HISTORYGRADE 12

RESOURCE PACK2020

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TOPIC:THE COLD WAREXTENTION OF THE COLD WAR: THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISES

CONTENT1. CONCEPTS2. SUMMARY-MIND MAP3. INFORMAL ASSESSMENT TASK

CONCEPTS

COLD WAR A state of hostility between nations without physical fighting.An economic and ideological struggle between the super powers-United State of America and United Soviet Republic and their allies.A period of tension from end of World War II to 1989.A spark for the biggest arms race in history with fears of a nuclear war.

Definition Cold War

COMMUNISM It is a doctrine (belief) that advocates a classless society in which private ownership has been abolish and means of production belongs to the community.

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Communist countries are often one-party state in which industry and agriculture are controlled by the state.The government controls most aspects of a person’s life and there is strong censorship of what is written and said.

CAPITALISM It is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and distribution of goods, characterized by a free competitive market and motivated by profit.

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DEMOCRACY A system of government based on the will of the people.It is a government for the people by the people in the form of their elected representatives.It therefore means the citizens of a country have the ability to choose their representatives and to effectively take part in the decisions made on issues that affect them and society in general

BRINKMANSHIP The practice, especially in international relations, of taking a dispute to the verge of conflict in the hope of forcing the opposition to make concessions

Complete the concepts below:

CONTAINMENT

QUARANTINE

BLOCKADE

NATIONALIZATION

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CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

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Background on the History of Cuba

before 1959

Events after 1959 in Cuba

Bay of Pigs invasion 1961

Cuban Missile Crisis 1962

The consequences of the Cuban Missile Crisis

1. Background on the History of Cuba before 1959o Why was Cuba important to the USA?

Cuba served an economic purpose They were forced to sell raw materials to Americans for low

prices. Cuba bought American manufactured goods. The USA invested heavily in Cuban economy Many businesses in Cuba were owned by the USA businesses Main crops such as sugar were sold to the USA The railway industry was run by the USA who controlled the

telephone system and tobacco plantations. Guantanamo Bay was an important US naval base The US controlled Cuban politics making sure it was favourable

to America. Cuba was a holiday island for rich Americans Batista ruled Cuba as dictator from 1952 – 1959 Batista’s corrupt rule supported by the USA There was a wide gap between wealthy and poor Cubans

2. Events after 1959 Cuba also a hot spot for Cold War tensions

Fidel Castro and the Cuban revolutionaries wrestled Cuba from the Batista government and capitalist USA domination in 1959

Castro adopts anti – USA stance All foreign assets seized and major industries nationalised Castro turns to USSR for help USSR provided economic and military aid Castro allows the USSR to establish and set up nuclear bases in

Cuba The missiles when launched had the capacity to reach USA cities

USA’s response

USA concerned, as Cuba is in close proximity They also feared the spread of communism USA refused to buy Cuban sugar and ended all other trade links with Cuba

(1960)

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3. The Bay of Pigs invasion

The USA cut off diplomatic ties with Cuba in 1961 CIA encouraged and funded a failed Bay of Pigs invasion by anti – Castro

Cuban exiles President Kennedy supported the invasion by the exiles The invasion – Bay of Pigs – was a disaster There was no popular uprising to support the invasion Kennedy denied all involvement in the operation It was a humiliation for the new USA president

o Results of the invasion – Bay of Pigs Castro declared Cuba a Communist State in December 1961 He approached the USSR to provide arms to defend Cuba against further

attacks from the US

1961 - BAY OF PIGS

4. Cuban missile Crisis 1962 Khrushchev announced it publicly that the USSR has agreed to provide arms The USA was concerned that this action will lead to the spread of communism

in the region Kennedy responded by saying that the USA will isolate Cuba He warned the USSR not to put nuclear missiles Cuba in Cuba Increasing Superpower tension It was also broadened by the acceleration in the arms race The sending of missiles by Russia increased the Cold War tension Khrushchev’s reasons may have been: It would reduce the advantage held by the USA. The USA had missiles placed

in Turkey and Italy, which bordered the USSR, (Jupiter missiles). To act as a deterrent against another attack. Cuba was the only communist country in the western hemisphere. To send out a message of strength to the USA The Soviet wanted a base close to the USA for its medium-range missiles. To increase the number of soviet war-heads. (close the gap)

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The crisis unfolds 1962

1962 August - US spy planes observed weapons in Cuba. September - Khrushchev secretly started to send nuclear weapons to

Cuba. 4 September - Kennedy warned the USSR not to put nuclear missiles

in Cuba. 11 September - The Soviet government assured the USA it would not

base nuclear missiles outside the USSR. 14 October - An American U-2 aircraft took a series of reconnaissance

photographs 20 km above the island 5 October. 15 October - Defence experts concluded that the site was being

prepared for a number of medium-range ballistic missiles. They would soon be ready to fire.

16 October - Alarmed by the intelligence reports, Kennedy quickly called a meeting of top level advisers, including his brother, Robert Kennedy, the Attorney General. This group, which met frequently during the crisis, became known as the Executive Committee (Ex-Comm). One member later recalled that Kennedy was more tense than he had ever seen him. He was ‘absolutely determined that the missiles would leave Cuba’.

19 October – Further reconnaissance photos revealed more missile sites, this time threatening a longer-range strike. The experts said that the Soviets were working non-stop and that the missile sites were nearly ready.

22 October - Kennedy announced a naval blockade of Cuba. All ships carrying weapons to Cuba were to be turned back. The armed forces were placed on high alert. The USSR was told that the USA would retaliate against any missile launched from Cuba against a Western nation. That evening Kennedy went on television to make a live broadcast to the American people. It was probably the most important speech made in the whole period of the Cold War.

23 October - The Soviet government insisted that it was simply helping Cuba to defend itself and that the USA was interfering in Cuba's affairs. Khrushchev accused the USA of pushing the world towards nuclear war.

24 October - The blockade was in place. Approximately twenty-five Soviet ships were spread across the Atlantic on their way to Cuba.Then, at 10.25 a.m. Kennedy received the most important message of his political career: a number of ships had stopped dead in the mid-Atlantic. One oil tanker was allowed through without being searched. The rest turned back.

26 October - Khrushchev sent a letter to Kennedy hinting that he was ready to make some sort of agreement. The USSR might withdraw the missiles if Kennedy promised not to invade Cuba. A second message then arrived insisting that the USSR would only remove their missiles

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from Cuba if the USA removed theirs from Turkey. The Executive Committee advised Kennedy not to give in to Soviet Kennedy not to give in to Soviet demands 'at the point of a gun'. Khrushchev was obviously coming under pressure from hard-line generals to stand up to the USA. Hence, the second message. The crisis seemed to be getting out of hand.

27 October - An American U-2 plane was shot down over Cuba, killing the pilot. Although Castro had acted on his own, Kennedy was stunned. He believed that the Cuban leader was following Soviet orders. Some of Kennedy's more hard-line advisers urged the president to attack Cuba. The world was on the brink of nuclear war. Kennedy had already moved his wife and children to Washington so that they could be in the presidential bunker. At this stage Kennedy's attitude softened. A second U-2 flew into Soviet air space. Kennedy apologised. It was at this stage that Robert Kennedy helped to solve the crisis. He suggested that the USA should reply to the first message and ignore the second, more aggressive one. Kennedy's reply to Khrushchev therefore said that the USA would promise not to invade Cuba but would not make a decision on Turkey until they had talked to their NATO allies. In return for the Cuban guarantee, America demanded the withdrawal of the Soviet missiles from Cuba.

28 October - Radio Moscow announced that the nuclear weapons would be removed. Privately, the Americans agreed to remove their missiles from Turkey as long as the USSR kept it a secret

5. The consequences of the Cuban Missile crisis Cuba remained Communist, / Khrushchev lost credibility: Marxist-Leninism failed to spread to other regions/ Communist China

broke ties with USSR for backing down/ USA Naval and trade blockade remained intact/ Kennedy gained popularity: He was seen as the man that faced down

theSoviets/ He also ignored second letter which would have required an actualwithdrawal of missiles from Turkey – this would have been seen as a defeat for

US. Instead he accepted the 1st letter which simply required JFK to say he would not invade Cuba (i.e. would not act). Thus there was no public retreat from policy for JFK. However, he did want to use the bargaining potential of removing his missiles without actually publically admitting to it so sent his brother (would seem like he was very sincere) to imply rather than promise a withdrawal of missiles –thus saving face, no written promises, so could deny if ever challenged

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CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS-TED TALK

QUESTION FOCUS: THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

INFORMAL ASSESSMENTACTIVITY 1

KEY QUESTION: HOW DID CONTAINMENT AND BRINKMANSHIP DOMINATE THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS?Hints

SOURCE 1AAn extract from H. Khrushchev memoirs in which he recalls the Cuban Missile Crisis I will explain what the Caribbean crisis (Cuban Missile crisis) of October 1962 was all about….. After Castro’s crushing victory over counter – revolutionaries. We intensified our military aid to Cuba ….We were quite convinced that the Americans would never reconcile themselves to the existence of Castro’s Cuba. They feared as much as we hoped, that socialist Cuba might become a magnet that would lead other Latin American countries to socialism….. The fate of Cuba and the maintenance of Soviet prestige in that part of the world preoccupied me.We had to establish a tangible and an effective deterrent to American interference in Cuba…. I had the idea of installing missiles with nuclear warheads in Cuba without

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When working with sources you need to do the following:REMEMBER: The key question provides the focus of the content in the sources. It will also be asked as the paragraph question.1. The source will be labelled e.g. Source 1A ; 1B ;1 C 2. Immediately after the label the part that follows tell you what it is about

(contextualised). In most cases it will indicate what the source is about, why it was written, who wrote (owner of) the source, when it was written and where the event took place. The colours used in the contextualisation answer the questions indicated here.

3. Read the source with understanding.4. Highlight concepts / terms. In this source e.g. totalitarianism

letting the USA find out they were there until it was too late…. We had no desire to start a war. We sent a note to the Americans saying that we agree to remove our missiles and bombers on condition that the President gave us the assurance there would be no invasion of Cuba. Finally Kennedy gave in….. The two most powerful nations of the world had squared off against each other, each with its finger on the button

From. Khrushchev Remembers 1964

1.1 Refer to Source 1A 1.1.1 What do you understand by the concept “brinkmanship” in the context of the

Cold War. (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.2 Quote evidence from the source that supports the USA’s domino theory. (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.3 What, according to the source, was the main reason for Russia’sdecision to place missiles in Cuba?

(1 x 2) (2) 1.1.4 Explain the conditions laid down by USSR to remove missiles

planted in Cuba. (2 x 2) (4) 1.1.5 How did the Americans respond to USSR’s demands? (1 x 2) (2) 1.1.6 What is implied (suggested) by the following:

” each with its fingers on the button”? (2 x 2) (4)

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INFORMAL ASSESSMENT

ACTIVITY 2 Refer to Source 1B

SOURCE 1BAn editorial cartoon depicting a western – style showdown between cowboys:Left: USA president; Right: The Cuban president riding on a donkey and the Soviet leader riding on a horse; Illustration by Leslie Illingworth from the Daily Mail (London) Courtesy of the Library of Congress

2http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/uhic/ReferenceDetailsPage/

1.2.1 Identify the THREE Presidents shown in the source. (3 x 1) (3)

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1.2.2 Do you think that the stance, as supported in the source by the USA President, was an aggressive one? Use the source to support your answer. (2 x 2) (4)

1.2.3 Explain why the Russian President rides a horse whilst the Cuban President rides a donkey in the context of the Cold War. (2 x 2) (4) 1.2.4 How reliable is this source to a historian studying the Cuban Missile Crisis? (2 x 2) (4)

Answer

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ACTIVITY 3

SOURCE 1CJohn. F. Kennedy’s Speech on Radio and Television (an extract)October 22, 1962Good Evening, My Fellow Citizens:This government, as promised, has maintained the closest surveillance of the Soviet military build-up on the island of Cuba. Within the past week, unmistakable evidence has established the fact that a series of offensive missile sites is now in preparation on that imprisoned island. The purpose of these bases can be none other than to provide a nuclear strike capability against the Western Hemisphere…The characteristics of these new missile sites indicate two distinct types of installations. Several of them include medium range ballistic missiles, capable of carrying a nuclear warhead for a distance of more than 1,000 nautical miles. Each of these missiles, in short, is capable of striking Washington D.C., the Panama Canal, Cape Canaveral, Mexico City, or any other city in the south eastern part of the United States, in Central America or in the Caribbean area.Acting, therefore, in the defence of our own security and of the entire Western Hemisphere, and under the authority entrusted to me by the Constitution as endorsed by the resolution of the Congress, I have directed that the following initial steps be taken immediately:

First: To halt this offensive build-up, a strict quarantine on all offensive military equipment under shipment to Cuba is being initiated. All ships of any kind bound for Cuba from whatever nation and port will, if found to contain cargoes of offensive weapons, be turned back. This quarantine will be extended, if needed, to other types of cargo and carriers. We are not at this time, however, denying the necessities of life as the Soviets attempted to do in their Berlin blockade of 1948…

Third: It shall be the policy of this nation to regard any nuclear missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western Hemisphere as an attack on the United States, requiring a full retaliatory response upon the Soviet Union…Thank you and good night.http://www.historywiz.com/primarysources/kennedyspeechcuba.html

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ACTIVITY 3Study Source 1A; B; C

Use your own knowledge and the relevant sources to write a paragraph of about EIGHT lines (about 80 words) explaining on how brinkmanship and containment dominated the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. (8)

ANSWER

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TOPIC: HOW DID CHINA RISE AS A WORLD POWER AFTER 1949?

QUESTION FOCUS ESSAY

Background: Events leading up to the Communist takeover in 1949

Hostilities between the Guomindang and CCP eased during WW2, as the Chinese struggled against Japanese occupation.

After WW2 the Civil War continued Years of corruption, mistreatment and pro-capitalist policies had made Chiang

Kai-shek’s government unpopular, particularly with China’s 400 million peasants

Chinese Communist party -Operated underground Supported peasant class Promise free land and abolishment of class system Communist Red Army skilled in guerrilla warfare After four more years of civil war, Chiang Kai-shek and his cohort were forced

to flee to the safety of Taiwan. 1949 War ended- Communist gained victory In October 1949 thousands rallied in Tiananmen Square, Beijing, where Mao

Zedong proclaimed victory and the birth of a new communist state: The People’s Republic of China (PRC).

Hundred Flowers Campaign In 1957 Mao asked for criticism and discussion about China's problems He wanted to establish which people were against him and punish them

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Background: Events leading up to

the Communist takeover in 1949

The Great Leap Forward

The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)

There was a lot of criticism of the Five Year Plan and its effects, Even Mao himself was criticised by some people Most of the critics were arrested, lost their jobs and were sent to labour

camps for ‘re-education’

Great Leap Forward

Economic Changes 1953-57: 1st five-year plan (aimed to promote industrialisation) Mao considered Khrushchev’s thinking as ‘revisionism’ or a softening of

communism Mao abandoned the Stalinist model of Five – Year Plans for the “Great Leap

Forward” As a result of the successful economic reconstruction that had taken place in

the early 1950s Mao Zedong considered the conditions ripe for a Great Leap Forward in early 1958

1958-61: ‘The Great Leap Forward’. –Transform China economy from agricultural based economy to industrial one

The Great Leap was not merely a bold economic project. It was also intended to show the Soviet Union that the Chinese approach to economic development was more vibrant, and ultimately would be more successful, than the Soviet model that had been followed intensely until then

It was an ambitious plan to turn China into a modern state in a single generation

A massive industrialisation programme was followed with collectivisation of farm land

Mao’s plans to industrialise China resulted in mass famine. An estimated 20 million people died. The policy was abandoned. After 1976 : China embraced aspects of capitalist economy.

SOCIAL CHANGES New emphasis on improving the health, welfare and literacy of the majority

peasant population. Literacy increased from 20% in 1949 to 90% by mid-1960s. POLITICAL CHANGES China became one party state and Chairman Mao became a virtual ruler

Outcome/ consequences/ results of the Great Leap Forward Agricultural output decreased 1959 famine (drought) worsened poor production – many peasants died of

starvation Steel production – poor quality Corrupt officials and bad planning Failed and abandoned within 3 years (lack of support from farmers) State taxed farmers production heavily Mao relaxed authoritarian form of government to accommodate the

moderates in the CCP – but not for long

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GREAT LEAP FORWARD

The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) The Aims of the Cultural Revolution(Great proletarian Cultural Revolution)

were to: Reinforce communist principles: Mao’s ‘Little Red Book’-Mao philosophies

about communism Re-establish Mao’s authority as leader of China Chairman of the Communist

Party (NB: context of Mao’s failed Great Leap Forward). Prepare China’s youth to inherit socialism. Purge China of the four ‘Olds’: Old customs, old culture, old habits, old ideas. Red Army-Red Guards-killed anti-revolutionary Meant to reinforce communist principles Led to killings of those opposed to Communism Red army (joined by many students) became Red Guards and got rid of

communist opponents Red Guards killed (purged) anti-revolutionaries (intellectuals, educators,

doctors, lecturers, writers & economists) Schools and universities were closed Economy suffered The ‘Little Red Book’ explained Mao’s philosophies (thoughts) and became a

source of ‘propaganda’

Impact of the Cultural Revolution

• Around 1 million of opponents of communism were killed• Schools/ universities were closed• Red Guards taught reading and writing• Economy suffered• Anti - communist art work, books and monuments were destroyed• Red Guards fought against their colleagues (mistrust)• Oct 1968, Liu Shao-chi’s expulsion signified end of Cultural Revolution. Other

historians, believe it continued until his death in 1976

China – Cultural Revolution

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ESSAY QUESTIONHOW TO WRITE ESSAYS

Essay questions require learners to take a stance and to develop a relevant and coherent line of argument.

The line of argument must be supported with relevant historical evidence, that is organised and connected chronologically to the question posed.

Good essay writing involves structure, and this should be emphasised to learners.

The essay must have a relevant introduction, a coherent and convincing body of evidence and a compelling conclusion for example:

Introduction Should make it clear to the reader, what is going to be discussed and the line

of argument that is going to be followed in the rest of the essay. If you read the first sentence of a paragraph or the first paragraph of a longer

piece of writing and you cannot work out clearly what the original question was, then the introduction has failed in its primary purpose.

BODY (PEEL)• P = POINT: The opening sentence of your paragraph must make a clear

statement or point.• E = EXPLAIN: The next few sentences in your paragraph should explain the

point you have just made.• E = EVIDENCE: The next few sentences should give evidence to substantiate

[support] the statement [point] you have made above. This will be the dates, details, facts, figures from reading your textbook and source material.

• L = LINK: At the end of your paragraph you must link back to the essay question and/ or forward to the next paragraph.

• Should contain all the relevant factual material/content and should be explicitly linked to the line of argument.

• Should be well structured in a chronological and coherent manner, displaying good synthesis of information.

• Give examples to reinforce the stance taken

CONCLUSION• Learners should round off the argument by reverting to the question posed. • In many cases this will consist of restating the main line of argument.

ESSAY TYPE QUESTION: QUESTION: THE COLD WAR: CASE STUDY CHINA“Mao Zedong”s policies of the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural revolution failed to stabilize China’s economy “Do you agree with the statement? Use relevant historical evidence to support your line of argument.

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HISTORY ESSAY WRITING FRAMEQuestion: (Write the Essay Question in the space below)

Underline the Key ‘instruction’ words? Any terms/names/dates need explaining.

Introduction: (Write your introduction below)Your introduction should contextualise the question (Who? what? where? when?) and directly address or answer the essay question.

PARAGRAPH 1:

(A) First sentence of first paragraph (PEEL)

(Check: Have you made your key point?)

(B) Development/explanation of point? (PEEL)

(C) Evidence to support your argument? (PEEL)1.

2.

3.

(D) Check: Have you referred back to the question/linked the point explicitly to the question? YES? NO

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(E) Link to next paragraph/point? (PEEL)

PARAGRAPH 2:

(A) First sentence of second paragraph

Check: Have you made your key point? YES/ NO(B) Development/explanation of the point?

(C) Evidence to support your argument?1.

2.

3.

(D) Check: Have you referred back to the question/linked the point explicitly to the question? YES / NO

(E) Link to next paragraph point?

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Repeat steps (A) – (E) for each paragraph in your essay.

CONCLUSION:

This essay writing frame can be used for structuring any History essay.Use it with the paragraph structuring frame (Point > Explain >Example >Link) and guidelines for writing introductions and conclusions.Learners can adapt this frame to include as many paragraphs as they need.

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TOPIC: INDEPENDENT AFRICAQUESTION FOCUS: CASE STUDY ANGOLACONTENT

1. CONCEPTS2. SUMMARY-MIND MAP3. ASSESSMENT

African Socialism This is a belief in sharing economic resources in a traditional African way.

Afro-Marxism This is ideology adopted by many African countries wherein there is a one party state that exercises centralized policy making. There is economic collectivization and a nationalized economy.

Neo-Colonialism Refers to the continued exploitation of Africa’s resources by the former colonial powers and the develop world.

Private sector The part of the economy that is not state controlled and is run by individuals in companies for profit.

Socialism An economic system based on the idea that the enterprises which produce wealth should be owned by those who work in them.

Capitalism An economic system where individuals own the enterprises which produce wealth, such as factories, farms and mines

Marxism A particular version of socialism developed by karl Marx which is also called communism

Secede Break awayAfricanisation To transfer to African controlEurocentric Focusing on European culture or history to the exclusion of

a wider view of the worldProxy war A war supported by major powers without them fighting

each otherPolicy of destabilization

The actions of making governments and countries less stable

Communism is a political and economic system whereby the state takes full responsibility for its citizens. Centrally controlled economic and political system which is an alternative to capitalism.

Democracy A political system in which all citizens are free to elect representatives to establish a multi-party government

Neo-colonialism (neo-meaning new or revived colonialism) ironically Africa with its rich resources enriched foreign powers in a one-sided relationship (exploitation) which favored the former colonial powers. African nations were given political independence but did not attain economic freedom.

One-Party State System of government where only one political party is legally permitted to exist/function

Dictatorship An individual ruler who takes total control of all state power. Often results in the creation of a personality cult through the use of security forces to eliminate all forms of opposition

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INDEPENDENT AFRICA: CASE STUDY ANGOLA

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How did Angola become an

extension of the Cold War?

Role of the USA in Angola and the Role of Russia in Angola

Cuban Involvement &

Chinese involvement

What role did South Africa play

in the Angolan Civil War?

How Africa was drawn into the Cold War?

• African decolonization occurred during the Cold War.• Both USA and USSR used aid packages, technical assistance and even

military assistance to liberation movements to draw African countries into their spheres of influence.

• Angola is rich in minerals: Oil, diamonds, gold, uranium, copper + fishing industry – a very desirable colony and ally.

Angola: Colonialism and Independence

• Portuguese presence / trade in Angola from the 1480s• Berlin Conference 1885: control formalized• 1951: Portugal considered Angola to be an oversees province of Portugal:

Policy of Assimilation• Portugal rejected calls for Independence from 1950s• War of Independence (1961 – 1974)• Coup by pro-democracy army officers in Portugal 1974• Jan. 1975: Alvor Accords: to prepare for take-over by 3 liberation

movements (were not honored).

• Elections set for 11/ 11/1975 (did not happen) Civil War Broke out in 1974

• In 1974 each of the three liberation movements declared themselves the official government from their separate capital cities.

MPLA : LuandaUNITA : HuamboFNLA : Ambriz

• Angola’s civil war soon became a proxy in which East and West played out their Cold War politics.

Reasons for international involvement in Angola  

• USSR: to support liberation from colonialism; strategic importance of Angola; a communism base in the region; within reach to give financial and military support to SWAPO.

• USA: Policy of containment – feared the spread of communism in the region; secretly sent arms to FNLA and UNITA. USA’s Clark Amendment ‘76 called for reduction of involvement in Angola - repealed in 1985 and funding for resumed: NB: Angola has OIL.

• Cuba: Castro wished to spread the revolution (US vigilantly preventing this in South America) , sent military assistance to MPLA from 1966; Number of troops deployed increased to a peak of 50 000 in late 1980s.

• China: committed to anti-imperialist struggle + to prevent spread of USSR’s influence.

• South Africa: NP’s policy of destabilization in region to stop spread of communism ; to destroy SWAPO bases.

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Angola the War- Short documentary

Significance of Cuito Cuanavale (1987 – 1988

• SADF helped by UNITA and FNLA attempted to take control of Cuito Cuanavale (small town of strategic importance)

• Who Won? (Multi- perceptivity)• Viewpoint 1:• Defeat for Angolan Army (Fapla) by UNITA + SA• USSR & Cuba forced to withdrew from Angola•  • Viewpoint 2• SA(SADF) defeated by Angolan army (Fapla) and Cuban forces and forced to

withdraw.• Liberation of SWA (Namibia)

Changing nature of international relations

• 1988: New York Treaty, negotiated independence of Namibia• Withdrawal of foreign troops from Angola• 1989: Gbadolite Accord (famous handshake – dos Santos and Savimbi)• 1991 (31 May): Bicesse Peace Accords • 1992 (September) elections to be supervised by UNO

UNITA refused to accept MPLA victory – war resumed.• 1994 (November)Lusaka protocol(international pressure)• 1998 (December) Fourth MPLA congress • 2002 (22 February) Savimbi killed• 2002 (4 April) Luena Memorandum of Understanding

The Struggle for Independence in Angola:

• Angola does not border South Africa. • This point is important to understand why the South Africans became militarily

involved there.• A major reason was that the Angolan economy was not as integrated into the

South African economy as the other economies of Southern Africa are.• Angola is potentially one of the wealthiest countries in Africa: • International capital is still involved in a fierce competition for its resources.• It is one of Africa’s leading oil producers, and before 1973 it was a major

diamond and coffee source, and, with a population of just over 8 million, has been underpopulated since the time of the slave trade.

• Portugal was so poor that it could never fully exploit the resources of its colony and opened it to capital from other exploiters.

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• U.S. investments dominated in petroleum, British capital in diamonds and the Benguela railway, German capital in the iron mines at Kassinga, and Japanese, French, and other capital in other resources.

• This multinational character of capital in Angola meant that Portugal was de facto administering its colony on behalf of the European Economic Community and the United States.

The First Defeat of South Africa, 1975–1976:

• The anticolonial struggle in Angola, which led to the 1974 coup in Portugal, was a turning point for Southern Africa.

• South Africa intervened with CIA support by land, sea, and air to stop the MPLA from coming to power.

• The Angolans asked for Cuban help to defeat the invasion led by South Africans, Zairian regulars, and CIA mercenaries.

• The South African invasion was turned back outside Luanda. • South Africa never accepted its defeat.• the 1987–1988 siege of Cuito Cuanavale was only the most recent in a

number of stages in the ensuing military buildup.• But the 1976 defeat at Luanda, and that in Mozambique a year earlier, also

inspired the generation that was maturing in the South African townships.• The 1976 Soweto uprisings and their aftermath formed an important

watershed in the militarization of the state and society in Southern Africa.• After the defeat in Angola and the uprisings in Soweto, a number of stages led

up to the South African humiliation at Cuito CuanavaleThe War in 1976–1980:

• In this period, the South Africans were on the defensive politically and diplomatically, but were staging a massive military buildup in Namibia.

• They began conscription, constructed new military bases, and made raids against the Southwest African People’s Organization (SWAPO), which had moved its headquarters to Luanda from Dar es Salaam after 1976.

• Thousands of youths dodged conscription in the tribal regiments and joined SWAPO.

• It was at this point that the South Africans organized UNITA, which had previously been wandering in Angola without a clear mission.

• The role of UNITA changed drastically when the Carter administration persuaded the Chinese to give it 800 tons of weapons.

• This kind of weaponry enabled UNITA to wage conventional war; • its officers were trained in Morocco, and it was thoroughly integrated into the

military strategy of the SADF. • This was a strange twist of history, for UNITA got its first weapons from

SWAPO, to fight against the Portuguese.• UNITA was now used to track SWAPO while the South African air force

bombed its concentrations in Angola. • It was in one such raid that the South Africans carried out the Kassinga

massacre, in which over 800 people were killed at a SWAPO refugee camp in 1978.

• The ensuing international outcry led to the adoption of UN Resolution 435 in 1978, detailing steps leading to the independence of Namibia:

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• (1)The withdrawal of South African troops, (2) the return of Namibian refugees, (3) UN-supervised elections, and (4) the “granting” of independence.

Angola Battle of Cuito CuanavaleThe Lusaka Accord of 1984

• The next major South African invasion took place in August 1983.• Here UNITA announced it had taken Cangamba. • The South African air force destroyed it and turned the rubble over to UNITA

to show off to journalists flown in from Zambia. • South Africa wanted UNITA to take Cuvelai so that the front of the war could

be driven northward. • Its self-confidence was heightened by the invasion of Grenada, when

anticommunist rhetoric in the United States reached an incredible peak. • The South African government intended an all-out attack on Luanda, the

capital of Angola. • This was a case in which operational objectives were confused with the

political rhetoric of anticommunism. • The South African generals said that it was operationally impossible to take

Luanda, but the Magnus Malan faction within the State Security Council wanted to intensify the war.

• The Angolans were getting more experienced, and the South Africans’ Operation Askari failed.

• This failure led the United States to intercede on behalf of South African troops encircled in Angola.

• The resulting accord was named after the Zambian capital, Lusaka.• It set up a joint military commission to oversee the withdrawal of South

African troops.The Third Period: 1984–1987

• In September, FAPLA forces started to drive against Jamba, near the Namibian border.

• South Africa intervened, but with the uprisings in the townships it could not carry the battle and called upon the United States to help.

• The United States supplied Stinger missiles to UNITA and $15 million additional aid.

• UNITA itself lacked the administrative and military infrastructure to manage this assistance, which in fact went indirectly to the South Africans.

• During the siege of Cuito Cuanavale, Savimbi complained that the South Africans worked out the cost of the battle and told him he had to “ask his friends to pay.”

• The United States also reactivated the base at Kamina in Zaire, where the CIA was dropping supplies for the South Africans via UNITA.

• The U.S. support for UNITA, and in essence the SADF, led to the final stage of the war.

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QUESTION 2: INDEPENDENT AFRICAQUESTION FOCUS: CASE STUDY ANGOLA

INFORMAL ASSESSMENTACTIVITY 1

WHY DID THE CIVIL WAR IN ANGOLA BECOME AN INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT?

SOURCE 2A

An extract from I Filatova and A Davidson, The Hidden Thread. Russia and South Africa in the Soviet Era. Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball Publishers, 2013, pp. 273-4.

But what were the South Africans doing there (in Angola) in the first place? . . . General Jannie Geldenhuys, commander of the South West African Territorial Force – an auxiliary force of the SADF which had been created to combat Namibian guerrillas – and later chief of the SADF, explained:

In 2011 some arrogant and malicious critics still pose the question: whatever did

South Africa have to do with the situation in Angola during the 1970s and 1980s?

Now: the Soviet Union mainland is only 70 miles . . . from the United States (Alaska);

Cuba’s littoral (shoreline) is only 90 miles away from the United States . . . the

Soviet Union at a distance of 3800 miles as the crow flies from Angola – over the

Mediterranean and eight European and African countries! On the other hand, at the

time of the war in Angola, SWA/Namibia was still legally in international terms under

the administration of South Africa; and Namibia has common borders with Angola

and South Africa. Obviously, any decent person would ask the much more valid

question: What did the island of Cuba and the Soviet Union have to do with Angola?

2.1 Refer to Source 2A 2.1.1 What was the position of Geldenhuys in the SADF? (1 x 1) (1)

2.1.2 Give a reason for his unhappiness about the presence of The Soviet Union & Cuba in Angola. (1 x 1) (1)

2.1.3 Explain how he defended South Africa’s presence in

Angola? (2 x 2) (4)

2.1.4 What, according to the source, is his reaction to those who questioned South Africa’s presence in Angola? (1 x 2) (2)

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Answer

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ACTIVITY 2

SOURCE 2B

An extract from I Filatova and A Davidson, The Hidden Thread. Russia and South Africa in the Soviet Era. Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball Publishers, 2013, pp. 275-6

A (USSR) veteran of the Angolan war, Sergei Kolomin, wrote:

. . . What were we doing in this far-off African country, what values were we

defending? Officially Soviet military advisers and specialists were fulfilling their

‘international duty’, defending the values of socialism and assisting friendly Angola in

building its national army and repulsing (turning away) external aggression. But the

then Soviet leadership had other motives for sending thousands of Soviet citizens to

take part in a bloody civil war. Maybe they thought of further economic cooperation?

Yes, several economic projects were being realised. But the main goals were

political. To spread their influence into Angola . . . and in future into Namibia,

illegally occupied by South Africa, and finally into South Africa itself. Moreover,

Angola was an object of interest for the leadership of the Soviet armed forces in

terms of the global confrontation with the USA.

2.2 Refer to Source 2B 2.2.1 Define the term “African socialism”. (1 x 2) (2)

2.2.2 List two reasons, given by Kolomin, for the USSR’s Involvement in Angola. (2 x 1) (2)

2.2.3 Explain the reference, “global confrontation with the USA”in the context of the Cold War. (2 x 2) (4)

2.2.4 How useful is the source to a historian studying the USSR’sinvolvement in Angola? (2 x 2) (4)

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Answer

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ACTIVITY 3

STUDY THE CARTOON 2C

SOURCE 2C

A cartoon drawn by a South African, Fred Mouton, and published in Die Burger, 1976. Die Burger was widely associated with the National Party government in South Africa at the time. The cartoon shows a large hand knocking ash from a cigar into an ashtray.

2.4 Refer to Source 2C 2.4.1 Identify the two symbols which link the USSR and Cuba to

Angola. (2 x 1) (2)

2.4.2 How does the use of symbols in 2.3.1 enrich our understanding of events in Angola? (2 x 2) (4)

2.4.3 What message is being conveyed in Source 2C? (2 x 2) (4)

2.4.4 What natural resource has attracted foreign powers to Angola? (1 x 2) (2)

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Answer

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QUESTION FOCUS ESSAY: CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

Reasons and origins of the Civil Rights Movement in the USA

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Reasons and origins

The role, impact and influence of

Martin Luther King Jnr.

Forms of protest through civil disobedience

Protest, Campaigns and Demonstrations

Short and Long term gains

• Many African American people believed that their lives would change after the World wars.

• They had fought for their country and expected to be treated as equals. Black American activists were frustrated by:

• the federal and state government’s lack of action to implement desegregation. • They were also angered by the huge resistance of white Americans against

the ending of segregation and • the ongoing violence against black people, particularly in the southern states. • It was in this context that the Civil Rights Movement emerged.

Role and influence of Martin Luther King Junior

• He was 26 years old when he was appointed a Baptist minister in Montgomery, Alabama.

• At the beginning of Montgomery Bus boycott King spoke to a large congregation of people at Holt Street Baptist Church in Montgomery.

• He became spokesperson for African American rights • He challenged racial segregation and injustice. • He was a gifted speaker. • He believed in using non-violent protest.

The influence of passive resistance (Gandhi) on Martin Luther King

• King had been influenced by liberation struggle which Gandhi led against British colonial rule in India.

• India gained its independence in 1947 • Martin Luther King Junior adapted Gandhi’s passive resistance philosophy.• King believed that such action could win full civil rights for black people in

America. • People from all religions as well as non-believers embraced his call for non-

violent civil disobedience.

Forms of protest through civil disobedience

MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT• First phase of Civil Rights Movement was sparked off by Rosa Parks’ arrest in

December 1955. • Rosa Parks, civil rights activist boarded a city bus and moved to the back

where African Americans were required to sit.• As bus filled up Parks was asked by bus driver to give up her seat to a white

man. She refused. • Rosa Parks’ arrest resulted in year-long Montgomery Bus Boycott which

ended in legal victory when the Supreme Court ruled that segregation on Montgomery buses was illegal.

• During the boycott, Martin Luther King emerged as a powerful speaker and a nationally respected leader.

• 1957 King and other religious leaders formed Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to lead struggle.

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• Montgomery Bus boycott had been a victory for African Americans

Sit - Ins

• Students also played an important role in Civil Rights Movement. • 1960 a group of students in Greensboro sat down at a ‘whites only’ lunch

counter and waited to be served. • The waiting staff ignored them. • The students sat peacefully and refused to move. • The next day a larger group of students returned and resumed their protest. • Their courageous action inspired others and within two weeks there had been

similar protests in eleven cities - students were arrested. • Students also played an important role in Civil Rights Movement. • 1960 a group of students in Greensboro sat down at a ‘whites only’ lunch

counter and waited to be served. • The waiting staff ignored them. • The students sat peacefully and refused to move. • The next day a larger group of students returned and resumed their protest. • Their courageous action inspired others and within two weeks there had been

similar protests in eleven cities - students were arrested.

Freedom Rides

• Although segregation on buses had been ruled unconstitutional, segregation was still practiced in Southern states - May 1961, an interracial group of 13 students travelled on two Greyhound buses from Washington DC to the South

• These protests became known as ‘Freedom Rides’

The Birmingham Campaign

• Early 1963 King and the SCLC organised an economic boycott of white businesses and a series of protest marches in Birmingham, Alabama - to desegregate Birmingham’s downtown department stores.

• Many were arrested including King. • Birmingham business leaders decided that the protest campaign was bad for

business and agreed to desegregate their lunch counters, restrooms and drinking fountains.

• The jailed protestors were set free. • In Birmingham, King took a controversial decision to enlist school children to

join demonstrations. • On 2 May 1963 thousands of black children gathered at the Baptist Church

instead of going to their schools. • In groups of fifty they marched straight into the full force of Birmingham’s

white police. • Commissioner of Public Safety, Eugene Bull Connor ordered high-pressure

water hoses be used against “Children’s Crusade” as it became known • Over 500 children were arrested that day , thousands were traumatized.

• Newspapers, radio, television reporters and cameramen documented events in Birmingham making sure it received national and international attention.

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• Americans were made aware of brutal attacks on people by Birmingham police.

• Many Americans were shocked and support for Civil Rights Movement grew. KENNEDY’S RESPONSE

• President Kennedy was faced with a public outcry about treatment of black people in southern states.

• June 1963 President Kennedy went on television to make a public statement about situation in Birmingham - He declared that racial segregation had no place in American life.

• This was a great victory for Civil Rights Movement

MARCH TO THE LINCOLN MEMORIAL

• 1963 black unemployment stood at 11 percent.• It was in this context of inequality that Philip Randolph, a 74-year-old veteran

activist decided to organize a march on Washington. • This march became known as ‘The March on Washington for Jobs and

Freedom.’ • Despite initial fears that it would result in more violence, President Kennedy

gave the march his authorization. • On 28 August 250 000 people of all faiths about 60 000 of them white,

descended on Washington. • It was the largest demonstration for human and civil rights in America’s history

– and it was peaceful. • It was Martin Luther’s “I have a Dream” speech though which is remembered. • On 22 November 1963 President Kennedy was assassinated .• Lyndon B Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act on 2 July 1964

SELMA MONTGOMERY MARCH• In March 1965 King led a demonstration to Montgomery, Alabama. • Two marches to Montgomery failed as a result of state troopers blocked the

marches at Edmund Pettus Bridge across the Alabama river.

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• Accompanied by federal troops to Montgomery black people be allowed to register to vote.

•  The first attempt to complete the march ended in an event called “Bloody Sunday”.

• State troops attacked peaceful demonstrators with whips and batons. • President Johnson called upon Congress to work with him “around the clock”

to prepare new federal legislation to secure rights of all people to vote.• On 6 August 1965, Johnson signed Voting Rights Act which eliminated all

voting literacy tests, poll taxes and other legal loopholes which had been used to prevent black people from registering to vote in southern states.

• The Civil Rights Movement achieved its aim of equality before the law.

Short and long-term gains of the Civil Rights Movement• As President Johnson signed Voting Rights Act into law in 1965.• Martin Luther King Junior had mobilised thousands of black and white

Americans to participate in campaigns of civil disobedience between 1955 and 1965.

• The signing of 1964 Civil Rights Act and 1965 Voting Act were important gains for Civil Rights Movement

• Civil Rights Movement arguably ended racial segregation in South. • Prejudice did not disappear with new legislation and African Americans still

faced racial discrimination. • Many African Americans rejected Martin Luther King Junior’s philosophy of

non-violence • They believed that a more militant approach to white racism was necessary

and adopted the slogan ‘Black Power.’

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ESSAY: CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

Question

Explain TO WHAT EXTENT the different forms of civil-rights protests that occurred in the United States of America made an impact on the struggle for human rights 1960.

Answer

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TOPIC: CIVIL SOCIETY PROTEST 1950’s to 1970’sBLACK POWER MOVEMENT

CONCEPTSMIND MAPASSESSMENT TASKS

CONCEPTS

Black Power Movement

Black nationalists believed that the use of force was justified in order to gain social, political and economic power for African Americans. It grew out of the Civil Rights Movement but was not a formal movement as it had no central leadership. The Black Power Movement aimed to accelerate the process of change so that African Americans had the same opportunities as whites.

Militant Military in attitude; assertive, achieving goals by using force.

Radical: Wanting immediate change.

Segregation Separation of people according to their race and gender.

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Conspiracy A plot to do something which is harmful and illegalElite A group of people considered to be superior in a particular society

or organisation.Enfranchisement

Having the right to vote

Enlightenment Being well informed, open to different views and ideas and free from prejudice or ignorance.

Martyr Someone who dies for what he /she believes inNationalism The sense of belonging to a nation that people feel because they

share similar backgrounds and common culture characteristics, which often produces a policy of national independence

Oppressor A person of authority who dominates and subjugates othersSupremacist A person who insists that one group is better than another,

especially a group determined by race or gender

BLACK POWER MOVEMENT

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Reasons for the movement

Black Panther;

Roles of Stokely Carmichael and Malcolm X; and

Short-term and long-term

gains.

Topic 3: Civil society protests 1950s to 1970s

Topic 3 Case Study: ‘The Black Power Case Study: the Black Power Movement This section includes:• Reasons for the movement;• Black Panther;• Roles of Stokely Carmichael and Malcolm X; and • Short-term and long-term gains.

Conclusion: Overview of the progress, if any, that was made towards equality and civil rights by the Civil Rights and Black Power movements

Key figures: Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael: leaders of the Black Power Movement. Bobby Searle and Huey Newton: leaders of the Black Panther Party

Introduction: The Black Power Movement grew out of black dissatisfaction with the achievements of the Civil Rights Movement in the second half of the 1960s.

Reasons for the movement While the Civil Rights Movement had helped achieve the gains of the Civil Rights Act

and the Voting Rights Act, the economic situation of most African-Americans had not improved significantly.

The majority of black people lived in crowded ghettoes, under poor conditions - ghettoes were places of poverty and crime.

In 1967, one third of all black families lived below the government’s poverty level. Many were unemployed or paid low wages.

The police provided little protection; in fact, they were often guilty of brutality at the expense of the inhabitants.

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Black people were still subject to much discrimination and sometimes open racial abuse and violence.

Most African Americans attended under-resourced schools. Inadequate public transport made it difficult for people to take jobs far from their homes. Inadequate health care resulted in a mortality (death) rate for black babies being twice as high as that for white babies.

As these conditions persisted, black people, especially in the cities, became disillusioned with the Civil Rights Movement and its practice of non-violent resistance, which many felt to be inadequate.

In June 1966, James Meredith undertook a solitary March against Fear to protest against racism. When he was shot, others took up his march, including the Student’s Non-violent Coordinating Committee. Stokely Carmichael, its new leader, was arrested. Although Carmichael did not invent the term ‘Black Power’ he now proceeded to popularise it.

Black Power Malcolm X, leader of the Nation of Islam, was an eloquent advocate for Black Power.

Those who supported Black Power believed in: black self-pride and self-esteem (‘Black is Beautiful’ became a very popular slogan.) the promotion of black interests; black self-help self-defence against racial oppression the fostering of a distinctive black culture; a self-sufficient black economy.

Black Panther PartyFounded by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale in Oaklands,

Initial aim was the protection of blacks from police brutality. The Black Panthers were revolutionary socialists The BPP drew up a 10 point programme that included the following demands: Point 3 called for reparations (compensation) for slavery; Point 6 called for black men

to be exempt from military service; Point 7 called on black people to form armed groups for self-defence against police

brutality and oppression Point 8 called for the release of all imprisoned blacks; Full employment and an end to

capitalism Decent housing and sound education for African Americans.

They were also involved in violent confrontations with the police, in which about 50 people died, both policemen and Panthers, and many more were injured.

Huey Newton, was convicted of murdering a policeman in 1967 and served three years before his conviction was set aside on appeal.

The BPP also operated what they called ‘survival programmes’

A split in the BPP between ‘reformist’ and ‘revolutionary’ wings developed Eventually internal disputes and rising legal costs caused the Party to fall apart. By 1980, there were only 27 members left. At its height, however the Black Panthers

Party (‘for self-defence’ was later dropped) attracted the unwanted attentions of the FBI.

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Black Panther Party

Role of Stokely Carmichael

Carmichael became a member of SNCC and a Freedom Rider. He allegiance to Martin Luther King’s passive resistance ideals changed in 1966 after

the attack on James Meredith, a civil rights activist engaged in peaceful protest. In 1966 James Meredith embarked on a ‘Walk against Fear’ from Memphis,

Tennessee to Jackson, Mississippi in protest against racism. Meredith was shot and wounded in Mississippi and Carmichael decided that SNCC

members should complete his walk. Upon reaching Greenwood Mississippi, Carmichael made what has become known

as his ‘Black Power” speech.

Carmichael urged African Americans to take pride in being black. He was in favour of African dress and Afro hair styles and wanted African Americans to recognise their heritage.

Carmichael joined the Black Panther Party and promoted the black power movement as a leader, speaker and writer.

Role of Malcolm X An eloquent speaker and dedicated human rights activist, Malcolm X played a key

role in the Black Power Movement He was a member of the Nation of Islam (NOI), a Muslim group which taught that

white society was deliberately preventing African Americans from empowering themselves.

Malcolm X became one of the leaders of the Nation of Islam after he was parolled from prison in 1952.

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This Islamic sect had the following black nationalist ideas: There could be no integration between black and white Americans. Seperation between black and white Americans was necessary so that black people no longer depended on whites.

As a spokesperson for the NOI, Malcolm X’s eloquence and charisma attracted many new members to this organisation..

After a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1963-1964, Malcolm X changed his ideas about integration as he had seen how Muslims of all nationalities and races could live together peacefully

Malcolm X founded the Organisation of Afro-American Unity in 1964 He became less militant and adopted views that were not popular with black

nationalists. These views included: Not all whites were evil. Black nationalists, angered by

Malcolm X’s change of heart assassinated him at a party meeting in Harlem on 21 February 1965.

The life of one of the most influential African Americans had been cut short, but he is still remembered for raising the self-esteem of African Americans and fighting for their rights.

Short-term and long-term gains Greater racial pride and self-confidence among black people.

At local level, black political action groups and grassroots associations were set up to campaign around specific issues.

Black voters were mobilised to support black candidates for office.

Black Study programmes were introduced at universities and colleges.

In very general terms, a debate was sparked over the ‘nature of American society and the place of African-Americans in it.’

Some long-term gains of the Black Power Movement were the following: Increased black self-confidence and self-esteem.

A related long-term gain would be the sense of greater solidarity [standing together] among African-Americans.

A greater sense of ethnic identity also developed over time. This included a sense of a unique African-American culture in music (e.g. soul), fashion, hairstyles (e.g. the Afro), literature, art and even food.

Related to these points is the ‘Black is Beautiful’ movement, which emphasised the naturally beauty of African-Americans.

Other social justice groups sprang from the example of Black Power, for example, black feminists, environmental movements, affirmative action and gay and lesbian rights’ movements.

One other positive development is the growth of multi-culturalism and greater tolerance of cultural differences in the US.

48

However the Black Power Movement’s rhetoric might well have contributed to the seemingly spontaneous riots that occurred in black areas such as Watts, Los Angeles, in 1965 and Newark, New Jersey and Detroit, Michigan in 1967.

Conclusion: An overview of the progress, if any, that was made towards equality and civil rights by the civil rights and Black Power

There can be no doubt that the Civil Rights and Black Power Movements helped to bring about significant progress towards equality and civil rights for African-Americans and other minorities.

Various Civil Rights acts were passed. The most notable was that of 1964 which outlawed discrimination based on racial, ethnic, national, religious and gender identity. The Act of 1968 made it illegal to discriminate in matter related to housing. The Voting Act of 1965 made it illegal to discriminate in voting practice.

Another development has been the application of affirmative action by the federal government, especially in the late 1960s and 1970s.

Both movements had the effect of raising black self-confidence and self-esteem. Evidence of this is the growth of the ‘Black is Beautiful’ movement and the rich development of black art and culture in a range of fields.

A new respect for black people developed among many whites. A symbol of this was the creation in 1983 of an annual Martin Luther King Jr Day.

The economic situation of some black people has improved significantly since the 1960s and a strong black middle class has developed.

However poverty persists for many African-Americans who still to this day suffer certain social and educational disadvantages.

It is therefore apparent that, despite the significant improvements as a result of the Civil Rights and the Black Power Movements, minorities in the US have not achieved equality in all respects, particularly in economic and social terms.

49

QUESTION FOCUS: THE BLACK POWER MOVEMENT

WHAT WERE THE REASONS FOR THE FORMATION OF THE BLACK POWER MOVEMENT?SOURCE 3A

Black Power: A New Civil Rights MovementOn June 5, 1966, JAMES MEREDITH was shot in an ambush as he attempted to complete a peaceful march from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi. Meredith had already made national headlines in 1962 by becoming the first African American to enrol at the University of Mississippi.Civil rights leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr., Floyd Mcissick of CORE, and Stokely Carmichael of SNCC rushed to Meredith's hospital bed. They determined that his march must be completed. As Carmichael and McKissick walked through Mississippi, they observed that little had changed despite federal legislation. Local white townspeople harassed the marchers while the police turned a blind eye or arrested the activists as troublemakers.At a mass rally, Carmichael uttered the simple statement: "What we need is black power." Crowds chanted the phrase as a slogan, and a movement began to flower.Carmichael and McKissick were heavily influenced by the words of Malcolm X, and rejected integration as a short-term goal. Carmichael felt that blacks needed to feel a sense of racial pride and self-respect before any meaningful gains could be achieved. He encouraged the strengthening of African American communities without the help of whites.The Black Power movement turned popular fashion and aesthetics on end. In the 1930s, skin lighteners and hair straighteners were used by fashionable black women in an effort to look whiter. By the end of the 1960s, being proud of the African heritage dictated that afros and dark skin were desirable.Chapters of SNCC and CORE — both integrated organizations — began to reject white membership as Carmichael abandoned peaceful resistance. Martin Luther King Jr. and the NAACP denounced black power as the proper forward path. But black power was a powerful message in the streets of urban America, where resentment boiled and tempers flared.

50

Soon, African American students began to celebrate African American culture boldly and publicly. Colleges teemed with young blacks wearing traditional African colors and clothes. Soul singer JAMES BROWN had his audience chanting "Say it loud, I'm black and I'm proud." Hairstyles unique to African Americans became popular and youths proclaimed, "BLACK IS BEAUTIFUL!"http://www.ushistory.org/us/54i.asp, accessed on 26 April 2017

3.1 Study Source 3A3.1.1 Define the concept, Black Power. (1 x 2) (2)

3.1.2 Whose death, according to the source, sparked the protest march? (1 x 1) (1)

3.1.3 What, according to the source, was the response of the police?to the protest march? (2 x 1) (2)

3.1.4 Explain why Carmichael, McKissick and Malcolm X rejected‘integration as a short term goal’. (2 x 2) (4)

3.1.5 Why, in your opinion, would Dr. Martin Luther King jr. haverejected Black Power as a form of resistance? (2 x 2) (4)

3.1.6 Comment on the impact of the slogan, ‘Black is Beautiful’, as described in the source. (2 x 2) (4)

Answer

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………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

INFORMAL ACTIVITY 2

STUDY SOURCE 3 B Portlands: Historical footage of protest marches calling for police oversight in the 1960s and 1970s

https://www.bitchmedia.org/post/documenting-the-history-of-police-brutality-in-one-city-arresting-power-film-interview , accessed in April 2017

52

There’s no excuse for police violence

3.2 Refer to Source 3B3.2.1 Name three concerns of black people with regard to the attitude

of the police. (3 x 1) (3)

3.2.2 How useful is the source to historians understanding policebrutality? (2 x 2) (4)

3.3 How does Source 3B support Source 3A with regard to police indifference(lack of concern)? (2 x 2) (4)

Answer

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53

…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

ACTIVITY 3STUDY SOURCE 3 A ; 3B ; 3C

SOURCE 3C -1LEADERS OF THE BLACK POWER MOVEMENT EXPRESSED THEIR VALUES AND PRINCIPLES

Malcolm X on Self – Defence UnitsSoon after meeting King in Washington, Malcolm X wired King to offer his support for the campaign in St. Augustine, Florida. Western Union Telegram, 30 June 1964, Dr Martin Luther King, St Augustine, Florida

54

http://kingencyclopedia.stanford.edu//primarydocuments/Telegram-from-MalcolmX-to-M.gif

SOURCE 3C – 2 Carmichael on non - violence“This country has been feeding us a thalidomide drug (medication to treat a certain cancer) of integration; and some Negroes have been walking down a dream street talking about sitting next to white people. And [that] does not begin to solve the problem. That when we went to Mississippi, we did not go to sit next to Ross Barnett. Ross Barnett was the Governor of Mississippi from 1960 to 1964. He was a prominent member of the Dixiecrats, Southern Democrats who supported racial segregation. We did not go to sit next to Jim Clark. Jim Clark was sheriff of Selma, and vocally opposed to racial integration ... We went to get them out of our way. And [-] people

55

“We have been witnessing with great concern the vicious attacks of the white races against our poor defenceless people there in St Augustine. If the Federal Government will not send troops to your aid, just say the word and we will immediately dispatch some of our brothers there to organise self defense units among people and the Klu Klux Klan will then receive of its own medicine. The day of turning the other cheek to those brute beasts is over.”The Organisation of Afro – American UnityMalcolm X …

ought’a understand that. That we were never fighting for the right to integrate; we were fighting against white supremacy.” ~ Carmichael, 1966

ACTIVITY 3

3.5 Use your own knowledge and the sources and write a paragraph of 8 lines(80 words) in which you explain the reasons for the formation of the Black Power Movement. (8)

Answer

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PAPER 2

56

TOPIC: WHAT WAS THE NATURE OF THE CIVIL RESISTANCE IN SOUTH AFRICA?

QUESTION FOCUS: BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS MOVEMENT

CONTENT1. CONCEPTS2. SUMMARY-MIND MAP3. ASSESSMENT

57

Val

ues

CONCEPTSMilitarised Where a country has a military character or styleNational service The period in which men had to serve in the armed forcesDetained Kept in police custody indefinitely for questioning on political

issuesCovert Hidden and secretVigilantes A group of people who take the law into their own hands and

attack their follow citizens without any legal authorityUnderground Operating in secrecy, especially as a result of carrying out

political activities against the stateExile In the state of being barred from your own country as a result of

political activitiesNon-radicalism A mindset in which states a society will not discriminate on the

grounds of raceInferiority The feeling of being lower in status than others

VALUES

Respect. Justice Honesty Never Hurt anyone Freedom within the democratic system Cultivate love for Education

QUESTION FOCUS: BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS MOVEMENT

58

Black Consciousness Movement

Definition of Black Consciousness

59

The nature and aim of the Black Consciousness

Movement

The role of Steve Biko in the Black Consciousness

Movement

Did the BCM influenced the 1976 Soweto

Uprising ?

Did the BCM influenced the 1976 Soweto

Uprising ?

Steve Biko- Short documentary

A philosophy Advocates Black Pride and values Black people must liberate themselves From discrimination and oppression Believe in own value – self-worth, self-confidence, pride Change the way in which people think about their racial identity

What was the role of Steve Biko in Black Consciousness?

Steve Biko was member of NUSAS NUSAS – White student – led organisation Black students needed their own organisation December 1968 - SASO was formed Black students broke away from NUSAS - 1968 Powerful force of resistance in the 1970’s The challenge of Black Consciousness (BC) to the Apartheid state Apartheid government’s reaction to BCM BPC leaders were banned 8 BPC activists were detained (terrorism Act) SASO was banned on campuses Mapetla Mohapi died in detention Biko was brutally murdered – 1977 (police detention) 18 BC organisations were banned (SASO and BPC included)

Steve Biko speaks on Black Consciousness

How did the BCM influenced the 1976 Soweto Uprising ?

• Grievances regarding Black education: • Budget for white education 15 X more then Black education• Black schools lack of equipment• Shortage of classrooms and teachers

60

• Limited curriculum• Afrikaans as medium of instruction

Soweto Uprising

The legacy of Black Consciousness

BC motivated South Africans to challenge apartheid Change in Black attitude- school children defied the government 16 June 1976 – turning point in SA Resulted in country wide protest Steve Biko Foundation was formed Respect for human dignity

Soweto Uprising – Sam Nzima Story

61

INFORMAL ASSESSMENTHints

TOPIC: WHAT WAS THE NATURE OF THE CIVIL RESISTANCE IN SOUTH AFRICA?

ACTIVITY 1

Source 1A

The source below focuses on how the philosophy of Black Consciousness emerged in South Africa in the 1960s

62

Biko and his young comrades promoted the philosophy of Black Consciousness, which urged black people to free themselves from the chains of oppression and for all blacks (including Africans, Coloureds and Indians) to work towards liberation. Biko urged Black people to take the responsibility for their own struggle and not to rely on white liberals. To do this, it was necessary for black people to free themselves from the feelings of inferiority that had been instilled in them after 300 years of oppression. Rather, black people were to develop a pride in being black, and develop the self-confidence to determine their own future. The Black Consciousness Movement challenged the entire white structure that existed in South Africa by developing alternative structures. The students established the Black People’s Convention (BPC), which was an umbrella organisation to co-ordinate all Black Consciousness activities. It encouraged selfreliance through the creation of Black Community Programmes. Black Consciousness played an important role in inspiring the Soweto youth to action in 1976. Its philosophy filled them with the self-confidence to address their own harsh circumstances. The South African Student’s Movement (SASM) was a Black Consciousness organisation of high school students.

[From: http://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/ Accessed on 19 May 2017]

When working with sources you need to do the following:REMEMBER: The key question provides the focus of the content in the sources. It will also be asked as the paragraph question.1. The source will be labelled e.g. Source 1A ; 1B ;1 C 2. Immediately after the label the part that follows tell you what it is about

(contextualised). In most cases it will indicate what the source is about, why it was written, who wrote (owner of) the source, when it was written and where the event took place. The colours used in the contextualisation answer the questions indicated here.

3. Read the source with understanding.4. Highlight concepts / terms. In this source e.g. totalitarianism

1.1 Consult Source 1A

1.1.1 Define the concept Black Consciousness in your own words. (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.2 Identify three different groups whose living conditions Black Consciousness attempts to improve. (3 x 1) (3)

1.1.3 Explain why it was important for Steve Biko that black South Africans should be responsible for their own struggle. (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.4 Name TWO organizations that were established by Black Consciousness to encourage black South Africans to accept own responsibility for political change. (2 x 1) (2)

1.1.5 What impact did the philosophy of the Black Consciousness have on the Soweto Youth of 1976? (1 x 2) (2) ANSWER………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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ACTIVITY 2

SOURCE 1BThe source explained how Black Conciousness influenced Murphy Morobe as a student.

I became more conscious of the situation of black people in this country and this township. I was able to go into town; I was able to see the contrast (between black and white), the differences and all that raised questions in my mind. Among us, we began to develop a keen sense for wanted to discover more idea about the struggles, not only in this country, but also what was happening inother areas. There was always a list published of books that were banned and for us it meant that whatever the government banned must be something good and it was part of our adventure as younsters to actually go out to actively look fot these books. The 1970s was not long after major student uprising in Europe, France, and the Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement in the United States. 1974 was, of course, the year of the Portugese defeat in Mosambique and Angola and, when that happened, I think it had a major boost on us.

[Taken from Soweto: A History by P. Bonner and L. Segal, 1988, Cape Town.]

1.2 Read through Source 1B

1.2.1 What situation, regarding black people in South Africa, has Murphy Morobe became aware of? (2 x1)(2) 1.2.2 Explain in your own words why Murphy Morobe and other students were interested in those books banned from South Africa? (2 x 2)(4)

1.2.3 Identify two international events thet served as an incentive for students to oppose apartheid. (2 x 1)(2)

1.2.4 Comment on the usefulness of this source for a historian who do research on the influence of Black Consciousness on students of the 1970s. (2 x2) (4)

64

ANSWER………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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ACTIVITY 3

Source 1C

The source below is a poster from the Azanian People’s Organisation (AZAPO). It was used at Steve Biko’s funeral in 1977 to pay tribute to Biko’s contribution to the liberation movement in South Africa

[From: Biko, The Quest For A True Humanity deur The Steve Biko Foundation]

1.3 Refer to Source 1C

1.3.1 What message does the poster convey? (1 x 2)(2)

1.3.2 Explain the limitations of using the information in this source to a historian studying the impact of Steve Biko on the freedom struggle.

(2 x 2)(4)

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ANSWER

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67

PARAGRAPH

OUESTION : WHAT CONTRIBUTION DID THE PHILOSOPHY OF BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS MAKE TO THE FREEDOM STRUGGLE IN SOUTH AFRICA?

Study Sources 1A, 1B, 1C and 1D and answer the question that follow.

Use the sources and your own knowledge and write a paragraph of EIGHT lines (about 80 words) to explain what contribution did Steve Biko make to the freedom struggle in South Africa. (8

Source 1A

The source below focuses on how the philosophy of Black Consciousness emerged in South Africa in the 1960s

68

Biko and his young comrades promoted the philosophy of Black Consciousness, which urged black people to free themselves from the chains of oppression and for all blacks (including Africans, Coloureds and Indians) to work towards liberation. Biko urged Black people to take the responsibility for their own struggle and not to rely on white liberals. To do this, it was necessary for black people to free themselves from the feelings of inferiority that had been instilled in them after 300 years of oppression. Rather, black people were to develop a pride in being black, and develop the self-confidence to determine their own future. The Black Consciousness Movement challenged the entire white structure that existed in South Africa by developing alternative structures. The students established the Black People’s Convention (BPC), which was an umbrella organisation to co-ordinate all Black Consciousness activities. It encouraged selfreliance through the creation of Black Community Programmes. Black Consciousness played an important role in inspiring the Soweto youth to action in 1976. Its philosophy filled them with the self-confidence to address their own harsh circumstances. The South African Student’s Movement (SASM) was a Black Consciousness organisation of high school students.

[From: http://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/ Accessed on 19 May 2017]

SOURCE 1B

This extract by Nadine Gordimer, an ANC member, pays tribute to Steve Biko.

SOURCE 1CThe source explained how Black Conciousness influenced Murphy Morobe as a student.

I became more conscious of the situation of black people in this country and this township. I was able to go into town; I was able to see the contrast (between black and white), the differences and all that raised questions in my mind. Among us, we began to develop a keen sense for wanted to discover more idea about the struggles, not only in this country, but also what was happening inother areas. There was always a list published of books that were banned and for us it meant that whatever the government banned must be something good and it was part of our adventure as younsters to actually go out to actively look fot these books. The 1970s was not long after major student uprising in Europe, France, and the Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement in the United States. 1974 was, of course, the year of the Portugese defeat in Mosambique and Angola and, when that happened, I think it had a major boost on us.

[Taken from Soweto: A History by P. Bonner and L. Segal, 1988, Cape Town.]

69

Somewhere in one of my novels written during the worst years of the apartheid regime, a character says: ‘In a world of so much evil and so much compromise with evil, it means something special to be living in a country where there are still heroes.’

Our country was such a country. In the depths of apartheid’s racist savagery, there was such heroes. One of those whose dedication to freedom, to justice, whose bravery, and whose appalling (terrible) suffering, surely epitomise (demonstrate) the ordeals (sufferings) of merciless oppression and resistance to them, was Steve Biko.

It is difficult not to speculate with enormous regret, on what he would have meant in the creation of the new South Africa in progress today; what his clear-mindedness and deep knowledge of the country’s and its people’s real needs would have contributed to our development.

[From: A Resource To Inform Us Our Present and Future by Nadine Gordimer]

Source 1D

The source below is a poster from the Azanian People’s Organisation (AZAPO). It was used at Steve Biko’s funeral in 1977 to pay tribute to Biko’s contribution to the liberation movement in South Africa

[From: Biko, The Quest For A True Humanity deur The Steve Biko Foundation]

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ANSWER

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(8)

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VALUES:

Respect. Adjusting and Compromising Justice Empathy

72

International anti-Apartheid movements

Anti-Apartheid movements in Britian

and Ireland

Activities of the movements: sports boycott; academic boycott, consumer

boycott; disinvestment; sanctions, release Mandela campaign; role of the

international trade unions

Support fort he anti-Apartheid struggle in Africa-frontline states

TOPIC: WHAT WAS THE NATURE OF THE CIVIL SOCIETY RESISTANCE IN SOUTH AFRICA?

QUESTION FOCUS ESSAY: WHAT WERE THE INTERNATIONAL RESPONSES TO APARTHEID IN IN THE 1980S?

INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE

International anti-Apartheids movements The British Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM) was formed in 1959 Committes to fight against injustices of Apartheid They called for sanctions and and isolation Campaigns of the AAM

Anti Apartheid movement –Protest in the UK

Activities of the movements Anti-apartheids movements called for a number of different boycotts Sports boycott Cultural boycott Academic boycott Consumer boycotts Results of the boycotts The release Mandela Campaign

Celebrating the Anti Apartheid Movement

Dunnes Anti Apartheid Strikes

Support for the anti-Apartheid stuggle in Africa – frontline states

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Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe They opposed the Apartheid government Invited ANC and PAC to establish military bases within their borders They were dependant on South Africa economically - could not put much

pressure on the Apartheid state

The South Africa economy in trouble The cost of security forces in townships Increasing foreign debt Inflation increases Government increased taxes – White South Africans began to feel the pinch Sanctions and disinvestment – rise in inflation Increased unemployment of Black South Africans Decline of the value of the rand Sharp fall in white income South Africa was cut of from international capital markets

ASSESSMENT

CIVIL RESISTANCE, 1970s TO 1980s: SOUTH AFRICA: THE CRISIS OF APARTHEID IN THE 1980s

QUESTION 1:

Sanctions and disinvestment by the international community were the two most important strategies that they used to plot the demise of Apartheid.

Do you agree with this statement? Substantiate your line of argument with relevant historical evidence to assess the role of international resistance against Apartheid.

QUESTION 2

PW Botha's attempts at reforming the system of apartheid were met with intense international resistance.

Critically discuss this statement with reference to the various forms of resistance that international anti-apartheid movements used to ensure the ultimate downfall of the apartheid regime in the 1980s. [50]

ANSWER

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77TOPIC: THE COMING OF DEMOCRACY IN SOUTH AFRICA AND COMING TO TERMS WITH THE PAST

CONTENT1. CONCEPTS

Referendum Process of putting a legislative decision to the vote of the people for approval or rejection

Constitutional The fundamental political and legal principles according to which a nation is governed – embodies the rights of the people and responsibilities of government

Rolling mass action

Many people protesting, where there is a feeling that the more people join, the quicker change will occur.

Armed struggle Was a strategy by both the ANC’s and PAC’s military wings (MK and Poqo) to launch covert military operations against the apartheid regime in order to attain democracy.

Third Force A term used by ANC leaders in the 1990’s to refer to an unknown political faction that was accussed of being responsible for a surge in political violence in South Africa, especially in KwaZulu-Natal and on the Witwatersrand.

Consencus An agreement that is reached by various parties regarding key issues for example the consensus that was reached at CODESA 2.

Assassination Involves the deliberate killing of a political figure such as Chris Hani.

VALUES:

Respect. Compromise Tolerance Justice Honesty Caring

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TOPIC: THE COMING OF DEMOCRACY IN SOUTH AFRICA AND COMING TO TERMS WITH THE PAST

CONTENT1. CONCEPTS

Negotiations Process: interview -Dan Rathers with De Klerk and Mandela-

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The beginning of the solution

Breakdown of negotiations

Multi-party negotiation

process resumes

Ongoing violence

Final road to democracy in

1994

THE NEGOTIATED SETTLEMENT AND GOVERNMENT OF NATIONAL UNITY

Beginning of negotiations 1990 – 1991

• De Klerk comes to power in 1989• Mandela released from prison• Release of political prisoners• Unbanning of the political and civic organizations • Groote Schuur Minute (Talks between ANC and NP)• Violence in the Vaal Triangle• Pretoria Minute• CODESA 1

DISMANTLING OF THE ANC ARMED WINGBreakdown of negotiations

• ‘Whites only’-referendum• Violence – Kwazulu Natal – between ANC and IFP• Violence Witwatersrand -1990 - 1994 (14 800 deaths)• Shootings Sebokeng -12 people dead• CODESA 2 – 19 political parties• CODESA 2 breaks down• Record of Understanding• Joe Slovo and ‘Sunset Clause’

Multiparty negotiation process resumes

• MPNF - to pursue the issues that CODESA 2 failed to resolve• 26 participants• Multi-party talks resumed - World Trade Centre• The Record of Understanding was signed

Ongoing Violence

• Assassination of Chris Hani (10 April 1993)• AWB – invasion of the World Trade Centre• St James Massacre

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• Killing at the Heidelberg Tavern• Fall of Lucas Mangope – Bophuthatswana shootings• Fall of Gqozo- Bisho• Shell House Massacre

Negotiating peace with Nelson Mandela

Final Road to democracy 1994

• Date for the first democratic elections set• Mandela elected as the first Black president

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ASSESSMENT

QUESTION 1 : THE COMING OF DEMOCRACY TO SOUTH AFRICA AND COMING TO TERMS WITH THE PAST

Leadership, cooperation and confrontation were the main reasons that forced the leaders of the different political parties to search for a political settlement. In the context of the above statement, critically discuss how South Africans reached a political settlement between 1990 and 1994.

QUESTION 2

THE COMING OF DEMOCRACY TO SOUTH AFRICA AND COMING TO TERMS WITH THE PAST

Explain to what extent the increase in violence and conflict accelerated the process of negotiations in South Africa between 1990 and 1994

ANSWER………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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QUESTION 3

The transition to democracy in South Africa was never likely to be an easy one. The hope and optimism that greeted Nelson Mandela on his release from prison in 1990 soonended, as the realities of negotiating a new future for South Africa began in earnest.

Critically discuss this statement in the context of the process of negotiations that occurred in South Africa between 1990 and 1994.……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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88TOPIC: HOW HAS SOUTH AFRICA CHOSEN TO REMEMBER THE PAST?

CONTENT1. CONCEPTS2. SUMMARY-MIND MAP3. ASSESSMENT TASK

CONCEPTS

Reconciliation A process during which opposing groups talk to each other again after an argument and settle their differences

Mandate Command or authorization that the electorate gives to its representatives to act in a particular way on a public issue

Amnesty General pardon, act of forgiveness for people that committed politically related offences

Rehabilitation Restoration of people to their former state, or a useful state in society

Restorative Justice

Was considered as a gesture of reconciliation if perpetrators of gross human rights violations were prepared to tell the truth and show remorse for their actions

VALUES:

Respect. Compromise Justice Empathy Honesty Caring

HOW HAS SOUTH AFRICA CHOSEN TO REMEMBER THE PAST?TRC

89

TOPIC: HOW HAS SOUTH AFRICA CHOSEN TO REMEMBER THE PAST?

CONTENT1. CONCEPTS2. SUMMARY-MIND MAP3. ASSESSMENT TASK

TRCBackground and focus

90

Background and focus

Reasons for the TRC

Debates concerning the TRC

Responses of political parties and reasons for

the responses to the TRC and the final report

of the TRC:

• Debates around the negotiations process between the government and the ANC

• The need for reconciliation• The context of violence that threatened the negotiating process and the

success of the negotiations

First TRC Hearing

Reasons for the TRC• SA was a deeply divided society• During apartheid rule – thousands of activists and freedom fighters were killed• Dealing with the country’s divided and oppressive past

Various forms of justice: • Restorative vs Retributive Justice• Restorative (healing, and addressing the injustices of the past) – TRC• Retributive (punishment for criminal behaviour) and Nuremberg Trials

TRC 2

The debates concerning the TRCPositive aspects of TRC

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• The TRC's rationale assumed South Africa to be deeply divided, and in need of healing - not through a forgetting of the history of division, but through formal engagements with that history.

• The TRC was a key instrument in South Africa's endeavour to find a post-apartheid reconciliation.

• The significance of the TRC is related not only to memory of the past but also to the contribution to memory of South Africa's transition to democracy.

• Future historians of the transition will find the story of the TRC looming large.• The records of the TRC are as important a memory resource as the records of

the past which it has both reclaimed and generated.

Negative aspects of TRC• Its work of reparation and rehabilitation has been found inadequate. • Its contribution to reconciliation has been questioned. • These are important debates. Important at many levels, not least in terms

of their potential contribution to processes of reconciliation.• South Africans finding one another, not by forgetting (in this instance, the

work of the TRC), but by remembering and imagining a way forward. • It is crucial, then, that space be provided for these debates. • Part of this space is constituted by the archive of the TRC. Every

interrogation of its work will rely ultimately on access to records of the TRC and about the TRC.

TRC- Cradock Four

Amnesty provisions and problems with amnesty• Perpetrators were to apply for amnesty in relation to each of their offences,

provide a full disclosure, and prove that their actions were politically motivated.

• Many applicants for amnesty had already been convicted through the courts and were in jail when they applied for amnesty.

• Many others were, however, still free, having not yet been convicted. • Perpetrators who did not apply for amnesty faced possible prosecution. • The only serious incentive to participate in the amnesty process for those

who had not been convicted was the threat of prosecution.• The amnesty process was one that was generally accepted by survivors

and society more broadly.

Focus on human rights of 1980’s and ignoring institutional violence and the human rights abuses of Apartheid

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• The violation of human rights through –the killing, abduction, torture or severe ill-treatment of any person;

or

• Any attempt, conspiracy, incitement, instigation, command or procurement to commit an act of violence.

Responses of political parties and reasons for the responses to the TRC and the final report of the TRC: NP, IFP and ANC

• The ANC wanted ‘justice’. This probably would have taken the form of prosecutions along with reparations and other efforts.

• The former apartheid government wanted collective amnesty. • The Truth and Reconciliation Commission became the creative means for

responding to both needs

The Final report of the TRC• The report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (the Commission)

consists of five volumes, each with a particular focus.• Volume 1: It provides the basis and rationale for the work of the Commission• Volume 2: addresses the commission of gross violations of human rights on

all sides of the conflict• Volume 3: Addresses gross violations of human rights from the perspective of

the victim, is a companion to Volume Two• Volume 4: Seeks to address the nature of the society in which gross violations

of human rights took place• Volume 5: The final volume of the report, contains the conclusions reached by

the Commission, including analyses and findings and recommendations.

Remembering the past: memorials• Appropriate museums and memorials at Local and National sites.

Use examples that learners can relate to.Freedom Park

ANC Facing the TRC

INFORMAL ASSESSMENT

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QUESTION : WAS THE AMNESTY PROCESS OF TRUTH AND RECONCILIATION COMMISSION (TRC) SUCCESSFUL IN HEALING SOUTH AFRICA OF THE WOUNDS OF THE PAST?

Activity 1

SOURCE AThe extract below explains why the Truth and Reconciliation Commission was established.After the end of apartheid, as well as the release of political prisoners in the early 90s and the country’s transition from repressive rule to democracy in 1994, South Africa witnessed the establishment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in 1995 which formed a crucial (important) component of the transition to full and free democratic country. The TRC was established by the first democratically - elected president Nelson Mandela under the Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act of 1995 and Archbishop Desmond Tutu with Dr Alex Boraine were appointed as its chairperson and vice chairperson respectively.

In all the TRC was comprised of seventeen commissioners: nine men and eight women and divided into three committees (Human Rights Violations Committee, Amnesty Committee, and Reparations and Rehabilitation Committee). The Human Rights Violations Committee gathered testimony of politically motivated gross human rights abuses; the Amnesty Committee dispensed (granted) amnesty to perpetrators who gave ‘full disclosure’ of atrocities they had committed for political ends; lastly, the Reparation and Rehabilitation Committee which sought to recommend to the government a policy for providing long-term reparations for victims, as well as short-term relief payments.

The aim of the TRC was to combat (fight) impunity and recreate a culture of accountability, and most importantly to uncover truth about gross human rights violations and assist families of the victims in getting closure. In short, ‘the TRC was a prudent (wise) step for reconciling the South African community’.

http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/truth-and-reconciliation-commission-trc-1995

1.1 Refer to Source A.

1.1.1 What, according to the source, were the aims of the TRC? (2 x 1) (2)1.1.2 Describe in your own words the meaning of Reconciliation

in the context of the TRC. (1 x 2) (2)1.1.3 Mention THREE committees of the TRC. (3 x 1) (3)1.1.4 Use the source and your own knowledge explain the conditions for

granting amnesty. (1 x 2) (2)1.1.5 Explain whether you think the TRC succeeded in promoting national

Unity in South Africa. (2 x 2) (4)

ANSWER

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ACTIVITY 2

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SOURCE BThe following extract highlights Benzien’s evidence at his amnesty hearing on 14 July 1997.The hearing was held on 14 July 1997 at the University of Western Cape.…Benzien maintained that their intention was to arrest Kriel and not to kill him. He said that the shooting was accidental.

Benzien conceded (agreed) that he could have dropped the pistol, so as to put it out of Kriel's reach but he did not do so because he was grappling (struggling) with a terrorist and he believed that no purpose would be served by dropping the pistol. He said that he did not cock the pistol as it was already cocked when he took it from Kriel. He admitted that he could have subdued (restrained) Kriel by hitting him on the head with the firearm but could not recall whether the thought of doing so had occurred to him at the time. He conceded (agreed) that it was more than likely that at some stage he pointed the firearm at Kriel and that his finger was on the trigger when the shot went off. He maintained that he did not consciously pull the trigger but conceded that the shot went off while the gun was in his hands and he therefore accepted sole responsibility for Kriel's death.

Benzien's evidence did not convey a clear picture of the events or the sequence in which they occurred. There are inconsistencies (irregularities) and even contradictions on some aspects. For instance, it is not at all clear whether Kriel was shot while he was attempting to get up or when he was standing. Nor is it clear whether Benzien climbed onto Kriel's back when the shot went off. Part of the explanation for this may be that Benzien was giving an account of a fast moving scene ten years after the event.

… The family of Kriel opposed the application. Their counsel submitted that section 22 of the Act required that the act, commission for which amnesty may be granted must amount to "an offence or delict". He said that on Benzien's version the shooting of Kriel was accidental. That being so, his conduct did not constitute an offence or delict and he was therefore not entitled to amnesty.

…On a consideration of all the evidence, the Committee has come to the conclusion that the offences for which the applicant seeks amnesty were committed during and arose out of the conflicts of the past between the State and Liberation Movement.

…Benzien is GRANTED: amnesty for1. The unlawful killing of Ashley Kriel on 15 July 1987…

http://sabctrc.saha.org.za/documents/decisions/58788.htm?t=%2Bvan+%2Bzyl+%2Bjp&tab=hearins [Accessed 20August 2016]

1.2 Refer to Source B.

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1.2.1 Define the term amnesty in the context of the TRC. (1 x 2) (2)1.2.2 What according to the source, was Benzien’s intention when he

went to Ashley Kriels’ home? (1 x 1) (1)1.2.3 Why do you think Benzien referred to Ashley Kriel as a terrorist?

(1 x 2) (2)1.2.4 Comment on why the killing of Ashley Kriel was politically motivated. (2 x 2) (4)1.2.5 Explain how Benzien’s testimony differed from the conclusion of the

Committee. (2 x 2) (4)

1.3 Compare Sources A and B. Explain how these two sources differregarding reasons for granting amnesty. (2 x 2) (4)

ANSWERS

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ACTIVITY 3

SOURCE CThe cartoon below indicates Desmond Tutu dangling a carrot for amnesty to the perpetrators if the truth is told at the TRC hearings. Dullah Omar indicates that no prosecutions will be enforced if the truth is told.

https://www.ucd.ie/ibis/filestore/wp2003/35_ver.pdf [accessed 12 August 2016]

1.4 Consult Source C.

1.4.1 What do you understand by the term perpetrator in the context ofthe TRC? (1 x 2) (2)

1.4.2 Identify the two characters depicted in the cartoon. (2 x 1) (2)1.4.3 Use the visual clue in the cartoon to indicate the punishment for

perpetrators. (1 x 2) (2)1.4.4 What message is conveyed by the countdown? (1 x 2) (2)

1.5 Comment on the usefulness of this source in portraying the intention of the amnesty process. (2 x 2) (4)

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ANSWER………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Paragraph writing :

WAS THE AMNESTY PROCESS OF TRUTH AND RECONCILIATIOCOMMISSION (TRC) SUCCESSFUL IN HEALING SOUTH AFRICA OF THE WOUNDS OF THE PAST?

SOURCE 2AThe extract below explains why the Truth and Reconciliation Commission was established.After the end of apartheid, as well as the release of political prisoners in the early 90s and the country’s transition from repressive rule to democracy in 1994, South Africa witnessed the establishment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in 1995 which formed a crucial (important) component of the transition to full and free democratic country. The TRC was established by the first democratically - elected president Nelson Mandela under the Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act of 1995 and Archbishop Desmond Tutu with Dr Alex Boraine were appointed as its chairperson and vice chairperson respectively.

In all the TRC was comprised of seventeen commissioners: nine men and eight women and divided into three committees (Human Rights Violations Committee, Amnesty Committee, and Reparations and Rehabilitation Committee). The Human Rights Violations Committee gathered testimony of politically motivated gross human rights abuses; the Amnesty Committee dispensed (granted) amnesty to perpetrators who gave ‘full disclosure’ of atrocities they had committed for political ends; lastly, the Reparation and Rehabilitation Committee which sought to recommend to the government a policy for providing long-term reparations for victims, as well as short-term relief payments.

The aim of the TRC was to combat (fight) impunity and recreate a culture of accountability, and most importantly to uncover truth about gross human rights violations and assist families of the victims in getting closure. In short, ‘the TRC was a prudent (wise) step for reconciling the South African community’.

http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/truth-and-reconciliation-commission-trc-1995

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SOURCE 2B

The following extract highlights Benzien’s evidence at his amnesty hearing on 14 July 1997.The hearing was held on 14 July 1997 at the University of Western Cape.

…Benzien maintained that their intention was to arrest Kriel and not to kill him. He said that the shooting was accidental.

Benzien conceded (agreed) that he could have dropped the pistol, so as to put it out of Kriel's reach but he did not do so because he was grappling (struggling) with a terrorist and he believed that no purpose would be served by dropping the pistol. He said that he did not cock the pistol as it was already cocked when he took it from Kriel. He admitted that he could have subdued (restrained) Kriel by hitting him on the head with the firearm but could not recall whether the thought of doing so had occurred to him at the time. He conceded (agreed) that it was more than likely that at some stage he pointed the firearm at Kriel and that his finger was on the trigger when the shot went off. He maintained that he did not consciously pull the trigger but conceded that the shot went off while the gun was in his hands and he therefore accepted sole responsibility for Kriel's death.

Benzien's evidence did not convey a clear picture of the events or the sequence in which they occurred. There are inconsistencies (irregularities) and even contradictions on some aspects. For instance, it is not at all clear whether Kriel was shot while he was attempting to get up or when he was standing. Nor is it clear whether Benzien climbed onto Kriel's back when the shot went off. Part of the explanation for this may be that Benzien was giving an account of a fast moving scene ten years after the event.

… The family of Kriel opposed the application. Their counsel submitted that section 22 of the Act required that the act, commission for which amnesty may be granted must amount to "an offence or delict". He said that on Benzien's version the shooting of Kriel was accidental. That being so, his conduct did not constitute an offence or delict and he was therefore not entitled to amnesty.

…On a consideration of all the evidence, the Committee has come to the conclusion that the offences for which the applicant seeks amnesty were committed during and arose out of the conflicts of the past between the State and Liberation Movement.

…Benzien is GRANTED: amnesty for1. The unlawful killing of Ashley Kriel on 15 July 1987…

http://sabctrc.saha.org.za/documents/decisions/58788.htm?t=%2Bvan+%2Bzyl+%2Bjp&tab=hearins [Accessed 20August 2016]

102

SOURCE 2CThe cartoon below indicates Desmond Tutu dangling a carrot for amnesty to the perpetrators if the truth is told at the TRC hearings. Dullah Omar indicates that no prosecutions will be enforced if the truth is told.

https://www.ucd.ie/ibis/filestore/wp2003/35_ver.pdf [accessed 12 August 2016]

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Use the sources and your own knowledge, write a paragraph of EIGHT lines (about 80 words) to explain whether the amnesty process of the TRC succeeded in healing South Africa of the wounds of the past.

(8)

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CONCEPTS

Socialist Related to socialism, a system in which there is no private ownership and everything is owned by society in general

Marxist ideology

The ideas of Karl Marx which describe a world view based on socialist economics and a communist society

Eastern Bloc The states of central and eastern Europe that were communist during the Cold war

Perestroika Economic and political restructuring in the USSR in the 1980’s, for example private ownership of business which resulted in foreign investment

Glasnost Directly translated as “to speak up”, a policy calling for greater transparency (openness)

VALUES:

Respect. Adjusting and Compromising Justice Honesty Self-reliance-responsible Self-reliance-self confident Humility-admitting one’s mistake Mutual respect: respect for basic rights Mutual respect: respect for individual rights Love-for the country Love , peace and harmony

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TOPIC: THE END OF THE COLD WAR AND A NEW WORLD ORDER 1989 TO THE PRESENT

CONTENT1. CONCEPTS2. SUMMARY-MIND MAP3. ASSESSMENT TASK

THE END OF THE COLD WAR AND A NEW WORLD ORDER 1989 TO THE PRESENT

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Defining Globalisation

Balance of Power and the impact on Africa

Emerging economics and different forms of capitalism:

Emerging economics and different forms of capitalism

South Africa’s success in avoiding outright civil war and president Mandela's policy of

reconciliation inspire the world, but the process of

liberation in South Africa is unfinished

Responses to Globalisation, heralding an age of economic

insecurity

Defining Globalisation

• The worldwide movement toward economic, financial, trade, and communications integration. Globalisation implies the opening of local and nationalistic perspectives to a broader outlook of an interconnected and interdependent world with free transfer of capital, goods, and services across national frontiers. However, it does not include unhindered movement of labour and, as suggested by some economists, may hurt smaller or fragile economies if applied indiscriminately.

Emerging economics and different forms of capitalism - BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa)

• 2009: 1st formal BRIC summit.• 2010: South Africa invited to join BRIC – became BRICS.• BRICS is an associations of emerging economies.• All BRICS countries are developing countries with fast-growing economies.• BRICS encourage commercial, political and cultural co-operation between

member nations. • BRICS are committed to creating a ‘development bank’ which can rival the

western dominated IMF and World Bank.

South Africa’s success in avoiding outright civil war

• Mandela’s policy of reconciliation. (The TRC has provided a model of reconciliation for other post-conflict societies.)

• Process of liberation is unfinished:• Challenges of poverty and gross inequality (SA has the largest gap between

rich and poor in the world).

• A Developmental State: Some believe that South Africa would benefit from a stronger central government, such as in the economically successful East Asian countries and Botswana.

• In 1996, SA abandoned the more socialist RDP in favour of the neo-liberal GEAR which favours free market capitalism

Responses to Globalisation

• Opposition to globalisation has emerged in the form of global social justice movements calling for fair-trade and sustainable development for all.

• Increasing opposition to the power of multi-national corporations, and the de-regulation of financial markets which undermine democratic institutions and the power of nations to make decisions in the best interest of local people.

Responses to Globalisation

• On 9 September (9/11) 2001 al-Qaeda launched a series of four attacks on targets in the USA. In one of these attacks two passenger planes were hijacked and flown into the Twin Towers in New York City. Almost 3000 people died in these attacks.

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• In response to the 9/11 attacks, US President Bush initiated a ‘War on Terror’. To date this has involved the USA waging war in Iraq, Afghanistan and carrying out the assassination of Osama Bin Laden, al-Qaeda’s leader.

Environmental Movements

• Climate change, deforestation, global warming, population growth and resource depletion are the key challenges facing the world in the 21st century.

• Kenyan born Wangari Maathai established the Green Belt Movement. This movement, which became famous for its tree planting projects in East Africa, works with rural communities to help them address their need for essential basic services such as water, fertile soil and health ecosystems.

• On receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004, Maathai said: • “We cannot tire or give up. We owe it to the present and future generations of

all species to rise up and walk.”• Founded in the late 1960s to co-ordinate opposition to the testing of nuclear

weapons. Greenpeace is an international and non-aligned environmental organisation. NGO which works to publicise, oppose and eliminate the environmental problems facing the world.

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INFORMAL ASSESSMENT

QUESTION : WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES ON THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES?

ACTIVITY 1

SOURCE A

The source below entitled ‘SAPing the Third World’ by Mike Davis the editor of the New Left Review newspaper in California, United States focuses on the impact of Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs) on developing countries.

In ‘Shaping The Third World’, Mike Davis examines the wretched consequences of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) - mandated ‘Structural Adjustment Program’ (SAP). It consisted of common guiding principles, such as privatisation, deregulation, and liberalisation. SAP, a ‘one-size-fits-all’ program imposed in the late 1970s/early 1980s, contains economic policies that debt burdened Third World countries must follow to qualify for IMF and World Bank loans. These loans were meant to help the countries repay their older debts to commercial banks, governments, and the World Bank. According to Davis, the IMF and the World Bank have been the driving force behind the creation of modern slums. ‘The 1980s - when the IMF and the World Bank used the leverage of debt to restructure the economies of most of the Third World – are the years when slums became an implacable (merciless) future not just for poor rural migrants, but also for millions of traditional urbanites displaced or immiserated (miserable) by the violence of ‘adjustment.’ Davis explains that although the countryside still contains the majority of the world’s poor, this distinction will pass to urban slums no later than 2035.

In the first section, ‘Urban Poverty’s Big Bang’, Davis mentions how the 1985 Baker Plan was a way to attack the Third World debt crisis. It ‘required the 15 largest Third World debtors to abandon state led development strategies in return for new loan facilities and continued membership in the world economy.’ Moreover, this Plan placed the World Bank as the ‘long term manager of the scores of structural adjustment programs that were shaping the brave new world of the so-called ‘Washington Consensus’.’ Africa and Latin America, were particularly the countries hardest hit. During the 1980s, alongside with ‘rising prices, soaring interest rates, and falling commodity prices,’ the economic impact of SAPs, ‘was more severe and long-lasting than the Great Depression.’ For example, in Abidjan (Capital of Ivory Coast) - one of the few tropical African cities with an important manufacturing sector and modern urban services – deindustrialisation, the collapse of construction, and a rapid deterioration in public transit and sanitation took place because of the SAPs regime.

[From: https://howdoyouquoteapirate.wordpress.com/2009/02/17/saping-the-third-world-mike-davis/ Accessed on 01 August 2016]EPISODE 2: EPISODE 2

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1.1 Read Source A

1.1.1 Define Structural Adjustment Programmes in your own words. (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.2 Name the two international institutions responsible for the debt crisis in the ‘Third World’ (2 x 1) (2)

1.1.3 Explain how the programme instituted by the international institutions affected the ‘Third World’ countries.

(2 x 2) (4) 1.1.4 Name two continents hardest hit by the 1985 Baker Plan. (2 x 1) (2)

1.1.5 Why in your opinion was it important for Mike Davis to research Structural Adjustment Policies? (2 x 2) (4)

1.1.6 How was Abidjan affected by Structural Adjustment Programmes? (2 x 1) (2) ANSWER

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ACTIVITY 2

SOURCE B

This extract below is by E Loots that focuses on how debts from Low Income Countries are used by the International Monetary Fund and World Bank as a weapon to control the economies of these countries.

In July 2001 the summit of the G8 (G7+ Russia) was organised in Genoa. 300,000 people demonstrated against the summit and the globalisation is represented. In the demonstration and in many of the seminars linked to them the impoverishment caused by globalisation was highlighted. Susan George and other researchers close to the movement explained what prevailing globalisation means in practice: Using debt as a weapon, the IMF and the World Bank, which are controlled by the G7, have imposed Structural Adjustment Plans or Programs (SAPs) on more than 150 countries. (In 1999 they were renamed ‘Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers” or PRSPs. It seems that in most cases the new name has not changed the content decisively.) In practise they have meant a reduction of public expenditure on healthcare, education infrastructure. The prices of food and other necessities are rising because of the subsidies of rich countries, replace domestic food production and throw large numbers of people into unemployment…

When SAP’s have taken jobs from men, women in impoverished families seek any employment opportunities available in formal and informal sectors, no matter how low-paying, dangerous, onerous (tiring) and debasing they are. While mothers are away, children have to take care of household duties to a far larger extent than traditionally. Often a family cannot survive on the mother’s paltry earnings, and it has to send children to work. In situations of extreme distress children are sold into bondage.

[From: Globalization and Economic Growth Evidence from Emerging Market Economies and South Africa by E Loots ]

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1.2 Consult Source 3B

1.2.1 Define the concept globalisation in your own words. (1 x 2) (2)1.2.2 What aspect of globalisation did the 300 000 demonstrators highlight

at the Genoa G8 summit? (1 x 1) (1)1.2.3 Why according to Susan George is ‘Poverty Reduction

Strategy Papers’ just an extension of the Structural Adjustment Programmes? (1 x 2) (2)

1.2.4 Describe how poverty caused by Structural Adjustment Programmes affected the following:

(a) Women (1 x 2) (2)

(b) Children (1 x 2) (2)

1.2.5 How, do you think, Structural Adjustment Programmes affected familiesin impoverished communities? (1 x 2) (2)

1.3 Explain why a historian would consider the information in this source useful when researching the impact of Structural Adjustment Programmes onThird World countries. (2 x 2) (4)

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ACTIVITY 3

SOURCE C

Source unknownStudy Source 3C

1.4.1 Which two sides are depicted in the source? (2 x 1) (2)

1.4.2 Name one aspect of the society at the right which is sucked in by the big vacuum on the left. (1 x 1) (1)1.4.3 What message do you think, is conveyed by this cartoon regarding the

IMF and World Bank debt repayment? (2 x 2) (4)

1.5 Compare Sources 3B and 3C. How do these sources support each otherregarding the impact of Structural Adjustment Programmes on developing countries. (2 x 2) (4)

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PARAGRAPH WRITING

WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES ON THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES?

SOURCE 3A

The source below entitled ‘Shaping the Third World’ by Mike Davis the editor of the New Left Review newspaper in California, United States focuses on the impact of Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs) on developing countries.

In ‘Shaping The Third World’, Mike Davis examines the wretched consequences of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) - mandated ‘Structural Adjustment Program’ (SAP). It consisted of common guiding principles, such as privatisation, deregulation, and liberalisation. SAP, a ‘one-size-fits-all’ program imposed in the late 1970s/early 1980s, contains economic policies that debt burdened Third World countries must follow to qualify for IMF and World Bank loans. These loans were meant to help the countries repay their older debts to commercial banks, governments, and the World Bank. According to Davis, the IMF and the World Bank have been the driving force behind the creation of modern slums. ‘The 1980s - when the IMF and the World Bank used the leverage of debt to restructure the economies of most of the Third World – are the years when slums became an implacable (merciless) future not just for poor rural migrants, but also for millions of traditional urbanites displaced or immiserated (miserable) by the violence of ‘adjustment.’ Davis explains that although the countryside still contains the majority of the world’s poor, this distinction will pass to urban slums no later than 2035.

In the first section, ‘Urban Poverty’s Big Bang’, Davis mentions how the 1985 Baker Plan was a way to attack the Third World debt crisis. It ‘required the 15 largest Third World debtors to abandon state led development strategies in return for new loan facilities and continued membership in the world economy.’ Moreover, this Plan placed the World Bank as the ‘long term manager of the scores of structural adjustment programs that were shaping the brave new world of the so-called ‘Washington Consensus’.’ Africa and Latin America, were particularly the countries hardest hit. During the 1980s, alongside with ‘rising prices, soaring interest rates, and falling commodity prices,’ the economic impact of SAPs, ‘was more severe and long-lasting than the Great Depression.’ For example, in Abidjan (Capital of Ivory Coast) - one of the few tropical African cities with an important manufacturing sector and modern urban services – deindustrialisation, the collapse of construction, and a rapid deterioration in public transit and sanitation took place because of the SAPs regime.

[From: https://howdoyouquoteapirate.wordpress.com/2009/02/17/saping-the-third-world-mike-davis/ Accessed on 01 August 2016]EPISODE 2: EPISODE 2

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SOURCE 3B

This extract below is by E Loots that focuses on how debts from Low Income Countries are used by the International Monetary Fund and World Bank as a weapon to control the economies of these countries.

In July 2001 the summit of the G8 (G7+ Russia) was organised in Genoa. 300,000 people demonstrated against the summit and the globalisation is represented. In the demonstration and in many of the seminars linked to them the impoverishment caused by globalisation was highlighted. Susan George and other researchers close to the movement explained what prevailing globalisation means in practice: Using debt as a weapon, the IMF and the World Bank, which are controlled by the G7, have imposed Structural Adjustment Plans or Programs (SAPs) on more than 150 countries. (In 1999 they were renamed ‘Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers” or PRSPs. It seems that in most cases the new name has not changed the content decisively.) In practise they have meant a reduction of public expenditure on healthcare, education infrastructure. The prices of food and other necessities are rising because of the subsidies of rich countries, replace domestic food production and throw large numbers of people into unemployment…

When SAP’s have taken jobs from men, women in impoverished families seek any employment opportunities available in formal and informal sectors, no matter how low-paying, dangerous, onerous (tiring) and debasing they are. While mothers are away, children have to take care of household duties to a far larger extent than traditionally. Often a family cannot survive on the mother’s paltry earnings, and it has to send children to work. In situations of extreme distress children are sold into bondage.

[From: Globalization and Economic Growth Evidence from Emerging Market Economies and South Africa by E Loots ]

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SOURCE C

This cartoon deals with the effects that the policy of Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) on developing countries.

Source unknown

Using the information in the relevant sources and your own knowledge, write a paragraph of about eight lines (about 80 words) explaining the impact of the Structural Adjustment Programmes on Third World countries? (8)

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THE END OF THE COLD WAR : THE EVENTS OF 1989

• The end of the Cold War: The events of 1989• Gorbachev’s reforms in the Soviet Union;• Eastern Europe:• Events in Poland – significance of ‘Solidarity’; • The significance of events in Poland for the decline of the Soviet Union in

Eastern Europe; and • Germany: The fall of the Berlin Wall; • The disintegration of the Soviet Union – to what extent were Gorbachev’s

reforms responsible?• A turning point in South Africa – the impact of the Soviet Union and its impact

on SA.

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Gorbachev's reforms in the Soviet Union

The disintegration of the Soviet

Union

Turning point in South Africa and

its impact on South Africa

INFORMAL ASSESSMENT

QUESTION 1 : THE END OF THE COLD WAR AND A NEW WORLD ORDER: THE EVENTS OF 1989

Explain to what extent Gorbachev’s policies of Glasnost and Perestroika in the Soviet Union contributed to political changes in South Africa after 1989.

Support your line of argument with relevant evidence.

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