Geotechnical characterization of carbonate marls for the ...hera.ugr.es › doi ›...

Geotechnical characterization of carbonate marls for the

construction of impermeable dam cores

F. Lamas, C. Irigaray, J. Chacon*

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Granada, Polytechnic Building, Avda. Fuentenueva, s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain

Accepted 31 January 2002

Abstract

Fine-grained, more or less cohesive carbonate materials are extremely widespread in terms of surface area and are, therefore,

commonly used as materials to construct impermeable cores for dams. However, it has not been adequately documented

whether the carbonate content in fine-grained soils significantly affects their engineering behaviour. The present study shows

that the carbonate content substantially influences the engineering behaviour of clayey material. For this, we subjected 32

samples to different laboratory tests, such as the normal Proctor, the Atterberg limits, granulometric analysis, oedometric and

undrained triaxial tests. The resulting parameters were correlated with the carbonate content of the samples. The materials

studied in this work had been used in the construction of the impermeable core of the San Clemente Dam, belonging to the

hydrographic basin of the Guadalquivir River (southern Spain). These marls present, as their prime characteristic, a carbonate

content of the fine fraction consistently exceeding 50%, giving them special importance in the study of this phenomenon. In this

study, a direct relationship was found between the geotechnical properties of the soils studied and their degree of compaction,

with the carbonate content and the type of minerals in the clay being the main factors determining the behaviour of these soils.

Finally, we conclude that the percentage of carbonates should be used as a classification criterion for the soils used to construct

the cores of earth-filled dams. D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Carbonate soils; Engineering behaviour; Classification systems; Impermeable core; Earth-filled dams; San Clemente Dam (Granada,

Spain)

1. Introduction

Marls are composed mainly of clay minerals and

carbonate in varying proportions, normally between

35% and 65% (Bellair and Pomerol, 1980). The index

properties ofmarls depend on the carbonate content and

on the type and content of minerals in the clay (El

Amrani Paaza et al., 1998). In the geotechnical classi-

fication of these materials, the methodology used is

usually the same as for fine soils (clays and silts)—that

is, according to the characteristics of consistency of the

clay fraction. However, the carbonate content is not

normally considered in the classification of these soils.

The present study examines the geotechnical proper-

ties of marls as a function of their carbonate content,

with the aim of using these materials in the construction

of impermeable cores of earth-filled dams. For this, we

have worked with the materials used in the construction

of the core of the San Clemente Dam (Delgado, 1983),

situated in the Guadalquivir River hydrographic basin

0013-7952/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PII: S0013 -7952 (02 )00048 -0

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34-958249450; fax: +34-

958246138.

E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Chacon).

www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Engineering Geology 66 (2002) 283–294

(southern Spain; Fig. 1). This dam was constructed and

is managed by the Hydrographic Confederation of the

Guadalquivir, an independent office within the Spanish

Ministry of the Environment.

San Clemente Dam is situated over Jurassic lime-

stones on the left bank and in the centre of the river,

and limestone marls and marls on the right bank,

enclosing the valley in the form of a wide V. In terms

of construction materials, this dam of heterogeneous

gravity is a heterogeneous dam of gravity. It has a

height of 91.5 m and a crown length of 580 m, so that

the total volume of materials used was 2,100,000 m3.

The overflow channel is situated on the left bank,

comprised of three chutes closed by curved 8�4 m

Taintor gates. Also, there are bottom and irrigation

drains of 1.80 m in diameter all along the diversion

tunnel, mechanised upstream, with compound closure

by wagon gates activated from an intake tower and,

downstream by gate valves and Howell–Bunger reg-

ulation valves. The dam is stabilised hydraulically by

a core of cohesive impermeable marls of low plasti-

city and vertical disposition, with symmetrical 1:4

slopes upstream as well as downstream (Fig. 2), these

materials being the object of the present study. The

characteristics of the dam and of its impermeable core

are presented in Table 1.

2. Study method

In this work, we selected 32 samples which we

considered representative of the study material, given

the lithological homogeneity of the marly series.

The samples were extracted by a backhoe to a

maximum depth of 4 m, discounting the previous brush

clearing. In all the borings, for the preparation of the

samples, we followed the ASTM D 421 regulation

(ASTM, 1986). The characteristics were studied from

remoulded samples, since marls to be used as a con-

struction material for a dam core must previously be

moulded and, therefore, this is the final state of the

material used in construction. The moulding was car-

ried out with the samples from the intermediate stock

(Fig. 2), which were moistened to the moisture level of

the soils used in the dam (Table 1). From these samples,

by quartering while avoiding moisture losses, we

obtained the different representative fractions needed

for the tests. In the cases requiring sample preparation

Fig. 1. Geographic location.

F. Lamas et al. / Engineering Geology 66 (2002) 283–294284

these were made by compacting to placement moisture,

with a 20-lb mini Harvard compactor for oedometric

pellets and normal Army sledge hammer for 1.5-in.

sample used in the triaxial tests. In both cases, the

compaction was performed in five layers, 12 blows per

layer, thereby simulating the result of the Normal

Proctor used in the compaction of impermeable dam

cores. The moulding technique followed technical

constructions guidelines for the building of the imper-

meable dam core (Delgado, 1983).

For the geotechnical identification and character-

ization of the samples selected, normalized tests from

Fig. 2. San Clemente Dam. (A) Drainage basin. (B) Location of the quarries. (C) Type section.

Table 1

Characteristics of San Clemente Dam

General characteristics Mandatory characteristics of the impermeable core

Characteristic Value Characteristic Value

Type Rock-filled dam

with a clay core

Maximum size 15 cm

Height from the foundation 91.5 m Maximum Proctor density (dmax) 1.7 g/cm3

Width of the crown 11 m Optimal Proctor moisture (wop) 15–24%

Length of the crown 580 m Moisture of compacted soil

during placement at the site

wop+1.5%

Volume of the rock fill 1,347,302 m3 Plasticity index 12–30%

Volume of the core 412,536 m3 Permeability constant <10�6 cm/s

Volume of the filters 197,220 m3 Internal effective friction angle z20jVolume of concrete 55,942 m3 Effective cohesion > 2 kPa

Overflow type Lateral Organic matter content <3%

Drain volume of the overflow 620 m3/s Soluble salt content <4%

Type and dimensions of the gates Taintor 8�4 m Sulphate content <2%

Number and diameter of drains 2�1.8 m Dispersability Not dispersive

Gate type Wagon Compaction equipment Roller

Valves type and drainage capacity Howell–Bunger, 90 m3/s Percentage of compaction >95% of dmax

F. Lamas et al. / Engineering Geology 66 (2002) 283–294 285

different countries were performed (FAA, 1957;

ASTM, 1986; MOPU, 1986, 1991; AASHTO, 1986;

ISSMFE, 1987). Carbonate content was determined

by Bernard’s calcimetric method (Chaney and Slonim,

1982).

The choice of the triaxial test was justified given

the impermeability of the marl treated and the impor-

tance of ascertaining the interstitial pressures in this

test. The consolidation tests were performed with

samples submerged in water in which drainage was

regulated to simulate as closely as possible the phe-

nomena that occur within the dam, extending the time

of each step to 48 h in order to ensure that the primary

consolidation was finalized. According to the condi-

tions governing the dam design, we deemed it

unlikely to reach pressures of 100 kPa and, thus, we

used this pressure as the maximum value in the

triaxial (maximum cell pressure) and oedometric

(maximum step pressure) tests.

The potential expansivity of the laboratory samples

was estimated by evaluating the swelling pressure of

expansive soils, defined as the pressure that must be

exerted on a soil for it not to expand (ISSMFE, 1987).

The test was made on a moulded sample under

optimal moisture conditions under three different

pressures (0, 10 and 30 kPa), verifying for each the

percentage of expansion when equilibrium is reached.

The results for the expansion percentages for each

pressure are presented in a semilogarithmic graph

(pressure on the x-axis in logarithmic scale and the

percentage of expansion on the y-axis in arithmetic

scale). The pressure of expansion is the value corre-

sponding to the intersection of the straight line bearing

the results found with the x-axis.

3. Results

The results of the different tests are summarized in

Tables 2 and 3.

Table 3

Summary of the principal mean results for the marls studied

Mineralogical properties

Carbonate content: 53.5%

Mineralogy of the clays:

Smectite content: 45%

Illite content: 45%

Kaolinite content: 10%

Index properties

Content in sand fraction: 11.1%

Content in silt fraction: 49.4%

Content in clay fraction: 39.5%

Liquid limit: 44%

Plasticity index: 25%

Proctor maximum density: 1.71 Tn/m3

CBR index: 1.57

Content in organic matter: 0%

Classification according to different systems

USC: Low-plasticity inorganic silty clay (CL)

PG3: Tolerable soil

AASHTO: Clayey soil [A-6(15)]

AAFSTC: Silty clay

USC: unified soil classification. PG3: soil classification for the

construction of roads and bridges in Spain. AASHTO: classification

of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials. AAFSTC: American Air Force Soil Texture Classifica-

tion.

Table 2

Experimental values of the variables studied in the 32 samples

selected

Variable Units Values

Highest Mean Lowest S.D.

Natural moisture

content

% 22.5 15.8 10.9 3.1

Largest size Mm 20.0 10.0 2.0 7.1

Fraction <0.08 mm % 98.9 90.8 71.0 6.4

Greatest density Tn/m3 1.82 1.71 1.62 0.05

Optimum moisture

content

% 22.2 18.3 15.2 1.6

Liquid limit % 57.6 43.8 31.0 5.0

Plastic limit % 25.5 18.9 15.8 2.3

Plasticity index % 34.5 25.0 15.2 3.9

Carbonates % 72.3 53.5 32.2 8.68

Quart % 25.3 20.3 0.0 10.26

Sulphates % 3.55 0.92 0.01 1.00

Dispersability �10�6 m3/s 3.77 2.42 1.58 0.89

Permeability �10�9 m/s 54 1.94 0.025 9.83

Specific gravity Tn/m3 2.75 2.68 2.52 0.05

Cohesion kPa 4.6 1.9 1.0 0.9

Angle of friction Degrees 35.0 24.8 15.5 3.9

Preconsolidation

pressure

kPa 21 13 8 3

Vertical

consolidation

constant

�10�8 m2/s 8 2.89 0.12 1.67

Clay fraction % 45.3 39.5 30.1 6.6

Activity 0.74 0.60 0.30 0.10

Void ratio 0.650 0.522 0.420 0.048


3.1. Mineralogical composition

The mineralogical composition was determined by

X-ray diffraction analysis following the method of

oriented aggregates (Voinovitch, 1971).

The fractions greater than 0.08 mm were composed

primarily of carbonate (>90%), quartz and gypsum in

proportions of less than 1%. The silty fraction was

composed of carbonate (>80%) and quartz, with

traces of iron (limonite group). The carbonate content,

in the overall samples, had a mean value of 53.5%.

The clayey fraction was comprised fundamentally

of smectite and illite in equal and quite substantial

proportions (45%), with a much lower proportion of

kaolin clays (10%).

3.2. Granulometry and Atterberg limits

The fine-particle content (particles of less than 0.08

mm) had a mean value of 88.9%, sands constituting

11.1%. The clay content varied between 30.1% and

45.3%, with a mean value of 39.5%. The liquid limit

fluctuated between 31.6% and 57%, with a mean

value of 43.8% and a standard deviation of 5%,

reflecting strong homogeneity. The plasticity index

also presented quite uniform values, ranging from a

high of 34.5% to a low of 15.2%, with a mean of 25%.

In general, plasticity increased with the clayey frac-

tion. Fig. 3 shows the direct correlation between these

two parameters.

Consistency is a fundamental parameter in the

construction of impermeable cores and their subse-

quent performance over the life of the dam. To

determine the relationship between consistency and

carbonate content, we used the Atterberg limits (Arkin

and Michaeli, 1989). An inverse relationship was

found, with high correlation coefficients between

these limits and the carbonate content (Fig. 4).

3.3. Activity

The activity index values present a high of 0.74

and a low of 0.3, with a mean of 0.6 and a standard

deviation of 0.1. In general, the higher the index, the

more clayey and, therefore, plastic the corresponding

soil is. Fig. 5 shows the relationship between the

activity and the carbonate content—at a higher pro-

portion of carbonates the activity index proved to be

lower.

3.4. Expansivity

According to the ‘‘Technical Committee on Expan-

sive Soils’’ (ISSMFE, 1987), the soils studied pre-

sented a weak (<15 kPa) and moderate (15–20 kPa)

expansion potential (Alimi-Ichola, 1991). The expan-

Fig. 3. Relationship between the plasticity index and the clay content.


sivity was measured by calculating the maximum

variation of the void ratio with respect to the initial

void ratio in a one-dimensional consolidation test.

Therefore, samples were moulded to 98% of the

normal Proctor density and optimal moisture, to

reproduce the compaction characteristics of the mate-

rial making up the dam core studied. The data for this

variation in the void ratio reached a high of 0.65, with

a mean value of 0.52. Fig. 6 indicates a clear influ-

ence of the carbonate concentration in the expansivity

mechanism.

The variation of the void ratio was determined at

the end of the primary consolidation, enabling the

measurement of the compactness of the material, as

well as its alterability by water, which is related to the

texture of the samples (Jevremovic, 1994)—that is,

the textural properties of soil depend directly on their

carbonate content.

Fig. 5. Relationship between the activity and the carbonate content.

Fig. 4. Consistency limits according to the carbonate content.


3.5. Effective cohesion and internal effective friction

angle

Triaxial tests were made without drainage, with

prior consolidation and with interstitial pressure meas-

urements (CU test). The results (Table 2) show that

the effective cohesion varied within a narrow range of

values, between 1 and 4.6 kPa, with a mean value of

1.9 kPa and a standard deviation of 0.09. According to

the internal effective friction angle, the range was

broader, from 15.5j to 34.9j, with a mean of 24.8jand a standard deviation of 3.4j. Fig. 7 shows a good

correlation between the effective cohesion and the

carbonate content.

3.6. Permeability

A total of 36 permeability tests were conducted in a

triaxial cell with a head-to-tail pressure gradient

(Bureau of Reclamation, 1974). The values of the

Fig. 7. Variation of effective cohesion with the carbonate content.

Fig. 6. Variation in the void ratio with the carbonate content.


permeability constant ranged from 2.45�10�9 to

8.1�10�8, a vast majority of the results falling within

a narrow band (8.0�10�9 to 1.6�10�8). The uni-

formity of the data was owed basically to two factors:

first, the nature of the marly–clayey fraction, which

gave strong cohesion as well as very fine grain size

(more than 90% of the material was finer than 0.008

mm); and second, the homogenisation during the

moulding of the samples, which become flocculated

structures and, therefore, substantially more ordered

and homogenized than in the unaltered state. Never-

theless, permeability augmented with greater carbo-

nate content (Fig. 8).

3.7. Compaction and dispersability

The density of compaction (standard Proctor test)

varied from a high of 1.77 g/cm3 to a low of 1.62

g/cm3, with a mean value of 1.71 g/cm3 with a

standard deviation of F0.075. Internal dispersability

tests were performed on the samples, invariably

revealing a greater vulnerability to tubification the

higher the carbonate content. This test was made

using the ‘‘Pinhole method’’ (Sherard 1982), meas-

uring the flow rate up to a constant value caused

by the pressure of 1020 mm of a water column

(Table 2).

3.8. Unified soil classification (USC)

Fig. 9 shows the samples studied in the plasticity

chart. All the soils belonging to the group ‘‘low-

plasticity clays’’ have acceptable uniformity (although

they belong to the same group symbol, CL, their

carbonate contents substantially differ).

3.9. Soil-texture classification of the Federal Ameri-

can Agency

The texture classification of the Federal Aviation

Agency of the USA (FAA, 1957) divides soils (except

for gravels) into 12 groups according to their content

(%) of sand, silt and clay (Fig. 10). In this system, the

samples studied belong to groups E-3 (muddy sandy

clay) or E-4 (muddy clay)— that is, they are all

included in the generic group of clay soils. However,

this classification proves inadequate to define their

geotechnical behaviour, and it fails to take into consid-

eration the carbonate nature of the different samples.

3.10. Soil classification for the construction of roads

and bridges in Spain (PG3 classification)

In Spanish civil engineering projects, the PG3 stand-

ard for road and bridge construction (MOPU, 1991) is

Fig. 8. Permeability constant versus carbonate content.


an official classification system defining four levels of

soil quality, according to values of maximum particle

size, percentage <0.08 mm, Atterberg limits, dry den-

sity (standard Proctor test), CBR index and organic

matter content. These four groups from lower to higher

quality are as follows: inadequate soils, tolerable soils,

adequate soils and selected soils. Our samples, accord-

ing to the results (Table 3), correspond to ‘‘tolerable

soils’’ in all cases. However, this classification does not

take into account the carbonate nature, so that it does not

differentiate the samples, despite that, as discussed

above, the varying carbonate contents of each sample

confer a different geotechnical behaviour.

3.11. Soil classification for highway construction in

USA (AASHTO classification)

This classification is based on granulometry (frac-

tions less than 2, 0.4 and 0.08 mm), liquid limit and

plasticity index. All the samples studied are classi-

fied within the A-6 group, these corresponding to

clayey soil, which are inappropriate for use in

cements. As in the foregoing systems, this classi-

fication also fails to consider the varying geotech-

nical behaviour of these soils as a consequence of

their respective carbonate contents (Datta et al.,

1982).

Fig. 10. Textural classification of the Federal Aviation Agency (USA).

Fig. 9. Projection of the samples studied in the Casagrande plasticity chart.


4. Discussion of the results

For the construction of dam cores and subsequent

safety, a study of the consistency of the material is

vital, being indicative of the degree of soil workability

at the time of execution (Chen et al., 1992). In the

present study, the correlation coefficient between the

liquid limit and the carbonate content was 0.89, the

equation determining this relationship being (Fig. 4):

ll ¼ �0:514� ½%ðCaCO3Þ� þ 71:11

The fact that this straight line has a slightly

shallower slope than that found in the literature

(Khamehchiyan et al., 1994) explains the susceptibil-

ity of these remoulded samples. The plastic limit

presents less variability with respect to the carbonate

content, so that the slope of the straight line relating

these variables is shallower, with greater scattering of

the data (Fig. 4):

lp ¼ �0:28� ½%ðCaCO3Þ� þ 34:02

As the moisture content diminished, the mobility of

the different fractions, including carbonate content,

declined; therefore, the influence that the carbonate

content exerted over the consistency of the material

was less in the case of the plastic limit than in the

liquid limit.

The plasticity index, as well as the clay percentage

fell as the carbonate content rose (Usselmann, 1971),

so that the influence of the carbonate was determined

fundamentally by the silty–sandy fraction. Of course,

in marly soils, the carbonate content increases usually

at the expense of clayey material. Nevertheless, the

variability ranges both in the quantity and type of clay

as well as in plasticity are rather narrow, implying a

certain independence between the carbonate and clay

contents.

According to Dumbleton and West (1966), the

soil activity is a function of the charge and exchange

capacity and is determined by the relative proportion

of the different minerals in the clay, this decrease

being in the direction montmorillonite>illite>kaolin-

ite, regardless of the carbonate content. Other authors

(Skempton and Vaughan, 1993) have mentioned the

clay–carbonate equilibrium, but without giving it

much importance. However, in the marls studied

here, constant values were not found in the activity

index, which instead proved to be related to the

carbonate content according to the following expres-

sion (Fig. 5):

A ¼ �0:01� ½%ðCaCO3Þ� þ 1:09

Although the correlation index was in general high

(0.88), the concentration zone of the carbonates

between 45% and 60% presented a better correlation.

The void ratio varied less the higher the carbonate

content, showing a good correlation for the values

within the range 50–60% carbonate (Fig. 6). For

carbonate samples of similar plasticity, other authors

(Datta et al., 1982; Khamehchiyan et al., 1994) re-

ported more uniform values for expansivity, this being

less influenced by the carbonate concentration. Never-

theless, the carbonate content of the samples used in

these studies was much lower than in ours. In the

samples where the smectite content of the clay fraction

exceeded the mean (45%), we found a lower correla-

tion between the void ratio and the carbonate content.

Thus, for these cases, the expansivity depended more

on the composition of the clay fraction than on the

textural characteristics.

The influence of the carbonates on the variability

of effective cohesion was determined by the expres-

sion (Fig. 7):

c V ¼ 1807:4� ½%ðCaCO3Þ��1:749

The increase in the carbonate content, at constant

density and moisture, clearly diminished the effective

cohesion, as observed by other authors (Khameh-

chiyan et al., 1994). The stress–strain behaviour of

the samples clearly varied between clayey types when

the carbonate content was low, and the sandy types

with high carbonate contents. The zone of strongest

influence appeared for carbonate contents of between

48% and 60%. For concentrations higher than 60%,

the decline in effective cohesion began to be regulated

by other variables, especially the clay content (Conrad,

1993).

Given that the total content in clay and especially

the type of clay minerals of the samples remained

nearly constant, the greater permeability noted is

better explained by the alteration of inner texture,

which changed the drainage network of the sample


tested, as a consequence of the varying carbonate

content. Mckown and Ladd (1982) demonstrated that

carbonate content reduced by HCl treatment increased

permeability, due not only to greater CO2 and con-

sequent dissolution of the carbonate but also to

tubification. In the case of an impermeable core, this

phenomenon can result from the relative acidity of the

dammed waters (these being from the high-mountain

and thus of great purity) and in the sample by

dissolution or leaching of the carbonate in the

amassed water. Locally, the contrary effect is possi-

ble—that is, precipitation of carbonates and/or the

residual plugging of interstices, causing rigidity and

eventual loss of the elasticity crucial to an imperme-

able core. The increased hollowing by tubification as

well as possible cementing and crushing alter the

characteristics both of the permeability and of the

tenso-deformation characteristics. These effects grow

in importance as the contents in biogenic carbonates

augment (Datta et al., 1982).

According to the above, the geotechnical proper-

ties studied change notably with the variation of the

carbonate content. Therefore, construction, stability

and durability of a dam core is related to this

content.

5. Conclusions

The results of the different tests show a clear

relationship between expansion, plasticity, activity

and carrying capacity of the soils studied and their

degree of compactness, determined by the carbonate

content. The intrinsic factor determining the geotech-

nical behaviour of these soils is, in addition to the type

and quantity of clay minerals, the percentage of

carbonate in the silt fraction.

Existing engineering classifications fail to provide

an adequate response to these factors (clay minerals

and, especially, carbonate content) and, thus, none of

these systems satisfactorily explains the different

behaviour of the marls studied. In fact, none of the

classifications mentioned takes into account or even

refers to carbonate content.

In the present work, we show the need to incorpo-

rate the percentage of carbonate as a classification

criterion of the soils used to construct dam cores from

loose material.

Acknowledgements

This research has been supported by ‘‘Grupo de

Investigaciones Medioambientales: Riesgos Geologi-

cos e Ingenierıa del Terreno,’’ Code RNM 121 of the

Andalusian Research Planning. The authors wish to

express their gratitude for the words and encourage-

ment of Dr. Ing. D. Joaquın Delgado Garcıa, Director

of the Granada branch of the Confederacion Hidrog-

rafica de Guadalquivir, and the author of the dam

project which served as the basis for this study.

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