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Gaseous Emissions from Wastewater FacilitiesAuthor(s): G. Robert DeHollanderSource: Water Environment Research, Vol. 70, No. 4, 1998: Literature Review (Jun., 1998), pp.580-585Published by: Water Environment FederationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25045071 .
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Wong, J.W.C.; Fang, M.; Li, G.X.; and Wong, M.H. (1997a) Feasibility of Using Coal Ash Residual as Co-Composting Materials for Sew
age Sludge. Environ. Technol, 18, 563.
Wong, J.W.C., and Su, D.C. (1997b) Reutilization of Coal Fly-Ash and
Sewage Sludge as an Artificial Soil-Mix?Effects of Preincubation on
Soil Physioo-Chemical Properties. Bioresour. Technol. (G.B.), 59, 97.
Wong, J.W.C., and Su, D.C (1997c) The Growth of Agropyron elonga
turn in an Artificial Soil Mix from Coal Fly Ash and Sewage Sludge. Bioresour. Technol. (G.B.), 59, 57.
Wu, C.C.; Huang, C; and Lee, D.J. (1997) Effects of Polymer Dosage on
Alum Sludge Dewatering Characteristics and Physical Properties. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects, 122, 89.
W?nsch, M., and Otte-Witte, R. (1997) State of the Art in Sludge
Dewatering Using Centrifuges. Abwassertechnik (Ger.), 48, 3, 40.
Gaseous emissions
from wastewater
facilities G. Robert DeHollander
Quantification, control, and modeling of wastewater emis
sions again received attention in 1997. Regulatory requirements driven by the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAA) have
begun to affect wastewater operations. In addition, odor mea
surement and control, especially in populated areas, was the
focus of much effort.
REGULATORY COMPLIANCE
Section 112(r) of the CAA requires subject facilities to ad dress the accidental release of regulated substances to the com
munity. Phillips et al (1997) reviewed a case study for compli ance with the Risk Management Program for a large wastewater
treatment facility. The case study reviewed the methods used
to achieve compliance, computer modeling applications, and the
results of the off-site impact analysis. An air quality compliance
study was conducted for a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in New York City (Pope, 1997). The study included identifica tion of pollutants, emissions from wastewater operations, calcu
lation of engine emissions, modeling off-site impact of plant
emissions, and comparison to state and federal standards. Sec
tion 112(d) of the CAA sets regulations governing emissions of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) from wastewater using maxi
mum achievable control technology (MACT). Torres (1997) summarized the development of MACT Standards for publicly owned treatment works (POTWs). Rogers and Steidel (1997)
presented a case study for a POTW in Virginia that was domi
nated by industrial users. The wastewater had a high volatile
organic chemical (VOC) content, which was stripped and emit
ted to the atmosphere. The POTW implemented a reasonably available control technology approach to comply with state and federal clean air laws.
Of interest to the synthetic organic chemical manufacturing
industry (SOCMI) are the requirements of the Hazardous Or
ganic National Emission Standard for Hazardous Air Pollutants
(HON). Bachynsky (1997) summarized a case history for com
pliance with the HON for a plastics facility. The study addressed
compliance with the HON for vinyl chloride emissions from
maintenance wastewater. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(U.S. EPA) tightened requirements for National Pollutant Dis
charge Elimination System permits for the oil and gas industry for toxic pollutant discharges (Veil, 1997). Pintenich and Bazy
dola (1997) presented a multimedia regulatory evaluation of air
emissions, water discharges, and treatment sludge for a ground water treatment system at a Superfund site. Compliance with
air emissions regulations was predicted using activated sludge as a control device (Oppelt et al, 1997).
QUANTIFICATION AND MEASUREMENT
Wang et al (1997) described the use of a modified EPA Method 624 to estimate VOC emissions in the water and off
gas from the aeration basin of a POTW. Serne (1997) reviewed the use of EPA Method 18 and EPA 25A by SOCMI facilities for HON compliance. Volatile organic chemical emissions from
pharmaceutical, petrochemical, and municipal treatment plants were measured (James and Stack, 1997). Analysis was per
formed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry on head
space and immersed samples. Target compounds included chlo
roform, saturated alkylbenzenes, phenol, benzonitrile, and ben
zofuran. Mackay et al (1997) discussed the sensing of VOCs
through the air-water interface for mass balance applications such as wastewater treatment systems. The limitations of chemi
cal analysis in measuring WWTP odors were described (Ostojic and O'Brien, 1997). Iatrou and Joyce (1997) presented a remote, continuous system for monitoring dissolved sulfide and hydro
gen sulfide gas throughout a wastewater collection system.
MODELING
Soszynski et al (1997) compared three general fate models for VOCs (WATER8, BASTE, and TOXCHEM+) with mea sured VOC emission rates from two large water reclamation
plants in the greater Chicago area. Emission estimates from
aeration basins were similar for the three models, but WATER8
predicted higher VOC estimates from aerated grit chambers. Recommendations included using the TOXCHEM+ or BASTE models as screening tools for determining annual VOC emis
sions from POTWs, with direct measurement advised if VOC emission rates are close to or exceed regulatory limits. A round
robin approach was used to compare the WATER7, PAVE, TOXCHEM, and BASTE models (Schroy, 1997). The PAVE model predicted effluent concentration most accurately, whereas
WATER7 predicted stripping most accurately for the given con ditions. Hall (1997) estimated VOC emissions from a wastewa ter treatment facility at an air force base using the surface im
poundment model system (SIMS). The SIMS model was used to predict VOC emissions to satisfy the toxic release inventory
reporting requirement.
SOURCES
Volatilization processes in wastewater treatment operations
and the implications for occupational hygiene risk assessment
580 Water Environment Research, Volume 70, Number 4
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Treatment Systems
were discussed (Bianchi and Varney, 1997). Volatilization rates were estimated for a range of hazardous alkane, aromatic, organ
ohalogen, organosulfide, ketone, and alcohol VOCs under vary
ing seasonal conditions. Ranges of concentrations that may be
reasonably encountered by process workers were reported. Zhu
et al (1997) evaluated emissions of VOCs from aeration tanks
using direct sampling and a plug flow reactor model. The results
were compared to predictions from the TOXCHEM model. Esti
mates of ammonia emissions from two POTWs in Orange
County, Calif., were based on engineering calculation, model
ing, and source testing (Kogan and Torres, 1997). Ammonia
emissions were below CAA major source thresholds of 10 ton/y, health impacts of ammonia emissions from the WWTPs to sur
rounding areas were insignificant, and wastewater treatment and
solids-handling units were the primary sources of ammonia.
Scherzer et al (1997) presented model experiments to estimate the evolution of volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons from waste
water. Potential emissions from sewage sludges were discussed
(Gruning et al, 1997). Liao and Lee (1997) predicted VOC emission rates from a sequencing batch reactor under various
operating conditions. The emissions of N20 and total gaseous
nitrogen compounds by nitrification and denitrification pro
cesses in wastewater were also investigated (Sich et al, 1997).
Toprak (1997) reported hydrogen sulfide emission rates from
anaerobic waste stabilization ponds. Volatile metal compounds
in digester gas waste were estimated (Feldman and Kleimann,
1977). Tanner et al (1997) measured methane emissions from
four pilot-scale wetlands used to treat dairy farm wastewater.
Unvegetated sites tended to show higher emission rates than
vegetated sites.
PROCESS AND OPERATION TOOLS
Several traditional treatment processes can be used to reduce
the VOC content of wastes and help avoid air emissions compli
ance requirements (Higgins, 1997). Venkatesh (1997) addressed
closed sewer systems, nitrogen- or gas-blanketing vessels,
floating roof or vent controls on tanks, and strippers on biologi
cal reactors to reduce VOC emissions from wastewater systems.
Current and new concepts concerning the Dutch urban water
cycle were presented (Dirkzwager, 1997). Dutch decision mak
ers are considering new approaches that may lead to a reduction
in wastewater emissions, energy consumption, use of natural
resources, and solid waste production. Nakajima et al (1997)
investigated the use of photosynthetic bacteria to treat wastewa
ter. Batch experiments were carried out using the purple nonsul
fur bacterium Rhodobacter sphaeroides to assimilate acetate,
propionate, n-butyrate, n-valeric acid, and /i-caproate, and no
net greenhouse gas emissions were observed. Wastewater off
gas was used as an energy source for internal combustion engine
sources (Hawkins, 1997). Technical and economic benefits for
POTW facilities were addressed. Bell et al (1997) compared the
performance of three biogas fuels to natural gas in an internal
combustion engine. The use of waste methane from wastewater
treatment facilities as a cofeedstock for fuel-cell vehicles was
also suggested (Borgwardt, 1997).
ODOR: CASE STUDIES, CONTROL, AND MODELING
Case Studies. Lee et al (1997) reviewed the design a 4.82 m3/s (110 mgd) activated sludge plant in Medellin, Colombia,
in which odor control was a key design element. Process, de
sign, and odor control alternatives were discussed. The plant
elected to use packed scrubbers because of economic and space
limitations. An odor assessment was conducted at a municipal WWTP in Singapore (Chew et al, 1997). Singapore is upgrad
ing existing facilities using covered units, and air from odorous
units is being treated with scrubbers. Hydrogen sulfide emis
sions were modeled using the ISCST3 model, and results of
hourly isopleths were discussed. Stillwell et al (1997) presented an odor control evaluation and design project at a WWTP in San
Diego, Calif. Upstream chemical addition of hydrogen peroxide
reduced hydrogen sulfide formation in the plant by 50%. An
economic analysis showed that process optimization improved
plant performance for little or no net cost. In addition, sodium
hypochlorite scrubbers were determined to be more efficient
and economical than the existing hydrogen peroxide scrubbers.
Ziois (1997) reported on the successful reduction of odorous releases from four water reclamation plants in the greater Chi
cago area. A key part of the response plan was the use of an
odor-complaint database that allowed evaluation of ongoing
efforts. Atkinson et al (1997) summarized an odor control eval
uation for the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Utility Department in
North Carolina. The evaluation included the following tasks:
(1) development of a plan to define sampling, modeling, and
public participation elements, (2) identification and quantifica tion of odor sources, (3) evaluation of odor control strategies,
and (4) incorporation of public input into decision-making pro cesses. An odor sampling program was conducted by the public
for a WWTP located on the New England coast (Crane and
Lannan, 1997). Local residents were involved in logging and
sampling odorous episodes. Chlupsa (1997) described the evalu
ation, abatement, and monitoring of odors at a WWTP in Yon
kers, N.Y. Odor treatment systems, tank/channel covers, and
odor monitoring were discussed. An odor control program
(OCP) was initiated at a 3-m3/s (67-mgd) WWTP in Springfield, Mass (Borgatti et al, 1997). A seven-step public relations pro
gram, the OCP program teams, program cost, and reduction in
residential odor complaints were presented. Frankenberg (1997) summarized the approach, performance, and conclusions of a
two-phase odor control initiative used at a 7.3-m3/s (167-mgd)
treatment plant in St. Louis, Mo. The facility installed covers
and biofilters to reduce odor complaints. Filter design, operating
parameters, and cost were presented. The OCP at the 1.2-m3/s
(28-mgd) WWTP in Kenosha, Wis., was reviewed (Relwani and Hickey, 1997). High population density within 500 m of the plant led to odor complaints. The facility used chemical
feed at tributary lift stations, improved scum drainage and re
moval from the primary clarifiers and covers for the scum col
lection wells, and improved process control to reduce odorous
emissions.
Odor Control. A 6-m3/s (135-mgd) municipal WWTP in
Texas successfully eliminated chemical odor control scrubbers
by routing the air into the activated sludge process via fiberglass
reinforced plastic duct (Tamada et al, 1997). Bowker (1997) reviewed 26 treatment plants using biological odor control by
diffusion into activated sludge basins. Key design criteria and
an economic analysis were included. A comparison of hydrogen
sulfide emissions from aeration tanks using fine bubble diffusion versus coarse bubble diffusion was made (Feltner and Liang,
1997). Ostojic et al (1997) discussed the release of odors from
the weirs at gravity sludge thickeners. A reduction in waterfall
height from 0.9 to 0.23 m (3 to 0.75 ft) reduced emissions from
Literature Review 1998 ' 581
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the thickener weirs by more than 60%. Nagl (1997) reviewed different technologies for hydrogen sulfide control, including chemical oxidants, the Claus process, caustic scrubbers, adsorp
tion, scavengers, amine adsorption units, and liquid-phase oxi
dation systems. The use of preaeration may oxidize 65-75%
of hydrogen sulfide in solution and minimize downstream emis
sions (Federici, 1997). Preaeration alone may not adquately control odors, and a containment, ventilation, and treatment
program may be necessary in conjunction with preaeration. Por
ter et al (1997) described the sulfide pretreatment program and treatability studies at the Massachusetts Water Resources
Authority. The preliminary feasibility study, control alterna
tives, bench-scale simulations, and treatability study results
were presented. Zhang et al (1997) discussed surface aeration
of anaerobic lagoons for odor control of swine manure. Continu
ous low rate aeration of dissolved oxygen at 0.5-2.5 mg/L in the
surface liquid layer was effective for odor control but resulted in
high ammonia emission rates. Koe (1997) reported the perfor mance of an activated carbon scrubber used to control odorous
air from a primary sedimentation tank. Observed odor-removal
efficiency was 60-70%. Lannan and Gaudes (1997) compared sodium hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide odor scrubbers.
Both chemicals were effective for removal of hydrogen sulfide.
However, hypochlorite was more effective for removal of other
reduced sulfur compounds. A biogas tower reactor was used
to treat anaerobic wastewater emissions (Reinhold and Markl,
1997). Hydrogen sulfide was removed from wastewater treat
ment air streams using a biotrickling filter (Morton and Cabal
lero, 1997). The operational costs of the biotrickling filter were
$7.00 per million ft3 versus $33.00 per million ft3 for the existing caustic scrubber. In addition, odor panel analyses indicated that
inlet odors were reduced by 99% by the biotrickling filter. Odor Modeling. Diosey (1997) discussed alternative ap
proaches to dispersion modeling as a tool for odor assessment.
Molseed et al (1997) performed dispersion modeling for a mu
nicipal WWTP in Washington state. The results of the modeling indicated that implementation of odor control treatment can
result in higher odor concentrations at specific fenceline recep tors. In addition, dispersion from a scrubber stack resulted in
lower fenceline concentrations than dispersion from a biofilter,
even when mass emissions from the biofilter were lower than
the scrubber. The key parameters of odor modeling were identi
fied, and results were presented for two WWTPs (Serjak, 1997). Murray (1997) reviewed two case studies using the industrial
source complex model. Case study 1 showed that the aeration
tanks had the greatest off-site impact. Case study 2 showed that
the effluent sump and oil/water separator were the principal sources of odor. Odor emissions were also evaluated with the
models WOCSS and INPUFF (Bassett and Ruby, 1997). Pope and Diosey (1997) used air modeling to design facilities that
met air quality requirements for hydrogen sulfide, VOCs, and HAPs.
BIOSOLIDS
Hentz (1997) reported on the chemical, biological, and physi cal origins of gaseous emissions from biosolids emissions.
Emissions of sulfur compounds were reported to be a function
of temperature, concentration of proteins (primary sludge), an
aerobic conditions, and storage of primary sludge with waste
activated sludge. Schmidt et al (1997) assessed odorous emis
sions from composting facilities using direct assessment tech
nologies. A comparison of compound concentrations and odors
was presented. Part 503 air emissions standards for wastewater
sludge incinerators were reviewed (Santanam et al, 1997).
Durme et al. (1997) presented an integrated odor control ap proach for solids-handling facilities. Problem definition, sulfide
mass balance, cost, and facility improvements were addressed.
Mass transfer coefficients were reported for dimethyl disulfide
emissions at a biosolids composting facility (Hentz et al, 1997).
PHYSICOCHEMICAL TREATMENT
Perlmutter (1997) evaluated a vacuum/gas compressor sys tem to recover solvents during vacuum operations and eliminate
wastewater emissions. Air stripping and membrane vapor sepa
ration for VOC removal from wastewater was found to be eco
nomically competitive for streams containing more than 500
ppm VOC and having flow rates less than 37.9 L/min (10-30 gal/min) (Wijmans et al, 1997). Wolstenholme (1997) pre sented design criteria for covers, hoods, and ducts for foul air
collection systems. Zhu et al (1997) discussed VOC control
using a circulating aeration system on both air and high-purity
oxygen systems. Sereno et al (1997) reviewed the optimization of multistage wet scrubbers used for odor control at a Los
Angeles, Calif., WWTP. Evaluation, performance, and cost data
were presented for chemical scrubbers. A closed-loop hydrocar bon recovery process removed 98% of benzene, toluene, ethyl
benzene, and xylene from refinery WWTPs (Closed-loop,
1997).
BIOFILTERS
Leson and Smith (1997) assessed the technical, regulatory, and economical feasibility of biofiltration for treating volatile
hydrocarbons. Preliminary results indicated that biofiltration from refinery wastewater may offer considerable savings in total
cost of air pollution control where regulations require the control
of aromatic HAPs or odors. The system showed 80% removal
efficiency when inlet VOC concentrations were at 500 mg/ m3. Williams and Boyette (1997) summarized recent design
improvements, costs, and case studies for open end biofilters.
The performance of three biofilter types was compared for re
moval of odorous sulfur compounds (Vaith and Heydorn, 1997). Finn and Spencer (1997) discussed enhanced design for biofilt ers including pretreatment of inlet gas streams, redundancy in
design for periodic shutdown and maintenance, and above
ground design allowing periodic mixing and replacement of media. The design, material, and performance specifications of
a 1 700 m3/min (60, 000 cu ft/min) biofilter in California were
reported (Witherspoon, 1997). Amihor et al (1997) evaluated biofiltration to treat odorous emissions from a composting facil
ity. Considerations included control effectiveness, regulatory
compliance, ease of operation and maintenance, chemical and
power use, safety, and environmental factors. Bonnin et al.
(1997) showed that mineral media (schist) could be used in a biofilter in place of peat. Reported benefits of the process were
reduced channeling, higher gas velocities, and higher inlet pol lutant loading. The use of encapsulated gel beads as an alternate
biofilter medium were investigated (Zhou and Bishop, 1997). The effects of biomass immobilization time, trichloroethylene (TCE) inlet concentration, and TCE gas flow rate on oxygen
concentration in the gel beads were investigated.
582 Water Environment Research, Volume 70, Number 4
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_Treatment Systems
SEWERS
Corsi (1997) investigated VOC emissions from municipal sewers using computational models, mass balance, and exper
iments. Results suggested that a significant fraction of vola
tile HAP emissions occurs before wastewater treatment and
that emissions from sewers may be as great as those from
downstream treatment plants, possibly orders of magnitude
greater. Ferro and Lannan (1997) estimated VOC emissions
from a combined sewer overflow (CSO) facility using the
TOXCHEM+, BASTE, and WATER8 fate models. The re sults and model equations were discussed. Clemens and Haas
(1997) reported nitrous oxide emissions in wastewater systems.
Hagekhalil et al (1997) investigated odor and corrosion hot
spots in the Los Angeles, Calif., wastewater system. Undesir
able hydrogen sulfide levels were caused by high flow levels,
high turbulence, hydraulic jumps and other changes in velocity, high debris buildup, blockages in air flow, and direct connection of local lines into large interceptors. Wind velocity over the
opening in the reach and water flow rate were found to have
the greatest effect on wastewater ventilation rate (Monteith et
al, 1997). Water temperature had a lesser effect on emissions.
Melcer et al (1997) studied the effect of ventilation rate on
estimating VOC emissions from wastewater systems. Volatile
organic chemical emissions increased with higher ventilation
rate and larger pipe diameter. The study indicated that estimat
ing VOC emissions from sewers is more difficult for systems in which the mass load of VOCs exceeds the VOC solubility limits in water. Mann et al (1997) presented an integrated
approach to systemwide sewer odor problems. An odor-sam
pling program was developed for a CSO facility to quantify sulfur compounds and VOCs (Schoettle and Jamgocian, 1997).
The data were used to determine whether VOC control was
necessary in the odor design recommendations. Olson and Corsi
(1997) presented naUTilus, a model to predict HAP emissions from industrial sewers. Oxygen uptake and VOC emissions at
enclosed sewer drop structures were investigated by Zytner et
al (1997). Differences between clean water and raw wastewater
on VOC stripping processes were examined. Rahme et al.
(1997) predicted oxygen uptake and VOC emissions at drop structures. The study considered drop height, liquid flow rate,
and tail water depth on 10 VOC tracer compounds.
MEETINGS
The Water Environment Federation held a conference from
April 20 to April 23, 1997, in Houston, Tex., on ''Control of Odors and VOC Emissions." Fifty-three papers were presented.
Sessions included odors, sewers, emission estimates, process,
analytical, biofilters, atmospheric modeling, and miscellaneous
topics. The annual meeting of the Air and Waste Management
Association was held in Toronto, Canada, from June 8 to June
13, 1997. Relevant sessions included Techniques for Odor Im
pact Modeling, Biological Air Pollution Control (biofilters), Emissions and Controls of Air Toxics and VOCs from Waste
water Treatment Facilities and Waste Management Units, Mea
surement and Modeling of Fugitive Emissions from Contami
nated Water/Wastewater and Soils, and Industrial and Munici
pal Wastewater Management Issues.
Rob DeHollander is a project manager with The Fletcher
Group in Greenville, South Carolina. Correspondence should
be addressed to Rob DeHollander, The Fletcher Group, 322 South Main Street, Greenville, SC 29601.
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