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Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Sciences University. Bidar

LABORATORY MANUAL

for

GENERAL AND SYSTEMIC VETERINARY PHARMACOLOGY (2+1)(VPT 311)

(As per VCI syllabus)

Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology Veterinary College, PB No.6,Bidar-585401

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Department of Pharmacology and ToxicologyKarnataka Veterinary, Animal & Fisheries Sciences University

Veterinary College, Nandinagar, Bidar-585 226

____________________________________________________

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that

Mr/Kum…………………………………………………………….,ID.No……………………........studying in IIIrd

year B.V.Sc & A.H degree programme has successfully completed the practicals in

General and Systemic Veterinary Pharmacology (VPT 311 ; 2+1)

Date:

Course Teacher

Head of the Department

External Examiner

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INDEX

Sl. No Date Practical Remarks

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Lab. 1 INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACY Date:

Pharmacy is the branch of pharmacology which deals with science and art of collection preparation, standardisation , compounding and dispensing of drugs in different dosage forms for therapeutic use.It includes (1) pharmacognosy, the identification of the botanical source of drugs; It is an integral part of pharmacy which deals with source of drugs and their chemical and physical characters. The old term, “Materia Medica” (= medicinal substances) is a didactic subject comprising of pharmacognosy, pharmacy, posology and medicinal properties / therapeutic utility of medicinal substances (2) pharmaceutical chemistry, the synthesis of new drugs either as modifications of older or natural drugs or as entirely new chemical entities; and (3) biopharmaceutics, the science and study of the ways in which the pharmaceutical formulation of administered agents can influence their pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic behavior.Pharmacy Appliances: Important basic Instruments/Things required in a pharmacy laboratory:

1. Beakers: 50,100,200 ml2. Physical /Digital balance 3. Dispensing bottles with glass stopper 4. Filter papers5. Funnels 6. Gallipots: 100, 250, 500ml7. Glass rods 8. Ointment slabs9. Measuring cylinders: 25, 50, 100ml 10. Mortar : Metallic, Wedgewood, Glass, Porcelain Mortar11. Pestle12. Spatula : Stainless steel, Rubber, Pill spatula13. Spirit lamp14. Tripod stand15. Water bath 16. Droppers 16. Micropippette and tips17. Disposable needles and syrienges 18 . Tuberculin syrienge

19. Analytical instruments : Spectrometer, Chromatography, Analgesiometer, Rotarod etc

Bulk Balance : The Bulk Balance or Counter Balance is less accurate than the Class A Prescription Balance and is primarily used to weigh large quantities of material. It has a limit of 5 Kilograms (Kg) and a sensitivity of 100 mg. Analytical Balance : With the advent of new technology, the Analytical Balance is finding its way from Pharmaceutical analytical laboratories into the Pharmacy setting. Due to convenience, precision and accuracy, as well as a sensitivity of a digital readout of 0.1 mg, most pharmacies prefer the use of this balance.

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Weights : Weights used for the Class A Prescription Balance and other balances are made of brass or polished metal and must be maintained and handled properly. These sets usually contain cylindrical weights ranging from 1 to 50 gms and fractional weights of 10 to 500 mg. Once yearly the weights should be calibrated to ensure accuracy.

Spatula : Spatulas are used to transfer solid ingredients such as powders, ointments, creams to weighing pans. They are also used to mix ingredients together into homogenous mixtures. Spatulas are available in stainless steel, plastic and hard rubber, the type of spatula to use is dependent on what is being transferred or mixed.

Mortar and Pestle : The mortar and pestle is used to grind particles into fine powders (trituration). The incorporation of a liquid (levigation) can further reduce particle size. Mortar and Pestles are made of Glass, Porcelain, Wedgwood or Marble. Glass is preferable for mixing liquids and semi-soft dosage forms. Graduates : Graduates are used in the measurement of liquids. Conical Graduate : The Conical graduate has a wide mouth and wide base to allow the stirring of liquids with a glass stirring rod. As the diameter of the graduate increases, the accuracy decreases. The conical graduate varies in size from 10ml to 4000ml. Cylindrical Graduates : The Cylindrical graduate is uniform from top to bottom and is the most accurate graduate for the measurement of liquids.

Assignment:

1. Draw neat diagrams of various pharmacy appliances indicating their use in pharmacy 2. Mention various instruments used in biochemistry/ biotechnology, physiology an d pharmacology and their uses

Lab. 2 PRINCIPLES OF COMPOUNDING AND DISPENSING Date:

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Compounding as it relates to pharmacy; includes the preparation, mixing, assembling, packaging or labeling of a drug in response to a prescription written by a licensed practitioner.

Extemporaneous compounding is defined as the timely preparation of a drug product according to a physicians prescription, a drug formula, or a recipe in which calculated amounts of ingredients are made into a homogenous (uniform) mixture. Extemporaneous compounding is done when certain medical needs of individual patients cannot be met by the use of an approved commercial drug product. Today, most dosage forms of medications are already pre-packaged by the manufacturer and thus the Pharmacist role is more in the redistribution of medications and the clinical aspect of Pharmaceutical Care. The role of the Pharmacy Technician continues to grow as Technicians are taking on more of the dispensing functions once reserved for the Pharmacist alone. Pharmacy Technicians are also doing extemporaneous compounding of medications

Principles of Compounding

Liquids : Liquids such as Solutions and Suspensions, are the most common form of compounded medications. A solution is a clear liquid in where the drug is completely dissolved. A suspension is a liquid preparation that contains fine drug particles that are distributed uniformly throughout the solution. The reconstitution of an antibiotic such as Amoxicillin would be an example of a suspension. Suspensions always require shaking before use. Solids in Liquids : When solids are required in solution, it is important to reduce the particle size of the solid by using the mortar and pestle (trituation). In some cases, the incorporation of other agents are needed to ensure finer particle size and in the case of suspensions, to ensure even distribution of particles. A dilute solution contains a very small amount of particles or solute in solution. A concentrated solution contains large quantities of solute in solution and a saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a solvent or at a given temperature or pressureDispensing: is the mode of labeling and dispatching of medicines in proper dosage forms for immediate use of the patient.

Containers for Liquid oral preparations ( elixirs, emulsions, mixtures, syrups etc): a) For those intended to be swallowed: colorless glass bottles or phials, light resistant emulsion type ofr poly vinyl chloride bottles ar eused.b) for those not intended to be swal;lowed (mouthwashes, throa paints tec): Fluted or ribbed oval bottles

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Containers for other Liquid preparations ( externall for skin- liniments, lotions, paints etc) : Coloured fluted bottlesContainers for Semisolid preparations(creams, ointments, pastes, electuaries etc) : Collapisble metal or plastic tubes for ointments, pastes; and Wide mothed squat glass or plastic pots or gallipots or waxed papers when larger quantities of these are used.

Containers for Solid Unit dose preparations(capsules, pills, tablets etc): Amber glass, rigid opaque plastic or extruded aluminium airtight containers genarlly. Paper board boxes for foil and blister packed tablets., conatainerscoloured

Containers for Powders: Wide mouthed plain colorless screw capped glass jars, plastic and paper lined aluminum containers are used. For externally used dusting powders, air tight glass or plastic jars with reclosable lid are used.

LABELLING AND DISPENSING : Every container containing the drug should be labelled properly with the clear instructions regarding the storage, use of the drug etc before dispensing it to the patient/ patient’s owner. Information given on Label include the following1. Name , quantity and strength of the preparation/drug in the container2. Directions for use as per the Prescriber’s Instructions 3. Date of Preparation/manufacturing, Date of Dispensing, Reference number if any 4. Shelf life/ expiry date of the preparation/ drug5. Storage conditions: to be stored in cool dry place or under refrigeration, ‘ Away/ Protect from light’ etc is to be mentioned. 6. Instructions restricting the use of preparation/ drug: such as – ‘for external use only’, ‘Not to be taken before meals’ ‘ not for human use’ , ‘ fro animal treatment only’ etc7. Instructions for using the preparation : such as: ‘ shake well before use’ , ‘ not to be applied on open wounds’, to be warmed to body temperature before use’. Etc8. . Instructions warning against the possible harmful effect: such as – ‘ keep out of reach of children,’ , ‘ keep away from food and food utensils’, inflammable’ , ‘ poison’ etc is to be mentioned wherever needed.9. Batch number of the preparation/drug, License number if any10. Name and address of the pharmacy/ drug manufacturing companyAssignment: 1. Give two examples of drug products leaflet information Labelling information Lab. 3 METROLOGY Date:

Metrology: It is the science dealing with the study of scales of weights and measures used in prescription writing

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Posology: science dealing with drug dosage protocols

Metrology comprises of three different systems. 1. Apothecary or the troy system2. Avoirdupois system or the imperial system 3. Metric system (System Internationale, S.I.)

I. Apothecary (Troy) system: In this system weight denominations are expressed as symbols and these symbols are preceded by the numbers (quantity of drug) written in Roman numerals. These numerals will have a line drawn over them and above this line, a dot is placed for each unit numerals to serve as a double check. If the last numeral is a unit, it should be prolonged downwards to indicate that it is the last figure.

This system of weight persisted mainly because the majority of the pharmaceutical balance were supplied with the Apothecary weights. The weight occurs in various sizes from ¼ gr. to 240g. This system is used to dispense prescription and sometimes to compound medicines.a) Measures of mass: Latin word Libra Uncia Drachma Scrpulus GranumEnglish name Pound Ounce Drachma Scruple Grain

Symbol lb (Apoth.) gr.1 12 96 288 5760

1 8 24 4801 3 60

1 20b)Measures of volume:the fluid measures are same as in avoirdupois system. II. Avoirdupois System : This system of weight is in general use for commercial purposes including the wholesale purchase and sale of drugs on a large scale. It is not used for taking minor quantities of drugs, as this system does not recognise weight denominations between one ‘grain’ and an ‘ounce’. The ounce and pound weight of Avoirdupois system also differ from those of Apothecary system. Avoirdupois numerals are written in Arabic figures and the figures are followed by the correct abbreviations of the denominations.a) Measures of massDenominations Ton Hundred

weightQuarter Stone Pound Ounce Grains

Symbol T cwt qr. st Ib oz gr1 20

1 41 2

1 141 16

1 437.5Between above two systems, Avoirdupois “Ounce” is smaller than the Apothecary

Ounce. The Pharmacist buys the drugs by the Avoirdupois system and dispenses it by the Apothecary weights.b) Measures of volume: Denominations gallon quarts pint fluid fluid minims

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ounce drachm Symbol c qt pt/ o fl oz, fl dr min, m

1 4 1 2

1 201 8 480

1 60

III. Metric system/ Decimal system : SI stands for Système Internationale (d’Unités), and is another name for the metric system of measurement. The aim of metrication is to make calculations easier than with the imperial system (ounces, pounds, stones, inches, pints, etc.). SI units are generally accepted in the United Kingdom and many other countries for use in medical practice and pharmacy..This is the official system in most of the countries including India. Weights and measures are expressed in multiples of ten. The quantities are mostly expressed in terms of smaller units of weights and volume than using decimal points in bigger units. The main units are those used to measure weight, volume and amount of substance:: Weight: kilogram (kg); Volume: litre (l or L); Amount of substance: mole (mol) In this system, gram ( g) is the unit of weight, liter (L) is the unit of volume and the liquid to solid conversion is taken as 1.0g=1.0ml for water and other fluids having specific gravity like water.a) Measures of mass1 Kilogram (kg) = 1000gram (103g) 1 metric ton = 1000kg

1 Hectogram (hg) = 100g (102 g) 1kg = 1000g

1 Decagram (dag)= 10g (101 g) 1g = 1000mg

1 Megagram (Mg) = 106g 1 Gigagram (Gg) = 10 9g

1 Decigram (dg) = 0.1g((10-1 g) 1mg = 1000g

1 Centigram (cg) = 0.01g (10-2 g) 1g = 1000ng

1 Milligram (mg) = 0.001g (10-3 g) 1ng = 1000pg

1 Microgram (g or mcg ) =0 0.001mg (10-6 g) 1pg = 1000fg

1 Nanogram (ng) = or 0.001g (10-9 g) 1fg = 1000ag

1 Picogram(pg) = 10-12 g 1 Femtogram (fg)= 10-15 g

1 Attogram (ag) = 10-18g

b) Measures of volume: 1 Barrel = 35 gallons (UK), 42 gallons (US)1 Gallon (US) = 3.785litres 1 Gallon (UK) = 4.54 litres1 Liter (L) = 1000millilitres /cubic centimeter ( ml or cc)

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1 Milliliter (ml) = 1000microlitre (l).1 Centiliter (cl) = 0.01 litre.1 Deciliter (dl) = 0.10 litre.1 Decaliter (dl) = 10 litre.1 Hectoliter (hl) = 100 litre.1 Kiloliter (kl) = 1000 litre.Household measures1 Drop = 1 minim=0.06ml1 Teaspoonful (tsp) = 5 ml (1fl.dr)1 Dessertspoonful = 8 ml (2 fl.dr)1 Tablespoonful = 15 ml (4 fl.dr)1 Wine glassful = 60 ml (2fl.oz)1 Teacupful = 120 ml (4fl.oz)1 Tumblerful (glass) = 240 ml (8fl.oz)1 Gallon = 3785 ml

Inter-relationship between Imperial and Metric system of weights and measures(Avoid./Apoth.)

Imperial Metric

15.43 grain = 1 gram 1 grain = 65 mg 1 drachm = 60 grain 1 Avoirdupois ounce = 29.37ml (28.35g) 1 Apothecary ounce = 28ml (~ 30g) 1 pound (Av.) = 454g (~ 34fl.oz) 1 litre = 33.80 fl.oz. (~ 500g) 1 minim = 0.06 ml 1 pint (US) = 475 ml (~ 500ml) 1 pint (UK.) = 568.3 ml 1 ml = 16.67 minim

8 ounce (Av.) = 237 ml 1 quart (Av.) = 946ml (~ 960ml) 1 liter = 1.75 pints(UK) 1 liter = 35.19 fluid ounce (UK) 1 liter = 1.06qts

Assignmment:

1. Summarise the major differences between Apothecary and Avoirdupois system of weights and measure

2. Do the following calculations and express the results ion metric units:

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a. 300g + 20 grains + 40mg and give the result in ‘g’b. Subtract 500mg from 10 ½ grain and give the result in ‘mg’c. Divide 5 US pints by 15 and express the result in ‘ml’

3. Convert the following:a. Convert 3.5 L. in to fluid ounceb. Convert 4500ml in to pint

c. Convert 20 fluid ounces in to mld. Convert 0.75 ml in to minims e. . Convert 400l in to minims f. Convert 7.5 minims in to litre

4. If two tablets of paracetamol contain 1gram, how many grains are ther in 15 tablets?

5. A capsule contains 1/8 gr of ephedrine sulphate,1/4 gr of theophylline and 1/16gr. of phenobarbital. Convert these quantities to milligrams

6. If one fluid ounce of a syrup contains 50 gr. of sodium citrate, how many ‘mg’ are contained in 10 ml

7. If 500 ml of an i/v fluid contains 2.5 grams of an antibiotic, how many grains of the antibiotic are available in 10 pint of the fluid?

8. Write briefly about the basic instruments/equipments used in pharmacy with the diagrams and their use.

9. Write briefly about a) injection b) vials c) ampoules d) syrienge e) infusion with diagrams

10. Define the following: a) Pharmacology b) Pharamceutics c) Drug d) Pharmacotherapeutics d)

Pharmacogenomics e) Pharmacoeconomics f) Pharmacovigilance g) Dose h) Pharmacogenetics i) Nutraceuticals j) Placebo k) Cosmetics l) Doping m) Over the counter drug

Lab. 5 PHARMACY CALCULATIONS Date:

The calculations in pharmacy are important from the point of preparing the chemical solutions and calculating the exact amount of the drug to be administered to the patient based on the physical condition, bodyweight of the individual. The calculations are likely to be relatively simple and straightforward, but one needs to be thorough with the

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basic mathematical calculations.,.,It is vital, however, one can understand and explain how the final dose is actually arrived at through the calculation. As a guideline, in order to prevent the errors in calculations, thus preventing the medication error, some of the following preventative measures can be followed while writing the numbers/values in doing the various types of calculations in pharmacy/pharmacology.Never leave a decimal point naked. : Always place a zero before a decimal expression less. than one. Example: .25mg may be read as 25 mg. The correct way is to write 0.25 mg.Never place a decimal point and a zero after a whole number . The decimal may not beseen and result in a tenfold overdose. The unnecessary use of decimal points should be avoided, e.g. 3mg, not 3.0mg Example: 5.0 mg may be read as 50 mg. Thecorrect way is to write 5 mg.Avoid using decimals whenever whole numbers can be used as alternatives.: Quantities less than 1 gram should be written in milligrams Example: 0.5 g should be expressed as 500 mg.Quantities less than 1mg should be written in micrograms, e .g. e.g.500mg, not 0.5 g.Quantities of 1 gram or more should be expressed as 1.5 g, etc.Whenever possible, use the metric system rather than grains or drams(apoth/avoirdupois) When decimals are unavoidable, a zero should be written in front of the decimal point where there is no other figure, e.g. 0.5mL not .5mL. However, the use of a decimal point is acceptable to express a range, e.g. 0.5–1 g.• Micrograms and nanograms should not be abbreviated. Similarly, ‘units’ should not be abbreviated.• A capital L is used for litre, to avoid confusion (a small letter l could be mistaken for a figure 1 (one), especially when typed or printed).• Cubic centimetre, or cm3, is not used in medicine or pharmacy; use millilitre (mL or ml) instead is used.

Per Cent: Per cent means ‘parts of a hundred’ or a ‘proportion of a hundred’.• The symbol for per cent is %, so 30% means 30 parts or units of a hundred. Percentages are often used to give a quick indication of a specific quantity and are very useful when making comparisons.Percentages and Fractions• To convert a fraction to a percentage, multiply by 100.• To convert a percentage to a fraction, divide by 100.Percentages and Decimals• To convert a decimal to a percentage, multiply by 100 – move the decimal point two places to the right. To convert a percentage to a decimal, divide by 100 – move the decimal point two places to the left.Percentage Concentration

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% w/v = number of grams in 100mL (A solid is dissolved in a liquid, thus 5% w/v means 5 g in 100 mL.)% w/w = number of grams in 100 g (A solid mixed with another solid, thus 5% w/w means 5 g in 100 g.)%v/v = number of mL in 100mL (A liquid is mixed or diluted with another liquid, thus 5% v/v means 5mL in100 mL.)Most common percentage strength encountered is % w/v. There will always be the same amount of drug present in 100mL irrespective of the total volume. Thus in a 5% w/v solution, there is 5g dissolved in each 100mL of fluid and this will remain the same if it is a 500mL bag or a 1 litre bag. To find the total amount of drug present, the total volume must be taken into account – in 500mL of a 5% w/v solution there is a total of 25g present.

mg/mL Concentrations: Defined as the number of milligrams of drug per millilitre of liquid. Oral liquids – usually expressed as the number of mg in a standard 5mLspoonful, e.g. erythromycin 250mg in 5mL.•Injections are usually expressed as the number of mg per volume of theampoule (1mL, 2mL, 5mL, 10mL or 20mL), e.g. gentamicin 80mg in 2mL.Strengths can also be expressed in mcg/mL.Converting percentage concentrations to mg/mL concentrationsMultiply the percentage by 10, e.g. lidocaine (lignocaine) 0.2% = 2mg/mL.Converting mg/mL concentratios to percentage concentrationsDivide the mg/mL strength by 10, e.g. lidocaine (lignocaine) 2mg/mL = 2%.Parts per Million (ppm)Similar to ratio strengths, but used to describe very dilute concentrations. Most common ppm concentration encountered is that of a solid dissolved ina liquid, but can also apply to two solids or liquids mixed together. Defined as: one gram in 1,000,000mL or one milligram in 1 litre.Units – Heparin and InsulinThe purity of drugs such as insulin and heparin from animal or biosynthetic sources varies. Therefore these drugs are expressed in terms of units as a standard measurement rather than weight.

A ‘solution’ can be defined as a mixture of two or more substances thoroughly mixed that it becomes physically homogenous . The dissolved substance/s is called the ‘solute’ while, the substance in which the solute is dispersed is called ‘Solvent’. Distilled or clean water is the most popular solvent used. , apart from the other commonly employed solvents like alcohol, chloroform, ether, propylene glycol, ethylene glycol etc.. Sometimes solvents are also used as ‘vehicles’ and may be complex solutions themselves such as syrup, elixirs, aromatic water and saline solutions.

CALCULATIONS : Percent solutions1. Percent Weight by Weight (W/W)- is mixture of solids

This denotes the number of ‘g’ of a constituent in 100 g of solution.Eg: Zinc oxide ointment … 2%W/W

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2. Percent Weight by Volume (W/V)- solutions or suspensions of solids in liquid and gases in liquids. This denotes the number of ‘g’ of a constituent in 100 ml solution and is used regardless of whether or not water or other liquid is the solvent.Eg: 0.9 % sodium chloride solution W/V

3. Percent Volume by Volume (V/V)- solution of a liquid in liquid.It expresses the number of ‘ml’ of a constituent in 100ml of solution.Eg 50% glycerine in water V/V

In Metric system, the ‘g’ as a measure of mass is strictly comparable with the milliliter (ml) as a measure of capacity i.e., one ‘g’ of water measures 1 ml.Eg: One ‘g’ of NaCl in 100 ml of distilled water makes 1% W/V.

The following equation may be used to calculate the active ingredients required in a solution.

% active ingredient X total solution = amount of active ingredientWorking examples:

1. % Weight by Weight (%W/W)Let us dispense 50ml of solution containing 5 % of iodoform in ether. A little

consideration will show that, as ether (methylated) has a specific gravity of 0.730, a quantity considerably less than 50g will measure 50 ml. Therefore, for convenience prepare 40g. Weigh out 2g of iodoform and add it to 38g ether weighed out in a stoppered bottle, and shake until dissolved. From this quantity dispense the required 50 ml in a stoppered bottle.

2. % Weight by Volume(%W/V)Prepare 200ml of 5% solution of sodium chloride.

One ‘g' with solvent to produce 100 ml = 1 % W/V Therefore, 1 x 5 x 200 to produce 200 ml 5 % W/V = 10g 100

10 g of sodium chloride is dissolved in sufficient water to produce 200 ml of solutions.

3. % Volume by Volume(%V/V) Prepare 4 fl.oz of a 2 % solution of Eucalpytus oil in olive oil.

1.8 Minims with solvent to produce 1 fl.oz is 1 % V/V4.8 x 2 x 4 minims to produce 4 fl. oz is 2% V/V=38.4 minimsTherefore, 38 ½ or 39 minims of eucalyptus oil is dissolved in sufficient olive oil to produce 4 fl.oz.

4. Alcohol dilutionsAlcohol (90%) or rectified spirit, contains 90 parts by volume of ethyl alcohol

and 10 parts by volume of water,and therefore it is a true(V/V) percentage solution.Prepare 600 ml of 60 % alcohol from 90% alcohol provided to you.

Let ‘n’ be the number of ml of 90% alcohol required. These ‘n’ will contain the same amount of alcohol as 600ml of 60 % alcohol.i.e., 90 x ‘n’ = 60 x 600 ;Therefore ‘n’ = 60 x 600 = 400 ml

100 100 90Alternatively, Alligation alternate is the method used to calculate the number of parts of two or more components of a given strength when they are to be mixed to prepare a

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mixture of desired strength. If the percent of strength of the two solutions are a and b, the percent desired is c and if we consider the proportional parts required are x and y, then x and y can be determined by the following relationship;

x / y = c – b / a – cwhere ’a’ is the strength in % of the stronger solution and ‘b’ is the strength in % of

the weaker solution.Diagrammatically, this can be found out as follows:Percent given Parts required

minus

minus

This is better explained by the following example:In what proportion should alcohols of 95% and 50% be used to make 70 % alcohol?Percent given Parts required

relative minus amounts

20:25 minus (or)

4 : 5

Answer: 4 parts of 95 % alcohol and 5 parts of 50 % alcohol are needed to make 70% alcohol.5. Molar solution

Molarities may be used to measure or compare the concentration of two substance whether gas or particles in solution.

Molar solution (M) contains 1 mole or 1 “g” molecular weight of a solute diluted to 1L solution. If water of crystallization is included in the formula, it, too, must be added to the total molecular weight.

Eg. Prepare 1 molar sodium chloride solution Na……….Atomic wt. = 22.997 Cl………..Atomic wt . = 35.457 M.W of NaCl = 58.454gTherefore, one molar solution of sodium chloride is one that contains 58.454‘g’

sodium chloride in one-liter solution.Similarly, a mole is the molecular or atomic weight of a substance in gramas(moles = grams /molecular weight).

yb

c

xa

2550

70

2095

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For example mole of water present in 1 ounce of water = 30g / 18 (mol.wt) = 1.67 moles.Similarly, Millimoles(mm) = g x 1000 Mol.wt. = milligram(mg) Mol.wt.E g. Determine how many millimoles of Calcium chloride (CaCl2) are contained in 100 grams? Step-1: Calculate the Mol..wt. of CaCl2

Mol.wt of Ca Cl2 = [ (1 x 40.08) + (2 x 35.45)] = 110.98 Step-2: Calculate moles moles = g/ Mol.wt. = 100 g/ 110.98 = 0.901 Therefore, millimoles = 1000 x 0.091 = 901 millmoles Alternatively, millimoles = g x 1000 Mol.wt.(g/mole) 100 g x 1000 110.98 (g/mole) = 901 millmoles6. Saturated solutions: Saturated solutions are those in which the solute is dissolved in the most minimum quantity of solvent. Generally, it expressed in terms of minimum volume of solvent required to dissolve one ‘g’ of a substance. Eg: If one ‘g’ of silver nitrate dissolved in 1.4 ml of water, what is the W/V per cent strength of a saturated solution of silver nitrate?

Let ‘X’ be the ‘%’ active ingredient ‘X’ x 1.4 = 1

‘X = 0.714gTherefore, W/V % strength = 0.714 x 100 = 71.4%

7. Normal Solution (N): A normal solution (N) is one that contains one ‘g’ ionisable or replaceable hydrogen or its equivalent in one liter solution. A ‘g’ equivalent weight is calculated by dividing the ‘g’ molecular weight by valency.

Eg:How much anhydrous sodium carbonate is needed in 1000 ml of 0.2N Na2CO3

[M.W Na2CO3 = 106]? 1N = 106/2 = 53gTherefore, 0.2 N = 0.2 x 53 = 10.6g

8. Normal solutions using acids ml/L = Molecular weight

Valency x Sp.gr x Concentration (purity) Eg: Make one liter solution of 1N hydrochloric acid [MW = 36.465; Valency = 1; Sp.gr. = 1.18; Purity = 35.5%] 1 N = 36.465 = 87.05 ml HCl

1 x 1.18 x 0.355

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Place 500ml distilled water in one litre volumetric flask, add 87.05ml con. HCl and mix. dilute to exactly 1000ml with distilled water and mix thourally. Note: Specific gravity and purity (concentration) of acids are given on the label when they are supplied from factories9. Milliequivalents (mEq): It is the amount of an ionized substance which has the same electrochemical power as one mole of hydrogen ions. A mEq is 1/1000 or 10-3 or 0.001 of an equivalent. It is now common practice to express some of the electrolyte values in terms of mEq/L instead of mg%.Eg:Calculate the number of mEq in 100 gram of Calcium chloride(CaCl2)?(M.W= 110.98)

mEq = mg x valance Mol.wt.mEq = mg x valance Mol.wt.Meq = millimoles x valamceFrom the previous example, millimoles in 100 gram of CaCl2 = 901millimolesTherefore, mEq = g x 1000 x valance Mol.wt = 100 x 1000 x 1 110.98

= 901 millimolesEg: Express 321 mg% of Ca in mEq/L 321 x 10 x 1 = 140 mEq/L 23Eg: Express 19.5mg% of K in mEq/L: 19.5x10x 1 = 5mEq/L 3910. Isotonic solution

A solution that possesses the same pressure as that of the fluid of the RBC is considered ‘isotonic’ solution and it is found that 0.9% W/V solution of NaCl is isotonic. The solution containing less than that 0.9% NaCl is “Hypotonic” and that containing more than that 0.9% NaCl is “ Hypertonic” . The medicated solution, which is meant for tissues such as conjunctiva, nasal mucosa, pharyngeal mucosa etc. or for intravenous, intra-peretonial, intra-uterine, or intra-mammary administration, it is essentially to make them isotonic . In such preparations, if the active ingredient provides only certain amount of solute, the particle concentration will be made up by adding a calculated amount of NaCl or other suiotable substance . This calculation can be made by the use of Sodium chloride equivalents of different medicaments, by referring to a suitable table. For eg: the sodium chloride equivalent of dextrose is 0.16, which means that 1g (1%) of dextrose is equivalent to 0.16 g ( 0.16%) of dextrose. Some other egs of sodium chloride equivalents are 0.65 for Acriflavine , 0.13 for atropine sulphate etc.11.Ratio strength solutionsMedicinal preparation can also be expressed in terms of ratio: the strength of a product containing part of medicament in 100 parts may be specified as 1:100 or 1 to 100. The units of weight or measure are not included in the ratio.

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This style of expressing concentration is used only occasionally, and is written as ‘1 in ...’, e.g. 1 in 10,000, and is sometimes known as a ratio strength. It usually refers to a solid dissolved in a liquid and, by agreed convention, the weight is expressed in grams and the volume in millilitersA ratio strength expresses the ratio of one ‘g’(or 1 ml) of a medicament to the total number of ‘g’ (or ml) in the mixture. ‘1 in …’ Concentrations or Ratio Strengths• Defined as: one gram in however many millilitres.For example: 1 in 1,000 means 1 g in 1,000mL; 1 in 10,000 means 1 g in 10,000mLTherefore it can be seen that 1 in 10,000 is weaker than 1 in 1,000. So, the higher the ‘number’, the weaker the solution.The drug most commonly expressed this way is adrenaline/epinephrine:Adrenaline/epinephrine 1 in 1,000 which is equal to 1mg in 1mLAdrenaline/epinephrine 1 in 10,000 which is equal to 1mg in 10mLEg. If epinephrine is available as a 1:10000 solution (a) what is the concentration in mg/ml? (b) what is the per cent (%) present ? (c) how many ml are required to give a dose of 5 mg?

(a) 1/10,000 x 1000mg/ 1 = 0.1mg/ml(b) In 1ml- 0.1mg; for 100ml- 0.1x 100= 10mg= 0.01g in 100ml. Thus the solution is 0.01% solution (c) 0.01% = 0.01g / 100ml = 10mg/100ml = 0.1ml

Set up ratio: 0.1/ml = 5mg/Unknown ml Therefore, ‘ ml’ required to deliver 5mg = 5/0.1= 50mlEg:How many ‘mg’ of 1:40 trituration of Ephidrine would be needed to furnish 8 mg of Ephedrine ?

1/40 x ‘X’= 8 mg ‘X’ = 320mgA ratio is a mathematical expression of relationship between two different groups

of numbers. In most cases ratios are expressed as fractions and their cross products are equal to each other. 2/7 = 8/23

56 = 56Study Questions1. What is the w/v % of Amoxidrops® in a 80 mg suspension?2. Write the sodium chloride equivalents of different compounds3. If 10ml of cough syrup contains 500mg of medicine, how many ‘ml’ are needed for

a dose of 800mg? 4. Calculate the % W/W of hydrocortisone in an ointment if 4 g of the ointment

contains 90mg of hydrocortisone.5. How many grams of starch and zinc oxide should be added to 4 oz of an ointment

base to make an ointment containing 20% each of them.6. Calculate the number of ml of peppermint water 2.4 % V/V that can be prepared

with 3.84 ml peppermint oil. How many ounces is this?7. If 0.8 ml of liquidated phenol is dissolved in enough water to make 80ml of

solution, what is V/V % strength of solution?8. Calculate the W/V % strength of a solution prepared by dissolving 14 tablets each

containing 0.25g of potassium permanganate in enough water?

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9. Calculate the W/V% strength of Vit.B12 injection which contains 10,000g/ml10. How many ‘ml’ of a 1:50 stock solution of Ephedrine sulphate would be needed to

prepare 60ml of the following prescription?Rx Ephedrine sulphate…. 0.25%

Normal saline q.s….. 10 ml11. What is the per cent of alcohol in a mixture of 400 ml of 95% V/V alcohol, 1300ml

of 75% alcohol and 300ml of 40% V/V alcohol?12. How many ml of glycerin would be needed to prepare two Apothecary ounces of

ointment containing 5% W/W of glycerin? [the density of glycerin is 1.25g/ml]13. How many ‘ml’ 'of HCl (USP) is needed to prepare 3 liters of dilute HCl (10%

USP). [concentration of HCl = 36.8% W/W ;Sp.gr.= 1.19 ]14. Prepare 800ml of 8 % solution of chloroform in alcohol (90%)15. Prepare 7pint of a 5% solution of glycerin16. Calculate the quantity of 90% alcohol required to make.

a) 4 pint of 40% alcohol.b) 750ml of 25 % alcohol.c) 12 Ounce of 70% alcohol

17. Determine the normality of 15 molar HCl 18. How many ml of 10% calcium chloride ( CaCl2 .2H2O) injection are required to

provide 36 mEq of calcium?19. A dog weighing about 20kg requires 1.5 mg/kg body weight of chloropromozine HCl

(i.v) for sedation. How much of 1.25% solution of the same is required for the dog?20. How many millimoles of KCl are contained in 35 gram?

21. How many grams of Na Cl are needed to make 20 millimloes?

22. How many mEq of magnesium are in 10ml of 40% MgSO4 injection? (M.W of MgSO4 .7H2O =246)23. A vial of NaCl injection contains 5mEq/ml, what is the percent strength of this

solution?24. If Betadine® , a 10% povidone iodine solution is diluted to 1: 214, what is % in the resulting solution? 25. Phenoxybenzamine is prescribed at 0.5mg/kg q24h for an incontinent dog weighing

20 kg. Note that phenoxybenzamine is available in the market as 10mg capsule and as a tablet, therefore the dose can not be accurately obtained with out a reformulation.. Calculate (a) the daily dose of phenoxybenzamine (b) how much phenoxybenzamine is required for 10days (c) how many capsule is required? (d) if the content of 3 capsules weighs 0.624g, how much will be a single daily dose( mg) of phenoxybenzamine weight?

Lab. 5 PHARMACEUTICAL PROCESSES Date:

There are several processes in the manufacture of pharmaceutical preparations and these vary with the nature of the crude drug and the character of the desired products.

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The different pharmaceutical processes can be grouped under various headings depending on the nature of processes. A. Processes of size reduction:1. Bruising or Contusion or Comminution or Pulverization : By this the drugs are reduced to smaller pieces or particles by mechanical means. For this a disintegrator or mortar and pestle or grinder is used.2.Trituration: By this, a substance is reduced to fine powder by rubbing in a mortar with a rotary motion - not pounding.3.Grinding: It is a process of converting into smaller particles by continuous circular motion in a mortar with pestle.4.Levigation: Pulverization of a solid in presence of water or any other liquid which it does not dissolve. Finally powdered particles are gathered with the washing and allowed to deposit slowly while the coarser particles are ground again till the whole thing is reduced to fine powder.B. Processes of separation

1. Decantation: This is carefully pouring off of the clear supernatant fluid leaving the sediment at the bottom2. Elutriation: this is used to separate fine insoluble powders by suspending them in water and decanting3. Straining or colation: By this method course solid particles are separated from a liquid by pouring it through a cloth or strainer4. Dialysis: Separating crystalloids from colloids by passing though a semi-permeable membrane5. Sifting: Fine particles are separated from coarse ones by means of a sieve6. Filtration: By this, solid particles are separated from liquids by passing through a finely porous material such as filter paper7. Clarification: This removes suspended solids by agitating the mixture by insoluble powder or adding egg albumin and boiling or by centrifugation8. Expression: This is separation of liquid from a solid by pressure

9. Centrifugation: In this substances are separated by their differences in movement when they are subjected to centrifugation in a centrifuge. The substance of higher specific gravity moves away from the center and settle at the bottom of the tube10. Crystallisation: By this form crystals are made out of preparations11. Decolouration or Decolourisation: This is usually done by treating with activated charcoal or other adsorbent solventsC. Processes in solution1. Maceration: This process is leaving a solvent in contact with a drug without application of heat for a sufficient length of time in order to dissolve out its soluble matter. The insoluble residue is called ‘marc’.2. Granulation: Coarsely crystalline salts are converted into granular powder by dissolving in water and evaporating the solution to dryness by continuous stirring3. Lixiviation: By this a soluble salt is separated from a mixed or compound solid by dissolving in water, decanting the supernatant liquid into another vessel and evaporating it to dryness leaving the insoluble residue behind. The solution is called ‘lye’

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4. Percolation: This is extraction of soluble constituents of drugs by allowing a solvent to descend through a column of powdered drug in a cylindrical vessel. The solvent is called the ‘menstruum’ D. Processes involving heating or drying1. Desiccation or drying: This is the first step in the preparation of crude drugs. Earlier this was done by storing in a dry airy place. Now it is done in special ovens. The temperature should not be high enough to destroy any of the desirable unstable ingredients. Drying reduces the bulk, assists preservation and facilitates powdering2. Scaling: By this process, layers of concentrated solutions of a drug are spread on glass and dried. The dried film is separated and broken up3. Despumation: By this organic fluids are boiled until the impurities rise to the surface as scum4. Digestion: It is prolonged maceration at higher temperature than room temperature5. Evaporation: This is vaporizing the solvent so that a concentrated form of the dissolved substance is obtained6. Distillation: By this volatile liquid is separated from non volatile agent by converting a liquid into vapour and condensing back to liquid. There are two methods of distillation:(i.) Fractional distillation: means separating of a mixture of liquids having different boiling points (ii.) Destructive distillation: In this substances are heated so strongly that they decompose and the volatile products which arise from decomposition are saved.7. Fusion or Liquefaction or Melting: Melting any solid body into liquid by heat8. Ignition: This is strong heating of substances with full access to air so as to obtain complete oxidation, resulting in ash9. Roasting or Torrefaction: By this, sufficient heat is applied to the drug so that some of the constituents are altered without affecting others10. Sterilization: By this, process bacteria and their spores are destroyed11. Sublimation; In this, solid is vaporized by heat and the vapour is condensed as a deposit on the surface of another vessel12. Calcination or Incineration: In this process the drugs are subjected to high temperature so that watery and volatile substances may be driven off. This is best done by placing the drugs in a crucible over a furnace13. Carbonisation: Is the process of heating or burning organic substance with out the presence of air. The object is to change the chemical combination without oxidation.

Assignment:1. Mention all the drug dosage forms with the diagrams2. Write a note on bioassay of drugs 3. Mention the factors affecting the drug action

Lab.6 DOSAGE FORMS/ PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS Date:

A dosage form (DF) is the physical form of a dose of a chemical compound used as a drug or medication intended for administration or consumption. Common dosage forms

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include pill, tablet, or capsule, drink or syrup, aerosol or inhaler, liquid injection, pure powder or solid crystal (e.g., via oral ingestion or freebase smoking), and natural or herbal form such as plant or or food of sorts, among many others. The route of administration for drug delivery is dependent on the dosage form of the substance in question.

Various dosage forms may exist for a single particular drug, since different medical conditions can warrant different routes of administration. For example, persistent nausea and emesis or vomiting may make it difficult to use an oral dosage form, and in such a case, it may be necessary to utilize an alternate route such as inhalational, buccal, sublingual, nasal, suppository, or parenteral instead.

Drugs/Drug substances are seldom administered alone, but rather as a part of a formulation in combination with one or more nonmedical agents that serve varied and specialized pharmaceutical functions.

The main aims /goals of using different dosage forms are:a)mechanism for the safe and convenient delivery of accurate dosageb) Protection of a drug substance from destructive influences of atmospheric oxygen or humidity . c) Protection from influence of gastric acid after oral administration . d) To mask taste of offensive drugsThe different drug dosage forms are administered by different routes of administration: Oral, Parenteral, Injection, Inhalational , Topical etc.The Primary drug dosage forms ( drug formulations or pharmaceutical preparations ) are : Solid; Liquid; Semisolid and Others (Inhalational, Nasal etc).

Solid dosage forms: powder, pill, capsules(soft /hard gelatine capsules, pearls, spansules) , tablet (sugar coated, dispersible, sustained release, enteric coated, Vaginal tablet, rectal dosage forms (enema, suppository, tablet), crystals, bolus, etc

Liquid dosage forms: solution, syrup, elixir, mixtures, solutions, reconstituted oral solutions, elixirs, gels, suspension, emulsion, drops, infusions, etc

Semisolid dosage forms: ointments, creams, gel, liniment/ balm, lotion, skin patches, gel etc

Miscellaneous/ other dosage forms: nasal, inhalational , aerosol( inhaler, spacer, nebulizer), spray, etc

Parenteral dosage forms : fluids, solutions, suspensions, powder fro reconstitution (drugs injections in ampoules/vials) Dosage forms for topical use – powders, ointments, creams, emulsion, liniment, paints, implantsPharmaceutical solutions may also contain: : One of more solvent to dissolve the drug; Preservatives to prevent microbial growth; Stabilizers to prevent drug decomposition; Colorants and flavorants to enhance product appealFormulations: 1. Vinegars (aceta): are solutions of drugs in acetic acid, prepared by dissolving the active principle in acetic acid or macerating the drug itself in acetic acid. Eg: Vinegar of

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Ipecacuana, Vinegar of squill2. Aerosols: are drug preparations of liquid or micro-pulverized powders administered by a spray or nebulizer. Inhalation aerosols are intended for respiratory passages3. Ampoules (Ampullae): are hermetically sealed containers filled with sterile material usually intended for i.v, s.c. or i.m injection4. Aquae (aromatic water): are aqueous solutions of volatile substances prepared either by distillation or by making a simple solution. Eg: Rose water, Camphor water5. Baths: Immersion of the whole body or part of the body in some liquid or vapour is called bath. Eg: Mustard bath, Iodine bath6. Gauze: are cotton cloth of plain weave steeped in antiseptic solutions and dried. Eg: Boric acid gauze, Iodoform gauze7 Poultice (Cataplasma): are wet masses of solid matter applied to the skin for the purpose of reducing inflammation or in other cases to act as counter irritant. Eg: Mustard Poultice, Boric acid Poultice8. Nasal Wash (Collunaria): are preparations for nasal wash. Eg: Alkaline nasal wash, compound solution of borax9.. Mouth wash (Collutoria): usually consist of solutions of mild antiseptic or astringent agents10. Eye lotion (Collyrium): are usually solutions in water of one or more substances intended for application to the eye. Eg: Boric acid eye lotion, Borax eye lotion11.Decoctions (Decocta): are liquids made by boiling the drug with water and then allowed to cool and stained. Eg: Barley decoction12.Elixirs (Elixira): are sweetened aromatic alcoholic preparations used like syrups for flavouring vehicles. Eg: Elixir of anise, Elixir of cinchona13. Plasters (Emplastra): are solid preparations containing medicinal agents with adhesive materials spread on cloth or leather and applied on skin. Adhesive substances used are gums resins burgundy pitch, India rubber etc., Eg: Green Belladona plaster, Plaster of capsicum14. Emulsions: are preparations consisting of two immiscible liquids in which one of them is in a finely divided state and is held in suspension in such a manner that the particles do not coalesce. In order to prevent this an emulsifying agent or emulgent is necessary

15. Enema (Enemata): are fluid preparations which are meant for injection into the rectum by means of a suitable instrument. There are various kinds of enemas such as anathematic enema, astringent enema, purgative enema, antispasmodic enema, emollient enema, sedative enema, nutrient enema 16. Extract: are solid or semisolid or liquid preparations of active constituents of drugs prepared by extracting the drug with the proper menstruum and evaporation of the percolate and adjusting the remaining mass or power to the prescribed standard. Different kinds of extracts are Liquid extract, Solid extract, Soft extracts and Dry extracts. Eg: Liquid extract of orange, Extract of ergot, Extract cannabis, Extract of strophanthus

17. Fomentations (Fomenta): Consist of flannel cloth or sponges wrung out of hot water in which drugs may or may not have been added. This is meant for application to the surface of the body and employed to relax and soothe inflamed parts

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18. Gargles: are liquid preparations used for topical application on mouth, throat and pharynx. Eg: Tannic acid gargle, Potassium permanganate gargle

19.. Drops (Guttae): are liquid preparations of drugs and used as eye drops. Eg: Cocaine eye drops, Pilocarpine eye drops 20. Draught (Haustus): Is a liquid preparation for administration by mouth consisting of a single dose

21. Infusions: Infusions are diluted solutions containing the water soluble extracts of drugs. It must be freshly prepared. Eg: Concentrated infusion of chirata

22. Injections: are sterile suspensions or solution prepared for parenteral administration. In some cases they are used through the external orifices of the body. Eg: Injection of digitalis

23. Insufflations: are powders prepared for introduction into the ear, nose or throat. They are administered by means of insufflator or where intended for the nose they may be used in the same way as ordinary snuff. Eg; Adrenaline insufflation, Menthol insufflations

24. Jujubes: are lozenges made of gum acacia and sugar25. Lamella: are the gelatin discs softened with glycerin and impregnated with drugs acting on the eye. They are placed under the eyelids or conjunctival sac. Eg: Lamellae of atropine, Lamella of cocaine26. Linctus: Is a thin confection containing drugs to be licked up and slowly swallowed in small doses so as to act on the throat. Eg: Linctus of Codeine, Linctus of Squill

27. Liniments: are solutions of drugs in oily, soapy of alcoholic vehicle intended to be rubbed on intact skin with friction. Eg: Liniment of Ammonia, Liniment of Opium

28. Liquors: are solutions of medicinal agents usually of non-volatile nature in water. Eg: Solution of acriflavine, alkaline solution

29. Lotions: are solutions or suspensions of drugs in water intended for external use to wash the affected parts. Some times they may be alcoholic solutions with or without glycerin. They are also used for aural, nasal, ophthalmic or urethral irrigation. Eg: Lotion of Tannic acid, Boric acid lotion30. Honey (Mellita): are thick liquid preparation containing medicinal agents blended with honey. Eg: Honey of borax

31. Mixtures (Misturae): are liquid preparations consisting of one or more drugs dissolved or suspended in a fluid medium intended for internal use. They contain more than one dose. Eg: White mixture, Chalk mixture

32. Mucilages: are preparations containing gum in suspension or solution, Eg. Mucilage of

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gum acacia33. Nebulae ( Sprays): are solutions of drugs in aqueous, oily, alcoholic or glycerinated media to be sprayed into the nose or throat with the help of a spray producer nebulizer. Eg: Adrenaline and cocaine spray, adrenaline and ephedrine spray

34. Eye ointments (Oculent): are preparations containing drugs with sterile base consisting of specified proportion of soft and hand paraffin and lanolin intended for application to the eye. Eg: Boric acid eye ointment 35. Oleum (Oil): there are different types of oils in the preparations of drugs Eg: Lubricant oil, Carbolised oil36. Pastes : are medicinal preparations intended for external application prepared with some adhesive substances as starch or paraffin. Eg: Bismuth paste, Arsenic paste37. Pastilles: are soft medicinal preparations having glycerin, gelatin or gum acacia sugar as and its basis. They are used like lozenges. Eg: Menthol pastilles, Eucalyptus pastilles)38. Pearls: are minute pills or capsules39. Pessaries: are solid bodies, conical in shape, usually containing antiseptic agents and intended for insertion into the uterine cavity or vagina. Now a days they are prepared in big tablets (Intra uterine tablets) Eg: Boric acid pessary, Acriflavine pessary40. Paints: are liquid preparations of medicinal agents intended for application to throat, skin and other parts. Eg; Compound aconite, Chrysarobin paint, Mandl’s paint41..Spansules: are prepared by charging with drug pellets of varying size, the smallest disintegrating first and the largest last. This affords all day and all night therapeutic effect with a single oral dose42. Spirits (Spiriyus): are alcoholic solutions of drugs especially volatile drugs. Eg: Spirit of camphor, spirit of anise43. Suppositories: are soft conical masses containing active ingredients in a suitable base which will melt at body temperature and are intended for rectal medication. They ar eused to favour prolonged application opf medicines to the walls of the various body cavities. Most of them contain oil of theobroma and a few may contain glycerin. Eg: Nutrient suppository, Tannic acid suppository.44. Syrups: They are concentrated solution of refined sugar in water usually medicated or flavored. Eg: Syrup of acacia, Syrup of lactic acid45. Tinctures : (Tinctura)are solutions of medicinal agents in alcohol. Tinctures are alcoholic preparations made by extraction of the important medicinal principles of vegetable drugs.These may be prepared by simple solution of the drug in alcohol or by process of maceration with a portion of alcohol or by percolation. Eg: Tincture of opium, Tincture of ginger46. Lozenges: . Troches or lozenges are are flat, round, or rectangular preparations (hard circular or oval disc like masses )that are held in the mouth until they dissolve, liberating the drug or drugs involved. They usually contain water, sugar, and a mucilage in addition to the drug and are dried in hot air. They temporarily produce a high concentration of the drug in the oral cavity. They are held in the mouth until entirely dissolved Eg: Benzoic acid lozenges, Dextromethorphan lozenges, Strepsils lozenges47. Vapors (Inhalations): are preparations containing one or more volatile ingredients

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which when inhaled in a suitable manner are intended to act on the throat, lungs and nasal passage. Eg: Compound cresol inhalation, Compound Eucalyptus inhalation.48. Capsule: Capsules are small ovoid or cylindrical soluble containers usually of gelatin intended to be filled with a drug and swallowed. They furnish fairly accurate dosage and disguise the taste. Keratin capsules are not soluble in gastric juice49. Tablet (Tabellae): Tablets are solid discoid dosage forms of varying size, shape and weight which may be molded or compressed and which contain drugs in pure or diluted form. Like pills, tablets are also coated with various substances. Eg; paracetamol 500mg , ampicillin 250mg tabletsThey may be made with or without a diluent (dextrose, lactose, starch), and they may differ greatly in size, weight, and shape. Hypodermic tablets are used for preparation of solution for hypodermic injections.Eg: Aspirin tab., Barbitone tab.. Compressed tablets are made with heavy machinery. Compressed tablets usually contain the following materials, in addition to the drug, : Excipients: are the inert materials included when the volume if the active drug is too low to provide a tablet of convenient size. Diluents, are used when the amount of active ingredient is small; Binders, are substances that give adhesiveness to the powdered drug. ; Disintegrator , such a starch, helps the tablet to dissolve readily when it is placed in water, because the starch expands when it gets wet; Lubricant keep the tablet from sticking to the machines

Tablets are sometimes scored (marked with an indented line across the surface) sothat they can be broken easily if half a tablet is the dose required.

Tablets may be coated with sugar or chocolate to enhance their palatability. They may be covered with a colored coating to make them more attractive to patients, easier to swallow, or identifiable by the use of distinctive colors.

Both tablets and capsules may be enteric coated- to protect the drug from the effect of the gastric secretions and to prevent drug irritation of the gastric mucosa

The types of tablets may be: Normal tablets, Effervescent, Chewable, Delayed release, Film coated or Sugar coated

Sustained-release(SR) dosage forms are the dosage forms providing for gradual but continued release of drug . Sustained-release dosage forms contain small particles of the drug coated with materials that require a varying amount of time to dissolve.. This provides for a long continuous period of absorption and effect. Some particles dissolve and-are absorbed almost immediately, others require 2 or 3 hours

50. Pill: Pills: are spherical or globular solid bodies containing medicaments intended to be swallowed whole. They are prepared by mixing the ingredients with a basis such as soap, gum, liquid glucose liquorices etc.The mass is molded into globular, oval, or flattened bodies convenient for swallowing. Sometimes pills are coated with various substances namely varnish coating, silver leaf coating, sugar coating, gelatin coating, pearl coating, enteric coating, keratin coating. They have been replaced to a great extent by capsules and tablets Eg: oral contraceptive pills

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51. Bolus:Bolus (Ball): May be defined as a large pill. It is a pill, more or less a semisolid preparation in which the medicaments are incorporated with the help of an excipient and is of variable size, but generally rounded or cylindrical in shape. The excipient used usually is an adhesive material such as treacle, starch, gum or sugar syrup and is safely administered to the large animals with the help of a ‘ balling gun’ of suitable size. The bolus is placed at the back of the tongue so that the animals is obliged to swallow it. The advantage is that accurate dosage can be given without the loss of any medicament.The use is restricted to veterinary medicine, especially in ruminants. It is usually made into the form of a cylinder with rounded ends Eg; Oxytetracycline 500mg. 1g bolus, sulphadimidine 5g bolus etc

52. Demulcents are used for their action in coating inflamed mucous surfaces, therebyprotecting from irritation.

53. Emollients are bland substances applied to the skin. Examples: Adeps lanse,Petrolatum, Glyceritum.54. Counterirritants inflame the skin and act reflexly by heightening sensibility inthat region of the cord receiving the sensory fibers irritated, and thereby affecting the condition of all parts supplied by such nerves as have synapses in that same region of the cord.

55. Astringents. :Vegetable astringents used to be largely employed for checking diarrheas ; bat modern treatment aims now at the cause, so the use of these astringents has nearly been abandoned.Mineral astringents are employed for their effect in coagulating albumins. Examples are: Alumen, Argenti Nitras, Cupri Sulphas.

56. Protectives: are substance which, by coating a surface with a relatively permanent and insoluble pellicle, exclude air, water, and other irritating material. Examples: Collodium, Tinctura Benzoini, Zinci Stearas. 57. Ointments (Unguenta): are semisolid preparations with base containin geither wax, a fat or fixed oil and is intended for external application with or without friction. Eg: Boric acid ointment, Sulphur ointment58. Cerates (Cerata) are unctuous fatty preparations, similar to ointments, but having a higher melting point, and not liquefying at the body temperature.59. Plasters : (Emplastra) are solid, adhesive preparations, spread on some fabric, and usuallyrequiring warming before being applied to the body 60. Creams (Cremora): are soft similitude preparations for external use without friction. Eg: Zinc creamT O P I C A L R O U T E D O S A G E F O R M S CREAMS: A cream is a topical preparation usually for application to the skin. Creams are semi-solid emulsions, that is mixtures of oil and water. They are divided into two types: oil-in-water (O/W) creams which are composed of small droplets of oil dispersed in a continuous phase, and water-in-oil (W/O) creams which are composed of small droplets of water dispersed in a continuous oily phase Examples of creams are · Cold Cream, · Fluocinolone Acetonide Cream

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GELS (BALMS): Gels are defined as a substantially dilute cross-linked system, which exhibits no flow when in the steady-state. By weight, gels are mostly liquid, yet they behave like solids due to a three-dimensional cross-linked network within the liquid. It is the crosslinks within the fluid that give a gel its structure (hardness) and contribute to stickiness (tack). In this way gelsare a dispersion of molecules or particles within a liquid in which the solidis the discontinuous phase and the liquid is the continuous phase. Examples of gels are · Androfil Gel, · Chlorben Gel (Benzocaine) LINIMENTS : Liniments (also called as Balm) are the pharmaceutical topical preparations typically sold to relieve pain and stiffness, such as from sore muscles or from arthritis. These liniments typically are formulated from alcohol, acetone, or similar quickly evaporating solvents, and containcounterirritant aromatic chemical compounds such as methyl salicilate, benzoin resin or capsaicin.Examples of liniments are · Opodeldoc, · Absorbine OINTMENTS: An ointment is a homogeneous, viscous, semi-solid preparation, most commonly a greasy, thick oil (oil 80% - water 20%) with a high viscosity, that is intended for external application to the skin or mucous membranes. They are used as emollients or for the application of active ingredients to the skin for protective, therapeutic, or prophylactic purposes and where a degree of occlusion is desired. Examples of Ointments are· Fusidic Acid Ointment, · Clindamycin Phosphate Ointment OTHER FORMS:The other types of the topical route dosage forms for specified part or organ include the followinga- Ottic Solutions (Ear Drops) Ear drops are a form of medicine used to treat or prevent earinfections, especially infections of the outer ear and ear canal (Otitisexterna) Examples of Ottic Solutions are: · Ciprodex ear drops (Ciprofloxacin & dexamethasone), · Sofradex ear drops (Framycetin Sulphate, Gramicidin,Dexamethasone)b- Opthalmic Solutions (Eye Drops) Eye drops are saline-containing drops used as a route to administer medication in the eye. Examples of Opthalmic Solutions are: · Betnesol (Betamethasone Sodium Phosphate) c- Transdermal Preparations (Skin Patches) Intended for slow release of drugs e.g:estradiolN A S A L R O U T E D O S A G E F O R M SAEROSOLSAerosol spray is a type of dispensing system which creates an aerosol mist of liquid particles Examples of Nasal Sprays are · Flixonase (Fluticasone Propionate) INHALERSAn inhaler or puffer is a medical device used for delivering medication into the body via the lungs. It is mainly used in the treatment of asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)Examples of Nasal Sprays are · Ventolin (Fluticasone Propionate) · Zanamivir (Relenza)Routes of drug administrationThere are different routes by which drug can be given to an animal patent. Depending upon the preparations and the form of drug a particular route may have to be chosen. Different routes for the administration of drug are described below.

1. Oral route: the drug is administered through mouth. Solid form or liquid form of medicine can be given by this route. Liquid form of medicine can be given as drench using drenching bottle (Beer bottle is suitable) or bamboo made drenching bottle in the rural areas where there is bamboo. While drenching an animal care has to be taken so as to prevent accidental drenching into the lungs. Other may of giving medicine by this route is mixing the medicine with feed. It is better to take a small lot of feed, mix the medicine with and give it to the animal before giving the rest of the feed to ensure that animal consumes the medicine.

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2. Local route: means applying the medicine /drug on the surface of affected part. For example applying an ointment on the skin wound. This is other wise called local application.

3. Parental routes: this is the administration of the drug with the help of a syringe and a hypodermic needle. There are many routes under this which are as follows:

a.Subcutaneous: is deposition of medicine beneath the skin. Normally it is done at the neck region where there is loose skin. In small animal dog and cat it is given at the flank region. This route is mainly used in deposition of vaccine, which requires slow absorption into the circulation.b. Intramuscular: Is deposition of medicine deep into the muscle of animal body. For giving this injection a region with thick muscle as to be selected.c.Intravenous: is deposition of medicine directly into the blood circulation through superficial veins. This route can be used when quick action is desired and also when a large volume of preparation like dextrose or normal saline is required to be given or for the blood transfusion.

c. Epidural: is the deposition of preparation like local anaesthetics into the spinal chord to desensitise the nerves supplying the hindquarters (detail will be taken in surgery).

d. Intraperitoneal: is the deposition of the preparation into the peritoneal cavity. This is done when fluid therapy can not be done through intravenous route due to the severe dehydration.e. Intrarumenal: Is the deposition of medicine or preparation into the rumen by

rumen puncture.4. Other routes that may be used are:

a. Intravaginal: placing the medicine into the vagina.b. Intrauterine: deposition of medicine into the uterusc. Ocular: placing the medicine into the eyes.d. Intra-articular: deposition of medicine into the joint cavitye. Per rectal: deposition of medicine into rectumf. Inhalation: administration of preparation in the form of vapour though nasal

route.g. Intramammary deposition of medicine into the mammary gland

ROUTES OF ADMINISTARTION OF DRUGSRoute Advantages Disadvantages Drug formulationParenteral IV, IM,SC, IP, IS, IA, I/arterial, etc

Exact dose, 100% compliance ,Suitable for unconscious patients Rapid onset

Painful Self-administration Expensive production processes Requires trained personnel

Solutions, , intra-articular implants, depot preparations(excipients, stabilising agents, buffers, chelating agents, surfactants,pyrogen-free suspensions,emulsions implants Lyophilized powders fro reconstitution etc

Oral Easy ,Convenient Acceptable, painless for humans, and monogastrics to

Inappropriate during vomiting Potential drug-stability problems Interactions with food

Liquids (solutions, suspensions, emulsions syrups suspensions, emulsions) Semi-solids (pastes); Solids (tablets, capsules, tablets

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some extent Possible low availabilityPatient must be conscious

powders, granules, premixes, medicated blocks); Devices (balling guns, gastroretention Formulation (taste masking, modified release)

Rectal Avoids problems of stability in gastrointestinal tract, No first-pass metabolism, Useful if oraladministration is not possible

Unpopular Inconvenient Erratic absorption Irritation

Suppositories, enemas(solutions, suspensions,emulsions), foams,ointments, creams

Buccal Rapid onset of action Dosage form recoverable, No first-pass metabolism

Only suitable for low dose (high potency) drugs

Tablets, mouthwashes etc

Tracheobronchial surfaces and alveoli

Larger surface area Trained personnels, exact dosage

Inhalational anaesthetics, aerosols (including vaccines)

TopicalSkin, Mucus membranes ocular, Aural etc

Avoids systemic effect, adverse effects on body

Majority of drugs– only local effect

Dips, spot-ons, sprays, patches, insecticidal collars, ointments,creams, ear drops Eye-drops, inserts, hydrogels, (localized delivery of anti-microbial drugs)

Intramammary, intravaginal, intrauterine etc

Mainly for local organ infections/ inflammations

Utmost sterility and proper method required

Intramammary infusions, ear implants (hormones), sponges, pessaries applicators etc

Study Questions1. Mention the routes of administration of drugs , indicating the specific site in different

species of animals 2. Write the advantages and disadvantages of local and various parenteral route sof

administration of drugs. 3. List out few important ‘physiological barriers’ for drugs.4. List some reasons why ‘oral route’ of administration is at times undesirable?5. List out the factors affecting bioavailability of drugs.6. List the factors to be considered for selecting the route of administration of a drug 7. Write a note on topical and nasal routes of administration of drugs 8. Mention the different formulations of the drug for topical and nasal administration

with examples

Lab. 7 PRESCRIPTION WRITING Date:

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A Prescription is an order to a pharmacist written by a licensed veterinarian, physician, or dentist to prepare the prescribed medicine, affix the directions, and to sell the preparation to the client or patient.

Prescriptions are either entered into a Computerized Physician Order Entry system, handwritten on preprinted prescription forms that are assembled into pads, or alternatively printed onto similar forms using a computer printer

The word "prescription" can be decomposed into "pre" and "script" and literally means, "to write before" a drug can be prepared. Those within the industry will often call prescriptions simply "scripts

Prescriptions have legal implications, as they may indicate that the prescriber takes responsibility for the clinical care of the patient and in particular for monitoring efficacy and safety.

The prescription is a legally recognized document, and the writer is held responsible for any damage occurring in the health of the patient as a result of his wrong or illegal prescription , instructions, or omission of the instructions.

Prescription is considered as an extract of the physician’s diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of the patient’s illness. As a licensed practitioner the Veterinarian is entitled by the law to dispense, administer, or prescribe medications for the sick animals.

Many brand name drugs have less expensive generic drug substitutes that are therapeutically equivalent. Prescriptions will also contain instructions on whether the prescriber will allow the pharmacist to substitute a generic version of the drug.

This instruction is communicated in a number of ways. In some jurisdictions, the preprinted prescription contains two signature lines: one line has "dispense as written" printed underneath; the other line has "substitution permitted" underneath. Some have a preprinted box "dispense as written" for the prescriber to check off.

Prescription should not be written with pencil for the fear of being altered by some people and thereby causing trouble later on to the patient. It should be strictly written in ink and it is a legal document, which mean the animal owner can sue the writer if the prescribed drug produce adverse reaction in the animal patient.

COMPONENTS OF A CLASSIC PRESCRIPTION 1. The Date of writing the prescription, may be written on the top left portion or in the last

along with the sign/initials . It is important for judging the duration of treatment and also from legal point of view, specially warranted when narcotics and other dangerous drugs are prescribed.

2. The Identity of the Patient Name and address of the owner and the description of the animal like species, age, sex, breed, bodyweight colour, health condition, tentative diagnosis, etc may be written.

3. The Superscription is written as Rx , derived from a) letter R, an abbreviation of the Latin word ‘recipe’ meaning, ‘take thou of ’. and b)letter j , which denotes the invocation of the physician/doctor to Roman god Jupiter( the god of healing), asking him to help in curing the disease with the written prescription

4. The Inscription is the body/ heart of the prescription, containing the the name/s of drug/s in full, written in English and the the amount of the amount or strength of each ingredient/ drug required , written preferably in the metric system.

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The prescriber has to exercise utmost care in selecting the correct ingredients in appropriate doses withpout any ambiguity or inaccuracy, which may be disastrous

to pateient’s health. Contains : dosage form, name of medication, strength, dose, frequency of dose,

duration Simple Inscription may consist only the drug and vehicle ,if any. Complex

Inscription having more than one ingredients, will be in the following order. a) Basis- is the main drug in the prescription, with the chief action. b) Adjuvant- drug/ substance which enhances or assists the basis action c) Corrective- agent which modifies, corrects or overcomes the undesirsble action of the basis or adjuvant. d) Vehicle- is an inert substance , suitable medium in which the ingredients/drugs are compounded and dispensed. In addition , it may act as diluent , solvent or flavouring, agent. In modern clinical practice, treatment with a single snd specific agent is preferred.In general practice, the following should be noted. i) For solids, quantities of one gram or more should be written 1g etc. * If less than 1 gram, it must be written in milligrams. (e.g) 500mg not .5g * Avoid unnecessary zeros after decimal point (e.g) 1mg not 1.0mg * When decimals are unavoidable, a zero must be written in front of the decimal point where there is no other figure. (e.g) 0.5ml not .5ml * Use of decimal point is acceptable to express a range (e.g) .5 - 1gii) Avoid misleading abbreviations. Always write `units' not U, `micrograms' not g, nanograms not ng. iii) Strength of the medication must be written in metric units. The term milliliter (ml or mL) may be used but not cubic centimeters (cc) or cm3. iv) Dose and dose frequency should be stated, in case of preparations to be taken `as required' a minimum dose interval should be prescribed. Avoid ambiguous direction like `1 ampoule of Frusemide' where ampoules of various strengths may be available5. The Subscription This contains the directions/ instructions to the pharmacist., with

regard to the form of the medicine, its preparation , dividing , total quantity to dispense, and the method to dispense it to the patient/patient’s owner. These instructions may be entirely in English or with Latin abbreviations like “ M ”and “ ft”, which instructs the pharmacist to “ mix and make”. However in the modern clinical practice, it becomes obsolete whenever readymade preparations are available in the market.

6. The Transcription (Instruction to the patient) : The word “ Signatura” is derived from latin word “signa, meaning “ write/ let it be labelled” It consists of instructions to the patient/ patient’s owner regarding the manner of the administration of the medicine., indicating the specific dose, method, and time of administration of the drug The pharmacist must write the instructions on the “ Label ” before dispensing it.

7. Prescriber’s name , address with the the full signature/initials and his registration number (State(Karnataka Veterinary Council) or Veterinary (VCI) /medical council(MCI) of India) of the qualified doctor, , so as to to make the prescription a legal document.

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The modern prescription is written as simply as possible, consisting of minimum number of drugs, written in English, employing the metric system, and may use several abbreviations for the pharmacist and owner of the animal regarding the dose and frequency of administration of the medicine.Abbreviations : The names of the drugs in the prescription should be written in full to avoid possible errors, if written by abbreviations. Chemical formulas should not be used in prescription writing because of the greatly increased probability of error.

The abbreviations are used for the instructions given for compounding , dispensing and administration of the drugs. Abbreviations of Latin words are commonly used in writing a prescription because of the following advantages i) Latin is universally understood,. dead language and not likely to change with time and place. ii) it maintains certain degree of professional secrecy ,which prevents attempts of self doctoring iii) it saves time iv) readily understood by the pharmacist. Some of the commonly used latin abbreviations used in prescription writing are as follows.Latin word Abbreviation English Meaning

ad ad to or up toad libitum ad.lib freely as wanted, at pleasurealter alt the otheralternis horis alt. hor every other hourana A or aa (aa) of eachante a. beforeante cibum a.c before mealsaqua aq. Waterbis b twicebis in die b.i.d. twice a daycapula cap capsulecibus cib foodcum c withdimidus dim one halfdivide div. dividedosis dos a doseequalis partis eq.pts equal partset et ande. aqua ex.aq with watere lacte e lact with milkelectuarium elect electuaryemulsio emul emulsionfiat ft. makefortis fortis stronggutta gtt a drophaustus haust. drenchhora h hourlibra Lb or lb a poundlotio lotio lotion

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mane mane in the morningmisce M. mixmistura Mist mixturemitte mit sendnon repetatur n.r. not to be repeatednocte n. in the nightnumero no. number octarius o. pintocto octo eightomne die o.d. every daypars, partis par, pt a part, of a partper per through, bypost cibum p.c. after mealsinjectio inj injectionpro re nata p.r.n. as occasion requirespulvis pulv/pul powderquantum rectum q.r. correct quantitiesquantum sufficient q.s. sufficient quantityquotidie quot dailyquaque 4 hora q 4 h every 4 hoursquaque 6 hora q 6 h four time a dayquarter in die q.i.d. four times in a dayquaque hora Qq. H every hoursigna sig. mark/write on the labelsine s. withoutsemi sse ss halfs.o.s si opus sit if necessarysol. solutio solutionstat. statim immediatelytab. tabella a tabletter t thriceter in die t.i.d. three times a daysixt.hor sixtis horis every six hoursunguentum ungt ointmentuncia unc an ouncetincture tr tincturevesper vesp talis talis suchflavum flavum yellowind in dies dailyod omne die dailyspts spiritus spiritlevis levis lightlotio lotio lotionm misec mix

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mite mite weakmolles molles softnigrum nigrum blackpil pilula pillq.r quantum rectum right quantityrep repetatur let be repeatedstat statim immediatelytr. Tintura tinctureqid quarter in die 4 times dailyq3h quaque 3 hora every 3 hourlysos si opus sit if necessaryung unguentum OintmentAdlib adlibitum at pleasureElect electuarium electuaryInj injectio an injectionFt fiat le it be madeOl olium oilAq aqua waterLiq liquor a solution

. Common Terms and Abbreviations

Term or Phrase Abbreviation Meaning

Ad ad to, up to

ad libitum ad. lib. at pleasure

Ana a.a. of each

ante cibos a.c. before meals

Aqua aq. water

bis in die b.i.d. twice a day

Collyrium collyr. eye lotion

Cum c. with

cum aqua cum aq. with water

dentur tales doses d.t.d. give such doses

Dispensa disp. dispense

Et et and

gutta, guttae gtt. drop, drops

hora somni h.s. at bedtime

in vitro in vit. in glass

Misce m. Mix

non repetatur non. rep. do not repeat

oculus dexter o.d. right eye

oculus sinister o.s. left eye

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omni die o.d. daily

omni mane o.m. every morning

omni nocte o.n. every night

per os p.o. by mouth

placebo placebo to please

post cibos p.c. after meals

pro re nata p.r.n. as the occasion arises

quantum sufficiat q.s. sufficient quantity

quater in die q.i.d. four times a day

recipe Rx take

semis ss _ one-half

sine s,s without

si opus sit s.o.s. if necessary

ter in die t.i.d. three times a day

trochiscus, torchisci troch. lozenge, lozenges

unguentum ungt. ointment

ut dictum ut dict. as directed

A Model Veterinary PrescriptionVeterinary hospital/Clinic ,……..Address:……..Telephone No…………….. Date:…………… ________________________________________________________________________Owner’s Name: ………… Address:…………Animal species:……Breed: ……..Age………Sex………Colour/identification……. Complaint: …………. Diagnosis/Tentative diagnosis…Indigestion FOR VETERINARY USE ONLY

RxBismuth Carbonate 5 gSodium bicarbonate 3 gMagnesium oxide 10gDextrose 20gFt. Pulv 4Sig. Per os, b.i.d, p.c

Sd/- Prescriber’s signature Dr. …… Registration _________________________________________________________________________________MODERN PRESCRIPTION : is written precisely with minimal essential components of the prescription, for the readily available drugs, not requiring the preparation by pharmacist __________________________________________________________________ Hospital/ Clinic/Dr’s address Telephone No:……… Date:………….

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________________________________________________________________________ Owner’s name…. Animal :………Sex:………Age:………Breed…….Complaint……

For Veterinary use only

Rx Diazepam tab. 5mg x 10 1-0-1 x 5 days, p.c

Signature Reg. No

_____________________________________________________________________

Assignment: 1. Give the English meaning of following Latin abbreviations:

a) qq.d (Quaque die):, b. ollyr.(Collyrium):c. Gtt. (guttae) : d. Collunt. (Collutorium):

e.Collun. (Collunarium): f. Tales: d. Ad. mov.: h. p.r.n (pro. re. nata):

2.Write prescription for the following clinical casesa) A brown GSD male dog aged 5 years, weighing 40 kgs, presented to Veterinary

hospital, Bidar is suffering from pyrexia. Prescribe 60ml paracetamol syrup( 125mg per ml), and 200mg of this is to be given two times a day, after meals for 5 days.

b) A brown ND female dog aged 3 years, weighing 35 kgs, presented to Veterinary hospital, Bidar is suffering from epilepsy. Prescribe 100ml phenytoin sodium suspensionl ( 50mg per 2 ml), and 400 mg of this is to be given three times a day, before meals for 10 days.

c) A black ND male dog aged 2 years, weighing 20kgs, presented to Veterinary hospital, Bidar is suffering from pyrexia. Prescribe 250mg paracetamol tablet, and 125mg of this is to be given two times a day, after meals for 5 days.

A male calf aged 1 month weighing 25 kg , presented to Veterinary hospital, Bidar is suffering from round worm infetation. Prescribe Fenbendazole suspension ( 25mg per ml, 100ml susp), and 125 mg of this is to be given once a day, before meals for 3 days.d) A black ND male dog aged 2 years, weighing 20kgs, presented to Veterinary hospital,

Bidar is suffering from septicemia. Prescribe 250mg paracetamol tablet, and 125mg of this is to be given two times a day, after meals for 5 days.

e) A he buffalo aged 2 years, weighing 150kgs, presented to Veterinary hospital, Bidar is suffering from wound septicemia. Prescribe a) 500mg oxytetracycline bolus and 1000mg of this is to be given two times a day, after meals for 5 days. b) 10g povidone iodine ointment, for external application.

3. Give a prescription for a) constipation in a pup b) carminative mixture for a cow suffering from indigestion c)for tape worm infestation in a dog Lab.8 INCOMPATABILITY Date:

In therapy, improper combination of two or more drugs in a mixture or in a patient can reduce safety and/or efficacy of drugs .The term incompatibility may be applied to

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pharmaceuticals when a problem arises during the pharmaceutical compounding of more substances because of their therapeutic, physical or chemical properties, the substances are said to be incompatible.

A preparation is considered to posses an incompatibility when combination of its ingredients adversely affects its appearance, elegance or therapeutic efficacy

Knowledge of these incompatibilities is necessary for the veterinarian, not only to avoid complications in clinical practice, but also to make use of incompatibility to antagonize /reduce certain toxic effects of drug/s.

Mixing of certain drugs together in the same syrienge or with intravenous fluids may lead to physical incompatibility (change in turbidity or colouration) or chemical reactions (viz; hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction or complex formation) and thereby loss of pharmacological activity. The vehicle/ stabilizers /preservations used in the product may also cause drug interaction

Many interactions and incompatibilities are possible considering the vast number of drugs available that may be used in combination.

Interactions can result in a lack of therapeutic effect or toxicity. A distinction should be made between drug interactions that occur in vitro (such as in a syringe or vial) from those that occur in vivo (in the patient).

Veterinarians frequently mix drugs together in syringes, vials, or fluids before administration to animals. These in vitro reactions also have been called pharmaceutical interactions. A drug interaction of this nature may form a drug precipitate, a toxic product, or inactivate one of the drugs to unknowingly administer an ineffective compound. Compounding drugs that are incompatible may cause in vitro drug interactions.

Drugs may be incompatible therapeutically, physically or pharmaceutically.. and chemically . Thus , normally, three types of incompatibility can occur:

1. Pharmaceutical 2. Therapeutic 3. ChemicalPharmaceutical incompatibilities are usually of a physical nature, e.g: incomplete solutions due to low solubility of drug in a given solvent, immiscibility of two liquids mixed together and precipitation.Therapeutic incompatibilities occur as a result of antagonistic pharmacological actions of drugs in the patient when two drugs administered simultaneously [e.g. atropine (dilate pupil) and physostigmine (constrict pupil)] or interference with drug absorption (e.g. antacids or milk/dairy products reduce tetracycline absorption).

Chemical incompatibilities arise due to chemical reactions, pH changes in the dosage forms,interactions with preservatives or solvents used, or combinations of divalent cations with components of the mixture. Incompatibility can also occur when two drugs are mixed or drawn in to the same syringe. Chemical and pharmaceutical incompatibility are so closely related as to be governed many times by the same rule. Such incompatibility is difficult to avoid, and emphasizes the advisability of adopting simplicity in prescription writing, which is really a therapeutic gain

Various alkaloids, iodine, iron salts, arsenic, mercury salts, permanganate, salicylates, silver salts, strong acids or alkalis, and tannic acid are frequently incompatible with other agents, and therefore should not be mixed. However, one can take the advantage of chemical incompatibility to lavage gastrointestinal tract with KMNO4

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(1:5000) solution in the treatment of alkaloid poisoning and use of CuSO4 solution in animal that has ingested phosphorus. On the contrary, some of the adverse effects are: addition of potassium penicillin to 5%dextrose (pH 5.0) results in inactivation of penicillin and addition of sodium bicarbonate to calcium-containing solutions will result in calcium bicarbonate.

Pharmacokinetic incompatibility means drug interaction occurring at the level of absorption, distribution, metabolism or excretion when two or more drugs given together.. At the level of absorption: eg. Absorption of flouroquinolone antibiotics decreases when administered with antacids like aluminum hydroxide.

At the level of distribution: eg. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs displaces warfarine bound to plasma protein

At the level of metabolism: eg. Chloramphenicol inhibits the metabolism of barbiturates

At the level of excretion: eg. Excretion of sulphonamides can be favored (to avoid crystalline urine) by per oral administration of sodium bicarbonate

Chemical incompatibility of therapeutic relevanceAlkaloid/iodides/ salicylates / benzoates/ iron

Incompatible with Consequences

1. Alkaloids(eg. Caffeine, Strychnine)

Alkalies:-Solution of ammonia, Borax, Calcium hydroxide, Sodium-/ Potassium- /Ammonium bicarbonate

Salt formation

2.Alkaloids(eg. Tr. catechu)

Tannic acid Insoluble tannate

3.Alkaloids(eg. Strychnine, morphine, codeine)

Soluble iodides and bromides Insoluble hydroiodides / hydrobromides

4.Alkaloids( eg. Quinine) Salicylates/benzoates Indiffusible ppt. (quinine salicylate/ benzoate)

5.Iodides (eg. KI ) Ferric salts Oxidation of iodide6. Iodide(eg. KI ) Potassium chlorate Oxidation of iodide7.Soluble Salicylate/benzoates (Eg.Sodium salicylate)

Acids Note: Sodium salicylate(PO) forms ppt. in stomach and irritation is due to insoluble salicylic acid). Sod.bicarbonate adm. decreases salicylic acid production)

Decomposes to salicylic/benzoic acid which are slightly soluble in water

8.Iron salts Tannins Greenish black/bluish black tannate

Assignment :1.List out the a) Preservatives used for aqueous vehicle b) Preservatives used for oily vehicle c) Reducing agents employed d) Antioxidants used e) bacteriostatics 2. Write briefly about a) ampoule b) vials c) silicone coated vials d) amber coloured glass 3. Give examples for pharmacokinetic incompatibilities. Lab.9 DRUG STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS Date:

DRUG STANDARDS:

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Pharmacopoeias: are a class of drug compendia published under the authority of a

recognized body, generally constituted by law to ensur euniformity in composition and

strength of medicines used in the treatment of diseases. These officially recognized

document contain a selected list of widely used drug and preparations with the description

of the standard of their physical, chemical properties, test for their identity, purity and

potency. Drugs included in these are recognized as Official drugs. Each nation may be

having its own pharmacopoeia such as British Pharmacopoeia (B.P), United States

Pharmacopoeia (US.P), Indian Pharmacopoeia (I.P).

Indian Pharmacopoeia is the standard book for drugs included in India, under the Drugs

and Cosmetics Act (1940). The Govt. of India, Ministry of Health & family Welfare notifies

the members of the committee for scrutinizing and updating I.P (drugs recommended for

human and veterinary medicine ) at regular intervalsI. P was first published in the year

1956.It is generally published at every five year interval.

International; pharmacopoeia (Ph.I) is a publication of World Health Organiztaion

compiled by the appointed experts.

National Formularies ( N.F; eg: British N.F (BNF); National Formulary of India (NFI)) are another class of drug compendia which ar ecompiled by the respective pharmaceutical associations and are updated / revised periodically like pharmacopoeias. Volumewise, Formulary is smaller than pharmacopoeias. DRUG REGULATIONS Regulatory agencies are governmental bodies constituted by bvarious acts for overseeing restrictions imposed on citizens or organizations of citizens in their utilization of drugs and chemicals..Of Many agencies, three agencies in US are most important. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) governs the matters concerning air, water pollution use of chemical s, pesticides affecting environment. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates the use of drugs and food additivesDrug enforcement Administration (DEA) regulates the manufacturing, distribution and dispensing of controlled substances. All the Controlled drugs have been classified in to five schedules: Schedule-I, II, III, IV and V depending on the extent of the abuse potentiality; physical or psychic dependence.

Following are some of the acts and rules of our country which regulate the drug rules and regulation

a) The Drugs & Cosmetic Act (1940) as amended by the Drugs ( amendment) Act 1955, 1960,1962,1964,1972, 1982 and 1984

b) The Drugs and Cosmetic Rules- 1945

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c) The Pharmacy Act- 1948d) The Drugs and Magic remedies ( Objectionable advertisement) Act-1985e) The Narcotic drugs & Psychotropic substances Act- 1985f) The Poison Act-1919g) The Drugs( price control) Order-1987

Drugs and Cosmetic Act- 1940: The Central and State Government can appoint drug ‘Analysts’ with prescribed qualification. The Government can appoint drug ‘Inspectors’ who possess the requisite qualification for supervision of manufacture/ sale and prescription of drugs. The Inspectors can confiscate the spurious/ illegal drug/s or their combinations and subject it to quality testing by a Govt. drug Analyst. The drug analysis report submitted by ‘Analyst’ will be taken as a conclusive evidence in court. If the report is challenged, the drug will be sent to Central Drugs Laboratory whose decision will be binding on both parties.

Under the Drugs and Cosmetic Act- 1940, import of substandard, misbranded, spurious, adulterated drugs/cosmetics are banned. Further, this act prohibits manufacture of drugs for sale/distribution/ stock of drugs which is not of standard quality, does not bear on the label true formula (or) list of active ingredients together with qualities (or) claims to cure but mitigate diseases.The Drugs & Cosmetic Rule-1945: The Central Drugs and Cosmetics rules, 1945 under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940 a samended from time to time regulate the licensing , import, compounding, dispensing , storage and sale of drugs and cosmetics in India. These rules categorize drug and cosmetics in various schedules as detailed below:

Schedule ContentSchedule A Types of forms required for licensing, import, analysis, testing of drugs,

cosmeticsSchedule B Fee for test or analysis by the Central Drug LaboratorySchedule C Biological (sera, toxins) and special productsSchedule D Substance not intended for medicinal use; lactose, condensed,

powdered milk.Schedule E Poisonous substances under ayurvedic and unani system of medicineSchedule F Vaccines,antitoxins and standards frio surgical dressings.Schedule G Substances dangerous to be taken except under close

medical/veterinary supervisionSchedule H Prescription Drugs: To be sold by retail on the prescription of a

registered medical /veterinary practioneer onlySchedule I OmittedSchedule J List of ailments for which no drug should claim prevention (or) curesSchedule K Drugs not meant for medicinal useSchedule L OmittedSchedule M Requirements for factory premisesSchedule N List of minimum equipments for running of pharmacy Schedule O Standard for dfisinfectant fluids

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Schedule P The life-period of drugs including their combinations with other drugsSchedule Q List of Cold tar colors permitted to be used in cosmeticsSchedule R Standards for substances other than food intended to affect the

structure/ function of human bodySchedule S Standards for cosmeticsSchedule T Requirements for factory premises for ayurvedic and unaniSchedule U Particulars to be shown in manufacturing records.Schedule V Details of standards for patent and proprietary medicinesSchedule W Names of drugs which shall be mentioned under generic name onlySchedule X Restricted drugs: Lists the controlled substance/ drugsSchedule Y Specific trials, import & manufacture of new drugsASSIGNMENT:

1. rite a note on Extra label use (ELU)of drugs with examples2. What are “orphan” drugs ? 3. Give example for l the “ Schedule I , II, II, IV and V drugs” 4. Define the following terms (with an example each) associated with the drugs

acting on various body systemsa) Drugs acting on Digestive system: Antacids, Emetics, Antiemetics, Carminatives,

Antizymotics, Purgatives, Laxatives, Astringents, Cholagougues, Choleretics, Lipotropics, Hepatotonics, Probiotics, Prokinetics, Antidiarrhoeals, Antispasmodics

b) Drugs acting on Cardiovascular system: Haemostatics, Styptics, Haematinics, Coagulants, Anticoagulants, Antiarrythmics, Cardiac depressants, Cardiac stimulants, Vasoconstrictors, Vasodialtors, Antihypertensives, Antianginal drugs, Cardiotonics

c) Drugs acting on Centarl Nervous system: Seadtives, Hypnotics, Narcotics,General Anesthetics, Tranqullisers, Neuroleptics, Atarectics, Analgesics, Antiepileptics,Anticonvulsants, CNS stimulants, CNS depressants

d) Drugs acting on Peripheral Nervous system: Muscle relaxants, Laocal anaesthetics, Neuromuscular blocking agents

e) Drugs acting on Skin and Mucous memebranes : Demulcents, Emollients, Keratolytics, Antiseborrhiics, Absorbents, Adsorbents, Protectives, Asttringents, Rubefacients, Vesicats, Counter irritants, Diaphoretics, Refrigerants, Antipruritics, Detergents, Deodorants, De[pilatories, Caustics, Irritants

f) Drugs acting on Eye : Mydriatics, Miotics g) Drugs acting on Urogenital system : Diuretics, Aphrodisiacs, Anaphrodisiacs,

Galactogogues, Lactagogues, Emmenagogues, Ecbolics, Oxytocics, Tocolytics, Contraceptives, Urinary acidifiers, Urinary alkalizers, Urinary antiseptics

h) Drugs acting on Respiratory system : Expectorants, Bronchodilators, Analeptics, Antitussives, Mucolytics, Antiallergics, Broncho constrictrors

Lab.10 CUSTODY OF POISONS Date:

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All the aspects of poisonous substances are governed by the rules and regulation

as prescribed by the State Government under The Poisons Act , 1919. Poisonous

substances should be handle with utmost care as they may produce hazardous results on

the surroundings/ individual handling it.

The points to be kept in mind while handling the poisonous substances/ chemicals/drugs

are as follows.

Read the prescription carefully and identify if a substance I sa poison or controlled

drug

The bottle containing poisonous substances must have an extra label, preferably ion red colour written ‘poison’.

The containers of similar size, shape or colour are never to be kept in close proximity.

Avoid using potentially toxic/poisons in the presence of children, pets. Exact mesuremnt of the weights and volume of the toxic substances/poisons. Extreme cleanliness and precaution to avoid tasting inhaling them accidentally Poisonous substances are to be stored under lock and key in separate almirah

under some responsible person. Precautions to avoid the possibility of leakage from the stored containers, while

storing, handling and transport. Register maintenance with the record of the supply of poisons, serial number ,

entry, signature of the qualified person under whose supervision the medicine was made up and supplied.

Some of the Guidelines for handling the poisonous substances during the laboratory work are as follows.1. Identifying the substance as poisonous/ nonpoisonous/ controlled by reading the label

information 2. Bottle may have an extra label/ special identification mark indicating the extent

poisonous hazard3. Avoiding direct contact with body parts4. Proper closing of the container and proper storage of the poisonous substance

avoiding leakage away from children, pets 5. Proper maintenance of records associated with the poison6. Proper disposal of the poisonous substance as per the regulations

Lab.11 COMPOUNDING AND DISPENSING OF POWDERS Date:

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Powders (Pulvis) are preparation consisting of solids, loose, dry particles of varying degrees of fineness that contain one or more active ingredients with or without auxiliary substances, flavoring agents and authorized colorings agents were necessary

Powders are mixtures of drugs and / or chemicals prepared in dry powder form. Powders serve as starting point for other dosage forms like tablets, capsules and suspensions etc.

Powders are indicated for internal or external use. Though the use of powders as a dosage form has declined, the use of finely divided solid material in pharmaceutical manufacturing has become increasingly important

Powders are preparations of solid drugs in a fine state of powder for external or internal use. Eg: Compound powder of opium, Triple carbonate powder

The dry and solid medicinal substances can not be compounded, dispensed easily for oral administration. It is necessary to reduce them to smaller sized fine particles. Generally these powders are obtained by Trituraion( grinding with powder); levigation, pulerization; tumbling..

Advantages: 1) convenient form to dispense a bulky drug 2) ideal for administering crude vegetable drugs because of their insolubility and susceptibility to microbial attack when wet 3) The shelf life of many medicaments is more in a dry powder form than in solution 4) useful for administering some insoluble drugs 5) Fine powder gives faster dispersal and absorption of medicaments in the alimentary tract 6) Incompatibility between ingredients in powder form is less as compared to liquid dosage forms

Disadvantages: 1) Not iideal way of dispensing substances, which are volatile, deliquescent, hygroscopic and oxygen sensitive 2) combination of powders may result in eutectic mixture3) Time consuming to prepare, bulky to carry around and easy to spill when opening cotent substances 4) usually not dispensed in powder form due to inaccurate dosage from powders

DRY DRESSING POWDER: Composition of a 40 g of dry dressing powderBoric acid 10 gZinc oxide 10 gStarch 10 gTalc 10 g

The above listed ingredients -powders are thoroughly ground but not too vigorously because heavily rubbed powders become compact. The powder from the bottom and the sides of the mortar are loosened using a large flexible spatula. The fine powder is transferred to a clean paper and folded in the pharmaceutical manner and dispensed.

Boric acid has antiseptic action; Zinc oxide has antiseptic, astringent and desiccant actions.Starch and talc are adsorbents and diluents

The dry dressing powder Indicated for application on the skin in various conditions affecting skin like:cuts, wounds, bruises.

45

TRIPLE CARBONTE POWDER (Gastric sedative powder): Composition of 3 g of gastric sedative powder Sodium bicarbonate - 1g

Bismuth carbonate - 1gMagnesium carbonate - 1g

All the components are individually weighed and transferred to a powder slab. After thorough mixing, the powder is made into a linear heap and flattened at the top. The heap is divided into six equal parts. Each dose is packed separately in paper and folded in the pharmaceutical manner.

Sodium bicarbonate is a systemic antacid, but it causes rebound acidity. Magnesium carbonate is a non-systemic antacid and laxative and commonly used

in canines as gastric sedative. Bismuth carbonate acts as feeble antiseptic, gastric sedative and intestinal

astringent. Triple carbonate powder is useful in hyperacidity, gastritis, hyperchlorhydria etc.

ANTIDIARRHOEAL POWDER Composition of 30 g of antidiarrhoeal powder

Creta - 15 gKaolin - 15 gBlack catechu - 5 g

The individual components are weighed and transferred to a mortar. They are finely ground and mixed. The powder is divided into three doses. They are packed, label affixed and dispensed.

Kaolin is aluminium silicate; is a desiccant, intestinal astringent and adsorbent of toxins.

Creta is calcium carbonate; acts as antacid, antidiarrhoel agent and feeble antiseptic.

Black catechu is the dried aqueous extract of the leaves and young shoots of Acacia catechu. Catechu is used as a gastro- intestinal astringent in diarrhoea anddysentery.

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Lab.12 COMPOUNDING AND DISPENSING OF OINTMENTS Date:

Ointments are semisolid medicinal preparations intended for application to the skin or certain mucus membranes with or without friction so as to exert a local action to result in skin penetration of the active ingredient it contains.

Ointments are fatty preparations of a softer consistency than waxes Compound ointments are a mix of different oils and waxes as the principle

ingredients. They are generally much "greasier" than creams and may be used for skin softening, skin protection, as a water repellent and for the application of medications to the skin

They are composed of an excipient, simple or compound in which dissolve or disperse one or more active ingredients. The composition of the preservative can influence the effect of the preparation and particularly in the liberation of the active ingredient of ointments

Excipients substances can be natural or synthetic and may comprise a single phase or several phases can be integrated ointments additives appropriate antimicrobial agents, antioxidants, stabilizers, emulsifiers or thickening.

Ointments may provide the : Emollient / counterirritant effect on the skin and Protective effect on a lesion or wound on skin/mucus membrane.

An ideal Ointment base should possess the following properties:1. Not retarding wound healing.2. pharmaceutically elegant.3. low index of irritation.4. neutral in reaction.5. low sensitizing index.6. non-dehydrating.7. non-greasy.8. good shelf life.9. compatible with common medicaments.10. efficiently release the medicaments at the site of application.11. Easily removed with water 12. Ease of compounding.

Common Ingredients for ointment bases:Vegetable oils: As heat is used in the preparation of most ointments saturated oils are chosen that are stable to heat such as Coconut and Olive oil to make the ointment base. Beeswax. Beeswax is added to the vegetable oils to "set" the oil givingthe ointment its consistency. Lard and other animal fats .The use of lard (pig fat) and other animal fats has been mostly replaced by the more cosmetically acceptableand readily available vegetable oils.· Paraffins and other petroleum products have been still used in somecommercial creams The types of of ointment/ ointment bases is as follows• Hydrocarbon Bases• Absorption Bases• Water Miscible Bases • Water Soluble Bases

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HYDROCARBON BASES: Anhydrous; 2.Do not absorb water readily (Hydrophobic) 3. Insoluble in water and .Not washable. Examples. Fats and fixed oils such as lard, olive oil, cottonseed oil, petrolatum(soft paraffin), white ointment, Yellow Ointment (Bees Wax) and silicon bases.

ABSORPTION BASES:They may be: Non emulsified: they absorb water and aqueous solutions to produce w/o emulsions. Examples are wool fat (anhydrous lanolin), wool alcohols, bees wax and cholesterol. w/o emulsions: they are similar in properties to the previous group and are capable of absorbing more water. Examples are hydrous wool fat B.P. (lanolin) and oily cream B.PEmulsion Bases. Emulsion ointment bases consist of an aqueous phase, an oleaginous phase, and an emulsifying agent. They are true, solid emulsions. Emulsion bases may be either oil-in-water (o/w) or water-in-oil (w/o), usually depending upon the phase in which the emulsifier is more soluble. The water phase varies from 10 percent to 80 percent of the completed ointment base.They can be anionic, cationic, nonionic.Combination:30:soft paraffin50: liquid paraffin20Water-Soluble Bases.The polyethylene glycol polymers, or Carbowaxes, are of great importance in ointments. The names of the Carbowaxes include numbers that roughly indicate their average molecular weight. Carbowaxes with a molecular weight in the area of 1,000 are soft, ointment-like substances. As the molecular weight increases, they become harder and they finally become waxes. They are water-soluble, nonvolatile, and do not deteriorate or

support mold growth. Carbowax compounds such as the polyethylene glycol bases

containing pectin, cellulose, Bentonite, and gelatinAccording to the uses or the action, the therapeutic classification of ointments can also be as follows:

1. Emollient; 2 Protective 3. Anti Infectives (Antimicrobial) 4. Anti Eczematic 5. Keratolytic 6.Anti Prespirants 7. Anti Sebhorrics 8. Antiinflammatory 9. Analgesic etc

Dispensing of Ointment:Ointments should be stored in tightly closed containers. This requirement is particularly important when the product under analysis includes an aqueous phase can evaporate or become contaminated. The cork stoppers are to be avoided, if possible, because it always contains the seeds of molds. Either way, when a product contains an aqueous phase is recommended the addition of antifungals. In preparations containing glycerides, is frequently required the addition of antioxidants . In general, ointments should be kept in cool places

1. Ointments should always be homogenous, smooth and free from grittiness2. Ointment should not be dispensed, if it has the slightest evidence of

rancidity or mould

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3. Ointments containing free acid, iodide, mercury or tannin should not be levigated with a steel spatula because of the chemical action on the metal

4. In removing the ointment from a stock jar, always scrap it from the surface. Digging into the ointment leaves a greater surface exposed, thus increasing the possibility of rancidity, mould and water loss

5. Water containing ointments should be dispensed in moderate amounts in glass containers with good closure

IODINE OINTMENT : (Unguentum iodi) Composition of 25 g Iodine ointment

Iodine (crystals) - 1 gPotassium iodide - 1 gGlycerine - 3 mlWhite soft paraffin - 20 gPotassium iodide and iodine are weighed and ground in a mortar. Glycerine is

measured in a measuring cylinder and added with continuous mixing. The vehicle is added and continuously mixed till a homogenous uniformly coloured ointment is obtained. It is packed in butter paper and wrapped with a outer cover duly labelled.

Iodine is an antiseptic, parasiticide, counter-irritant and stimulant to wounds. Potassium iodide forms polyiodides with iodine and increases its solubility. Glycerine is emollient, protective and dissolves potasssium iodide and iodine White soft paraffin is emollient, protective and basis. Iodine ointment is antiseptic and also a counter-irritant. It produces mild

persistent irritation, which is helpful in removing inflammatory products, oedema, rheumatism, arthritis, bony growth, synovitis, etc. It is also parasiticide (antifungal)

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Lab.13 COMPOUNDING AND DISPENSING OF MIXTURES Date:

Mixtures (Misturae).are liquid preparations meant for oral administration containing

drugs either dissolved or suspended in a suitable vehicle. Mixtures are one of the most

common forms of liquid oral preparations. They usually have short life and therefore

should be freshly or recently prepared and used quickly (within a few weeks). Mixtures

containing suspended insoluble substances should always be shaken before use.

Mixtures are the aqueous preparations containing insoluble substances, or those but partly soluble. Intended for oral administration. A mixture can be said as solid material that is suspended or dissolved in a liquid for internal use.They are not to be filtered or strained, but are to be dispensed with a "Shake well befor use" label if the mixture contains insolublematerial.Masses are solid preparations of such soft cohesiveness that they may be formed Readily into pills.Magmas are thick, bulky suspensions in water of insoluble substances. These are more viscous and have less tendency to separate.Eg; Milk of magnesia(MgOH)

Mixtures are of following types:1. Simple mixtures containing soluble substances, e.g., carminative mixture 2. Mixtures containing diffusible solids, e.g., alba mixture 3. Mixtures containing indiffusible solids, e.g., antidiarrhoeal mixture with chalk4. Mixtures containing precipitate forming liquids, e.g., ammoniated solution of quinine5. Mixtures containing slightly soluble liquids, e.g., creosate.6. Miscellaneous mixtures, e.g., castor oil mixture

Advantages : 1) They act faster than pills, tablets, etc. which require to be disintegrated before absorption 2) Mixtures are easy to swallow, and therefore useful in patients having difficulty in swallowing 3) Disadvantages: 1) Mixtures have shorter shelf life 2) they are bulky to carry around

ALBA MIXTURE: Synonyms: Magnesium sulphate mixture, Mistura Alba, Saline mixture. This mixture is called mistura alba because it is white in colour as it contains insoluble but diffusible substancesComposition Magnesium carbonate - 1 g

Magnesium sulphate - 2 g Peppermint oil - 0.1ml Distilled water to make - 30 ml

Procedure : 1 g of magnesium carbonate is taken in a mortar and finely powdered. 0.1 ml of oil of peppermint is added and mixed well. 2 g of Magnesium sulphate is dissolved in about 20 ml of distilled water in a measuring cylinder and slowly added into the mortar with levigation until a smooth cream is formed. The contents are transferred to a

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measuring cylinder. The mortar and pestle are rinsed with a small quantity of vehicle and added to the measure. The volume is made up to 30 ml with subsequent addition of distilled water. The contents are then transferred to a dispensing bottle. The stopper is replaced and secured properly with a piece of thread and the same is packed in the usual pharmaceutical manner and dispensed.

Action: Magnesium carbonate is a diffusible solid having antacid and laxative actions.Magnesium sulphate has antacid, laxative and cholagogue actions.Peppermint oil has antispasmodic and carminative actions. It can be used as a corrective along with purgatives or as an flavouring agent.

Indication:Alba mixture is used in indigestion, constipation and tympany

CARMINATIVE MIXTURE: Synonym: Alkaline stomachic mixtureComposition: Sodium bicarbonate - 0.5 g

Compound tincture of cardamom - 1 mlAromatic spirit of ammonia - 2 mlDistilled water to make - 30 ml

Procedure: 0.5 g of sodium bicarbonate is weighed in a pillar balance and transferred to a measuring cylinder and dissolved in about 5 ml of water by stirring with a glass rod. 2 ml of aromatic spirit of ammonia and 1 ml of compound tincture of cardamom are added to the measuring cylinder. The contents are stirred well and transferred after making up the volume to 30 ml, into a dispensing bottle. The stopper is replaced and secured properly with a piece of thread and the same is packed in the usual pharmaceutical manner and dispensed.

Actions:Sodium bicarbonate is a systemic antacid and alkaliser of urine. Compound tincture of cardamom has carminative, stomachic, mild antispasmodic, colouring and flavouring actions.Aromatic spirit of ammonia is an irritant and stimulant

Indication:Carminive mixture facilitates expulsion of gases from gastro-intestinal tract. It is useful in flatulent dyspepsia, as a stomachic and as a mild antispasmodic.

Exercise: 1. Write a suitable prescription for Alba mixture for a pup2. Write the source of peppermint oil3. What do you mean by levigation?

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Lab.14 COMPOUNDING AND DISPENSING OF LINIMENTS Date:

Liniments are a type of emulsions meant for external application. Emulsions are preparations containing two immiscible liquids in which one of them is held in suspension in such a manner that particles do not coalesce. An emulsifying agent is necessary in order to prevent coalescence

Liniments are liquid or semi-solid preparations of drugs meant for external application on skin by inunction (rubbing). The solvent is usually alcohol, oil or soap solutions. Liniments must not be applied on broken skin, as it may increase irritation. Types of liniment base: Liniments usually carry one of the following base:

1. Alcohol: Pain killing liniments are usually alcoholic solutions. Alcohol potentiates counter-irritant action and helps in deeper penetration of drugs

2. Oils: Stimulating liniments are oily solutions or emulsions. Oils are usually less irritant and spread more easily

3. Soap solution: Soaps when added, helps in easy spread of liniments. It is also a detergent and produces mild counter- irritant action.

Differences between liniments and lotions:Liniments Lotions

1. Applied with friction (rubbing) Applied without friction. 2. Applied on unbroken skin Applied on mucous membrane and 3.Possess irritaant and counter-irritant Possess antiseptic and soothing actions actions4. Usually contain camphor Do not contain camphor5. Solvent is usually alcohol, oil or Solvent is usually water or alcohol soap solutionAMMONIATED CAMPHOR LINIMENTSynonym: Linimentum camphorae ammoniatumAim: To prepare and dispense 50 ml of ammoniated camphor linimentComposition: Camphor - 6.25 g

Oil of eucalyptus - 0.25 mlStrong ammonia solution - 12.5 mlAlcohol (90%) to make - 50.0 ml

Procedure:Camphor is taken in a mortar and eucalyptus oil added to it. It is thoroughly mixed. About 25 ml of alcohol is added and levigated thoroughly. To this, strong solution of ammonia is added in small parts, after levigating thoroughly. The contents are transferred to a measuring cylinder and the required volume made up after adding washings of mortar and pestle with sufficient quantity of alcohol. The contents are transferred into a dispensing bottle. The stopper is replaced and secured properly with a piece of thread and the same is packed in the usual pharmaceutical manner and dispensed. (Note: Small amount of water precipitates camphor which redissolves. If addition of ammonia solution is not done gradually, precipitates are formed which are difficult to dissolve)Actions:Camphor is a stimulant; Ammonia solution is a rubefacient and stimulant.

Eucalyptus oil has antiseptic, counter-irritant and flavouring actions.

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Indication: Ammoniated camphor liniment is used as counter-irritant in the treatment of sprains, chronic inflammation and in cases of respiratory problems.

TURPENTINE LINIMENT: Synonym: Linimentum terebinthinaeAim: To prepare and dispense 50 ml of turpentine linimentComposition:Camphor - 2.50 g

Soft Soap - 3.75 gTurpentine oil - 32.50 mlDistilled water to make - 50.00 ml

Procedure: 3.75 g of soft soap is weighed and transferred to a mortar and gradually mixed with about 5 ml of distilled water with constant trituration to get a cream-like consistency. 2.5 g of camphor is weighed and transferred to a measuring cylinder containing 32.5 ml of turpentine oil. Camphor is dissolved by stirring. Camphorated turpentine oil is added in drops to the mortar with thorough levigation till whole of camphorated turpentine oil is added. The contents are transferred to a measuring cylinder and the required volume is made up by adding subsequent washings of a mortar and pestle with distilled water. The liniment is thoroughly mixed. The final product is then transferred to a dispensing bottle and secured with a thread and dispensed in the usual pharmaceutical manner.

Action:Soft soap is a detergent, emollient and helps in easy spreading of liniment. Camphor and turpentine oil are counter-irritants and stimulants.

Indication: Turpentine liniment is used as counter-irritant and rubefacient in sprains, strains, arthropathy, neuralgia, myalgia etc.

Exercise: 1. Write a suitable prescription for turpentine liniment 2. Write the sources of camphor, eucalyptus oil, peppermint oil, cardamom

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Lab.15 COMPOUNDING AND DISPENSING OF LOTIONS Date:

Lotions are liquid preparations meant for local application to the skin or mucous membrane without friction. They may be aqueous or alcoholic solutions or suspensions of drugs. Generally, they have soothing action and are gently applied on skin after spreading on a dressing . All the lotions are ‘ For External Use only’. And half of the official lotions are solutions. The advantages are that they are easy to apply; easily removable by washing They are different from liniment that the liniments are to be applied with friction an don unbroken skin only.

Differences between liniments and lotions:Liniments Lotions

1. Applied with friction (rubbing) Applied without friction.2. Applied on unbroken skin Applied on mucous membrane and

skin including broken skin3. Possess irritant and counter-irritant Possess antiseptic and soothing actions actions4. Usually contain camphor Do not contain camphor5. Solvent is usually alcohol, oil or Solvent is usually water or alcohol soap solution

The lotions may be simple- containing soluble ingradients ( eg- potassium permanganate lotion); containing insoluble ingradients (eg: calamine lotion) or exhibiting intentional incompatibility (eg: white lotion).

Composition of 100ml Potassium permanganate solutionPotassium permanganate 1gDistilled water ad 100mlAction: antiseptic, disinfectant, deodorant

Indication: washing/cleaning of wound, abscesses, dressing wounds, douching uterus,vagina

Composition of 100ml boric acid lotion

Boric acid 1gDistilled water ad 100mlAction: antiseptic

Indication: washing/cleaning of irritated mucous membranes

Composition of 100ml Calamine lotion

Prepared calamine 15gZinc oxide 5gBentonite 3gSodium citrate 0.5g Liquified phenol 5ml Glycerine 5ml Distilled water ad 100mlAction: astringent, antiseptic, haemostatic

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Indication: superficial inflammatory conditions of skin- eczema, eryhthema , burns, itching

, pruritus etc

Composition of 1ooml White lotion

Lead acetate 5g

Zinc sulphate 4g

Dist water 100ml

Action: antiseptic, astringent,, local sedative

Indication: sprains, contusions, bruises, wounds, bursitis and other inflammatory

conditions of skin

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Lab.16 COMPOUNDING AND DISPENSING OF LIQUORS Date:

Liquors (Solutions) are homogenous liquid preparations of non volatile soluble

drugs in water or any other suitable solvent. Though generally , solution means various

pharmaceutical preparations in which a solid or liquid is homogenously mixed with a

liquid (eg- mixtures, syrups, lotion, liniment etc) Official Solution (Liquor) )includes thos

homogenous preparations which do not fit in top any of these classes.

These Official Liquors (Solutions) consist of either a) solutions of potent

substances to avoid the necessity of frequent weighing in very small quantities ( eg:

Strychnine hydrochloride solution) b) substance which otherwise are unstable if not kept

in solution

Examples of Liquors include: 1) For internal administration- calciferol solution morphine

solution 2) for external application - calcium hydroxide solution,. Lead subacetate

solution , aluminium acaetate solution 3) antiseptics and disinfectants- eg- cetrimide,

hydrogen peroxide solution, formaldehyde solution

Composition of 1000ml hydrogen peroxide solution :

Hydrogen peroxide (70%) 100ml

Dist water 1000ml

Action: antiseptic,disinfectant

Indication: , abscesses, wounds, fistulous tracts

Composition of 1000ml Strong lead subacetate solution :

Lead monoxide 175g

Dist water 100oml

Action: local sedative, soothing, , astringent,a antiinflammatoy

Indication: sprains, contusions, bruises of tendons, muscle

Composition of 1000ml calcium hydroxide solution :

Calcium hydroxide 10g Dist. water 100mlAction: antiseptic, parasiticide, antacid, gastric sedative, astringentIndication: antiseptic, in ulcertaive stomatitis, parasiticide in skin diseases,, hyperacidity, vomiting

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Lab.17 COMPOUNDING AND DISPENSING OF TINCTURES Date:

Tinctures (Tr) are alcoholic or hydroalcoholic solutions containing active principles

of vegetable source or animal source of drugs Strength of alcohol may vary from 20 to

90%. They are comparatively weaker than extracts. They are very stable preparations, can

be stored for longer time without the loss of potency, decomposition or degradation due

to preservative action of alcohol in it. Tinctures are generally prepared by maceration and

perciolation methods.

Type of tinctures include; Simple- when it contains only one ingradient (Eg: Tr

belladonna, Tr digitalis) oa dn Comopound- contains more than one ingradient (eg: Comp.

Tr. Benzoin. etc). Tinctures should be stored in well closed container in cool place away

from light

Composition of 1 litre of Capsicum tincture :

Capsicum ( coarse powder) 50g

Alcohol (60%) ad. 100ml

Action: carminative, stomachic, counter irritant

Indication: indigestion, tympany, colic

Composition of 1 liter of Compound cardamom tincture :

Cardamom seeds 14gcaraway powder 14gcinnamon powder 28gamaranth 5gglycerine 50mlalcohol (45%) add to make 1000mlAction: stimulant, stomachic, carminative, antiseptic, astringent

Indication: carminative and flavouring agent

Composition of 1 liter of Compound benzoin tincture :

Benzoin 100gStorax 75gBalsam of tolu 25gAloes 40gAlcohol (90%) add to make 1000mlAction: stimulant, antiseptic, haemostatic, expectorant, parasiticide

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Lab.18 COMPOUNDING AND DISPENSING OF EMULSIONS Date:

Emulsions are heterogeneous system preparations of two immiscible liquids in which one phase (dispersed phase) is dispersed as fine globules into another phase (dispersion media) and is stabilized by an emulsifying agent. An emulsifying agent is necessary in order to prevent coalescence. Emulsion. A mixture of two liquids, usually oil and water, one of which isdispersed as droplets in the other. Any emulsion should have a "SHAKE WELL" label on the container. They are distinguished from ‘ suspension’ that suspension is a heterogeneous fluid containing solid particles that are sufficiently large for sedimentation and usually they must be larger than 1 micrometer.In ‘ suspension’ - a solid and liquid forms an interface .Suspension: A liquid preparation containing undissolved material. A "SHAKE WELL" label is applied to the container.Purpose and Importance of Emulsions:

can increase solubility. Many drugs have limited solubility but have excellent activity in solution forms. The oil phase of emulsions allows the drug to be in solution form.

can increase stability. Many drugs are unstable in aqueous solution but much more stable when incorporated in to emulsion form.

can prolong the drug action. Incorporation of a drug in to an emulsion alters the bioavailability, as with certain intramuscular injection preparations.

improve taste. Objectionable medicaments are more palatable in emulsion form and are thus more conveniently administered.

Improve appearance. Oleaginous materials intended for topical application are more appealing in an emulsified form.

Types of emulsion • Oil in Water (O/W): Oil droplets dispersed in water• Water in Oil (W/O): Water droplets dispersed in oil• Multiple emulsion: Oil-in-water-in-oil (o/w/o) and Water-in-oil-in-water(w/o/w)

Based on size of liquid droplets 0.2 – 50 mm Macroemulsions (Kinetically Stable) 0.01 – 0.2 mm Microemulsions (Thermodynamically Stable

Lotions , Liniments, Creams, Ointments and Vitamin drops general types of pharmaceutical emulsions Preparation of emulsions: Dry gum method; wet gum method; bottle method; auxillary method and in situ soap methodEMULSIFYING AGENTS: Those agents which reduce the interfacial tension between the two phases i.e, aqueous phase and oily phase, thus making them miscible with each other and form a stable emulsion.They have a Hydrophillic and Lipophillic portion, which Increase the kinetic stability of emulsions . They should be a) stable b) compatible with other ingredients .c) non – toxic d) possess little odor , taste , or color e) not interfere with the stability of efficacy of the active agent

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Classification :

Source Name Type

Tree exudates Gum Arabic,

Gum Tragacanth

Neutral polysaccharides

Sea weeds Agar, alginates. Sulfated polysaccharides

Seed extracts Guar gum, Quince seed, Locust

bean

Neutral polysaccharides

Synthetic Xanthan gum Neutral polysaccharides

Cellulose Methyl Cellulose,

Carboxy Methyl cellulose

Neutral polysaccharides

Anionic polysaccharides

Collagen Gelatin Amphoteric protein

Synthetic Carboxyvinyl polymer

Polyvinylalcohols(PVP)

Anionic

Natural clay Bentonite, Aluminium

magnesium silicate, Hectorite ,

Colloidal aluminium &

magnesium hydroxides

Neutral polysaccharides

Lab.19 COMPOUNDING AND DISPENSING OF ELECTUARIES Date:

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Electuary (Electarium): Is a semi solid or a pasty preparation consisting of

medicaments incorporated together with the aid of a suitable excipient such as treacle or

jaggery at the base and are intended to be smeared on the back/ surface of the tongue or

hard palate . The drug is slowly ingested by the animal

These preparations are mostly used in large animals and are genearlly the preferred

choice of administration in respiratory diseases/ abnormalities. Electuary acquires special

importance when large animals are to be administered with medications for conditions

such as bronchitis, pharyngitis, tracheitis etc. in which conditions, wrong drenching may

result in aspiratory pneumionia and further complications.

Eg: expectorant electuary consisting of camphor, ammonium carbonate, belladonna and

treacle.

The advantages of electuaries over other medicinal preparations include:

Large quantities of drug/medicaments can be administered at a time

Slow release of medicaments

Sweetened vehicle masks the taste of irritant, nausenat drugs

Sweetened vehicle produces a sticky solution in mouth that provides a

smoothening and demulcent action

Composition of Antipyretic electuary :

potassIum nitrate 8gsodium chloride 15g pulvis chiratta 15gtreacle q.sAction: antipyretic(febrifuge), expectorant, bitter stomachic

Indication: fever associated with respiratory tract infections and other type fevers

Composition of Electuary for bronchitis in cow

Ammonium chloride 8gGlycerrhiza powder 8gTreacle q.sAction: expectorant, soothing

Indication: in bronchitis, laryngitis, pharyngitis.

Appendix-I SOME OF THE PHARMACOLOGICAL TERMS/ DEFINITIONS

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Affinity: The equilibrium constant of the reversible reaction of a drug with a receptor to form a drug-receptor complex; the reciprocal of the dissociation constant of a drug-receptor complex.

Agonist: A ligand that binds to a receptor and alters the receptor state resulting in a biological response.

Partial agonist: A partial agonist is an agonist that produces a maximal response that is less than the maximal response produced by another agonist acting at the same receptors on the same tissue, as a result of lower intrinsic activity.

Full Agonist :A full agonist is an agonist that produces the largest maximal response of any known agonist that acts on the same receptor.

Inverse Agonist: An inverse agonist is a ligand that by binding to a receptor reduces the fraction of receptors in an active conformation, thereby reducing basal activity. This can occur if some of the receptors are in the active form in the absence of a conventional agonist.

Antagonism:The joint effect of two or more drugs such that the combined effect is less than the sum of the effects produced by each agent separately. The agonist is the agent producing the effect that is diminished by the administration of the antagonist.

AUC: The area under the plot of plasma concentration of drug (not logarithm of the concentration) against time after drug administration. The area is conveniently determined by the "trapezoidal rule": the data points are connected by straight line segments, perpendiculars are erected from the abscissa to each data point, and the sum of the areas of the triangles and trapezoids so constructed is computed

Bioassay or Biological Assay:"The determination of the potency of a physical, chemical or biological agent, by means of a biological indicator . . . The biological indicators in bioassay are the reactions of living organisms or tissues."

Bioavailability: The percent of dose entering the systemic circulation after administration of a given dosage form.

Biopharmaceutics:The science and study of the ways in which the pharmaceutical formulation of administered agents can influence their pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic behavior.

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Biotransformation: Chemical alteration of an agent (drug) that occurs by virtue of the sojourn of the agent in a biological system.

Biotranslocation: The movement of chemicals (drugs) into, through, and out of biological organisms or their parts

Ceiling: The maximum biological effect that can be induced in a tissue by a given drug, regardless of how large a dose is administered.

Clearance: The clearance of a chemical is the volume of body fluid from which the chemical is, apparently, completely removed by biotransformation and/or excretion, per unit time

Compartment(s): The space or spaces in the body, which a drug appears to occupy after it has been absorbed

Compliance: The extent to which a patient agrees to and follows a prescribed treatment regimen

Dependence: A somatic state which develops after chronic administration of certain drugs; this state is characterized by the necessity to continue administration of the drug in order to avoid the appearance of uncomfortable or dangerous (withdrawal) symptoms

Desensitization: A decline in the response to repeated or sustained application of an agonist that is a consequence of changes at the level of the receptor.

Disintegration Time: The time required for a tablet to break up into granules of specified size (or smaller), under carefully specified test conditions

Dissolution Time: The time required for a given amount (or fraction) of drug to be released into solution from a solid dosage form.

Dosage Form:The physical state in which a drug is dispensed for use

Dose: The quantity of drug, or dosage form, administered to a subject at a given time

Dose-Duration Curve:The curve describing the relationship between dose (as the independent variable) and duration of drug effect (as the dependent variable, T).

Dummy:"A counterfeit object;" a form of treatment - as in an experimental investigation of drug effects - which is intended to have no effects, to be biologically inert considered "more destructive than constructive for society and the individual."

Efficacy: Broadly, efficacy refers to the capacity of a drug to produce an alteration in a target cell/organ after binding to its receptor. A competitive antagonist, that occupies a

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binding site without producing any alteration in the receptor, is considered to have an efficacy of zero.

Equipotent:Equally potent, or equally capable of producing a pharmacologic effect of a specified intensity. The masses of the drugs required to produce this degree of effect may be compared, quantitatively, to yield estimates of " potency" of the drugs

Chemical Equivalents: Those multiple-source drug products which contain essentially identical amounts of the identical active ingredients, in identical dosage forms, and which meet existing physicochemical standards in the official compendia. Biological Equivalents: Those chemical equivalents which, when administered in the same amounts, will provide essentially the same biological or physiological availability, as measured by blood levels, etc. Clinical Equivalents: Those chemical equivalents which, when administered in the same amounts, will provide essentially the same therapeutic effect as measured by the control of a symptom or a disease

First Pass Effect: The biotransformation and/or excretion of a drug by intestinal and hepatic, including biliary, mechanisms following absorption of the drug from the gastrointestinal tract, before drug gains access to the systemic circulation

Generic Drugs: Drug formulations of identical composition with respect to the active ingredient, i.e., drugs that meet current official standards of identity, purity, and quality of active ingredient.

Half-Life: The period of time required for the concentration or amount of drug in the body (Plasma) to be reduced to exactly one-half of a given concentration or amount.

Hazard: The potential for causing harm; that which is a potential cause of harm. With respect to chemicals which are capable of causing harm, "hazard" is about equivalent in meaning to "toxicity"; measuring the hazard or toxicity of a chemical is to measure its potency in producing harm: the lower the dose required to produce harm, the greater the hazard or toxicity, the more hazardous or toxic is the substance.

Idiosyncratic Response/Idiosyncracy: A qualitatively abnormal or unusual response to a drug which is unique, or virtually so, to the individual who manifests the response. "Idiosyncratic Response " usually applies to a response that is not allergic in nature and cannot be produced with regularity in a substantial number of subjects in the population, and which is ordinarily not produced in a greater intensity in an individual, or in a greater fraction of the population, by the expedient of increase in the dose

Infusion : Infusion, as a means of drug administration, involves an effectively continuous flow of a drug solution into the blood stream over a relatively long period of time.

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Intrinsic Efficacy (or intrinsic activity): The property of a drug that determines the amount of biological effect produced per unit of drug-receptor complex formed

Latent Period or Latency: The period of time that must elapse between the time at which a dose of drug is applied to a biologic system and the time at which a specified pharmacologic effect is produced.

Loading Dose: A larger than normal dose (D*) administered as the first in a series of doses, the others of which are smaller than D* but equal to each other. The loading dose is administered in order to achieve a therapeutic amount in the body more rapidly than would occur only by accumulation of the repeated smaller doses. The smaller doses (D) which are given after D* are called "maintenance doses".

Median Effective Dose: The dose of a drug predicted (by statistical techniques) to produce a characteristic effect in 50 percent of the subjects to whom the dose is given. Multiple Dose Regimens: The pharmacokinetic aspects of treatment schedules that involve more than one dose of a drugPharmaceutical Preparations : Drugs intended for human or veterinary use, presented in their finished dosage form. Included here are materials used in the preparation and/or formulation of the finished dosage form.Placebo: (Latin: I will satisfy). "A medicine or preparation with no inherent pertinent pharmacologic activity that is effective only by virtue of the factor of suggestion attendant upon its administration

Potency: An expression of the activity of a drug, in terms of the concentration or amount needed to produce a defined effect

Potentiation: A special case of synergy in which the effect of one drug is increased by another drug that by itself has no effect.

Prodrug: A chemical with little or no pharmacologic activity that undergoes change in the body into a more active material. Receptors: Actual or hypothetical "...small, chemically defined areas of a cell which give (initiate) a biological response upon uniting with chemically complementary areas of natural or foreign molecules (drugs)". Reference Standard: A drug, chemical, or dosage form, etc., of specified properties used as the basis for quantitative comparison with other materials of qualitatively similar propertiesSelectivity: The capacity or propensity of a drug to affect one cell population in preference to others, i.e., the ability of a drug to affect one kind of cell, and produce effects, in doses lower than those required to affect other cells.

Sensitivity: The ability of a population, an individual or a tissue, relative to the abilities of others, to respond in a qualitatively normal fashion to a particular drug dose. The smaller the dose required to produce an effect, the more sensitive is the responding system.

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Side Effects: Drug effects which are not desirable or are not part of a therapeutic effect; effects other than those intended.

Specificity: The capacity of a drug to manifest only one kind of action.Supersensitivity: An extreme and high degree of sensitivity to a drug or chemical. Usually a high degree of sensitivity induced by some specific procedure such as denervation, administration of another drug, etcSynergy: A mutually reinforcing drug interaction such that the joint effect of two drugs administered simultaneously is greater than the sum of their individual effects

Tachyphylaxis: A decline in the response to repeated applications of agonist, typically occurring over a relatively short time scale (seconds to hours).

Therapeutics: The science and techniques of restoring patients to health.

Curative or specific therapy: treatment directed toward eradication of one or more of the agencies etiologic to the patient's condition. Antimicrobial drugs such as penicillin have specific or curative effects. Palliative or symptomatic therapy : treatment directed only toward relief of the patient's symptoms, toward making the patient feel better without necessarily altering the natural course of the disease. Analgesic agents such as aspirin or morphine have obvious palliative effects. Supportive therapy :treatment directed toward maintaining the patient's physiological or functional integrity until more definitive treatment can be carried out, or until the patient's recuperative powers function to obviate the need for further treatment. Many drugs can provide supportive therapy; even in a single patient supportive therapy can be provided from agents of such different classes as sedatives, diuretics, antihypertensives, etc. Substitutive or replacement therapy :treatment directed toward supplying a material normally present in the body, but absent in a specific patient because of disease, injury, congenital deficiencies, etc. Adrenocortical hormones used in the treatment of a patient with Addison's Disease are used as substitutive therapy.

Restorative therapy :therapy directed at rapid restoration of health, usually regardless of the nature of the original disease; restorative therapy is most frequently given during convalescence. Vitamin supplements or sex hormones used for their anabolic effects might be considered as providing restorative therapy.

Threshold Dose:A dose of drug just sufficient to produce a pre-selected effect. Frequently, and improperly, restricted to the dose just sufficient to produce a minimal detectable effect

Time-Concentration Curve: The graphical representation of the relationship - for a given drug and a given biological system - between concentration (or dose) and latency or latent period: the period of time elapsing between the time the dose is administered and the

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time a given effect is produced. Time-concentration curves tend to be hyperbolic in form: as dose increases latency decreases and vice versa.Tolerance: A condition characterized by a reduced effect of a drug upon repeated administration

Toxic Effects: Responses to drug that are harmful to the health or life of the individual... Toxic effects may be idiosyncratic or allergic in natureor pharmacologic side effects, or may be an extension of therapeutic effect produced by overdosage

Withdrawl syndrome: a group of symptoms of variable severity which occur on cessation or reduction of drug use after a prolonged period of use and /or in high doses

Appendix-IIMateria medica

Sl no

Name Source Active constituents Therapeutic use

1 Asafoetida Rhizome/ roots of Ferula asafetida

Volatile oil 4-20%Resins 40-65%Gum 25

CarminativeAntispasmodic

2 Aswagandha Roots of Withania somnifera

Alkaloids- Withasomnine/WithanineSteroidal lactones-Withaferin-A, Withanolides

General tonicUterine tonic,aphrodisiacSedative/reduces excitement

3 Tr. Benzoin

Balsamic resin from Styrax benzoin

Balsamic acids-Cinnamic acid 20%Benzoic acid -10%Triterpenoid acids etc.

AntisepticInhalation in respiratory distress

4 Camphor Stem/roots of Cinnamomum camphora

Terpenoids/eugenolSafrole etc

Topical antipruriticMild carminative

5 Castor Oil Cold extract from seeds of Ricinus communis

Fixed oils- 45-55%, Triricinolein-75%

Laxative

6 Catechu Wood of Acasia catechuA.chundra

Tannins-Catechins, Flavonoids-

Astringent

7 Chirata Svertia chirata Not <1.3%bitter principle- Chiratin etc.

Bitter sialic, Febrifuge Bitter sialic, FebrifugeStomachic/gastric

8 Turpentine Oil

Pinus palustris Terpeneoils- pinene,-pinene(33%)

Counter irritant Anti-zymotic

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9 Turmeric

Dried rhizome of Curcuma longa

Curcuminoids Curcumin etc.)Volatile/-fixed oilsBitter substances

Antiseptic/AntimicrobialCholereticCholagogueHepatoprotectiveAromatic/stimulant carminative

10 Eucalyptus Oil

E.globule s/-citriodora

Volatile oils: 3-6%-Eucalyptol, Cineole,

Antiseptic, Diaphoretic, Expectorant

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11 Pectin Citrus limon Polysaccharide Antibacterial,astringent,antiasthama,coli

c12 Cinnamon Cinnamomum

zeylanicumVolatile oil Carminative, Styptic,antifungal

13 Neem Azadirachta indica

Nimbosterin Antiviral, antifungal,larvicida lanticancer,antiandrogenic

14 Garlic

Allium satium Essential oils(0.1-0.3%)Alliin (a-S containing amino acid), Allicin

Anti-bacterial Carminative/gastric stimulantOil-used as insecticide

15 Gentian Dried rhizome/root of Gentiana lutea

Bitter principles-GentiopikrinAlkaloid-GentianineXanthone deri.-Gentisin,Gentioside

Bitter tonic/sialic, Dyspepsia

16 Ginger Rhizome of Zingiber officinale

Volatile oils 0.6-3%- Zingiberene/ Zingiberol etc.Pungent principles 5-8%

Gastric stimulantCarminativeFlavoring agent

17 Kaolin Pure variety of clay

Aluminium silicate, also trace of Mg/Ca/ Fe

Gastric/intestinal antacidHeavy kaolin- aid in poulticePill excipient

18 Myrobalan Dried fruits of Terminalia chebula

Tannins-30%Chebulagic acid/Chebulinic acid Ellagic acid, gallic acid, Oleoresins

Therapeutic use:External -Chronic ulcers/woundsMouth wash in stomatitisLaxative, Hepatoprotective

19 Nux-vomica

Strychnos nuxvomica

Alkaloids(2.5-5.0%)Not <1.2% Strychnine, brucineGlycosides-loganinFixed oils

Bitter stomachicSialic

20 Pepper Piper longum

Piper nigrum

Piperine Carminative,antiseptic,rubifacient,sialog

ogue, abortive rminative, sedative,

purgative, cough

21 Isapgol Plantago

ovataPolysaccharides Bulk Laxative