used and with japanning gaining popularity.

18

Figure 1-20 mid 18th Century American Queen Anne high chest is painted in imitation of Oriental

lacquering (Hayward, 1969 p. 192)

Figure 1-21 Painted Pine Chest from Pennsylvania, 1780 (Hayward, 1969 p. 192)

Figure 1-22 Painted beech 1796, American copy of Hepplewhite style chair (Hayward, 1969 p. 192)

While there are differences in the forms of furniture and styles of decoration across

geographies and periods of these two centuries, the basic techniques used to add graphical

ornament are common: Seats bore patterned upholstery; the panels and faces of the more

expansive range of cabinetry were painted and lacquered, inlaid or veneered or less

frequently, carved; Table tops, if not marble, were inlaid with often intricate patterns or

covered with leather. Legs were typically adorned with carvings but less commonly some

legs were also lacquered. The detail achieved in graphical ornamentation was very fine and

often quite realistic as painting skills continued to flourish, combined with the added depth

achieved through lacquering.

Throughout the 19th century, forms varied greatly, with the early part tending to be simpler –

with less elaborate carvings. Patterns used in graphical ornamentation also changed and some

new techniques were also used. Pen work became a popular technique in the Regency period;

19

Light coloured wood such as sycamore would be decorated with pen-drawn designs. Patterns

to be copied using this technique were available to buy from print- and book-shops

(Hayward, 1969 p. 203). Buhl-work, or marquetry of wood with brass was very popular – in

some cases, the pieces were so covered that the actual woodwork almost disappeared

(Hayward, 1969 p. 206). Rococo and Gothic Revivals both encouraged intricate and elaborate

carved ornamentation but the Gothic influence also influenced the Pre-Raphaelites Morris

and Burne-Jones to apply painted medieval-style imagery to panelled furniture. Morris and

Co. were famous for their floral patterns. These patterns were on wallpaper and fabric. The

fabric was used in soft furnishings and upholstery but some of their earlier painted furniture

is shown in Figure 1-25 and Figure 1-26.

Figure 1-23 1854 tabletop intricately inlaid with ivory, mother-of-pearl and 20 different woods (Hayward, 1969 p. 214) Figure 1-24 cabinet with ivory and mother of pearl

inlay, 1887. (Hayward, 1969 p. 217)

Figure 1-25 Philip Webb Cabinet painted by William Morris 1862 (Hayward, 1969 p. 220)

Figure 1-26 1862 Cabinet by Burgess, painted by Burne Jones and others. (Hayward, 1969 p. 224)

Innovations in wallpaper manufacturing processes made wallpaper accessible to the masses

(McGarry, 2010) and this in turn lessened the need for graphic embellishment on furniture.

20

Colour and pattern was easily available and clashing patterns between furniture ornament and

wallpaper would have been undesirable.

Towards the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, furniture and its ornament became pared

down and elegant forms approaching the Art Nouveau style became popular. The focus here

was on the subtle, organic, curvilinear form and the techniques employed leaned towards

craft based manufacture above industrial manufacture. In celebration of craft, much of the

ornament was carved but two-dimensional graphical ornament does not form a significant

element. Particularly in Britain, there are exceptions to this; most notably in the work of

Mackintosh. The techniques used were still the labour intensive methods of inlay or painting.

Some examples are shown here, with Mackintosh and Brangwyn being particular

practitioners of graphic adornment of Art Nouveau.

Figure 1-27 Painting by Brangwyn 1910 on a cabinet by Turpin(Hayward, 1969 p. 231)

Figure 1-28 Mackintosh Cabinet with opaque glass inlay, 1902 (Hayward, 1969 p. 230)

1.3 20th Century

The Modern Movement dominated the 20th Century. Even as early as 1907 when Peter

Behrens partnered with AEG in Germany, technological development and industrial design

was being led by America and Germany. Dormer proposes that America lead in

manufacturing processes while industrial design was “invented” in Germany (Dormer).

While these leading countries copied each other, the modern aesthetic essentially came from

Europe. When designers of the early modern movement eventually overcame the tendency to

use new materials and processes to create traditional forms, it was the abstract art of

21

Kandinsky and others that had the greatest influence (Hayward, 1969 p. 290). At a glance, it

might seem strange that though inspired by a graphical medium, modernist furniture bears no

visual resemblance to the art. However, the similarity and influence exists in the underlying

principles. An easy way to understand this can found by looking at a quintessential example

of modern furniture – Reitveld’s Red and Blue Chair. This chair pares back the traditional

chair to an arrangement of planes and lines which still satisfy the essential function. As

propounded by Adolf Loos in 1908, “Ornament is Criminal” (Dormer, 1987). This belief can

be seen throughout the Modernist movement in the work of Le Corbusier, Gropius and Van

Der Rohe to name a few. This widespread rejection of ornament explains why, not only two-

dimensional graphic ornament but carvings, mosaics and marquetry were excluded from

Modernist furniture.

Art Deco was a counter-style in its decorative intent but later became influenced by the

Modernist movement (Rogers, 2008). Some of Eileen Gray’s work would fall to this category

but really, she defies straightforward categorisation – as an Individualist (Duncan, 1984 p.

12). Graphic decoration, where it existed on art deco furniture and architecture used

geometric pattern of Aztec and Egyptian inspiration. It was a grand, luxurious style and the

decoration was often executed with inlay of wood, metals or stone. Lacquering became an

important technique for leading designers such as Eileen Gray and Jean Dunand. Some

striking examples of graphics, particularly lacquer-work are shown in the following figures

Another response to the Modern movement came in the form of Postmodernism.

Postmodernism re-established the acceptability of ornament and has an underlying wit and

visual symbolism (Rogers, 2008). This reopened the door for graphics on furniture as shown

in the examples below. Figure 1-35 in particular shows an example of postmodernist use of

graphics in the work of Robert Venturi, an important postmodernist theorist. Here Venturi

pulls elements of a Queen Anne style chair, modernist manufacturing techniques and

decorates it with a playful pattern. This juxtaposition of discrete references is a trait of the

movement and this trait can be seen in many contemporary designs (such as the Timorous

Beasties wallpaper of Bryonie Porter as discussed later in section 2.3 which takes traditional

toile wallpaper but replaces the old rustic scenes with modern urban scenes, or the table of

Charles O’Toole with a Modern laser-cut frame combined with hand-painted graffiti.

22

Figure 1-29 Chair of unknown origin shows geometric patterns done in marquetry, in the Art Deco style

(Rogers, 2008)

Figure 1-30 Lacquered Screen by Eileen Gray, 1930(Duncan, 1984 p. 40)

Figure 1-31 Art Deco Bed by Dunand, 1930(Duncan,1984 p. 35) Figure 1-32 Art Deco Commode by Dunand (Duncan, 1984

p. 35)

Figure 1-33 Art Deco Bar, torn lacquer and eggshell, Dunand 1928(Duncan, 1984 p. 36)

Figure 1-34 Dunand Lacquer Screen 1928 (Duncan, 1984 p.36)

23

Some Later examples of graphic furniture from the 20th Century:

Gaetano Pesce’s Pratt chair, while not an applied graphic, displays a swirling graphic formed

from the properties of the material used.

Figure 1-35 Pratt Chair (Pesce, 1984,(MoMA, 2010))

Figure 1-36 Queen Anne (Venturi, 1983, (MoMA, 2010))

Figure 1-37 Miss Blanche (Kuramata, 1988, (MoMA, 2010))

Figure 1-38 Marquetry fronted Wardrobe (Varah, 2006)

XXXXXX XXXXXX

XXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXX XXXXXX

Robert Venturi (Queen Anne)

Venturi has an attraction to complexity and richness and places stress upon symbolism and

decoration because he feels it allows a designer to produce variety in his work(Knoll, 2011)

Shiro Kuramato (Miss Blanche)

1.4 Conclusion

Before the Modernist movement, graphics were widely used. The examples identified in the

history books were usually finely crafted and were probably made for wealthy people. The

24

inlaid stone-topped table in Figure 1-13 took 15 years to make. The cost can be imagined.

Furniture of this calibre is a statement of power and wealth rather than simply an aesthetic

addition to a household, though the aesthetic function was served too. To go back to the

Egyptian examples, the power was tied to religious beliefs and the ornament was in honour of

these beliefs. The power and the religion are examples of a function of the graphics other

than pure ornament. This concept will recur in chapter 3 in discussions with industry experts

who unanimously and independently believe that the graphic should be more than decorative

– that it should have a primary function. Not all historical movements support this position

Not all movements support this position. The Modernist movement marked a great shift away

from ornament toward pure function, and the idea of beauty through honesty in use of

materials and in a form which follows function, to adapt Louis Sullivan’s modernist ideal.

This is a school of though and is balanced by two other styles or movements of the 20th

Century: Art Deco and Postmodernism as well as the patterns of the 1950s and 1960s where

ornament and decoration was celebrated and it seems now that fashion trends of the 21st

century can take elements of any of these past styles in combination. As a simple example of

this from current interior trends: classic Modern pieces are used in the same spaces as Chintz

papered accent walls – the histories of these styles might be polar opposites but the trend is

widespread and regarded as attractive. This shows that the meaning behind the use of

graphics in their original setting does not necessarily translate to the same meaning in their

contemporary incarnation.

The methods of application evolved from the basic inlay of Egyptian times to the extremely

complex inlay of the 18th and 19th centuries; basic painting evolved to the perfection of

japanning; technology was used in the 20th century as evident from patterned Formica.

There were no surfaces precluded from graphic ornament – even narrow table-legs were

lacquered, as shown in Figure 1-15 and Figure 1-16. However, there are differences in the

techniques used on different surfaces. Marquetry, inlay and intarsia etc. was used on every

surface. It’s a durable family of techniques. Lacquering seems only to be applied to vertical

surfaces. This suggests that, despite the endurance of the examples, that the technique may

not be suitable to high-traffic surfaces. A further extrapolation suggests that for contemporary

application of graphics there may be techniques suited to horizontal, high-traffic uses and

other techniques, less durable that may be adequate for vertical surfaces.

25

26

2 Contemporary trends

2.1 Introduction

An analysis of the contemporary market is presented here. The analysis is conducted through

secondary research. Specifically:

- statistical research of markets, particularly in Ireland and the UK

- an overview of some contemporary designers encountered in background research

- a more structured search through recommended design blogs

- a physical search of retail outlets and an internet search through retailers websites

- analysis of trend predictions arising from two major design shows in mainland Europe

2.2 Trends in Which Market?

It was seen as necessary to assess general trends in furniture so graphic trends could be

placed in context. But which market should be assessed. In the opinion of Liam Dileen, MD

of EZ living who contributed some expertise in the course of this research, the Irish market is

miniscule compared to the global market or even European markets. (Dileen, 2011, per

comm. January). He compares Ireland in terms of population to Greater Manchester. When

seen from that perspective, it would be foolish of manufacturers and designers in Manchester

to limit their market to that small region. Indeed, Ireland’s population at 4.2 million in 2006

is about a fifteenth of the population of the UK(Central Statistics Office, 2011). In 2006

however, at the height of the Celtic Tiger, only 18% of the country’s furniture manufacturing

industry was exported. Compare this to the rest of the manufacturing industry: 88% of

turnover was exported in the same year (Heanue, 2008 p. 14). This shows a skewed reliance

on the domestic furniture market. This is not surprising as the booming domestic economy

meant companies did not have to break into international markets to survive. Perhaps this

easy domestic market was the reason that product development and innovation had been

neglected in the Irish furniture industry as reported in 2004 by Intertrade Ireland (Intertrade

Ireland, 2004 p. 9). In recent years, since the economic downturn began, the market has been

badly affected. Three years on retail sales are still falling and in 2010 alone, the Retail Sales

Index shows furniture and lighting sales in Ireland, down by 9.6% (Central Statistics Office,

2011 p. 1). This general slowdown in furniture retail activity suggests that the domestic

market is no longer a rich hunting ground so now designers and manufacturers must look

outside the country for growth or even survival.

27

The UK is one viable market with no trade restrictions and low delivery costs. Seven years

ago, Intertrade Ireland valued Irish exports to the UK at 60% of the country’s total furniture

exports but as mentioned above, Irish furniture exports are a very small proportion of

country’s total furniture industry turnover – so exports to Ireland’s nearest and very large

neighbour would have been about 11% of the turnover for that year.

To assess furniture trade in the opposite direction – Ireland imported 42% of its furniture

from the UK in 2002 (Intertrade Ireland, 2004 p. 34) this may have shifted since then but a

much more recent FIRA report declares Ireland as the number one importer of UK Furniture

Exports , accounting for 31% of the UKs £1.1 billion furniture export market.

Ireland is England’s best customer but England imports less than 1% of its furniture from

Ireland (FIRA, 2010 p. 17). Recent news reports show Irish exports, generally up for 2010.

This is positive. Can the UK market be developed? General knowledge of the market and the

level of commonality of retailers suggest that high-street fashion trends between the Irish and

UK markets have many similarities so in theory there should be little difficulty for Irish

designers in understanding and designing for the UK market. As suggested earlier, the

difficulty in the past may have been in the lack of necessity and hence the lack of investment

by Irish manufacturers. Based on the largely one-way trade between the two countries, high

street furniture trends in Ireland tend to be lead by UK trends. This can be seen in the number

of UK owned furniture retailers in the country in recent years. Some of these At an haute

couture level however, London has a thriving design culture. At this level, Ireland tends to

follow a few steps behind if at all and to compete on any great scale at this leading edge of

design in a Global or European stage would be difficult. It could be achieved by Irish

designers, and indeed is in some cases. It would be difficult to keep up with such rapidly

changing trends from a remote location but through continuous market research, regular visits

and attendance at design shows such as London’s 100% Design, Milan’s Salone and

Cologne’s IMM, development of the UK as an Irish Export market should be possible but it

seems much work must be done on product design, development and innovation as well as

considerable investment in market research.

Now referring again to the UK competitiveness report (FIRA, 2010 p. 11), Canada is the

largest consumer in the world of furniture per capita. Let’s assume that the US and Canada

are problematic for logistical reasons (e.g. cost of shipping furniture) and import duties in

28

these countries, there are other huge markets within the EU free market. The top consumers

are shown in Figure 2-39. Transport is relatively cheap compared to non-EU and our labour

costs are now coming down so we are missing out on these very attractive markets

Figure 2-39 Annual furniture consumption (£stg) per capita by country

Figure 2-40 Destinations of Irish furniture exports

Now, compare this consumption to Ireland’s actual furniture export destinations (Intertrade

Ireland, 2004 p. 27). Probably the most surprising figure is the prominence of the US but

considering the low value of our exports, this could be skewed by a few Joseph Walshe

tables! However, from a market analysis point of view, it shows that, though six of the top

furniture consuming nations of the world are virtually on our doorstep, we only scratch the

surface of one of them. In any other industry, this would be classed as a failure of the industry

to develop an export market (referring again to the figure of 88% of turnover exported in

other manufacturing industries compared to 18% in the furniture industry) when so many

markets are accessible.

2.3 Contemporary use of graphics in interiors and furniture

The scope of this project is limited to graphics on furniture. However, being an aspect of

interior design, furniture must be considered in the context of an interior aesthetic rather than

as an isolated item. More general graphical enhancement of interiors should be assumed to

influence furniture appearance. Influential interior elements include the use of graphics on

contemporary soft furnishings, wall coverings and flooring as well as contemporary furniture.

Analysis of graphical trends in these dominant elements of interior design is intended to set a

backdrop for the application of graphics on furniture – identifying the types of furniture that

are successful when embellished with graphics, and identifying the styles of graphics that are

successful when applied to interiors.

29

Broader yet, contemporary interior colours and forms could be explored for their influence on

furniture aesthetics but this would be a much broader scope with a less significant, more

subjective impact. This chapter will focus on the graphical influence from all contemporary

interior design elements but will consider form and colour when necessary.

Bryonie Porter customises existing furniture by applying

wallpaper (Porter). The wallpaper chosen includes such

contemporary wallpaper designers as Timorous Beasties

as shown in Figure 2-41. This is a low tech means of

applying graphics. Her customising service has found

favour with several retailers in the UK including

Selfridges and has received coverage in many UK interior

Magazines. The cost of the service ranges from £700 to

£1200 which is a non-trivial add-on to the cost of the furniture

but were it to rescue an otherwise outdated piece, it is not

unaffordable. The approach allows Porter the flexibility to

change designs simply by keeping abreast of changes in wallpaper trends. It allows customers

the option to update existing furniture, albeit at a cost, rather than purchasing new pieces.

Alexena Cayless is a furniture designer with a sculpture

background but also makes use of print on some designs.

Figure 2-42 shows her Crisp Boxes which are simple screen

printed graphics. On another of her ranges, Fly Tip Furniture,

a new skin is applied to discarded furniture. Black and white

prints are

applied, recording where each piece was found.

This link between the graphic and the history of

the piece is an interesting design and resonates

with some opinions of industry experts which

will be discussed later.

30

Figure 2-41 Pink Toile Chest with Wallpaper by Timorous Beasties

(Porter, 2009)

Figure 2-42 Crisp Boxes (Porter)

A selection of Graphic Furniture from various contemporary designers is shown on page 32.

Most of these at least in 2007 were cutting edge designers as chosen for the book Furnish;

Furniture and Interior Design for the 21st century. Each caption describes the method of

graphic enhancement. It should be noted that the first five of these six designers are high-end,

bespoke or very limited run products. The exception is Steven Shell Furnishings who claims

that furniture is hand painted. However, this could refer to the base colour. Considering the

range of furniture available from this company, it seems likely that the graphics are applied

with a print medium and finished with a coat of lacquer but without physical inspection, it is

impossible to be certain. An alternative is to manufacture them in a low cost economy where

hand-painting of these simple patterns would be cost effective.

31

Figure 2-43 Fly Tip Table (Cayless, Date unknown)

Figure 2-44 Perished Collection, Laser cut inlay, Studio Job, (Lovell, 2007 p. 16) Figure 2-45 Rocking Chair, embroidered wool felt on board,

Moa Jantze 2005 (Lovell, 2007 p. 40)

Figure 2-46 Possession chest, Silk screen on black lacquer, Antoine + Manuel (Lovell, 2007 p. 41)

Figure 2-47 Renovated sofa, Raw Nerve,(Lovell, 2007 p. 42)

Figure 2-48 Hackney shelf, reclaimed London hoarding, Ryan Frank (Lovell, 2007 p. 43)

Figure 2-49 Boule Sideboard. Hand-painted, Steven Shell(Shell, 2010)

32

Iannone Design is a small US based designer

who cuts simple silhouettes from laminate and

applies it to sustainable plywood. This creates

quite a bold graphic using low-tech methods.

Figure 2-50 shows an example and most of

Iannone’s work is in this vein.

Charles (O’Toole) is a Dublin based furniture designer,

not typically associated with graphic furniture so this

piece is interesting as it appears to be a different

direction the designer. The graphic is by collaboration

with graffiti artist Klit.

Farm 21 by Sasha Sykes(Sykes, 2010), a Carlow based furniture designer works mainly with

natural materials combined with Acrylic. While Sasha does not intend there to be a graphic

element, (Sikes, 2011) the result can be interpreted as a two dimensional pattern. The framing

of natural materials within acrylic clear can be seen as a graphic medium Figure 2-52. The

work of Farm 21 also includes lamp-shades and blinds (Figure 2-53)printed with

photographic images.

Figure 2-52 Lichen Table, lichen with acrylic resin, Farm 21(Sykes, 2010)

Figure 2-53 Fairy Tree Window Blind, Farm 21

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Figure 2-50 Hummingbird Graphic Dresser (Iannone, 2006)

Figure 2-51 Eat Graffiti Table (Charles, Date unknown)

There are many bespoke designers that use simple cabinetry. Furniture Graphics are one

such company. An example of their cabinets is shown in Figure 2-54 has a very basic,

uninspiring cabinet underneath but the quality of the graphic means the viewer is much less

likely to focus on the bland structure.

Figure 2-54 Rio sideboard from Furniture Graphics

2.4 Design Blogs

A review of design blogs was seen as a way to identify up to the minute trends and search for

evidence of the use of graphics. As the world of blogs in unregulated, a list of blogs was

recommended by Dr. Marion McGarry of GMIT for their quality and their focus on interior

design. This list was adopted as a starting point for this review. The detail of this review is

listed in the appendix. Of the many blogs combed, a handful of references to, or examples of

graphic furniture were found. These are listed with the appendix.

XXXXXX

2.5 Irish and UK Furniture Retailers

Every furniture store in Galway was visited from October to November 2010 specifically to

locate graphic furniture. In December 2010 and January 2011, many furniture stores on the

east coast of Ireland were visited. Cempo interiors in Athlone and Objekt in Newcastle West

were also visited. Online stores were also assessed, particularly for UK retailers. The retail

outlets and websites assessed were mostly UK and Ireland-based. (The context of other

European furniture markets was not familiar and the language made it more difficult. The

French retail market was assessed by searching for and reviewing furniture retailers in France

but with limited success. Websites such as Yamakado.com, Labarere.com, Aare.fr and fly.fr

were checked completely. The styles did not differ greatly to the UK and Irish retailers, with

a lot of wood and leather.)

34

Observations of each store assessed are given in the appendix on P93 but to summarise: Of

the 20 furniture retailers surveyed, 4 had examples of graphic furniture. Within these four

retailers, graphic content was evident on just a tiny part of their product ranges and in the

case of IKEA and Objekt, these were very subdued patterns on frosted glass table tops.

Scandinavian Design Centre was an exception in the boldness of the graphic but they are not

actually UK centred but try to address the broader European market. A significant proportion

of Busy Bees Furniture has graphic content. Busy bees renovate old furniture or recycle

discarded furniture and graphics are a way to give old forms a contemporary face. In their

case, while the furniture is attractive, it has a decided craft-feel. The detail on the stores and

websites visited is provided in the appendix in a table and in some deeper analysis of some

stores but from this, quite broad review of the market, only one conclusion is forthcoming:

There is practically no graphic furniture being sold in the UK and Ireland at the moment.

With respect to new furniture sales, the exceptions to this are a negligible component of the

observed retailers’ product lines. With respect to renovated furniture, graphic techniques,

particularly painting and ink transfer techniques are a significant tool used in freshening up a

piece. This is becoming more popular, with several small renovation outfits having been

observed opening across the UK and Ireland over the last few year. In England for example,

Fears and Kahn provide high-quality refurbished and renovated furniture with graphics being

a significant component (Fears and Kahn). They use lacquering, painting and printed HPL to

apply graphics. This upsurge was also noticed by discussion contributors Colin Farmer and

Charles O’Toole. Indeed, Dublin City council works with Sunflower recycling and Busy

Bees Furniture to facilitate recycling of discarded pieces (Sunflower Recycling).

2.6 The “Billy” AnomalyOne perceived anomaly needs to be discussed in isolation as this was actually the one of the

catalysts for this analysis on the use of graphics on furniture. Much of the information below

was obtained during employment induction and through observation during employment.

IKEA has been a major influence on the furniture retail market in Ireland today since their

arrival in 2009 with consistent daily sales in the region of €200,000 in the first six months

(Doyle, 2009). On a visit to a Swedewood plant (IKEA subsidiary) in 2010 it was reported

that 13 million lack tables were manufactured in 2009 alone. With volumes of this order,

35

their product line should be examined for graphical content. Several walk-throughs were

conducted between October 2010 and March 2011as part of the retail review discussed in the

previous chapter but no examples of graphic furniture were observed with the exception of

two glass tables with single-coloured patterns (e.g. Vika Glasholm). One range of graphic

furniture – the Billy Bookcase 30th anniversary range was released in 2009. These were

melamine foil-wrapped with playful prints of small repeating patterns, one in black and

white, one in green (or red) and white and one with multi-coloured pattern on white. These

were a limited edition and were given the most prominent location in the Dublin store which

typically stimulates sales of the promoted line. IKEA has a small margin on each item sold

and so is profitable because of the huge worldwide volumes (Doyle, 2009), it is believed that

if this jaunty Billy were successful enough, then graphics would be introduced in some way

to similar storage products. However, IKEA traditionally doesn’t change very quickly,

releasing a relatively small number of new lines or modifications every year. While the

market for graphics would have been thoroughly researched by their design team, it should be

noted that the leading edge of design is not usually associated with high volume sales so

when high volumes need to be sold, as in IKEAs business model, the safer position would be

to follow fashion rather than be at the leading edge of fashion.

IKEA is quite closed about the changes to product lines so it was not possible to pinpoint the

exact logic behind the short life of the product-line. However some possibilities can be

suggested from informal conversions with some IKEA sales staff and a little common sense:

- The product may have been a failure. The promotional literature for the limited

edition says that these are just that, a limited edition but the reaction of the sales staff

was mixed. Some said that they were very slow to sell compared to the less prominent

traditional Billy products while others said that some customers were still asking for

them 3 months after they were sold out. If the product was slow to sell, then it may

not have been worth the cost of carrying an extra line

- The short life may have been a once off promotional tool – get in, promote up a

storm, make a profit and get out.

- The product might have been an experiment in graphics or in promotion or in the

effect of new variants on existing established product ranges.

- The fact IKEA invested enough to expand the “Billy” range could be taken as the

culmination of extensive market research. The removal of the product may not mean

the product was a failure - just that it did not achieve IKEA’s aggressive targets.

36

Hence this could be taken as proof of concept –that there is strong market potential

for graphic furniture.

2.7 European Trends

As mentioned in the previous section, the French retail market, as far as it was assessed had

no evidence of graphics. A similar look was taken at Italian retailers but the information was

clouded with commercial spinning of Italy’s furniture design tradition so it was unclear what

types of retailers were being reviewed. Advice was sought elsewhere. During an opening

interview with Liam Dileen, MD of EZ Living, his immediate response matched the

conclusions of the last section – that the UK and Ireland favoured wood-finish furniture. He

elaborated to describe his experiences at trade fairs in Italy in particular. He believes that the

Italians have an appetite for, as he put it, more progressive design, meaning furniture with

graphics instead of wood-grain. He induced that this would similarly apply to France and

Spain, though he admitted that he was less familiar with these markets. He did specifically

say that “The French have a passion for old style painted furniture with simple,

floral designs”. Dileen cited visits to trade-shows as his source for knowledge on European

trends. This suggested that these other trade and in particular, design shows might clarify the

European taste for graphics. Two of the largest European design fairs were targeted. The cost

to attend was prohibitive but much information can be gleaned from the websites. Also, John

Jenkins, one of the contributing industry experts summarised the Milan fair in a presentation

which he delivered to an Enterprise Ireland conference in November 2010, so Milan was the

starting point.

Reviewing John Jenkins’ slides showed no graphics applied to hard surfaces of furniture. He

states that movement in visual trends would be in form, colour and material. The omission of

pattern or image here is seen as significant. The forms were described as simple organic

forms. This matches Marion McGarry’s lectures in Interior Design where softer forms were

seen to replace angular forms. Material and its surface treatment were seen as important by

Jenkins, with embossing, stitching and quilting emphasised. These however were fabrics. In

terms of solid surfaces, lower gloss lacquers and natural colour tones were evident while the

dominant wood was American Walnut. Nowhere is pattern or image mentioned in his

presentation(Jenkins, 2010)

37

At IMM Cologne, German trend expert Ursula Geismann proposed trends for 2010(Geismann, 2010). She proposed some trends that were to continue and others that were on the way. Her full list of recommendations is listed in

38

, but here is a summary of the particular elements that may have significance to the use of

graphics.

Visually, the "Mega-colour" white for storage furniture surfaces and Aubergine for a splash

of colour was here to stay. There is no mention here of the use of graphics to add colour buts

Rococo ornament as patterns in woven fabric or velvet-like relief was also to remain. Some

pieces would continue to appear which were designed to be viewed from all round and so

could be positioned away from walls. This could provide an opportunity for an extra, less

prominent surface that could be detailed with graphics. She saw a continuation in the trend of

designing furniture to last. This could be a mark against permanent graphics which might be

seen to date a piece of furniture. This idea that graphic tastes change with fashion is

supported by some of the contributing industry experts and will be discussed later.

Themed children’s rooms were already in fashion and according to Geismann, would

continue. This is an obvious application for graphics, also supported by some of the

contributing industry experts.

Among the trends that she predicts are on the way are: Garden furniture that looks like living

room furniture. This is not seen as directly relevant to graphics but is seen as an indicator of

an interest in blurring the lines between the interior spaces and the outdoors. An opportunity

may exist to use photo-realistic prints of outdoor themes, images of nature, patterns based on

nature, landscapes etc. This extrapolation of the expert’s predictions is simply an example.

On surfaces, she predicts dark wood with glass and stainless steel. The dark wood

corresponds somewhat with Jenkins’ predictions for the dominance of walnut. High-gloss

kitchens are also predicted by Geismann. This doesn’t preclude the use of graphics but it does

suggest a focus on colour rather than graphic. This jars slightly with Jenkins’ predictions for

low gloss lacquers.

2.8 Conclusion

The analysis of export and consumption figures for furniture generally in section 2.2 above

shows that the Irish furniture retail market is very small. The UK market is similar in style

but Irish designers and manufacturers have not broken significantly into the market; the UK

importing less than 1% of their furniture from Ireland. Other European markets are also very

significant and easy to access but from the figures analysed, virtually no Irish furniture is

exported to these markets.

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Focusing on Graphic Furniture, there were some notable examples, some cited above but

from all the sources searched, only a handful were found. Of those that were found, most

were designer or one-off pieces - relatively expensive and not available in the more easily

accessible shops. There is therefore, a level of exclusivity to them. One recent exception is

the Billy bookcase limited edition but this is now off the market. The reasons for the

transience of this product as discussed in section 2.6, is uncertain but there is no doubt about

the high volumes that sold in a short period of time.

A similar situation was observed from the two mainland European fairs analysed: Graphic

Furniture is not at the leading edge of furniture trends at these shows. Splashes of graphic are

used on accessories but even then, with restraint.

Two conclusions can be made from this chapter and they are not necessarily conflicting:

- There is very little graphic furniture on the market because it is not widely

appreciated, or

- Because there is so little graphic furniture on the market, there may be niche

opportunities.

The following chapter uses industry experts to further assess the market and identify suitable

uses for graphics on furniture.

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41

3 Industry Experts

3.1 IntroductionIn addition to the analysis of the market in Chapter 2, the need was recognised for input from

Industry Experts as to the potential for graphical furniture. This chapter details the method

used to solicit the opinions from Industry Experts, summarises the results and extracts the key

points from their discussion.

3.2 MethodIt was recognised that discussion between experts could lead to more fruitful discussions than

individual interviews but the locations of the individuals made impossible, a traditional focus

group whereby the topic would be discussed between the experts which would be steered by

the researcher. Another issue was predicted: These would be experienced and opinionated

professionals, and the researcher’s inexperience could allow such a discussion to get off topic

so a method was sought of structuring and directing the discussions. The Delphi Method was

suggested and researched for this purpose, and an online forum was sought in through which

to conduct the research.

The Delphi Method is a method of forecasting future scenarios (Gordon, et al., 2006 p. 321)

and is commonly used in planning for the future and decision making. Traditionally, this is a

series of two or more rounds of questions asked of a team of experts. Experts are chosen for

their particular expertise in an aspect of the decision at hand. Iqbal and Pipon-Young talk

about the choice of panellists, emphasising the need for expertise but acknowledging the

possibility of expertise through experience (Iqbal, et al., 2009 p. 599).

In a traditional Delphi, experts would answer the first set of questions and submit their

answers. Questions should be left as open-ended as possible and ideally encouraging the

panellists to brainstorm. The person conducting the Delphi would collate the results from

round one and identify the key points and use this to generate the next round of proposals or

questions for the panel of experts (Iqbal, et al., 2009 p. 598). While brainstorming is key to

the first round, the second round is suggested to require more work in presenting the key

points with, typically a quantitative means of presenting the key points... a typical format

might be “to what extent do you agree with the following statement:”. A subsequent round

would present the mean of each of these quantitative questions and ask participants to

consider their own position in comparison to the mean (Iqbal, et al., 2009 p. 600).

42

This process is aimed at identifying consensus among the participants if any is possible.

However, consensus is not a requirement and considerable value is obtained from the ideas

generated without consensus (Gordon, et al., 2006 p. 322).

To execute the Delphi for this research, the structure was first decided. Both sources advise

that to use a Delphi to “take the temperature of a subject”, rather than to strive for consensus,

that two rounds were acceptable: The initial brainstorming questions and a second to give the

panellists the opportunity to reconsider their initial responses in light of any consensus from

round one.

Experts were chosen from a range of relevant fields within the furniture and design fields.

- An Irish manufacturer with an interest in new products. Aisling Hurley MD of

Teamwoodcraft.

- An Irish managing director from a large furniture retail chain with an interest in

European markets. Liam Dileen, MD of EZ Living.

- An Irish Furniture designer, trained in London, Charles O’Toole of Charles Furniture

- A UK retail and trends expert who summarised the 2010 Milan Furniture fair to a

conference of Irish furniture professions. John Jenkins

- An Irish Graphic Designer, Colin Farmer of Unthink Graphic Design Dublin,

- An Irish Graphic Designer, Conor Nolan of Conor and David graphic design, Dublin.

Two other designers were invited to participate but were unable to do so. Also Dara O’Flynn

was identified as another suitable panellist as a prominent design and interiors journalist with

the Sunday Times and former House and Home editor, but contact information was not

available. The panel has two graphic designers – the second was recommended as a substitute

by a declining designer. Liam Dileen requested the inclusion of more international

perspectives but none were identified. The value of a broader spread of the nationalities is

acknowledged.

The use of an online forum was set up to allow the participants to contribute remotely and

asynchronously and thereby allowing them to contribute when their schedules allowed while

still allowing access to previous comments of other panellists and the facility to continue the

discussion. This open almost real-time facility to contribute is not the traditional method of

conducting a Delphi study but is closer to a newer form of Delphi created by Gordon and

Pease.

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Several survey tools were assessed for suitability including Survey Monkey (Survey Monkey),

Surveylet (Calibrum Corporation, 2010) and Zoomerang (Zoomerang). These would all be

suitable to conduct a traditional Delphi but they did not provide the facility to conduct group

discussion so Google Groups was chosen.

One of the key requirements of the Delphi Technique was that panellists would answer

anonymously. The reason for this is not specified in the papers studied but was reasoned

allow panellists the freedom to express radical opinions without being frowned upon

personally by professionals from their own industry. It could allow more open discussions.

To achieve this anonymity however, anonymous emails were needed as Google Groups does

not hide email addresses. These were set up but it was acknowledged that regular checking of

a new email address was not a realistic expectation for busy professionals. The email

addresses were set up, instructions clearly laid out and the questions posed. To overcome the

difficulty with communications, contributions were compiled into a digest on any day a new

contribution was made and these were sent to the panellists personal email addresses with

reminders to contribute if the hadn’t done so.

Initial one to one discussions with the panellists yielded interesting opinions in themselves as

participants were for the most part, enthusiastic. After this initial enthusiasm and a couple of

contributions, participation waned and weeks went by without contribution. This was despite

regular requests for participation. This is understandable as all contributors are extremely

busy especially considering current economic pressures. In the end, all panellists contributed

yielding some interesting opinions and indeed some consensus, although the second round

died. Though this is not ideal, as the mentioned earlier, the literature attributes value to the

ideas generated.

3.3 ResultsIn compiling the first round, an initial list of six questions was narrowed down to two with

the others held back for later direction of the discussion. These Questions are stated later in

this section, preceding summaries of the responses.

It quickly became obvious that the Experts dived into the first question and expounded their

thoughts, not just on the question at hand but on Graphic Furniture in general. Having spent

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so much time on the first question, they were then less enthusiastic about question 2 and the

responses reflect this.

A full transcript of the discussion is provided in the Appendix, p101. The following is a

summary of their responses (without comment or evaluation) with tags afterwards listing the

experts who corroborated

Question 1: Graphics in the form of pattern are an integral part of much upholstered furniture

and in recent years, patterned upholstery has been very popular. Patterns and other graphics

have also been used on many other fashion-led products in recent years - clothing, soft

furnishing, tableware - to name a few. These strong trends have not carried over to solid

furnishings. Why do you think this might be?

Summary of responses:

- Due to the recession, many people are much slower to spend their money but there are

always people with money willing to spend it on unusual design. EX1

- When it comes to handing over money, people care about immediate outlay, buying

what satisfies a need right now without consideration for durability, sustainability or

local employment. EX1, EX2,

- People appreciate unusual/trendy products but are not, in Ireland at least, unwilling to

pay for it. EX1,

- Well made furniture is typically expensive and outlives fashion trends so to apply

graphics ornament would be to date the product. Soft furnishings and other home

accessories are more cheaply changed. People are less likely to stick their neck out on

something that will last. EX4, EX6, EX2, EX3, EX5, EX1

- Pattern is a good way to hide inferior materials. EX6

- Consumers Buy with their eyes and rarely think about lifespan until it’s too late. EX6,

EX2

- Good design should not need to be adorned. There is honesty and inherent beauty in

highlighting the raw materials. EX6, EX3

- For people to buy graphic furniture, retailers need to put it on the floor, Magazines

need to promote it, and show-houses need to show it in its best form. EX2

- Graphic furniture historically was more like artwork and was expensive because of

the craftsmanship involved. It is still expensive to apply traditional graphic techniques

to furniture. EX3

- It’s about cost, it’s cheaper to print and weave fabric. EX3

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Question 2: People may have preconceptions of graphically enhanced furniture. As with all

products, this will vary with the function of the furniture, the consumer's demographic,

international location as well as broader social contexts such as economic recession, eco-

awareness. With this in mind, what markets might now exist for the graphical enhancement

of Furniture?

Summary of responses:

- Ireland alone is too small to support unusual furniture. EX, EX2

- Product must be market specific. EX1, EX2

- Not the children’s market. EX1

- Yes, the children’s market. EX6

- Graphic should be meaningful. EX6, EX2, EX3, EX5

- Graphics for aesthetic purposes reflect a manufacturer that intends products to have a

short lifespan. EX6

- Furniture improvement/ up-cycling / recycling services are on the increase with fresh

graphic ornament being widely used. This seems to give an old piece a new lease of

life. EX4, EX5

- Branding at retail outlets and events. EX5

- Local/Small-scale makers/designers developing a unique style or making a

statement... One-offs. EX5

- The idea of change could be incorporated into solid-furniture. EX4

3.4 Analysis of Results

This section comments on the results, highlighting the key findings and discussing the

conflicts of opinion. It begins with the replies to question 1among which, one concept

became the clear consensus:

- Soft furnishings and other home accessories are cheaply changed. People are less

likely to stick their neck out on something that will last. Traditionally Furniture lasts

longer than transient fashions. Application of image or pattern tends to date a piece to

a particular time or fashion. In one way or another, this sentiment figures in all

responses. There are other points made that are listed separately above but really, can

be combined with this idea. Expert 6 expands to say that the very fact that graphics

would be applied to furniture might suggest that the furniture is intended to have a

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short lifespan before being discarded. From an ecological/sustainability point of view,

this approach to design and manufacture would be unethical.

It is clear that all experts agree that well made solid furniture endures and is expensive

to replace, so should not be tied to a transient fashion. However, Experts 2 and 6 also

acknowledge that consumers buy with their eyes without consideration for longevity.

This acknowledgement conflicts with the original idea. The truth may lie in between -

some people buy for now and for fashion, other buy with consideration - for

longevity, quality and overall value for money.

The examples of graphic furniture cited in chapter 1 in particular, were considered as

further arguments against this first point but this argument was discarded as these

were special, one off pieces which were made or designed by prominent designers of

the time and because of the labour involved, they would have been few and

expensive. Hence while they are seen as examples of haut couture of the time, they

cannot realistically be compared to modern affordable furniture.

- Some of the other responses to question 1 concern the cost to produce graphics.

Certainly, graphics can be produced cheaply. This can be seen on cheap wood-effect

furniture and on laminate flooring. While the pattern is wood, it is still a man-made

pattern and could just as easily be a chintz pattern or a photographic print. However,

production of quality, durable graphics using the traditional techniques seen in much

of chapter 1, is expensive. The highest quality finish of the print techniques described

in the next chapter is printing to High Pressure Laminate (think of Formica). This is

durable, as can be seen on kitchen tables from the 1950s and 1960s. However, at

about €200 per sheet of printed material, even this modern material is quite expensive.

Essentially quality graphics are expensive to create.

- The experts pointed out that there is always a high-end market with some wealthy

people willing to spend money on works of art or excellent design. The opinion that

good design does not need to be adorned is a valid Modernist opinion with which

lovers of Art Deco Lacquered furniture could disagree. Similarly, the opinion that

natural wood is too beautiful to disguise is valid but simply an opinion. Some woods

are uninspiring and some products would only be successful if made from less

attractive man-made board. On this material, as one expert pointed out, graphic

ornament might be a useful disguise.

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The results for Question 2 have not formed such a unanimous consensus. However, one a

strong concept does emerge:

- Four contributors agreed on one point: A graphic on furniture must be meaningful or

have value other than decoration. Each expert had a different slant on what this

meaning should be.

o Expert 3 came to this conclusion by analysing historical pieces, and observed

that some of the graphical pieces discussed in Chapter 1 were not adorned for

decoration but for religious beliefs or demonstrations of wealth and power.

Given the elaboration of some 17th and 18th century pieces, this is a credible

starting point.

o Expert 6 suggests educational children’s furniture or way-finding furniture

o Expert 2 believes the graphic should be relevant to the furniture and later

suggests that this could be based upon culture and tradition, with the example

of Chinese writing on Chinese furniture or simple floral designs on French

furniture. These are not relevant to the function but, at least in the French case,

the pattern is not just any decoration but one based upon traditional and

enduring French tastes.

o Expert 5 suggests that the graphic should tell a story and describes how it

could be literal, as in branding for retail outlets and events, or to appeal to the

tourism market in Ireland or more creatively, small-scale furniture makers

could use graphics to tell a story to reinforce their personal style or make a

personal statement.

The key to this suggestion is that none of the proposed motivations are purely

aesthetic. The suggestion of Experts 4 and 5 that Furniture up-cycling or recycling as

a use for graphics could also be categorised under this broad concept of “meaningful

graphics”

- The last key point from question 2 is that graphics should be market specific if used.

Two suggestions specifically refer to Ireland as being too small a target market and

there is some disagreement on whether children’s furniture might be a potential

market. There are further specifics about French flowers and modern graphics for the

Italian market. These are all valid suggestions but each individual market opportunity

would need focused market research. The reader is reminded that the purpose of the

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Delphi/focus group is to generate ideas from consensus and discrepancy but the group

does not have the scope to prove these markets.

3.5 Other Applications

There are several possible applications for graphic furniture that are only briefly mentioned

or do not feature at all in the expert discussion.

1) The use of graphics on children’s furniture was only briefly touched by two

contributors. One expert believed it was not a very strong market based on the

2) XXXXXXXXXXX

3) In modern interiors, individuality is sought. The use of a graphic piece could be an

accent in an otherwise conservative interior.

4) Ethnic Furniture

3.6 Conclusion

There are two strong outcomes from this non-traditional Delphi.

1) Quality solid furniture typically outlasts transient fashions so to embellish such

furniture with decorative graphics would be to potentially shorten its lifespan. One

corollary might be that cheap disposable fashionable furniture would be an acceptable

use of graphics but this is not specifically advocated by the group.

2) The selection of graphics for furniture must be meaningful. Some possible avenues

for this are suggested by the group.

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4 Graphic application techniques

4.1 IntroductionThere are a wide range of techniques that may be used to apply graphics to furniture. These

range from the labour intensive traditional techniques identified in the history research of

Chapter 1, to automated wood-effect printing to vast quantities of sheet material for low-cost

furniture and flooring. This chapter explains many of these techniques and discusses their

strengths and weaknesses and suitability of use for on furniture. Explanation of traditional

techniques such as painting, marquetry and lacquering are not described as literature is

readily available. Similarly, automated wood processing techniques such as CNC carving or

Laser Etching, though legitimate methods of applying graphic content, are outside the scope.

Hence, this chapter discusses methods of printing or of applying printed graphics.

4.2 Techniques

Three categories of method have been found and all the methods outlined below fall into one

of these categories:

- Direct Printing. This is where the printing process is applied directly to the substrate

rather than to a membrane.

- Ink Transfer: This is where the ink is transferred from a pre-printed membrane to the

substrate but the film itself is removed.

- Membrane adhesion. In these processes a pre-printed membrane is applied to the

substrate with glue.

Screen Printing: Screen printing is an old and straightforward technique where a fine mesh

is used to support an ink blocking mask. Siobhan Piercy, Head of Fine Art Printing at GMIT

(2010, per demonstration, Nov.) explained the modern process where the screen is a very fine

metal mesh. The fine mesh is covered with a UV-curable masking fluid onto which UV light

is then projected through a masking-image of black on acetate. The UV light shining through

the acetate cures the masking fluid while the black areas protect some fluid from curing. The

uncured areas are then washed off, leaving the inverse of the masking image. This mask is

then laid over the substrate (usually paper or fabric and a single colour of ink is scraped over

the mask to reproduce the original masking image on the substrate. Colours can be layered,

using complimentary masks to create more complex images. Screen printing can also be a

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high volume process but this requires specialised automation machinery. For low volume

production, inks are expensive. Piercy recommended inks manufactured by Sericol but had

never herself investigated suitability to wood-based material and so could not advise on this.

Further research on screen printing inks identified inks by Sericol (now owned by Fujifilm).

Colorstar CS, Seristar SX and Colorjet CO were identified from their online documentation

and consultation with Sean Connolly of Fujifilm Graphic Systems Division confirmed that

these work “very well” for wood. They can be applied directly to wood or MDF without pre-

treatment but sealing the substrate first will yield a more vibrant print as less ink will be

absorbed into the substrate. Connolly could not comment on the performance of specific

wood-work industry sealers and top-coats but said that “solvent based lacquers should work

fine”.

Direct inkjet printing: Another direct-printing technique. There are large flatbed inkjet

printers on the market capable of printing to a 2440mm x 1220mm sheet. One example of this

is the JETI 1224 UV True Flatbed (AGFA, 2010). This is capable of quite high definition

prints of 1200dpi (compared to standard desktop inkjet-printer resolution of about 300 x

300dpi or desktop photo-printers which have similar resolution). Types of media suggested in

the technical specifications are “Reinforced vinyl, pressure sensitive vinyl, canvas, fabrics,

foam board, corrugated board, lenticular, tile, drywall, glass, sheet metal, paper and more”.

The “and more” can in theory include wood-based sheet material but the company does not

make this suggestion.

Other characteristics relevant to wood-based material include:

- Maximum height of substrate that can be handled: 50mm.

This is adequate for standard sheet material gauges. Medite for example produces up

to 45mm MDF (Medite, 2006).

- Light fastness of the ink: UV Inks will last 1-2 years depending on location but

adding water based topcoat varnish will prolong outdoor life. This is not an ideal level

of durability for furniture but refers to out-door exposure. In the only to one ink for

one printer. As will be discussed later, it does not tally with the light fastness testing

conducted as part of this work which used a similar printer.

Print Speeds: Up to 130m2/hr. This equates to 43 full sheets per hour but it does not

account for loading and unloading times, which will vary based on such variables as

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handling equipment used, the type of substrate, the size of substrate and operator

competence.

Roller-printing: This direct printing technique is achieved with rollers with an image or an

element of the element of the image printed to each roller in a different coloured ink. The

roller transfers the wet ink to the medium as the medium passes below. If several rollers are

used, then between each image layer, the ink is cured by UV light. This process was observed

in the Swedewood high volume furniture factory in Poland. It was used to apply wood-effect

prints to the least expensive of IKEA’s furniture - in this case, IKEA’s Lack range. The print

was actually applied to the finished components. This method is most suited to very high

volume pattern printing where image quality is not critical.

Decal, Wet transfer: Also known as “Water Slide”. This technique was also described by

Piercy and is also described in Digital Art Studio (Schminke, et al., 2004 p. 32). The

descriptions were aimed at craft users rather than furniture manufactures so the printers

recommended are quite small. Inks should be pigment based as this improves light fastness.

Larger format printing can be done by the type of oversized printers usually used by

professional sign-printing shops but this removes control of the ink from the craftsperson’s

control. Also, from observation of the technique as demonstrated by Piercy, transfers are wet

and limp so larger transfers would be very difficult to handle. After application, the water

should be “squeegeed” out from under the print. This works on non-porous, smooth surfaces

such as ceramics but on wood, this can lead to creases

High resolution and speed are not critical for Wet transfer and straight paper-path printers

reduce the chance of the thick treated paper jamming in the spool (Schminke, et al., 2004 p.

33). The importance of printer choice was evident from Piercy’s demonstration when the

transfer paper jammed in her desktop printers. Recommended printers (Schminke, et al.,

2004) are Epson Stylus Pro 4000 and for better clearance, the Encad 880.

Transfer paper is available from print supply companies such as The Magic Touch. The

The wet print is slid across the substrate where it adheres as it dries. The best explanation of

the physical transfer is best seen through demonstration or can be seen on YouTube

The method is not seen as ideal for wood based substrates, particularly MDF as the presence

of moisture can cause localised swelling and create defects or inconsistencies on the surface.

Heat transfer: As a dry process, this is more suitable for wood based material. The printing

process is the same as the wet-slide process but the properties of the transfer paper are

52

different. These can be purchased online from www.themagictouch.ie. The transfer process

differs as it happens in a heat press; considerable heat and pressure is required. Manual

techniques such as the use of a domestic iron yield patchy results. This technique is

commonly used for t-shirt prints so works quite well on porous surfaces. The process needs a

base coat of acrylic. From observation of the process, it takes lacquer well on the second coat.

As with many of these techniques however, the lacquer sits on top of the film rather than

being absorbed into the wood grain. Hence the bond between lacquer and substrate may not

be very durable.

Solvent Transfer: A particular clear solvent is brushed onto the substrate and a pre-printed

film placed over it. The film is pressed lightly with a roller. After a short amount of time, the

ink is dissolved into the solvent, thereby released from the film and absorbed into the

substrate. One of the authors of Digital Art Studio, Bonnie Lhotka demonstrates this

technique as well as the required materials on her website Digital Art Studio Seminars

(Lhotka, 2009). This method requires a specific release agent and the ability to print to a

thicker-than-paper film but otherwise is inexpensive. As the ink is absorbed into the wood,

lacquer can adheres fully to the wood so physical durability depends on the finish used. Light

fastness depends on the properties of the ink used. This can usually be found in ink cartridge

manufacturers’ technical documentation.

Paper Wrapping: This is a generic name for methods of applying pre-printed melamine-

impregnated paper to sheet material. It is commonly seen on in-expensive cabinetry as a

method of imitating wood grain and real veneer and from this application, it has developed a

reputation as a poor quality finish as it chips easily and does not have a luxurious feel.

However, it is also used on laminate flooring where the finish is durable. Indeed, Kronopol –

a Polish flooring manufacturer sells it with up to a 25 year warranty. In a visit to the

company, the process was observed:

Wood-grain effect was pre-printed onto huge rolls of paper. The paper was fed on rollers

through a vat of liquid melamine resin and cured as it moved. The paper was then

sandwiched between a high density fibreboard substrate and a layer of fine carborundum

impregnated paper. Under pressure and heat the melamine resin bonded carborundum paper

and pre-printed paper to the substrate. Carborundum, or Silicon carbide, is a very hard

compound commonly used as an abrasive. It is this hard material that gives the melamine and

the paper their durability.

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The equipment to manufacture at this volume is expensive but melamine resin is

commercially available in smaller quantities and heat and pressure are then needed to bond

and cure the sheet.

High Pressure Laminate: This is a variation on the paper wrapping process. High pressure

laminate is manufactured by pressing melamine impregnated (usually printed) paper sheets

over a phenolic impregnated kraft paper core at pressures of over 1000 psi and temperatures

of approximately 300 degrees F (149 degrees C) (ABET Inc, 2010). Sheets can be thin

enough to act as a skin for other substrates or thick enough to be structural. For application to

substrates, the back face is sanded to facilitate bonding. Applications suggested by one

manufacturer, Abet Laminati, include counter-tops, table tops, residential and commercial

furniture, case goods, store fixtures, and work stations, wall panels, cabinet walls, doors,

toilet partitions, elevator interiors, front panels of workstations in hospitals, restaurants, retail

stores, and airports. Formica is another manufacturer. The durability and quality of finish of

Formica is widely recognised as it has been quite popular on furniture since the 1960s and

1970s. Now Formica have teamed up with Surface View, a supplier of graphic murals and

owners of a large collection of attractive images and the result: Formica sheets can be printed

with high quality images, either from the Surface View collection, or bespoke graphics. These

are then adhered with contact adhesive to the substrate. A backing skin is also required to

balance the panel. Most glues are suitable, including PVA, Urea Formaldehyde and Contact

Adhesive (Formica, 2010). Formica is generally a relatively expensive material at about

£80stg per sheet but the custom printed material is £200 for a 3.05m x 1.3m sheet for a batch

of less than 10 and £149 per sheet for larger orders.

Vinyl Wrapping: This is another process which applies a pre-printed membrane to a

substrate. This time, pre-printed Polyvinyl Chloride (vinyl) is applied to the substrate. Vinyl

wrapping is very common in advertising, commonly used on commercial vehicle signage and

retail displays. Many sign-printers offer this type of service. A finer grade is also very widely

used on decorative panels. The properties of vinyl mean that it can stretch in a heated

membrane press to take the shape of contours and mouldings machined into otherwise flat

panels. The process of application with an industrial heated membrane press was observed at

the W10 trade show in November 2010. Vinyl is pre-printed and pre-treated with adhesive

and supplied on a roll. It is simply draped over the work pieces in the press. The heat softens

the vinyl and adhesive while the vacuum forces the vinyl into the contours of the workpiece.

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Figure 4-55 Section through panel with finished thermo transfer foil

Figure 4-55 shows a cross section of a panel treated this way. The base layer is vinyl in this

case but can equally be paper as in the previous technique. The transparent film allows for

texturing and the lacquer seals and protects the finished product.

Thermo transfer foil: This is similar to the heat transfer process described above but

specifically designed for transfer to sheet material on an industrial scale. Sample of thermo-

transfer foil was obtained from Brother Machinery. This is an inexpensive process of

printing. The quality depends on the quality of the original printed foil and the quality and

texture of the topcoat applied and the quality and texture of the substrate. Similar to previous

transfer methods, the ink is released from the printed foil under heat and pressure. On

removal from the machine, the now-blank foil is discarded. At this stage, the ink is exposed

and needs to be top-coated for protection. A section through this would look similar to Figure

4-55 but without the base-layer.

The samples obtained were used as control samples for the testing conducted in the next

chapter. These samples were lacquered by the manufacturer so these finished panels were

placed alongside the 32 Inkjet samples of the light fastness test of Chapter 5. As this is a

widely used process in industry, testing the longevity of the print – its light fastness was

expected to be a trivial operation. The ink proved to have a high level of light fastness but the

lacquer topcoat yellowed considerably. This is a common problem with many types of

lacquer and varnish and is also discussed in the following chapter, but it should be noted that

this is a property of the lacquer and not of the print that it protects. The same yellowing

would occur on any similarly coated substrate.

DIY techniques

Two simple transfer methods were tried by informal experiment.

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Photocopy transfer is a quick and straightforward technique for applying black toner to wood.

The black toner deposited on the photocopy is released with heat to the substrate. Its

durability again depends on the durability of the topcoat. As per research conducted by

Hillcoat-Imanishi (Hillcoat-Imanishi, 1996), Photocopy toner creates quite a lightfast

reproduction. During informal tests, photocopied sheets were pressed on with an iron to

various treatments of MDF. In all but the bare MDF, the paper became stuck and had to be

peeled back. Results might be improved through practice but it is not reliable enough to be

used for high-quality furniture, especially over larger areas. It could be a convenient way of

applying small details but generally, is not recommended.

Similar results were obtained by applying photographs, and coloured inkjet prints. These

techniques were not successful but they do highlight the need for a release agent, which

dissolve the pigment, releasing it from the original backing and bonding it to the wood.

4.3 ConclusionMany techniques can be used to apply graphics. Anywhere wood-effect or faux wood-grain is

seen, (with the possible exception of the roller-printing observed at Swedewood and such

hand techniques as Scumbling), Images or patterns can be supplanted. The choice of

technique is particular to the requirement:

- Attractive, exclusive labour intensive (expensive), traditional techniques such as

painting, lacquering and inlay.

- Expensive high quality, low-volume durable HPL prints of Surface view,

- Lower durability, high-volume, inexpensive paper foil wrapping techniques

- Compromise in quality, volume and cost of vinyl wrapping.

The technique of inkjet printing direct to wood based sheet material is not very widely

written about. The main sources of information are the technical information of equipment

manufacturers and the advice of professional Printers. Examples of the process in consumer

products are not readily available and because of this shortage of information and examples,

the technique was selected for experiment. The next chapter addresses this technique.

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5 Investigation of Direct Inkjet Technique

5.1 Introduction

Most of the graphic application techniques have been tried and tested on comparable

products; for example, vinyl- and foil-wrapping is widely used on furniture to varying

degrees of durability - even durable enough to be used on laminate flooring; there are screen-

printing inks on the market which are recommended by the manufacturer for use on paper

and board and indeed, there are examples of furniture on the market that use this method;

smaller graphic details particularly on amateur crafts and on many children’s wooden toys or

children’s furniture tend to use Decals. So even if they haven’t all been scientifically tested

for the exact purpose of use on wood based products, they have been tested through use.

With a general knowledge of furniture finishing quality and durability issues, and having

conducted background research on printing quality and durability issues, properties were

identified that could lead to poor quality and low durability:

- Light fastness: The resistance of the finished print medium to fading or discolouration

due to exposure to light.

- Reaction of finish with print medium: As is common with wood finishing, chemical

reactions between components of finishes (lacquers, oils, paints etc.), of pigments

(stains, dyes, inks etc.), of chemicals in the wood itself (tannins and resins) and even

components of the atmosphere, can lead to problems with finish quality. Hence, a

variety of finishes should be tested.

- Physical durability to scratching, abrasion, heat and moisture. It was predicted that the

physical properties would closely match the properties of the top-coat finish,

assuming there was no adverse reaction as described in the previous paragraph and

assuming that the finish actually cured fully and adhered to the print underneath.

- Workability. As the intention is to use sheet material to make furniture, the effect of

tooling on the print must be assessed, specifically on the edges.

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5.2 Light fastness

Inks are not usually required to last forever, or in many cases, not even for 10 years. Think of

newspapers, magazines and posters which have faded in the sun. Permanence depends on the

conditions as well as the materials so outside a controlled environment, the term is not very

meaningful (Gottsegen, 1993 p. p115), hence the need for classification of the light fastness

of a medium through testing.

An exact British Standard has not been written for testing ink on wood-based substrates but

comparable standards can be adapted to obtain meaningful results. For example, British

Standard BS ISO 12040:1997 prescribes the use of filtered xenon arc light to test Light

fastness of prints and printed inks. The intention behind these is printing to paper substrates.

However, the porous nature of MDF and Plywood should mean there would be significant

similarities. However, the xenon arc apparatus was not available - in fact, all current British

Standard tests for Light fastness now prescribe the use of filtered xenon arc light. For this

reason a comparable but lower-tech standard was sought and several found in The Painter’s

Handbook (Gottsegen, 1993 pp. 125-131):

The simplest test required application of the colour medium to 25mm x 100mm panels of the

target substrate. The panels should then be halved into two panels of 25mm x 50mm. One

half is stored in darkness while the other is exposed to direct sunlight. This simple test

procedure recommends sunlight through a south-facing window for maximum intensity.

Gottsegen lists the limitations of this test. There is now way to rate the results as the tested

sample is simply tested against the non-tested sample rather than a standard; there is no

measure of the actual light exposure to compare more typical conditions; there is no way to

measure or regulate other conditions such as temperature and moisture. There is no way to

isolate the effects of the test on the ink from the effects on the substrate.

At the most scientific end of the scale, British Standard BS ISO 12040:1997 as mentioned

above, the use of filtered xenon arc light allows a high degree of consistency and control to

the test. The lights themselves are certified to British Standards. Some such apparatus are

equipped with timing units to control the length of exposure to this arc-light while some use

light monitors designed to switch the test off, as soon as the specified radiant exposure (or the

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level of UV light to which the specimens have been exposed) has been achieved. The

specimens should then be compared to unexposed sections of the same specimens.

In the precursor of this xenon-arc test, a more accessible but still quite controlled test was

prescribed by British Standards. The procedure for this test is detailed by Gottsegen and this

is process that was followed in this work.

5.2.1 How to perform a Light fastness test

The test as interpreted by Gottsegen (Gottsegen, 1993 pp. PP 129-131) prescribes exposure to

natural light to exercise the colorant’s light fastness. However, some modifications were

deemed appropriate and these are documented in the procedure below.

5.2.1.1 Materials

British Blue-Wool Textile Fading Cards

Fading cards could not be sourced but segments of BS Blue-Wool were purchased from

British test equipment supplier Equiptex. These samples are equivalent to Blue Wool Textile

Fading Cards, but without being glued to card. A complete set of Blue-Wool comprises eight

samples, each dyed with a different blue dye of known light fastness. Standard no.1 (BW1) is

the least light fast, fading in a matter of weeks or months, while Standard no.8 (BS8) - the

most light fast, is classed as archival which practically speaking, under reasonable conditions

is considered permanent. Each incremental Standard number takes twice as long to fade as

the previous Standard.

Support for the material being tested.

Gottsegen’s test and the British standard on which it is based specify a test of inks, dyes and

pigments applied to paper. The support referred to, is the substrate or simply, the paper to

which the colourants are applied. It is prescribed to be stable, white, non-yellowing and of

known composition. Such prescription is necessary to eliminate the variable of the substrate

from the test. However, the objective of the test to be conducted here is not the ink (which

has been tested for purpose by the manufacturer) but the performance of the ink as applied to

this non-prescribed substrate. So, while we can describe the material as stable (plywood and

MDF being among the most stable of wood-based materials), the other characteristics

prescribed, “Whiteness” and “Non-Yellowing” are both unknown and, because of their innate

colour, irrelevant in their natural form. Of course, the use of a white primer is an option.

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Coloured Materials to be tested:

This referred to the inks themselves - Nazdar-Lyson UV inks, as used by the Printer. These

are described further in section 5.2.1.2 – under the paragraph “Printing onto treated

substrates”.

Stiff Backboard:

To which the samples be tested would be attached – assuming they were paper samples but in

this case, the substrate itself is stiff enough. Back-board was needed however for the Blue

Wool which was battened to an MDF substrate; gluing these samples could affect the

performance of the dyes.

Stiff Cover:

Half of each sample was to be covered from light. Contrary to the procedure prescribed,

where the covered half was blocked from the light only by stiff card or battens, it was decided

to take one third of each sample, label each and store them in a dark box in the same room,

completely eliminating the chance for light exposure.

UV Light Box:

As alluded above, natural light exposure was prescribed by Gottsegen but UV lights were

chosen in preference, to speed up the process. The reasoning behind this is the operation of

Blue Wool as a control and a measure of the amount of exposure, the actual period over

which an amount of UV exposure occurred was not seen as critical.

The Test Box: Two strip-light fittings, each holding 2 x Philips F40 UVB fluorescent lamps,

were installed in a simple box of MDF. The front panel of the box was hinged for access.

Holes were provided in the side panels towards the tops and bottoms to allow airflow to keep

the box relatively cool. A shelf was installed at an appropriate height to position the samples

120mm below the lamps. This height was recommended by Dr. V. Wilson in (Coyne p. P.38)

Thermometer:

In the absence of a prescribed ideal temperature, it was decided to keep the test apparatus to a

temperature at least in the region of normal indoor temperatures. It was expected that heat

would build up in the closed box with four fluorescent lamps but the steady state temperature

the apparatus would reach was unknown. The lamps were switched on in the sealed box,

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empty except for a digital thermometer. After 6 hours, the box had reached 32°C. After two

more days it was obvious that this was the stable temperature. To reduce the temperature,

holes were drilled and the new stable temperature found to be 28°C. The installation of a

small fan to further reduce the temperature was considered but deemed unnecessary. While

28°C is uncommon in Ireland, it is a reasonable temperature in which furniture might

withstand.

The thermometer was to stay in the box throughout the test for monitoring purposes.

Hygrometer:

Gottsegen does not prescribe a required to be maintained. Though the effect of moisture and

humidity is acknowledged (Sunlight, UV and Accellerated Weathering, 1987 p. p2), it is the

cycling of humidity levels that is most effective. Brennan and Fedor suggest that keeping

humidity constant during testing reduces their effect on the result so the results can be

attributed more accurately to the exposure to UV light.

Hence, the hygrometer meter should remain in the test box to monitor humidity in the box.

Prepared Test Specimens:

The Test Specimens were an important part of the Test and so are described in the next

section. The process for their preparation was not specified in any Standard so the process

was based on a general knowledge of wood finishes and discussions with the Printer on the

characteristics of the printer and the ink.

5.2.1.2 Preparation of Test Specimens:Substrate

Two substrates were chosen. Poplar ply because if successful, it will prove the process for

solid wood also. Poplar was chosen above Birch for two reasons – cost and, having a lower

fibre density and therefore a more porous surface than most hardwoods, would be a tougher

surface on which to print. Poplar was chosen over construction ply for its stability.

Construction grade plywood has a greater tendency to bow. The sheet had to remain very flat

to avoid hitting the print heads.

The second substrate was MDF because it is less expensive, very widely used and quite

consistent and is the most similar to paper its fibrous make-up. The Printer (B. Crudden,

2010, per conversation, December) claimed that the smallest size sheet that could be printed

was 1220mm x 1220mm, but was not forthcoming on the reason for this. Printing this size of

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sheet would cost €50 so trial runs would be expensive. One such sheet of Poplar ply and one

of MDF was sanded to 220-grit in preparation for sealing, or Primary Treatment.

Primary Treatments

From discussions with the Printer, it became obvious that there was no easily available

recommended treatment for the substrate. It was therefore necessary to test treatments and

top-coats and their best combinations. Four methods of base treatment were chosen:

- White Primer, coated (sprayed), sanded and re-coated. It was believed that the

provision of a white base would allow for truer colour reproduction when printed. Two

coats were used to create a good seal. The primer was an off-the-shelf product and not

designed to be printed upon but proving the suitability of cheap, readily available

products is desirable.

- Water-based Lacquer, sealed (sprayed), cut back and top-coated. Increasingly

commonly used for environmental and regulatory reasons but thought by some finish

experts not to achieve the same quality of finish. This is a generic type of finish so the

test will not cover every brand but will be a good general indicator.

- Solvent-based Lacquer, sealed (sprayed), cut back and top-coated. A very common

finish in the woodwork industry. Similarly, as a generic type, its success will only be an

indicator.

- Acrylic based varnish, brushed on, three coats, no sanding. This varnish was suggested

by the Printer so was included. It is not widely used in the woodwork industry but may

be more compatible with the ink.

Each of the four primary treatments was applied in a strip across both the ply and the MDF as

shown in Figure 5-56

Figure 5-56 Position of base coats on both substrates (MDF and Poplar Ply)

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The position of each treatment on the sheets was recorded on the back of the sheet to avoid

ambiguity later.

Printing onto treated substrates

The printer used was an Agfa Anapurna XL printer for wide format printing, capable of

printing to a sheet of 2540mm x 3000mm(AGFA, 2010)2010. This flat-bed printer supports

the sheet of rigid material while a motorised carriage controls the movement of the print

head.

The capability of the printer determines to a large extent, the resolution of the image but the

quality, durability and light fastness of the colour are determined more so by the properties of

the ink and the substrate. The inks used for these prints were Nazdar-Lyson UV inks. A two

year warranty is provided by the manufacturer for outdoor exposure of the inks without

treatment (Nazdar, 2010)2010.

The use of UV resistant coatings will delay the fading process according to B. Crudden

(2011). He recommended the use of acrylic varnish which doesn’t have the same yellowing

properties of other lacquers. This is reinforced by Gottsegen (1993 p. p108) where resistance

to UV light is classed as Excellent, the best of varnishes tested in that analysis.

The images were chosen for their vivid colours and for their size from available images on

the Printer’s database. It will be discussed later why these were not ideal criteria for image

selection.

The final prints covered the 1220mm x 1220mm panels with no margin. The quality of the

prints was assessed at this stage. The print would be considered good quality for posters or

large advertising but for furniture, the quality received was not good enough.

- Bands of variation in ink-coverage crossed the sheets, more prominent on dark colours.

This was due to the printer mode selected by the Printer, using “Production mode” or

“Poster mode” rather than Photo or Vector sign mode. The chosen mode consumes less

ink but for furniture applications, Photo /Vector mode would be needed. The banding did

not adversely affect testing which was concerned with the change in colour due to fading

rather than the absolute colour.

- The prints were configured for printing to a white substrate. Hence, wherever the original

images had white components, little or no ink was deposited. This left some clear areas

where the Poplar Ply or MDF was visible. As with the Banding issue, this was not a

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serious stumbling block as samples were chosen from areas with the most consistent

coverage.

Top Coat treatment

At this stage, on each substrate, four combinations of print with a base-treatment had been

created. Similar to the undercoat, a specification for a topcoat which was compatible with the

ink could not be found so testing of common topcoats was necessary. With the exception of

white primer, the other three base treatments, Solvent Based Lacquer, Water Based Lacquer

and Acrylic Based Varnish were applied as topcoats. They were applied in strips over the ink

with a fourth strip left uncoated for testing purposes. The strips were oriented perpendicular

to the base-coat strips, forming a grid of 16 samples combining each type of base-treatment

with each type of top-coat.

The Samples

The 16 samples on each sheet were then split up on a beam-saw. Care was taken to record on

the back of each sample, the combination of coatings used and each sample was numbered.

The information was then tabulated to an excel spreadsheet. Smaller samples measuring

120mm x 50mm were then cut from the larger samples. The size was not specified in

Gottsegen’s description so a size was chosen which would allow all samples and the Blue

Wool to fit directly underneath the lamps to ensure maximum and even exposure.

The most colourful parts of each sample were specifically chosen to ensure the widest range

of ink colours would be tested. These were cut on a table saw with no support used to reduce

breakout. Each new 120x50 sample was marked again with the same sample-number as its

parent sample. A visual description of the colour content of each sample was recorded with

each sample-number. At this stage too, the quality of the cut was inspected for defects such as

chipping and breakout. The quality of the cut was recorded with the sample-number. This

would provide a guide as to the workability of the coatings.

Each of the 32 Samples (16 on each substrate) had to be fixed securely and also be half

covered to protect an area from the UV Light. Figure 5-57 best explains the assembly of the

samples. The Strip of MDF is tacked to the edge of each sample to ensure security and a tight

cover. TO further improve the tightness of the cover, a strip of thick black paper was layered

between the MDF strip and the samples to fill any gaps or unevenness – to keep the UV light

from the shielded area.

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Figure 5-57 Sample clamping mechanism showing 16 samples on either side of the clamping strip.

Blue Wool Standard Preparation

The samples were now ready to be tested but the Blue Wool had still to be prepared. Samples

of each of the Blue Wool Standards were cut to 120mm x 50mm, matching the sample sizes

and again, to fit directly underneath the lamps. Gottsegen (1993 p. p115) suggests the

samples be taped or glued to a support layer but it was thought that such contact with

unknown chemicals might affect the colour of the wool. For this reason, the wool samples

were held firm, and partially covered by a batten which was tacked to the support board.

Samples were battened at each end, covering 30mm at either end and exposing 60mm of the

wool in the centre to ensure i) that the samples were secure, ii) that the exposed area was

centrally located under the lamps and iii) to provide two transition lines between faded area

and shielded area rather than the suggested single transition. The results will be described

later but Figure 5-58, jumps ahead to the faded wool, simply to show how the ends of each

sample were shielded and the centre strip was exposed, resulting in fading.

Figure 5-58 Blue Wool Standards shown after testing, arranged 8 to 1, left to right.

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5.2.1.3 Procedure

The mounted Samples and Blue Wool strips were placed in the UV light box as shown in

Figure 5-59.

XXXXXXXXXXXXX Change the picture to include the Thermometer and Hygrometer

Figure 5-59 Section through Light Box showing sample positioning

The Thermometer and the Hygrometer were placed in the open space underneath the samples.

The windowed, hinged front panel was screwed on and the windows covered to contain the

UV light. As UV light can be harmful, a safety statement was drafted and accordingly, the

apparatus was well signed for safety.

Gottsegen (1993 p. p131) states that the test is finished when a change is perceived in Blue

Wool Sample 6 but also states that, to rate the colorants as “Excellent”, the test should be

continued until BW7 and BW8 fade. He suggests that exposure to strong sunlight should

cause BW6 to begin to fade anytime between six weeks and one year after first exposure but

does not estimate a time for BW 7 and BW8. It can be extrapolated that, as each Blue Wool

standard is twice as light fast as the preceding number, that this test could take up to 4 years

in natural sunlight. Because of the uncertainty in this time range with no way to accurately

compare the UV lamps to sunlight, the test was checked daily for change. For reference, the

daily results are listed in Table 1 in the Appendix. Changes in the most sensitive Blue Wool

samples were noticed after a day while a definite change in the samples was not observed

until the third week. The test could have been stopped ambiguously at the end of the third

week as BW6 had faded very slightly but there were only very slight changes in some

samples and none in others so it was decided to leave the test continue until changes in BS 7

were definitively observed.

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5.3 Results and observations

5.3.1 Preliminary observations:The criteria for image selection for the test samples were found at this stage not to be ideal.

At the time of printing, the significance of the print image was not acknowledged. The

subject images were chosen for their vivid colours, for the presence of some detail and for

their size. The weakness specifically, was the variation in detail and colour across the image

making it difficult in some cases to classify the level of fading within the sample and to

compare the fading between samples. Each Sample should have been identical. Hence, one

single image should not have been used but a repeated image or formal pattern. Adjacent

stripes of a rainbow of colours on each sample would have been a better choice. The stripes

should have run the length of the sample so the fading line would run across the strips and be

more easily discernable if present. The reaction of each individual colour would also have

been apparent. Despite that, fading was obvious in most cases and it was possible to classify

the levels of fading even if there was ambiguity in some cases.

5.3.2 Analysis of FadingThe full results are listed in

68

Error: Reference source not found At a first glance, the results seemed better than anticipated.

As mentioned, BW7 had begun to fade. On inspection after the test, ambiguity was observed

in BW8 so further inspection with good lighting, a high quality digital photograph and image

enhancement in Photoshop (adjusting brightness, contrast, saturation and removing colours

individually, a definite difference between the exposed and protected areas of the sample

were observed. The processed images of BW8 and BW7 are shown below in Figure 5-60 and

Figure 5-61 respectively. The techniques used in the processing did not create information

but presented the colour information in a different way to highlight the edge if it existed. The

changes in other samples are obvious from Figure 5-58 above.

Figure 5-60 Processed Image of BW8 Figure 5-61 Processed Image of BW7

The significance of these changes is explained clearly by Gottsegen (1993 p. p131). A Test

Specimen that fades as much as BW1 should be classed has having “Fugitive” light fastness –

or only a very transient permanence of colour. An approximate lifespan for the classification

is given as less than 20 years. BW2 and BW3 are similarly classed - the categories are broad.

Specimens that match the fading of BW4 and BW5 indicate “Fair” light fastness and a

lifespan of 20 to 100 years. BW6 is “Very Good” while matches for BW7 and BW8 indicate

excellent light fastness and an approximate lifespan of more than 100 years. BW6 to BW8,

Gottsegen says, indicate that the material is good enough to be exposed indoors in average

lighting for 100 years or more.

So how do the tested samples compare? It can be interpreted from the Blue Wool results that

the samples were exposed to over 100 years worth of normal indoor light. The level of

normal light is ambiguous but it is reasonable to suggest that normal light would be the light

in a typical museum, art gallery or exhibition room. This is recommended by to be up to

500lux (Neufert, et al., 2002 p. p143). The manufacturer stands over the ink for two years of

outdoor light. Outdoor light in Ireland and the UK corresponds to a luminance of 5000 to

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20000lux. Neuter lists broad figures which can be broadly interpreted as follows: Daylight of,

say 20,000lux has 40 times the light energy of normal 500lx indoor light.

To relate that to the ink manufacturer’s warranty, 2 years of outdoor light would equate to

about 80 years of 500lx indoor light.

Figure 5-62 aggregates the 32 samples and the Blue Wool Standard to which each is

classified. BW6 and BW7 are the dominant values. According to Gottsegen’s classifications

listed above, this means that all but one of the 32 samples should have an approximate life

span of 100 years or more in normal light.

Figure 5-62 Break down of BW equivalents of 32 tested samples

Considering the broad of Neufert’s normal light (taken above as 500lx) and of daylight values

(from 5000lx to 20000lx), these 100 year life spans are comparable to the estimated

equivalence of the manufacturer’s warranty to 80 year indoor life.

5.3.3 Analysis of other Effects

Compatibility of finish with ink:

At no stage in the sample preparation was any reaction observed between any of the finishes

or between the finishes and the ink. It can be stated with a high level of confidence that

Acrylic varnish, Solvent based and Water based lacquers are compatible with the ink.

However, each brand is different so testing should always be conducted for new

combinations.

Effect of Finish on Light fastness.

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There is no obvious impact from a first glance. Looking first at the top-coat and taking the

mean Blue-Wool equivalent of the different top-coats, Solvent Based lacquered panels have

the highest mean Blue-Wool equivalence at 7. Acrylic is next at 6.75 and Water based

lacquer and No top-coat, both at 6.25. Again, due to the low volumes, these numbers are not

very significant but they do prove that none of the coatings have disastrous effects on the

light fastness of the print.

It seemed less likely that the basecoat would have a significant effect of the light fastness.

The primer had the highest Blue Wool equivalence of 7 while Water Based lacquer and

Acrylic Varnish have a value of 6.5 and Solvent based lacquer had a mean value of 6.25.

Again, these volumes don’t provide statistically significant numbers to compare the basecoats

but it does prove that they are all reasonably successful.

Effect of Material:

It can be seen from Figure 5-63 that Poplar has more BW6 classifications than MDF and so,

on the mean Blue Wool equivalence is lower for Poplar than for MDF but the number of

samples is not statistically significant; essentially, there is no discernable difference.

Figure 5-63 Further breakdown by Material

5.4 Other properties

The sawn edges of each sample were inspected to assess the workability of the print with

different finishes. To provide a means of assessing the quality of the finish, they were rated

according to the amount of chipping or flaking along the sawn edges. They were rated 1

(poor), 3 (fair) and 5 (good).

For each base-coat the ratings were summed. Primer and solvent-based lacquer summed to 28

while water-based and acrylic summed to 30. Considering the accuracy of the rating, all four

base coats perform similarly at a saw blade.

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For each Top coat, the ratings were independently summed. No-top coat and solvent based

lacquer sum to 26 while Acrylic is better at 30 and water-based lacquer performs better again

at 34.Again, while these numbers are not statistically significant, Water-based lacquer would

be recommended for resistance to chipping at the edges.

Chipping of edges was then assessed by material by the same rating method. MDF summed

to 48 while poplar ply summed to 68 – a significant difference. Hence, poplar ply would be

the recommended material from a machining point of view.

Now, the surface finish was assessed. Each sample was observed under a magnifying glass.

All finishes were quite good. Under many of the finishes, slight ink ridges were observed.

Because this was on some samples but not on others, the ink may have spread out differently

on different finishes. No pattern was observed across finishes but on both MDF and Poplar,

the most consistent finish was water-based basecoat with water-based topcoat. However, as

mentioned in section 5.2.1.2, colours were more vivid with a primer base-coat. From

discussions with the Printer, this was no surprise. The flatness of the primer may not have

been perfect. This might contribute to the inconsistency of the finish. Between the other base-

coats, while there might be differences in machining, the vividness of colours was

comparable.

5.5 Conclusion and Process

While there are many examples of wooden furniture that lasts hundreds of years and even

some that have lasted thousands of years, it is probably a very small percentage of all

furniture that was ever made. It is reasonable to assume then, that the vast majority of

furniture manufactured now, will be discarded in 100 years. While the exact reference was

not found for this work, it is known that the expected service life of modern furniture is much

shorter than that. Should furniture be decorated with prints from the printer prescribed here,

the graphic should retain its colour for well over the expected life expectancy of the piece

itself. However, this is mainly dependent on the ink used and the properties of the specific ink

used by the Printer should be checked with the manufacturer for certainty if longevity is

required. Based on this longevity and the yellowing observed on the Thermo-transfer foil

samples of Chapter 4, it is likely that the life-limiting factor would be the applied finish and

the bonds between the substrate, the ink and the finish.

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So what is the ideal way to employ this method?

- Use on vertical surfaces

- Print on Poplar ply works better with machines than MDF.

- Use Sheets that are as flat as possible and check with the printer for head clearance. In

this case, the printer clearance was 3mm so any bowing of the sheet must be less than

3mm when laid flat.

- Seal the panel with water based lacquer or primer depending on the required vividness of

colour. Seal the back to minimise bowing. Cut back and apply a top coat of same to the

face.

- Keep sheet as flat as possible in transporting to the printer.

- Print chosen image.

- Apply top coat. If a further coat is required, this last coat can be scuffed but with the

finest of grits or a scuffing pad but care is needed not to sand through to the print. Then

apply topcoat. Similarly, if subsequent coats are required for a deeper finish.

The recommendation of this method comes with qualifications. The surface produced,

although informally tested and found to exhibit the properties of the topcoat, has not been

tested to the point of proof of physical durability and so, should be limited to vertical or low-

traffic surfaces. If used on horizontal surfaces, it may be protected by a transparent layer such

as glass. This limits the application but such limitations apply similarly to most of the

techniques described. This may be less important for one off pieces where the designer/maker

understands the final use will not cause high traffic but generally, while it is quite a light fast

technique, it is not seen as a physically resilient technique.

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74

Conclusion

- Recap project aims

- Address how each aim was met, describing successes and failures

- Make recommendations for the use of this research or direction for its continuation

based on Market Research, Test results and Product Evaluation.

Recommendations

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Works Cited

ABET Inc. 2010. ABET Technical Data. ABET Laminati. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 9 March 2011.] www.abetlaminati.com/techdata/pdf/ABET%20LAMINATI%20HPL%20MSDS%202-18-05.PDF.

AGFA. 2010. AGFA - :Anapurna 2500. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 28 February 2011.] http://www.agfa.com/en/gs/products_services/all_products/anapurna_2500_led.jsp?t=4.

—. 2010. AGFA.com -:JETI 1224 UV True Flatbed . [Online] 10 May 2010. [Cited: 15 Nov 2010.] http://www.agfa.com/en/gs/products_services/all_products/jeti_1224_uv_true_flatbed.jsp?t=1.

Calibrum Corporation. 2010. Surveylet. Surveylet. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 19 December 2010.] www.calibrum.com/surveylet/Login.asp?.

Central Statistics Office, Ireland. 2011. Retail Sales Index. Dublin : Central Statistics Office, 2011.

Coyne, M. Fabric Testing. Letterfrack : GMIT. Thesis.

Crudden, Brian. 2010. Managing Director A1 Signs, Galway. [interv.] Padraig Doyle. 9 December 2010.

Dormer, Peter. 1987. The new furniture trends+traditions. London : Thames & Hudson, 1987.

Duncan, Alastair. 1984. Art Deco Furniture. London : Thames and Hudson, 1984.

Fears and Kahn. Fearsandkahn.com. Fearsandkahn.com. [Online] [Cited: 28 December 2010.] www.fearsandkahn.com.

FIRA. 2010. COMPETITIVENESS OF THE UK FURNITURE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY. Hertfordshire : FIRA International Ltd, 2010.

Formica. 2010. Formica Fabrication. Formica. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 20 January 2011.]

FUJIFILM Sericol UK Limited. WeatheringPDF. Sericol. [Online] [Cited: 29 November 2010.] http://www.sericol.co.uk/ff/pi_sheets/PIforWEB23_5_00/Weathering.pdf.

Geismann, Ursula M. 2010. Home trends 2010:. IMM Cologne, The international furniture show. [Online] Koelnmesse GmbH, 10 January 2010. [Cited: 15 February 2011.] http://news-imm.koelnmesse.info/en/2010/01/home-trends-2010-whats-on-its-way-out-whats-here-to-stay-whats-on-its-way-in/.

—. 2010. In the mood for change. European Woodworking. 2010, pp. 10-12.

Gordon, T and Pease, A. 2006. RT Delphi: An efficient, "round-less" almost real time Delphi-Method. Technological Forecasting & Social Change. Online, 2006, Vol. I, 73.

76

Gottsegen, Mark D. 1993. The Painter's Handbook : a complete reference. New York : Watson-Guptill Publications, 1993.

Hayward, Helena. 1969. World Furniture: An Illustrated History. London : The Hamlyn Publishing Group, 1969.

Heanue, Dr. Kevin. 2008. Aspects of the Furniture Industry in Ireland. Dublin : DCU, 2008.

Hillcoat-Imanishi, Anna. 1996. An investigation into the archival properties of Colour Photocopies and Inkjet Prints. Victoria and Albert Museum. [Online] Spring 1996. [Cited: 02 March 2011.] http://www.vam.ac.uk/res_cons/conservation/journal/issue30/photocopies30/index.html

Intertrade Ireland. 2004. Intertrade Ireland Furniture Report . s.l. : Intertrade Ireland, 2004.

Iqbal, S and Pipon-Young, L. 2009. The Delphi Method. The Psychologist Journal. Online at www.thepsychologist.org.uk, 2009, Vol. 22, 7.

Jenkins. FAIR, MILAN FURNITURE. 2010. Dublin : John Jenkins, 2010.

Knoll. 2011. Knoll: Knoll Museum. Knoll. [Online] 2011. [Cited: 13 10 2010.] http://www.knoll.com/museum/prod_museum.jsp?prod_id=362.

Lane, Allen. 1977. The Penguin Dictionary of Decorative Arts. London : Penguin Books, 1977.

Lhotka, Bonnie. 2009. Digital Art Studio Seminars. Digital Art Studio Seminars. [Online] 2009. [Cited: 29 November 2010.] http://www.digitalartstudioseminars.com/DigitalArtStudioSeminars/Lhotka.html.

Lovell, Sophie. 2007. Furnish. Berlin : Die Gestalten Verlag, 2007.

Lucie-Smith, Edward. 2003. Dictionary of Art Terms. London : Thames and Hudson, 2003.—. 1979. Furniture: a concise history. London : Thames and Hudson, 1979.

McGarry, Dr. Marion. 2010. Lecture on Wallpaper. Galway : s.n., 2010.

Medite. 2006. Medite-Europe. [Online] 2006. [Cited: 13 February 2011.] http://www.medite-europe.com/en/products_premier.php.

MoMA. 2010. MoMA, The Collection, Gaetano Pesce. MoMA. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 12 10 2010.] http://www.moma.org/collection/browse_results.php?object_id=87278.

—. 2010. MoMA, The Collection, Robert Venturi. MoMA. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 12 10 2010.] http://www.moma.org/collection/browse_results.php?criteria=O%3AAD%3AE%3A6132&page_number=16&template_id=1&sort_order=1.

—. 2010. MoMA, The Collection, Shiro Kuramata. MoMA. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 13 10 2010.] http://www.moma.org/collection/browse_results.php?object_id=2630.

Nazdar. 2010. Nazdar Lyson Solvent and UV Inks Warranty. [Online] 10 March 2010. [Cited: 27 February 2011.] http://www.nazdar.com/pdf/NazdarLysonSolventUVInksWarranty.pdf.

77

Neufert, E. and Neufert, P. 2002. Architects' Data, 3rd Edition. Oxford : Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.

Orbis Publishing. 1976. The History of Furniture. London : Orbis Publishing, 1976.Painted Furniture: new looks in faux finishing, texturing, stenciling & more. Farkas, Lyna.

2004. New York : Lark, Lewes, 2004.

Philips. 2010. Philips Lighting, MSDS Downloads. www.usa.lighting.philips.com. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 14 January 2011.] http://www.usa.lighting.philips.com/pwc_li/us_en/connect/tools_literature/downloads/s06-93001.pdf.

Piercy, Siobhan. 2010. Head of Fine Art Printmaking, GMIT. [interv.] Padraig Doyle. 24 November 2010.

Porter, Bryonie. Bryonie Porter. Beautiful Wallpapered Furniture. Bryonie Porter. [Online] [Cited: 12 01 2011.] http://bryonieporter.com/gallery1.html.

Rogers, Dr. Susan. 2008. Art Deco 1925-1939. Furnititre History Lectures. Letterfrack : GMIT, 2008.

—. 2008. Postmodernism and Pluralism. Lecture. Letterfrack : GMIT, 2008.

Schminke, K, Simpson Krause, D and Pierce Lhotka, B. 2004. Digital Art Studio; Techniques for Combining Inkjet Printing with Traditional Art Materials. New York : Watson-Guptill Publications, 2004.

Shell, Steven. 2010. Steven Shell Furnishings, Boules. Steven Shell Furnishings. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 19 11 2010.] http://www.stevenshell.com/products/detail/17.

Sikes, Sasha. 2011. [interv.] Padraig Doyle. 01 February 2011.

Sunflower Recycling. Sunflower recycling, History. Sunflower recycling. [Online] [Cited: 21 Janary 2011.] www.sunflowerrecycling.ie/history.html.

Sunlight, UV and Accellerated Weathering. Brennan, P.; Fedor, C. 1987. Cleveland : Q-Panel Lab Products, 1987. Society of Plastics Engineers Automotive RETEC. pp. 1-8.

Survey Monkey. Survey Monkey. Survey Monkey. [Online] [Cited: 28 January 2011.] www.surveymonkey.com.

Sykes, Sasha. 2010. Farm 21. Farm 21. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 28 December 2010.] http://www.farm21.co.uk/.

Winkle, Sue. 2007. Satra Spotlight; Testing Materials for light fastness. Satra Technology Centre Website. [Online] June 2007. www.satra.co.uk.

Zoomerang. Online Survey Software Tool. Zoomerang. [Online] [Cited: 19 December 2010.] www.zoomerang.com.

78

Bibliography

ABET Inc. 2010. ABET Technical Data. ABET Laminati. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 9 March 2011.] www.abetlaminati.com/techdata/pdf/ABET%20LAMINATI%20HPL%20MSDS%202-18-05.PDF.

AGFA. 2010. AGFA - :Anapurna 2500. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 28 February 2011.] http://www.agfa.com/en/gs/products_services/all_products/anapurna_2500_led.jsp?t=4.

—. 2010. AGFA.com -:JETI 1224 UV True Flatbed . [Online] 10 May 2010. [Cited: 15 Nov 2010.] http://www.agfa.com/en/gs/products_services/all_products/jeti_1224_uv_true_flatbed.jsp?t=1.

Calibrum Corporation. 2010. Surveylet. Surveylet. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 19 December 2010.] www.calibrum.com/surveylet/Login.asp?.

Central Statistics Office, Ireland. 2011. Retail Sales Index. Dublin : Central Statistics Office, 2011.

Coyne, M. Fabric Testing. Letterfrack : GMIT. Thesis.

Crudden, Brian. 2010. Managing Director A1 Signs, Galway. [interv.] Padraig Doyle. 9 December 2010.

Dormer, Peter. 1987. The new furniture trends+traditions. London : Thames & Hudson, 1987.

Duncan, Alastair. 1984. Art Deco Furniture. London : Thames and Hudson, 1984.

Fears and Kahn. Fearsandkahn.com. Fearsandkahn.com. [Online] [Cited: 28 December 2010.] www.fearsandkahn.com.

FIRA. 2010. COMPETITIVENESS OF THE UK FURNITURE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY. Hertfordshire : FIRA International Ltd, 2010.

Formica. 2010. Formica Fabrication. Formica. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 20 January 2011.]

FUJIFILM Sericol UK Limited. WeatheringPDF. Sericol. [Online] [Cited: 29 November 2010.] http://www.sericol.co.uk/ff/pi_sheets/PIforWEB23_5_00/Weathering.pdf.

Geismann, Ursula M. 2010. Home trends 2010:. IMM Cologne, The international furniture show. [Online] Koelnmesse GmbH, 10 January 2010. [Cited: 15 February 2011.] http://news-imm.koelnmesse.info/en/2010/01/home-trends-2010-whats-on-its-way-out-whats-here-to-stay-whats-on-its-way-in/.

—. 2010. In the mood for change. European Woodworking. 2010, pp. 10-12.

Gordon, T and Pease, A. 2006. RT Delphi: An efficient, "round-less" almost real time Delphi-Method. Technological Forecasting & Social Change. Online, 2006, Vol. I, 73.

79

Gottsegen, Mark D. 1993. The Painter's Handbook : a complete reference. New York : Watson-Guptill Publications, 1993.

Hayward, Helena. 1969. World Furniture: An Illustrated History. London : The Hamlyn Publishing Group, 1969.

Heanue, Dr. Kevin. 2008. Aspects of the Furniture Industry in Ireland. Dublin : DCU, 2008.

Hillcoat-Imanishi, Anna. 1996. An investigation into the archival properties of Colour Photocopies and Inkjet Prints. Victoria and Albert Museum. [Online] Spring 1996. [Cited: 02 March 2011.] http://www.vam.ac.uk/res_cons/conservation/journal/issue30/photocopies30/index.html

Intertrade Ireland. 2004. Intertrade Ireland Furniture Report . s.l. : Intertrade Ireland, 2004.

Iqbal, S and Pipon-Young, L. 2009. The Delphi Method. The Psychologist Journal. Online at www.thepsychologist.org.uk, 2009, Vol. 22, 7.

Jenkins. FAIR, MILAN FURNITURE. 2010. Dublin : John Jenkins, 2010.

Knoll. 2011. Knoll: Knoll Museum. Knoll. [Online] 2011. [Cited: 13 10 2010.] http://www.knoll.com/museum/prod_museum.jsp?prod_id=362.

Lane, Allen. 1977. The Penguin Dictionary of Decorative Arts. London : Penguin Books, 1977.

Lhotka, Bonnie. 2009. Digital Art Studio Seminars. Digital Art Studio Seminars. [Online] 2009. [Cited: 29 November 2010.] http://www.digitalartstudioseminars.com/DigitalArtStudioSeminars/Lhotka.html.

Lovell, Sophie. 2007. Furnish. Berlin : Die Gestalten Verlag, 2007.

Lucie-Smith, Edward. 2003. Dictionary of Art Terms. London : Thames and Hudson, 2003.—. 1979. Furniture: a concise history. London : Thames and Hudson, 1979.

McGarry, Dr. Marion. 2010. Lecture on Wallpaper. Galway : s.n., 2010.

Medite. 2006. Medite-Europe. [Online] 2006. [Cited: 13 February 2011.] http://www.medite-europe.com/en/products_premier.php.

MoMA. 2010. MoMA, The Collection, Gaetano Pesce. MoMA. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 12 10 2010.] http://www.moma.org/collection/browse_results.php?object_id=87278.

—. 2010. MoMA, The Collection, Robert Venturi. MoMA. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 12 10 2010.] http://www.moma.org/collection/browse_results.php?criteria=O%3AAD%3AE%3A6132&page_number=16&template_id=1&sort_order=1.

—. 2010. MoMA, The Collection, Shiro Kuramata. MoMA. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 13 10 2010.] http://www.moma.org/collection/browse_results.php?object_id=2630.

Nazdar. 2010. Nazdar Lyson Solvent and UV Inks Warranty. [Online] 10 March 2010. [Cited: 27 February 2011.] http://www.nazdar.com/pdf/NazdarLysonSolventUVInksWarranty.pdf.

80

Neufert, E. and Neufert, P. 2002. Architects' Data, 3rd Edition. Oxford : Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.

Orbis Publishing. 1976. The History of Furniture. London : Orbis Publishing, 1976.Painted Furniture: new looks in faux finishing, texturing, stenciling & more. Farkas, Lyna.

2004. New York : Lark, Lewes, 2004.

Philips. 2010. Philips Lighting, MSDS Downloads. www.usa.lighting.philips.com. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 14 January 2011.] http://www.usa.lighting.philips.com/pwc_li/us_en/connect/tools_literature/downloads/s06-93001.pdf.

Piercy, Siobhan. 2010. Head of Fine Art Printmaking, GMIT. [interv.] Padraig Doyle. 24 November 2010.

Porter, Bryonie. Bryonie Porter. Beautiful Wallpapered Furniture. Bryonie Porter. [Online] [Cited: 12 01 2011.] http://bryonieporter.com/gallery1.html.

Rogers, Dr. Susan. 2008. Art Deco 1925-1939. Furnititre History Lectures. Letterfrack : GMIT, 2008.

—. 2008. Postmodernism and Pluralism. Lecture. Letterfrack : GMIT, 2008.

Schminke, K, Simpson Krause, D and Pierce Lhotka, B. 2004. Digital Art Studio; Techniques for Combining Inkjet Printing with Traditional Art Materials. New York : Watson-Guptill Publications, 2004.

Shell, Steven. 2010. Steven Shell Furnishings, Boules. Steven Shell Furnishings. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 19 11 2010.] http://www.stevenshell.com/products/detail/17.

Sikes, Sasha. 2011. [interv.] Padraig Doyle. 01 February 2011.

Sunflower Recycling. Sunflower recycling, History. Sunflower recycling. [Online] [Cited: 21 Janary 2011.] www.sunflowerrecycling.ie/history.html.

Sunlight, UV and Accellerated Weathering. Brennan, P.; Fedor, C. 1987. Cleveland : Q-Panel Lab Products, 1987. Society of Plastics Engineers Automotive RETEC. pp. 1-8.

Survey Monkey. Survey Monkey. Survey Monkey. [Online] [Cited: 28 January 2011.] www.surveymonkey.com.

Sykes, Sasha. 2010. Farm 21. Farm 21. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 28 December 2010.] http://www.farm21.co.uk/.

Winkle, Sue. 2007. Satra Spotlight; Testing Materials for light fastness. Satra Technology Centre Website. [Online] June 2007. www.satra.co.uk.

Zoomerang. Online Survey Software Tool. Zoomerang. [Online] [Cited: 19 December 2010.] www.zoomerang.com.

81

Appendices

Appendix (i). Log of Daily Checks of Test Progress

Table 1 Log of Daily Checks on Test Progress

Date Day Blue Wool SamplesTemp (°C)

Humidity (%)

17/1/11 Mon Start No change 28.2 2118/1/11 Tue Bare fade on BW1 No change 28.1 19

19/1/11Wed Bare fade on BW1 No change 27.5 18

20/1/11 Thu Slight fade on BW1 No change 27.9 1821/1/11 Fri Bare fade on BW2 No change 28.0 1922/1/11 Sat 23/1/11 Sun 24/1/11 Mon Slight fade on BW3 No change 28.5 2025/1/11 Tue Slight fade on BW3 No change 28.1 20

26/1/11Wed Bare fade on BW4 No change 28.0 19

27/1/11 Thu Slight fade on BW4 No change 27.9 1828/1/11 Fri Slight fade on BW4 No change 28.0 1829/1/11 Sat 30/1/11 Sun

31/1/11 Mon Slight fade on BW5Slight darkening 28.1 19

1/2/11 Tue Slight fade on BW5Slight darkening 28.3 18

2/2/11Wed Slight fade on BW5

Slight darkening 28.0 17

3/2/11 Thu No. 6, Ambiguous Some darkened 28.0 18

4/2/11 FriBarest fade on BW6 Some darkened 28.5 18

5/2/11 Sat 6/2/11 Sun 7/2/11 Mon Bare fade on BW7 Stop 28.2 18

82

Appendix (ii). Visual Grading of Samples.

Figure 0-64 Table of Fade Test Grading for MDF Samples

83

Figure 0-65 Table of Fade Test Grading for Poplar Ply Samples

84

Sample MaterialBase treatment

Top treatment

Edge condition after cutting

Sample 1 MDF Primer No TopPoor - Tape removed ink + Saw chips primer

Sample 2 MDF PrimerWB Lacquer

Good - Cuts well

Sample 3 MDF Primer Acrylic Good - Cuts well

Sample 4 MDFWB Lacquer

SB Lacquer

Poor - Edge lifted but not gone

Sample 5 MDFWB Lacquer

No TopFair - one edge lifted and one perfect

Sample 6 MDF PrimerSB Lacquer

Good - barest slice missing at one edge

Sample 7 MDF Acrylic No TopPoor - consistent flaking at saw cuts

Sample 8 MDFWB Lacquer

WB Lacquer

Good - but barest lift on one edge

Sample 9 MDFWB Lacquer

Acrylic Poor - Edge lifts and cracks

Sample 10

MDF AcrylicWB Lacquer

Fair - one edge bad and one perfect

Sample 11

MDF Acrylic AcrylicFair - one edge bad and one perfect

Sample 12

MDF AcrylicSB Lacquer

Good - one slightly hairy and one perfect

Sample 13

MDFSealed/ cut back

WB Lacquer

Poor - Hairy edges after cut

Sample 14

MDFSealed/ cut back

AcrylicFair - one flakey and one good

Sample 15

MDFSealed/ cut back

SB Lacquer

Fair - one flakey and one good

Sample 16

MDFSealed/ cut back

No TopFair - one flakey and one good

0-66 MDF: Observation of sawn edges

85

Sample MaterialBase treatment

Top treatment

Edge condition after cutting

Sample 17

Poplar Ply

PrimerSB Lacquer

Poor - flakey edges after saw

Sample 18

Poplar Ply

Primer No TopFair - One good edge and one slightly flakey

Sample 19

Poplar Ply

WB Lacquer

AcrylicGood - one slightly hairy and one perfect. Can flake edges

Sample 20

Poplar Ply

Sealed/ cut back

WB Lacquer

Good - but flakes on light colours less obvious

Sample 21

Poplar Ply

Sealed/ cut back

SB Lacquer

Good - Minute hairy edges

Sample 22

Poplar Ply

PrimerWB Lacquer

Good - Cuts well

Sample 23

Poplar Ply

Sealed/ cut back

Acrylic Good - Cuts well

Sample 24

Poplar Ply

Acrylic No Top Good - Cuts well

Sample 25

Poplar Ply

AcrylicWB Lacquer

Good - Cuts well

Sample 26

Poplar Ply

AcrylicSB Lacquer

Fair - One good edge and one slightly flakey

Sample 27

Poplar Ply

Acrylic Acrylic Good - Cuts well

Sample 28

Poplar Ply

Sealed/ cut back

No TopGood - one slightly hairy and one perfect

Sample 29

Poplar Ply

WB Lacquer

No Top Good - Cuts well

Sample 30

Poplar Ply

Primer AcrylicFair - Mostly clear but couple of flakes

Sample 31

Poplar Ply

WB Lacquer

WB Lacquer

Good - Cuts well but light colous less obvious

Sample 32

Poplar Ply

WB Lacquer

SB Lacquer

Fair - one clear and one flakey

0-67 Poplar: Obersevation of Sawn edges

86

Appendix (iii). Safety Statement for UV Testing.

Risk of Fire

Over heating: The Lamps are CLF strips rather than incandescent bulbs, but there is still

considerable heat generated. The box was tested over a period of 2 days, under supervision

for the first hour and regular checks for the following 5 hours. The temperature reached 32 C⁰

after 50 minutes and remained constant to within +/- 1°for two days. This temperature is

considered acceptable.

Electrical: All electrical equipment carries the risk of sparking and a resultant electrical fire.

Due to the constant (relatively) high temperatures, the BS Wool samples will be quite dry,

and therefore making the samples slightly more combustible than they might normally be.

The lamps have not been altered in any way so their safety standards have not been

compromised.

Tipping

The Test Box is located on a counter in a seldom used room. Most activity in the room comes

from people passing through at the opposite side of the room – few people have reason to, or

ever do, approach the worktop.

For those that do approach the worktop, the box is heavy and set close to the surface – so it’s

not top-heavy. It’s also placed against the back apron – as far from the front edge as possible.

It is not considered necessary to fix it to the worktop. This wouldn’t be ideal as the apparatus

may need to be moved due to the varying needs of the college.

Generally, this should not be a problem. The Apparatus will be well signed, in a safe location

and position in that location. Tipping would require a concerted effort.

UV light

All UV lights have certain risk. This is detailed in the below extract from the MSDS but care

will be taken to prevent light escaping from the box.

Electric shock

All electrical appliances carry some risk of electric shock but the original consumer

components have not been tampered with and are isolated inside the box, thus reducing the

risk of contact with the components, thereby eliminating the risk of electric shock without

87

unscrewing the box and abusing the light fixture. The presence of light fixtures is clearly

labelled.

Other relevant considerations:

The following was extracted from the fluorescent strip MSDS (Philips, 2010):

“SECTION 2: HAZARDOUS INGREDIENTS

OSHA PEL ACGIH TLV

Phosphor powder* (Ca,Zn) P04:Tl Approx 2% by Wt.

nuisance dust 15mg/m 10mg/m

Thallium 7440-28-0 (TWA) .1mg/m .1mg/m Less than .05%

Zinc 7440-66-6 5mg/m Less than .05%

Calcium Phosphate 7757-93-9 none est. none est. Less than 2%

Mercury 7439-97-6 .1 mg/m .025mg/m Less than .02%

Ceiling 8 hr. TWA

*These materials are tightly bound within the Calcium Phosphate crystal matrix.

SECTION 3: PHYSICAL /CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Not applicable. This item is a light bulb. Up to 6 feet long and 1.5 inches in diameter.

SECTION 4: FIRE AND EXPLOSION DATA

Fire and explosion data not applicable. Under extreme heat glass envelope might melt

or crack.

SECTION 5: REACTIVITY DATA

Stability: Lamp is stable

Incompatibility: Glass will react with Hydrofluroric Acid

Polymerization: Not applicable

SECTION 6: HEALTH HAZARD DATA

During operation this lamp emits ultraviolet radiation in the 280-400nm range (UVB

region). It conforms to Federal Regulation regarding medical devices (FDA) 40 CFR

801.403 and is intended for medical/industrial uses only.

DANGER:

This lamp should only be used under the following conditions. Follow instruction of

Physician. Use only in a fixture equipped with a timer. USE PROTECTIVE

88

EYEWEAR, FAILURE TO DO SO MAY RESULT IN SEVERE BURNS OR

LONG TERM INJURY TO THE EYES. Medications or cosmetics may increase your

sensitivity to ultra violet radiation. Serious burns may be caused by exposure in

excess of dosage recommended by Physician. Do not use over skin eruptions unless

directed by Physician.

Breakage of the lamp may result in some exposure to the phosphor powder dust and

to elemental mercury vapour. The phosphor contains thallium which has the following

data Man, Ora1 Ld 5.714 mg/kg IDLH 20mg/m (Soluble compounds). Thallium is not

listed as a carcinogen by the NTP,IARC, or OSHA. It is a cumulative poison. It or its

salts can be absorbed through intact skin; if they are ingested they are rapidly

absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract. Thallium acts as a mitotic (affecting cell

division) agent and a general cellular poison. Acute poisoning chiefly affects the

central nervous system (CNS) and the GI tract. The ingestion of soluble thallium salts

causes more serious effects than the pure metal. Medical conditions aggravated by

long term exposure. Disorders of the CNS, GI tract, kidneys, liver, and eyes. Target

organs: eyes, CNS, lungs, liver, kidneys, GI tract.

FIRST AID:

Eye; immediately flush eyes, including under the eyelids, gently but thoroughly with

plenty of running water for at least 15 minutes. Skin; immediately wash the affected

area with soap and water. Inhalation; remove the exposed person to fresh air, restore

and/or support his or her breathing as required. Ingestion; Treat as an emergency. If

the exposed person is responsive, give him or her several glasses of milk or water and

then induce vomiting. GET MEDICAL HELP FOR ALL EXPOSURES. While the

amount of Thallium in the phosphor is small, avoid breaking lamps. If lamps are to be

broken use adequate personal protection and ventilation.

SECTION 7: PRECAUTIONS FOR SAFE HANDLING AND USE

Normal precautions should be taken for the collection of broken glass.

Waste Disposal Method: At the end of rated life, when this lamp is removed from

service, it will be subjected to the current Toxic Characteristic Leaching Procedure

(TCLP) prescribed by the Environmental Protection Agency. This test is used to

determining whether an item is a hazardous waste or a non-hazardous waste under

current E. P. A. definition. These lamps would fail the TCLP test and would be

considered hazardous under the Universal Waste Rules. Generators should evaluate

all of the disposal options, which may be available in the particular state in which the

89

generator’s facility is located. The generator should check with federal, state and local

officials for their guidance. Philips encourages recycling of its products by qualified

recyclers.”

90

Appendix (iv): Trend Predictions of Ursula Geismann

To reword Geismann’s trend predictions for last year (Geismann, 2010) would be to risk

misinterpreting them. The following is taken directly from the website of IMM Cologne

International Furnishing Show:

“What’s on its way out?

- Small dining tables

- 1-2-3-seater suites without any functions

- Dark rustic kitchens

- Smooth covering fabrics for upholstered furniture

- Bulky furniture

What’s here to stay?

- The mega-colour white for upholstery coverings and storage furniture surfaces

- Wall units with flat screen TVs and long sideboards, highboards and lowboards

- The “kitchen – dining – living area” as a spatial unit

- Aubergine shades for a dignified splash of colour

- Furniture that looks good from the back too and can be placed in the middle of the room

- Adjustable upholstered furniture

- Walk-in wardrobes

- Rococo ornaments as patterns, e.g. as woven covering- fabrics with a velvet-like surface

and relief character

- Cross Design as a lifestyle guarantee: furniture by Joop!, Esprit & Co.

- Furniture classics as a timeless value

- Bio ethanol fireplaces

- Themed children’s rooms with e.g. a “Princess” or “Pirate” motif

What’s on its way in?

- Dining armchairs that you can sit on comfortably for a long time

- Garden furniture that looks like living room furniture

- Outdoor kitchens and showers

91

- Lounge chairs for chilling

- Private spa oases where the bedroom and bathroom merge into a single unit

- Large-format dining tables

- Blue covering fabrics

- Dark wood, preferably in combination with glass and stainless steel

- Feminine forms: organically designed upholstered furniture

- High-gloss and handleless kitchens

- Gold for accentuation on e.g. little cupboards, chair frames or decorative cushions

- Greenline furniture

- LED lighting technology in cupboards and shelving”

92

Appendix (v) Analysis of the current furniture retail market for graphics on furniture:

Most furniture shops in Galway were visited in late 2010. Many shops in Dublin were visited

in December and January.

Name of outlet Location Target Market/

Price RangeGraphic

Furniture DescriptionOther

Graphics

Format

IKEA Dublin Low to mid/ affordable

Yes

Currently limited to frosted glass tables but as recently as a year ago, Billy Book cases with printed foil were released as a limited edition.

Yes

Printed Wall Hangings, printed light shades, Upholstery and soft furnishings

Inreda Dublin High End/ Designer No - Yes Soft furnishing and

accessories

Muji Dublin and Online Affordable No Doesn't fit the Muji

ethos No -

No Fixed Abode

Dublin and Online

High End/ Designer No Very small range of

furniture Yes

Proliferation of graphics on

tableware and soft furnishing

Midcentury online.com

Dublin and Online

High End/Pre-owned designer furniture

No - - -

Busy Bees Dublin Renovated YesNot currently in stock

but often used in renovations

No Not applicable

Curley's Galway Low to mid/ affordable

No - YesUpholstery, especially Fama range

EZ-Living Galway Low to mid/ affordable No - Yes Soft furnishing

Arnott's/Conran Dublin

High End/ Designer No - Yes

Vast array of tableware and soft furnishing and upholstery

Clery's DublinMid to High End/Traditional

No - YesTableware (poppy fields)

Home Store and more

Dublin Low to mid/ affordable No - Yes Soft furnishing and

accessories

Harvey Norman

Dublin Low to mid/ affordable

No - Yes Soft furnishing and accessories

In Store Galway Mid-range/ affordable No - Yes Some printed light-

shades, printed

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"artwork", Some painted wooden profiles that can be stuck on children’s furniture

TK Maxx Dublin Low to mid/ affordable No

However, TK Maxx have in the past stocked furniture with painted decoration - Similar to Steven Shell.

No However, this changes regularly.

ObjektNewcastle

WestHigh End/ Designer Yes

Pattern on Frosted Glass Coffee table by Ciacci Kreaty. Two others by Calligaris. Side table Ari by Frag HPL print

Yes

Ambrogina Chaise Longe by Missoni. Table Ware by Guzzini. Missoni Floral Rugs. 50s/60s style patterned carpets by Designer Carpets. La Foule printed light screen

Cempo AthloneMid to High End/Traditional

No - YesLoud patterns on some upholstered sofas

Next Directory

Online/UK Low to mid/ affordable

No -

Bodie and Fou

Online/UK Mid to High End/ Designer

No Plenty of colour but no graphics

Yes

Some on home wares but prolific wallpaper graphics

Scandinavian Design Centre

Online/UKMid to High End/ Designer Yes

Coffee tables appear to be printed HPL and some children's furniture appears to have decals applied

Yes

Most accessory categories have some printed items

Toast Online/UK

not furniture - but clothes and home accessories

- - - -

Zara home

UK and Online

Low to mid/ affordable

No - YEs

Most accessory categories have

some printed items. Interesting Methacrylate tray

with a print on the base. Maybe used in furniture

Further detail on individual retailers:

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IKEA: This is discussed in detail in section 2.6The “Billy” Anomaly so not repeated here.

www.nextdirectory.ie

Next specialises in clothing but also sells affordable soft furnishings, accessories and lighting.

- A small selection of wall art ranges from cartoon-graphics to photo-graphics. They

have been selected to fit a colour scheme of pastel blue, a range of browns and dark

greys and black framing. They are printed to canvas.

- Wallpapers are largely floral patterns with some damask. With one or two exceptions,

the colours are soft. There are no more than four or five colours used on any one style.

The styles range from greens to pink-and-purples to teal.

- Curtains and soft furnishings are similar to the wallpapers but with the addition of

several plain neutral colours. Notably, in the sample images, wherever curtains are

patterned, the walls are painted and wherever the walls are patterned, the curtains are

plain. This highlights a common belief in interior design – that overuse of pattern and

graphics can create a heavy feel. Graphics (in any form), in contemporary interiors

serve to create interest or highlight an otherwise neutral space.

www.muji.com

A Japanese retailer gone global, Muji’s aesthetic is plain and simple without

complicated pattern or form. While their furniture is not yet available in Ireland, they

have a considerable UK presence of 13 stores. The unadorned aesthetic of such a

successful global retailer cannot be ignored when exploring a market for applying

graphics to furniture. It stands in contrast to the graphic aesthetic sought here.

www.inreda.ie

Lower Camden Street, Dublin. An uninformative online presence made a store visit

necessary. This small high-end store specialises in designer furniture, accessory and

kitchen utensils. Graphics were scarce and limited to soft furnishings and accessories.

www.bodieandfou.com

High-end designer furniture. No graphics

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www.nofixedabode.ie

No Fixed Abode has a tiny range of furniture without graphics.

www.etsy.com

Etsy allows crafts people to sell any handmade items on their own personal sub-page.

It seems to attract a lot of small scale clothing designers but also a considerable

contingent of print and graphic artists. Print Party is one such seller specialising in

screen-printing on fashion items such as bags, clothing and posters. In an interview on

the site, one of the Print Party designers conveyed the belief that any product could

“benefit from some illustration”. Interested by this interview, the author emailed the

designer to ask her opinion on the suitability of applying such graphics to furniture.

She is of the general opinion that, if pattern and graphics work on textiles, and hence

can be used on furniture, there should be no reason the graphics couldn’t instead be

applied directly to the furniture. However, she believes it could easily look “tacky”

and depends greatly on the skill of the designer and on the taste of the customer.

Aside from the wealth of availability of print and even some handed painted furniture,

the website, by its nature does not provide a coherent and reliable source to identify

contemporary trends; each seller on the site operates individually and conducts only

the level of market research each deems appropriate but generally, based on the size

of the sellers, this could not be very much. Each seller is also coming from a different

geography and cultural background and is trying to sell on a global market. Hence, it

would seem that this is a collection of many craftspeople pushing individual styles

and mini trends in as many different directions so while it can be a great way to shop

and to sell, it cannot reliably be used to identify trends. The site was searched for

examples of graphic furniture nonetheless. There are examples of hand painted

furniture and inlaid furniture. These are in a craft style rather than contemporary

design.

www.midcenturyonline.com

This is a relatively small collection of (about 40) pre-owned high-end designer

furniture items. None are graphically enhanced.

www.scandanaviandesigncenter.com

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This Marimekko tray table shown in Figure 0-68 from the Scandinavian design centre

exemplifies some of the intention of this research. The prints are colourful, varied and

applied directly to a high-traffic surface. The Occhio coffee table is a similar table

from the same source. The table tops appear to be Printed HPL (similar to Formica).

These two tables are the only examples of graphically enhanced tables out of a field

of 26 styles. In fact, no other furniture with the exception of children’s furniture had

any graphical enhancement. As for the children’s furniture, these were often enhanced

by relatively small individual graphics such as the hedgehogs on the Micki Storage

box below. These are most likely applied on a Decal over the paint and then finished

with lacquer.

Figure 0-68 Marimekko Tray TablesFigure 0-69 Occhio Coffee Table

viewed from above

Figure 0-70 Micki Storage Box

www.toast.co.uk

Toast sells mainly soft furnishings. Some are patterned. One cushion in particular has

an interesting print but nothing of much relevance is sold here.

www.zarahome.ie

Zara does not have a large range of furniture. There are some pieces with carved

pattern but no graphics. Soft furnishings have some pattern but this seems woven

rather than printed. One interesting piece is a tray made from methacrylate with a text

print on the bottom of the tray. This could be a way of applying graphics to furniture

surfaces.

Design Blogs. The following pages detail observations from a list of interior design blogs.

Each blog alone is subjective but 16 blogs combed in their entirety should provide a more

realistic picture.

www.blanaid.com

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June 11th: Photography of Steven Meisel is shown. The images are stunning and

suggest that images such as these would be enduring pieces to print in high quality to

door panels of high-quality durable cabinetry. The cabinetry would simply be a

functional picture frame. Blanaid exposes a new imagery she finds, most months but

her main interest seems to be fashion and accessories. Graphic furniture is nowhere to

be found on her blog. White surfaces dominate with splashes of colour through

upholstered furniture.

www.eatliveshop.com:

“House tour” is an interesting feature where various contemporary homes are

exposed.

Graphics are kept to the walls, framed with white or raw concrete or wood.

Occasional but surprisingly little patterned fabric. Again, no graphic furniture to be

found.

Chezlarsson.com:

Some trendy furniture discussed, such as Emeco chair in October. This verifies that

the blog is somewhat on-key but no evidence of graphic furniture.

www.friendlycottage.com

“Soft colours and deep plush furnishings are the trends to follow for 2010 and

onward”

www.garrendennylane.ie/blog:

Interior design rather than furniture focused. Many examples of printed accessories

but none of furniture

www.padcandy.blogspot.com:

This is Dara Flynn, columnist with Sunday times and former editor of House and

Home magazine. Flynn recommends the IKEA Billy bookcase as a student solution

for storage and posts a picture of the limited edition printed version from 2009. This

shows some appreciation for graphic furniture. Flynn was an intended panel member

but contact details could not be found.

www.designheaven.wordpress.com:

Ideas and projects

www.custardbydesign.blogspot.com:

Irish blogger Richy shares design trends and architectural inspiration

www.ilikelocal.blogspot.com:

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Figure 0-71 This Table is the only evidence

approaching graphic furniture on the site. This

table is in an advertising company’s boardroom

and is made from lego… not quite a graphic but

with a comparable effect. However, it carries

more weight than a simple print.

www.doorsixteen.com:

Dominanted by white (and some greys) – walls and furniture with natural wood

accents. No graphics on furniture. Prints neatly framed off to the walls

www.designsponge.com

Design Sponge has a product guide section where a particular item, Sideboards for

example, is reviewed and many currently contemporary sideboards will be presented.

There are notable examples of graphic furniture in this blog:

Cabinetry:

Crepax Cabinet which is a simple cabinet with a black and white cartoon graphic on

the upright panels

Moorish chest with black and white silhouette pattern of leaves.

“Wrongwoods” by Moss is a plywood unit with striking woodblock prints of enlarged

wood grain patterns in vivid colours.

Zanotta Alchera Chest with Poster like icons on each panel

Limited Edition Billy Bookcase

Tables:

Remix coffee table from plushpod designed by barrera and cignanic. Silk screen print

on birch ply

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Figure 0-72 “Wrongwoods” by Moss

Figure 0-73 Crepax Cabinet

Figure 0-74 Zanotta Alchera Chest

Figure 0-75 Remix coffee table, by Barrera and Cignanic

www.prettyfarwest.blogspot.com

Prints on fabric and on wallpaper but none on hard furniture.

www.makingitlovely.com

Very little furniture and none with graphics.

www.lustcovetenvy.blogspot.com

No graphics on furniture. Not a very comprehensive site anyway.

www.remodelista.com

129 tables listed – none had graphics.32 Benches – none had graphics54 Cabinets – none had graphics

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www.maggymoon.wordpress.com

March 09, MM talks about painted furniture. The particular example depicted simply

has subtle leaf-garland motif on drawer fronts of a green painted dresser. She

comments that pieces like this add individuality to an interior. This is a use for

graphics not covered by the experts… the use and meaning could be in the location of

the piece rather than in content of the graphic.

A second example is a hand-painted screen. She suggests TK Maxx or Littlewoods to

source some cheaply but also suggests that these can be painted by adventurous

consumers. This is another loose reference to furniture improvement/up-cycling.

In April, she displays a Moroccan themed room with a hand-crafted, brightly hand-

painted stool. The idea of Ethnic furniture was not mentioned by the experts and is a

potential market but this would be more suited to hand techniques rather than the

technology aided

Irish blog with inspiring images of interior design related

www.ninacampbell.com:

Nina Campbell’s online store sells accessories, soft furnishings, tableware and

furniture, upholstered and solid. With the exception of solid furniture, every other

category has at least some examples of printed pattern.

Appendix (vi) Transcript of Discussion with industry experts.

Question 1

Graphics in the form of pattern are an integral part of much upholstered furniture and in

recent years, patterned upholstery has been very popular. Patterns and other graphics have

also been used on many other fashion-led products in recent years - clothing, soft furnishing,

tableware - to name a few.

These strong trends have not carried over to solid furnishings. Why do you think this might

be?

Industry Expert1

My first initial thought is that in Ireland particularly, due to the current economic situation

people are terrified about spending their money as they don't know if they are going to have a

job next week for example. I think there is a certain market in Ireland who will pay for

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unusual work such as patterned work but that is a small niche market. From our own

experience unfortunately most people don't care if it's made in China as long as the price is

right. As regards manufacturing in Ireland where labour costs are high, they love unusual

items but don't want to pay for them. I feel that IKEA have cornered the market in this type

of concept and although they are very vague about details on sustainability etc they do

produce cheap fun furniture and people don't seem to mind if it falls apart after 3 years. We

have become a transient society where everything can be thrown away, it's almost a relief to

the self, you know lets buy something new as I can dump this piece it's falling apart (I don't

have to feel guilty about that). Actually investing in solid furniture is a very responsible

thing to do and is really a labour of love as it's going to be around for a long time and

demands a certain commitment from the owner - they have to take care of it.

I am not sure how ready Ireland is for patterned work, we have tried very different kiddies

furniture for example which to be fair may have been the wrong market, but whilst people

absolutely loved it, they didn't want to pay for it.

This tells me that you need a wider audience and a targeted marketing plan for this type of

product. Ireland alone is not big enough for unusual work like this.

Industry Expert4

I think one of the obvious reasons is that solid furniture has a longer lifespan, which often

outlives fashion and trends. As the owner’s tastes change and evolve, other more transient

items like clothing and tableware can be replaced more readily and at less cost. Soft

furnishing can be re-upholstered; even walls can be repainted or wallpapered etc.

There's a definite upsurge in the amount of people offering furniture improvement services.

(If Dublin City Council is doing it there's obviously a market for it) It's debatable whether

such services could offer finishes on a par with the original designer’s solution, but it seems

to give the less interesting pieces a new lease of life. Perhaps this idea of change can be built

in to solid pieces through removable panels or elements which can easily be changed as

required?

When it comes to purchasing pieces that are to last, people are less likely to stick their neck

out and are more inclined to play it safe, keep it neutral.

Industry Expert6

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Pattern seems to be used quite prolifically on very fashion-led products for the simple reason

that they ‘do’ date quickly. Quite often inferior materials are used and pattern is a good way

to hide this. Consumers buy with their eyes and rarely think too deeply about the lifespan of a

product until it’s too late.

Good design shouldn’t/doesn’t need dressing-up. There’s an honesty and beauty in

highlighting the raw materials of manufacture. I would be interested to see an example of

what would be considered the successful application of pattern to solid furnishing.

Are we talking about micro-textures or loud expressions of painted pattern?

Industry Expert2

My view is that the furniture market is dictated by what is in fashion in the furniture sector.

This in turn, is dictated by what is shown in the interior magazines but they can only show

what is available to them in either people’s homes (that never look like they were ever lived

in) or by what the furniture shops have on display themselves and the furniture in people’s

homes comes from the furniture shops. So it comes back to the furniture retailer why does

that person not purchase furniture with graphics. Is it because they are not available to

purchase for resale or if they are available that the general public won’t buy them? Furniture

fashion has changed from pine to oak to walnut over 15 years, it moves but very slowly.

Furniture retailers purchasing habits (dictate) taste, price dictates demand, volume dictates

price; a good price for the consumer further dictates greater demand.

In order for furniture to be accepted in the graphic format that you are suggesting then the

retailers need to put it on the floor, the magazines need to sing from the roof tops about it and

the show houses, need to show and display it in its best form and it needs to be produced in

volume in china for it to be affordable for the average consumer

Industry Expert3

Yes, graphically enhanced furniture has been around sometime. The first to do it were the

Egyptians some 3,000 years ago. Why did they do it? Firstly, they did it because they could!

They had the tools, the skills and the imagination. Secondly, they did not do it for

commercial reasons, they did it for their beliefs or if you like, their religion.

The Chinese have done it also both for celebration and more recently for practical purposes

such as Icons on a medical chest. We interpret them as ‘decorative’ simply because we don’t

understand the icons (i.e. language).

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This attitude to religion has lasted for a few thousand years and in some contemporary

religions this still exists. When furniture as we know it existed in the Middle Ages, it was rare

and was often adorned in images of characters or significant happenings which had been

written about (in the Bible). Furniture was rare, and the available skills were directed towards

an overwhelming respect, and in most cases, a fear of God!

When personal wealth allowed for furniture to be made for others than the church, then it

became a case of really showing off wealth to the extreme. Every way of adorning the

surfaces of furniture were exercised. The more elaborate (the furniture), the more wealthy the

person. Furniture pieces were commissioned just like paintings and they became a barometer

of wealth.

All you have to do is pick up a book on period furniture and see the ways in which the

craftsmen showed off! Carving, inlaying, gilding, marquetry and of course – painting.

Soft furnishings were always, and to a great extent still are, a vehicle for adding pattern and

colour. Why have they existed in this medium and not in hard surfaced furniture? The answer

is very easy.

Money! It is simply very expensive to apply decoration to a hard surface even if it is through

CNC routering, Laser engraving or through any other contemporary technology. Can you

imagine how much it would cost to apply inlay or apply marquetry to a surface.

You can find these hand skills still exist – but they are costly to perform because they are

time consuming. Time – the most expensive commodity of them all!

The Chinese and other eastern cultures are still able to do all of this, and do, because they are

‘relatively’ cheap to do. This sounds like a history lesson, but we ignore the past at our peril.

There is still a widespread market for graphically enhanced furniture as you call it. I often see

new pieces which have tried to capture the essence of pieces from the past e.g. Architects

Drawing Chests which have letters or numbers which were an aid to index drawings. Today

these drawings will be stored on a disc, but this does not devalue the lovely chests which still

appeal to those who love a bit of Retro. So, for these people, function has been replaced by

nostalgia!

Whilst I could expand on the history, I think I have made my point. It’s about Cost. Printing

and weaving fabrics is still an economic proposition. Perhaps we are just happy to see wood

in its purest form and to recognise the fact that every piece is unique and perhaps we are now

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of the opinion that it does not require enhancement. It may be a case of not gilding the lily as

its beautiful enough already?

Industry Expert 5

1. Patterns can date a piece very quickly and are less classic in age. If you look at a classic

piece of furniture - it rarely will have patterns (fabric / inlay) on them unless they are making

a statement of when they were made / designed.

2. Patterns can localize a piece (nowadays a good thing).

Over the last few decades designers / manufactures / suppliers have gone global and the

market wants global design and so less patterns that localize and fashion lead a piece (market

lead)

Question 2

People may have preconceptions of graphically enhanced furniture. As with all products, this

will vary with the function of the furniture, the consumer's demographic, international

location as well as broader social contexts (e.g. recession, eco-awareness).

With this in mind, what markets might now exist for the graphical enhancement of Furniture?

Industry Expert1

I think I actually answered this in Question 1.

It's a wider audience than in Ireland. Unfortunately the whole world is in a recession now

which has a knock on effect everywhere on people's buying power. I think you need to be

market specific i.e. identify your target market segment and proceed from there. In our

experience it is not the children's market so that would indicate it's adults but as I don't know

what your product is I cannot advise any more on that.

Industry Expert6

I can see a market in ‘graphically enhanced’ furniture if it is appropriate to the function of the

piece, i.e. educational items for children, way finding devices etc. But in terms of applying

graphics to furniture for aesthetic purposes I can only see this happening in markets where

manufacturers are eager to see their products with a short life-span.

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Industry Expert2

I believe the graphic represents the market like Chinese writing for that market, a modern

design for the modern Italian market. The French have a passion for old style painted

furniture with simple floral designs. It is true that the function of the piece should reflect the

graphic but you need to decide who your target market is and apply this understanding

Industry Expert 5

1. DIY graphics for your own use (Reclaiming furniture etc)

2. Branding - Retailer outlets and events

3. Local furniture makers / artists developing their unique style / statement

4. Tourism in Ireland – public (tell a story - signage / public furniture / monuments -

Newgrange has done it). A wide range of markets are open to this application - the most

important thing is that graphics should be used for a reason like telling a story - a reason for

its use and not just a decoration

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