Fyp Wirelessloadcontrollerbygsm

8/13/2019 Fyp Wirelessloadcontrollerbygsm

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SAUD MUSTAFA SIR SYED UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING

AND TECHNOLOGY

WIRELESS LOAD

CONTROLLER BY GSM

AIM:-

To design & develop the wireless controller load by the GSM.

ABSTRAT:-

GSM contoller is a low cost sol!tion to Re"ote ontrol and Monitoring via yo!r

"obile phone. It has # relay o!tp!ts and $ contact clos!re inp!ts. %!tp!ts can be

!sed to control lighting central heating boiler p!"ps etc and the inp!ts can be

connected to ther"ostats sec!rity sensors and 'lood detectors. An optional

wireless inter'ace allows co""!nicate with an e(panding range o' sec!rity and

'ire sensors heating ther"ostats 'or te"perat!re control and panic switches.

Description:-

GSM ontrol )nit !sing SMS te(t "essaging

# ( "ains rated relay o!tp!ts 'or switching 'or e(a"ple lights p!"ps

central heating

$ ( contact clos!re inp!ts 'ro" e(a"ple *IR detectors 'lood detectors

sec!rity alar" syste"s etc

an switch on+o'' o!tp!ts 'ro" si"ple SMS te(t "essage

an send an SMS "essage when a inp!t changes state

)ses standard "obile phone SIM card incl!ding pre-paid


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AND TECHNOLOGY

,asy to !se and con'ig!re via SMS the internet or optional )SB lead

%ptional battery bac-!p 'or operation even d!ring "ains power 'ail!re

%ptional wireless sensor interface'or !se with

o /ireless ther"ostat 'or heating control

o /ireless 0ire and S"oe detectors

o /ireless *IR and Glass brea Sec!rity sensor

o /ireless re"ote switch o!tp!t !nit

o /ireless *anic or /rist b!tton 'or th in'ir"

Add SMS alerting to yo!r sec!rity alar"

Re"ote control and "onitoring o' yo!r #nd or holiday ho"e

entral heating control via yo!r "obile phone

#$ ho!r property 'lood "onitoring

OPERATION:-
http://www.audon.co.uk/gd04.html#wireless%23wirelesshttp://www.audon.co.uk/gd04.html#wireless%23wireless


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AND TECHNOLOGY

Switching Outputs from your Phone:-


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AND TECHNOLOGY

Two o!tp!t ter"inals 12 or 34 can be !sed as:

An SMS-controlled switch. SMS te(ts 'or switching partic!lar ter"inals

on+o'' are con'ig!rable 1e.g. 5light on5 5light o''5 and 5s!nblind close5

5s!nblind open54. Any s!ch instr!ction can be a!to"atically echoed by

6avid sending yo! an SMS report.

A ti"e-switch which can be activated re"otely via a "obile phone. 1the

switch-on period is con'ig!rable 'ro" 7 second to 78 ho!rs4.

A relay with dialling-in re"ote control. )p to 98 tel. n!"bers can be

a!thoried 'or each relay. Beca!se calls are not answered dialling-in control

within GSM is 'ree o' charge. 16avid only checs the caller;s n!"ber and


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AND TECHNOLOGY

0o!r inp!t ter"inals 1A to 64 can have their switching on+o'' reported by SMS

1e.g. 5'reeer "ains dropo!t5 or 5'reeer "ains recovered54

SMS reports can contain !p to =8 characters.

,ach inp!t can have !p to > tel. n!"bers progra""ed 'or where reports are

sent to.

SMS reports can be e"phasied by s!bse?!ent calls.

6avid;s c!rrent stat!s 1inp!t+o!tp!t ter"inal states4 can be interrogated

re"otely via SMS instr!ctions.

6avid can per'or" periodical calls every #$ ho!rs allowing yo! to "onitor

its '!nctioning.

I' yo! !se a prepaid SIM card 6avid can send yo! a warning SMS

whenever a critically low credit balance is detected on periodic

interrogation.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

POWER SUPPLY

In alternating c!rrent the electron 'low is alternate i.e. the electron 'low

increases to "a(i"!" in one direction decreases bac to ero. It then increases in

the other direction and then decreases to ero again. 6irect c!rrent 'lows in one

direction only. Recti'ier converts alternating c!rrent to 'low in one direction only.

/hen the anode o' the diode is positive with respect to its cathode it is 'orward

biased allowing c!rrent to 'low. B!t when its anode is negative with respect to the

cathode it is reverse biased and does not allow c!rrent to 'low. This !nidirectionalproperty o' the diode is !se'!l 'or recti'ication. A single diode arranged bac-to-

bac "ight allow the electrons to 'low d!ring positive hal' cycles only and

s!ppress the negative hal' cycles. 6o!ble diodes arranged bac-to-bac "ight act

as '!ll wave recti'iers as they "ay allow the electron 'low d!ring both positive and

negative hal' cycles. 0o!r diodes can be arranged to "ae a '!ll wave bridge

recti'ier. 6i''erent types o' 'ilter circ!its are !sed to s"ooth o!t the p!lsations in

a"plit!de o' the o!tp!t voltage 'ro" a recti'ier. The property o' capacitor to

oppose any change in the voltage applied across the" by storing energy in theelectric 'ield o' the capacitor and o' ind!ctors to oppose any change in the c!rrent

'lowing thro!gh the" by storing energy in the "agnetic 'ield o' coil "ay be

!tilied. To re"ove p!lsation o' the direct c!rrent obtained 'ro" the recti'ier

di''erent types o' co"bination o' capacitor ind!ctors and resistors "ay be also be

!sed to increase to action o' 'iltering.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

TEOR!

U SE OF DIODES IN RECTIFIERS:

,lectric energy is available in ho"es and ind!stries in India in the 'or" o'

alternating voltage. The s!pply has a voltage o' ##8@ 1r"s4 at a 're?!ency o' 98

. In the )SA it is 778@ at 8 . 0or the operation o' "ost o' the devices in

electronic e?!ip"ent a dc voltage is needed. 0or instance a transistor radio

re?!ires a dc s!pply 'or its operation. )s!ally this s!pply is provided by dry cells.

B!t so"eti"e we !se a battery eli"inator in place o' dry cells. The batteryeli"inator converts the ac voltage into dc voltage and th!s eli"inates the need 'or

dry cells. Cowadays al"ost all-electronic e?!ip"ent incl!des a circ!it that

converts ac voltage o' "ains s!pply into dc voltage. This part o' the e?!ip"ent is

called *ower S!pply. In general at the inp!t o' the power s!pply there is a power

trans'or"er. It is 'ollowed by a diode circ!it called Recti'ier. The o!tp!t o' the

recti'ier goes to a s"oothing 'ilter and then to a voltage reg!lator circ!it. The

recti'ier circ!it is the heart o' a power s!pply.

RECTIFICATION

Recti'ication is a process o' rendering an alternating c!rrent or voltage into a

!nidirectional one. The co"ponent !sed 'or recti'ication is called DRecti'ier;. A

recti'ier per"its c!rrent to 'low only d!ring the positive hal' cycles o' the appliedA voltage by eli"inating the negative hal' cycles or alternations o' the applied

A voltage. Th!s p!lsating 6 is obtained. To obtain s"ooth 6 power

additional 'ilter circ!its are re?!ired.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

A diode can be !sed as recti'ier. There are vario!s types o' diodes. B!t

se"icond!ctor diodes are very pop!larly !sed as recti'iers. A se"icond!ctor diode

is a solid-state device consisting o' two ele"ents is being an electron e"itter or

cathode the other an electron collector or anode. Since electrons in a

se"icond!ctor diode can 'low in one direction only-'ro" e"itter to collector- thediode provides the !nilateral cond!ction necessary 'or recti'ication. %!t o' the

se"icond!ctor diodes copper o(ide and seleni!" recti'ier are also co""only

!sed.

"#$$ %A&E RE'TI"IER

It is possible to recti'y both alternations o' the inp!t voltage by !sing two

diodes in the circ!it arrange"ent. Ass!"e .= @ r"s 17> @ p-p4 is applied to the

circ!it. Ass!"e '!rther that two e?!al-val!ed series-connected resistors R are

placed in parallel with the ac so!rce. The 7> @ p-p appears across the two resistors

connected between points A and B and point is the electrical "idpoint

between A and B. ence E @ p-p appears across each resistor. At any "o"ent

d!ring a cycle o' vin i' point A is positive relative to point B is negative

relative to . /hen A is negative to point B is positive relative to . The

e''ective voltage in proper ti"e phase which each diode 5sees5 is in 0ig. The

voltage applied to the anode o' each diode is e?!al b!t opposite in polarity at any

given instant.

/hen A is positive relative to the anode o' 67is positive with respect to

its cathode. ence 67

will cond!ct b!t 6#will not. 6!ring the second alternation

B is positive relative to . The anode o' 6#is there'ore positive with respect to its

cathode and 6#cond!cts while 67is c!t o''.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

There is cond!ction then by either 67or 6#d!ring the entire inp!t-voltage

cycle.

Since the two diodes have a co""on-cathode load resistor RF the o!tp!t

voltage across RFwill res!lt 'ro" the alternate cond!ction o' 67and 6#. The

o!tp!t wave'or" vo!tacross RF there'ore has no gaps as in the case o' the hal'-

wave recti'ier.

The o!tp!t o' a '!ll-wave recti'ier is also p!lsating direct c!rrent. In the

diagra" the two e?!al resistors R across the inp!t voltage are necessary to provide

a voltage "idpoint 'or circ!it connection and ero re'erence. Cote that the load

resistor RFis connected 'ro" the cathodes to this center re'erence point .

An interesting 'act abo!t the o!tp!t wave'or" vo!tis that its pea a"plit!de

is not E @ as in the case o' the hal'-wave recti'ier !sing the sa"e power so!rce b!t

is less than $ @. The reason o' co!rse is that the pea positive voltage o' A

relative to is $ @ not E @ and part o' the $ @ is lost across R.

Tho!gh the '!ll wave recti'ier 'ills in the cond!ction gaps it delivers less

than hal' the pea o!tp!t voltage that res!lts 'ro" hal'-wave recti'ication.


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AND TECHNOLOGY


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AND TECHNOLOGY

Filtration

The recti'ier circ!its we have disc!ssed above deliver an o!tp!t voltage that

always has the sa"e polarity: b!t however this o!tp!t is not s!itable as 6 power

s!pply 'or solid-state circ!its. This is d!e to the p!lsation or ripples o' the o!tp!t

voltage. This sho!ld be re"oved o!t be'ore the o!tp!t voltage can be s!pplied to

any circ!it. This s"oothing is done by incorporating 'ilter networs. The 'ilter

networ consists o' ind!ctors and capacitors. The ind!ctors or choe coils are

generally connected in series with the recti'ier o!tp!t and the load. The ind!ctors

oppose any change in the "agnit!de o' a c!rrent 'lowing thro!gh the" by storing!p energy in a "agnetic 'ield. An ind!ctor o''ers very low resistance 'or 6

whereas it o''ers very high resistance to A. Th!s a series connected choe coil

in a recti'ier circ!it helps to red!ce the p!lsations or ripples to a great e(tent in the

o!tp!t voltage. The 'itter capacitors are !s!ally connected in parallel with the

recti'ier o!tp!t and the load. As A can pass thro!gh a capacitor b!t 6 cannot

the ripples are th!s li"ited and the o!tp!t beco"es s"oothed. /hen the voltage

across its plates tends to rise it stores !p energy bac into voltage and c!rrent.

Th!s the 'l!ct!ations in the o!tp!t voltage are red!ced considerable. 0ilter

networ circ!its "ay be o' two types in general:

'APA'ITOR INP#T "I$TER

I' a capacitor is placed be'ore the ind!ctors o' a choe-inp!t 'ilter networ

the 'ilter is called capacitor inp!t 'ilter. The 6.. along with A ripples 'ro" the

recti'ier circ!it starts charging the capacitor . to abo!t pea val!e. The A ripples

are then di"inished slightly. Cow the capacitor discharges thro!gh the ind!ctor

or choe coil which opposes the A ripples e(cept the 6. The second capacitor by passes the '!rther A ripples. A s"all ripple is still present in the o!tp!t o'

6 which "ay be red!ced by adding additional 'ilter networ in series.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

*rinted circ!it boards are !sed 'or ho!sing co"ponents to "ae a circ!it 'or

co"actness si"plicity o' servicing and ease o' interconnection. Single sided

do!ble sided and do!ble sided with plated-thro!gh-hold 1*34 types o' p.c boards

are co""on today.

Boards are o' two types o' "aterial 174 phenolic paper based "aterial 1#4

Glass epo(y "aterial. Both "aterials are available as la"inate sheets with copper

cladding.

*rinted circ!it boards have a copper cladding on one or both sides. In bothboards pasting thin copper 'oil on the board d!ring c!ring does this. Boards are

prepared in sies o' 7 to 9 "etre wide and !pto # "etres long. The thicness o' the

boards is 7.$# to 7.>"". The copper on the boards is abo!t 8.# thic and weighs

and o!nce per s?!are 'oot.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

TRANSFORMER

PRINCIPLE OF THE TRANSFORMER:-

Two coils are wo!nd over a ore s!ch that they are "agnetically co!pled.

The two coils are nown as the pri"ary and secondary windings.

In a Transformer(an iron core is !sed. The co!pling between the coils is

so!rce o' "aing a path 'or the "agnetic 'l!( to lin both the coils. A core as in

'ig.# is !sed and the coils are wo!nd on the li"bs o' the core. Beca!se o' high

per"eability o' iron the 'l!( path 'or the 'l!( is only in the iron and hence the 'l!(

lins both windings. ence there is very little Dleaage 'l!(;. This ter" leaage

'l!( denotes the part o' the 'l!( which does not lin both the coils i.e. when

co!pling is not per'ect. In the high 're?!ency trans'or"ers 'errite core is !sed. The

trans'or"ers "ay be step-!p step-down 're?!ency "atching so!nd o!tp!t

a"pli'ier driver etc. The basic principles o' all the trans'or"ers are sa"e.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

TRANSISTOR

The na"e is transistor derived 'ro" Dtrans'er resistors; indicating a solid

state Se"icond!ctor device. In addition to cond!ctor and ins!lators there is a third

class o' "aterial that e(hibits proportion o' both. )nder so"e conditions it acts as

an ins!lator and !nder other conditions it;s a cond!ctor. This pheno"enon is

called Se"i-cond!cting and allows a variable control over electron 'low. So the

transistor is se"i cond!ctor device !sed in electronics 'or a"plit!de. Transistor has

three ter"inals one is the collector one is the base and other is the e"itter 1each

lead "!st be connected in the circ!it correctly and only then the transistor will

'!nction4. ,lectrons are e"itted via one ter"inal and collected on another ter"inal

while the third ter"inal acts as a control ele"ent. ,ach transistor has a n!"ber

"ared on its body. ,very n!"ber has its own speci'ications.

There are "ainly two types o' transistor 1i4 C*C & 1ii4 *C*

NPN Transistors:

/hen a positive voltage is applied to the base the transistor begins to

cond!ct by allowing c!rrent to 'low thro!gh the collector to e"itter circ!it. The

relatively s"all c!rrent 'lowing thro!gh the base circ!it ca!ses a "!ch greater

c!rrent to pass thro!gh the e"itter + collector circ!it. The pheno"enon is called

c!rrent gain and it is "eas!re in beta.

PNP Transistor:

It also does e(actly sa"e thing as above e(cept that it has a negative voltage

on its collector and a positive voltage on its e"itter.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

Transistor is a co"bination o' se"i-cond!ctor ele"ents allowing a

controlled c!rrent 'low. Ger"ani!" and Silicon is the two se"i-cond!ctor

ele"ents !sed 'or "aing it. There are two types o' transistors s!ch as *%ICT%CTAT and H)CTI%C TRACSIST%RS. *oint contact constr!ction is

de'ective so is now o!t o' !se. H!nction triode transistors are in "any respects

analogo!s to triode electron t!be.

A !nction transistor can '!nction as an a"pli'ier or oscillator as can a triode

t!be b!t has the additional advantage o' long li'e s"all sie r!ggedness and

absence o' cathode heating power.

H!nction transistors are o' two types which can be obtained while

"an!'act!ring.

The two types are: -


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AND TECHNOLOGY

1) PNP TYPE:This is 'or"ed by oining a layer o' * type o' ger"ani!"

to an C-* H!nction

) NPN TYPE:This is 'or"ed by oining a

layer o' C type ger"ani!" to a *-C H!nction.

Both types are shown in 'ig!re with theirsy"bols 'or representation. The centre section is called the base one o' the o!tside

sections-the e"itter and the other o!tside section-the collector. The direction o' the

arrowhead gives the direction o' the conventional c!rrent with the 'orward bias on

the e"itter. The conventional 'low is opposite in direction to the electron 'low.

OPERATION OF PNP TRANSISTOR:!

A *C* transistor is "ade by sand witching two *C ger"ani!" or silicon

diodes placed bac to bac. The centre o' C-type portion is e(tre"ely thin in

* C *

C * C


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AND TECHNOLOGY

co"parison to * region. The * region o' the le't is connected to the positive

ter"inal and C-region to the negative ter"inal i.e. *C is biased in the 'orward

direction while * region o' right is biased negatively i.e. in the reverse direction as

shown in 0ig. The * region in the 'orward biased circ!it is called the e"itter and *

region on the right biased negatively is called collector. The centre is called base.

The "aority carriers 1holes4 o' * region 1nown as e"itter4 "ove to C

region as they are repelled by the positive ter"inal o' battery while the electrons o'

C region are attracted by the positive ter"inal. The holes overco"e the barrier andcross the e"itter !nction into C region. As the width o' base region is e(tre"ely

thin two to 'ive percent o' holes reco"bine with the 'ree electrons o' C-region

which res!lt in a s"all base c!rrent while the re"aining holes 1E9J to E>J4 reach the

collector !nction. The collector is biased negatively and the negative collector

voltage aids in sweeping the hole into collector region.

As the * region at the right is biased negatively a very s"all c!rrent sho!ld

'low b!t the 'ollowing 'acts are observed:-

74 A s!bstantial c!rrent 'lows thro!gh it when the e"itter !nction is biased in a

'orward direction.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

#4 The c!rrent 'lowing across the collector is slightly less than that o' the

e"itter and

=4 The collector c!rrent is a '!nction o' e"itter c!rrent i.e. with the decrease or

increase in the e"itter c!rrent a corresponding change in the collector c!rrent

is observed.

The 'acts can be e(plained as 'ollows:-

7. As already disc!ssed that # to 9J o' the holes are lost in reco"bination with the electron n base

region which res!lt in a s"all base c!rrent and hence the collector c!rrent is slightly less than the

e"itter c!rrent.

#. The collector c!rrent increases as the holes reaching the collector !nction are

attracted by negative potential applied to the collector.

=. /hen the e"itter c!rrent increases "ost holes are inected into the base

region which is attracted by the negative potential o' the collector and hence

res!lts in increasing the collector c!rrent. In this way e"itter is analogo!s to

the control o' plate c!rrent by s"all grid voltage in a vac!!" triode.

ence we can say that when the e"itter is 'orward biased and collector is

negatively biased a s!bstantial c!rrent 'lows in both the circ!its. Since a s"all e"itter

voltage o' abo!t 8.7 to 8.9 volts per"its the 'low o' an appreciable e"itter c!rrent the

inp!t power is very s"all. The collector voltage can be as high as $9 volts.

Resistors


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AND TECHNOLOGY

The resistorKs '!nction is to red!ce the 'low o' electric c!rrent.

This sy"bol is !sed to indicate a resistor in a circ!it diagra" nown as a

sche"atic.

Resistance val!e is designated in !nits called the 5%h".5 A 7888 %h" resistor is

typically shown as 7L-%h" 1 ilo %h" 4 and 7888 L-%h"s is written as 7M-%h"1 "egoh" 4.

There are two classes o' resistors 'i(ed resistors and the variable resistors. They are

also classi'ied according to the "aterial 'ro" which they are "ade. The typical resistor

is "ade o' either carbon 'il" or "etal 'il". There are other types as well b!t these are

the "ost co""on.

The resistance val!e o' the resistor is not the only thing to consider when selecting a

resistor 'or !se in a circ!it. The 5tolerance5 and the electric power ratings o' the

resistor are also i"portant.

The tolerance o' a resistor denotes how close it is to the act!al rated resistance val!e.0or e(a"ple a 9J tolerance wo!ld indicate a resistor that is within 9J o' the

speci'ied resistance val!e.

The power rating indicates how "!ch power the resistor can sa'ely tolerate. H!st lie

yo! wo!ldnKt !se a volt 'lashlight la"p to replace a b!rned o!t light in yo!r ho!se

yo! wo!ldnKt !se a 7+> watt resistor when yo! sho!ld be !sing a 7+# watt resistor.

The "a(i"!" rated power o' the resistor is speci'ied in /atts.

*ower is calc!lated !sing the s?!are o' the c!rrent 1 I#4 ( the resistance val!e 1 R 4 o'

the resistor. I' the "a(i"!" rating o' the resistor is e(ceeded it will beco"e

e(tre"ely hot and even b!rn.Resistors in electronic circ!its are typicaly rated 7+>/ 7+$/ and 7+#/. 7+>/ is

al"ost always !sed in signal circ!it applications.

/hen powering a light e"itting diode a co"paratively large c!rrent 'lows thro!gh the

resistor so yo! need to consider the power rating o' the resistor yo! choose.

Rating electric power

0or e(a"ple to power a 9@ circ!it !sing a 7#@ s!pply a three-ter"inal voltage

reg!lator is !s!ally !sed.

owever i' yo! try to drop the voltage 'ro" 7#@ to 9@ !sing only a resistor

then yo! need to calc!late the power rating o' the resistor as well as the

resistance val!e.

At this ti"e the c!rrent cons!"ed by the 9@ circ!it needs to be nown.

ere are a 'ew ways to 'ind o!t how "!ch c!rrent the circ!it de"ands.

Asse"ble the circ!it and "eas!re the act!al c!rrent !sed with a "!lti-"eter.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

hec the co"ponentKs c!rrent !se against a standard table.

Ass!"e the c!rrent cons!"ed is 788 "A 1"illia"ps4 in the 'ollowing e(a"ple.

N@ "!st be dropped with the resistor. The resistance val!e o' the resistor

beco"es N@ + 8.7A O N81oh"4. The cons!"ption o' electric power 'or this

resistor beco"es 8.7A ( 8.7A ( N8 oh" O 8.N/.Generally itKs sa'e to choose a resistor which has a power rating o' abo!t twice

the power cons!"ption needed.

Resistance val!e

As 'or the standard resistance val!e the val!es !sed can be divided lie a

logarith". 1 See the logarith" table4

0or e(a"ple in the case o' ,= The val!es P7Q P#.#Q P$.NQ and P78Q are !sed.

They divide 78 into three lie a logarith".

In the case o' , : P7Q P7.9Q P#.#Q P=.=Q P$.NQ P.>Q P78Q.

In the case o' ,7# : P7Q P7.#Q P7.9Q P7.>Q P#.#Q P#.NQ P=.=Q P=.EQ P$.NQ P9.Q

P.>Q P>.#Q P78Q.It is beca!se o' this that the resistance val!e is seen at a glance to be a discrete

val!e.

The resistance val!e is displayed !sing the color code 1 the colored bars+the

colored stripes 4 beca!se the average resistor is too s"all to have the val!e

printed on it with n!"bers.

3o! had better learn the color code beca!se al"ost all resistors o' 7+#/ or less

!se the color-code to display the resistance val!e.

0i(ed ResistorsA 'i(ed resistor is one in which the val!e o' its resistance cannot change.

'ar)on film resistors

This is the "ost general p!rpose cheap resistor. )s!ally the tolerance o' the

resistance val!e is 9J. *ower ratings o' 7+>/ 7+$/ and 7+#/ are 're?!ently

!sed.

arbon 'il" resistors have a disadvantage they tend to be electrically noisy.

Metal 'il" resistors are reco""ended 'or !se in analog circ!its. owever I

have never e(perienced any proble"s with this noise.

The physical sie o' the di''erent resistors are as 'ollows.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

0ro" the top o' the photograph

7+>/

7+$/

7+#/

Rough si*e

Rating power

+%,

Thicness

+mm,

$ength

+mm,

7+> # =

7+$ #

7+# = E

This resistor is called a Single-In-Fine1SIF4 resistor networ. It is "ade with"any resistors o' the sa"e val!e all in one pacage. %ne side o' each resistor is

connected with one side o' all the other resistors inside. %ne e(a"ple o' its !se

wo!ld be to control the c!rrent in a circ!it powering "any light e"itting diodes

1F,6s4.

In the photograph on the le't > resistors are ho!sed in the pacage. ,ach o' the

leads on the pacage is one resistor. The ninth lead on the le't side is the

co""on lead. The 'ace val!e o' the resistance is printed. 1 It depends on the

s!pplier. 4

So"e resistor networs have a 5$S5 printed on the top o' the resistor networ.

The $S indicates that the pacage contains $ independent resistors that are notwired together inside. The ho!sing has eight leads instead o' nine. The internal

wiring o' these typical resistor networs has been ill!strated below. The sie

1blac part4 o' the resistor networ which I have is as 'ollows: 0or the type with

E leads the thicness is 7.> "" the height 9"" and the width #= "". 0or the

types with > co"ponent leads the thicness is 7.> "" the height 9 "" and

the width #8 "".

.etal film resistors

Metal 'il" resistors are !sed when a higher tolerance 1"ore acc!rate val!e4 is

needed. They are "!ch "ore acc!rate in val!e than carbon 'il" resistors. They

have abo!t 8.89J tolerance. They have abo!t 8.89J tolerance. I donKt !se

any high tolerance resistors in "y circ!its. Resistors that are abo!t 7J are


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AND TECHNOLOGY

"ore than s!''icient. Ci-r

1Cichro"e4 see"s to be !sed 'or

the "aterial o' resistor. The "etal

'il" resistor is !sed 'or bridge

circ!its 'ilter circ!its and low-noise analog signal circ!its.

0ro" the top o' the photograph7+>/ 1tolerance 7J4

7+$/ 1tolerance 7J4

7/ 1tolerance 9J4

#/ 1tolerance 9J4

Rough si*e

Rating power

+%,

Thicness

+mm,

$ength

+mm,

7+> # =

7+$ #

7 =.9 7#

# 9 79

@ariable Resistors

There are two general ways in which variable resistors are !sed. %ne is the

variable resistor which val!e is easily changed lie the vol!"e ad!st"ent o'

Radio. The other is se"i-'i(ed resistor that is not "eant to be ad!sted by

anyone b!t a technician. It is !sed to ad!st the operating condition o' the circ!it

by the technician. Se"i-'i(ed resistors are !sed to co"pensate 'or the

inacc!racies o' the resistors and to 'ine-t!ne a circ!it. The rotation angle o' the

variable resistor is !s!ally abo!t =88 degrees. So"e variable resistors "!st be

t!rned "any ti"es to !se the whole range o' resistance they o''er. This allows

'or very precise ad!st"ents o' their val!e. These are called 5*otentio"eters5 or5Tri""er *otentio"eters.5

In the photograph to the le't the variable resistor typically !sed 'or vol!"e

controls can be seen on the 'ar right. Its val!e is very easy to ad!st.

The 'o!r resistors at the center o' the photograph are the se"i-'i(ed type. These

ones are "o!nted on the printed circ!it board.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

The two resistors on the le't are the tri""er

potentio"eters.

This sy"bol is !sed to indicate a variableresistor in a circ!it diagra".

There are three ways in which a variable

resistorKs val!e can change according to the

rotation angle o' its a(is.

/hen type 5A5 rotates clocwise at 'irst the resistance val!e changes slowly

and then in the second hal' o' its a(is it changes very ?!icly.

The 5A5 type variable resistor is typically !sed 'or the vol!"e control o' a

radio 'or e(a"ple. It is well s!ited to ad!st a low so!nd s!btly. It s!its thecharacteristics o' the ear. The ear hears low so!nd changes well b!t isnKt as

sensitive to s"all changes in lo!d so!nds. A larger change is needed as the

vol!"e is increased. These 5A5 type variable resistors are so"eti"es called

5a!dio taper5 potentio"eters.

As 'or type 5B5 the rotation o' the a(is and the change o' the resistance val!e

are directly related. The rate o' change is the sa"e or linear thro!gho!t the

sweep o' the a(is. This type s!its a resistance val!e ad!st"ent in a circ!it a

balance circ!it and so on.

They are so"eti"es called 5linear taper5 potentio"eters.

Type 55 changes e(actly the opposite way to type 5A5. In the early stages o'

the rotation o' the a(is the resistance val!e changes rapidly and in the second

hal' the change occ!rs "ore slowly. This type isnKt too "!ch !sed. It is a

special !se.

As 'or the variable resistor "ost are type 5A5 or type 5B5.

6S ,le"ents

So"e co"ponents can change resistance val!e by changes in the a"o!nt o'

light hitting the". %ne type is the ad"i!" S!l'ide *hotocell. 1d4 The "orelight that hits it the s"aller its resistance val!e beco"es.

There are "any types o' these devices. They vary according to light sensitivity

sie resistance val!e etc.

*ict!red at the le't is a typical 6S photocell. Its dia"eter is > "" $ "" high with a

cylinder 'or". /hen bright light is hitting it the val!e is abo!t #88 oh"s and when in


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AND TECHNOLOGY

the dar the resistance val!e is abo!t #M oh"s.

This device is !sing 'or the head la"p ill!"ination con'ir"ation device o' the car 'or

e(a"ple.

%ther Resistors

There is another type o' resistor other than the carbon-'il" type and the "etal

'il" resistors. It is the wirewo!nd resistor.

A wirewo!nd resistor is "ade o' "etal resistance wire and beca!se o' this they

can be "an!'act!red to precise val!es. Also high-wattage resistors can be "ade

by !sing a thic wire "aterial. /irewo!nd resistors cannot be !sed 'or high-

're?!ency circ!its. oils are !sed in high 're?!ency circ!its. Since a wirewo!nd

resistor is a wire wrapped aro!nd an ins!lator it is also a coil in a "anner o'

speaing. )sing one co!ld change the behavior o' the circ!it. Still another typeo' resistor is the era"ic resistor. These are wirewo!nd resistors in a cera"ic

case strengthened with a special ce"ent. They have very high power ratings

'ro" 7 or # watts to doens o' watts. These resistors can beco"e e(tre"ely hot

when !sed 'or high power applications and this "!st be taen into acco!nt

when designing the circ!it. These devices can easily get hot eno!gh to b!rn yo!

i' yo! to!ch one.

The photograph on the le't is o' wirewo!nd

resistors.

The !pper one is 78/ and is the length o' $9

"" 7= "" thicness.The lower one is 98/ and is the length o' N9

"" #E "" thicness.

The !pper one is has "etal 'ittings attached.

These devices are ins!lated with a cera"ic

coating.
http://hobby_elec.piclist.com/e_head3.htmhttp://hobby_elec.piclist.com/e_head3.htm


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AND TECHNOLOGY

The photograph on above is a cera"ic 1or

ce"ent4 resistor o' 9/ and is the height o' E

"" E "" depth ## "" width.

Ther"istor 1 Ther"ally sensitive resistor 4

The resistance val!e o' the ther"istor changes according to te"perat!re.

This part is !sed as a te"perat!re sensor.

There are "ainly three types o' ther"istor.

NT'+Negati/e Temperature 'oefficient Thermistor,

: /ith this type the resistance val!e decreases contin!o!sly as

the te"perat!re rises.

PT'+Positi/e Temperature 'oefficient Thermistor,

: /ith this type the resistance val!e increases s!ddenly when

the te"perat!re rises above a speci'ic point.

'TR+'ritical Temperature Resister Thermistor,

: /ith this type the resistance val!e decreases s!ddenly when

the te"perat!re rises above a speci'ic point.

The CT type is !sed 'or the te"perat!re control.

The relation between the te"perat!re and the resistance val!e o' the CT

type can be calc!lated !sing the 'ollowing 'or"!la.

R : The resistance val!e at the te"perat!re T

T : The te"perat!re PLQ

R8 : The resistance val!e at the re'erence te"perat!re T8

T8 : The re'erence te"perat!re PLQ


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AND TECHNOLOGY

6iodes

A diode is a se"icond!ctor device which allows

c!rrent to 'low thro!gh it in only one direction.

Altho!gh a transistor is also a se"icond!ctor device it

does not operate the way a diode does. A diode is

speci'ically "ade to allow c!rrent to 'low thro!gh it in only one direction.

So"e ways in which the diode can be !sed are listed here.

A diode can be !sed as a recti'ier that converts A 1Alternating !rrent4 to6 16irect !rrent4 'or a power s!pply device.

6iodes can be !sed to separate the signal 'ro" radio 're?!encies.

6iodes can be !sed as an on+o'' switch that controls c!rrent.

This sy"bol is !sed to indicate a diode in a circ!it diagra".

The "eaning o' the sy"bol is 1Anode4 1athode4.

!rrent 'lows 'ro" the anode side to the cathode side.

Altho!gh all diodes operate with the sa"e general principle there are

di''erent types s!ited to di''erent applications. 0or e(a"ple the 'ollowing

devices are best !sed 'or the applications noted.

@oltage reg!lation diode1ener 6iode4

The circ!it sy"bol is .

It is !sed to reg!late voltage by taing advantage o' the 'act that ener

diodes tend to stabilie at a certain voltage when that voltage is applied in

the opposite direction.

Fight e"itting diode

The circ!it sy"bol is .


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AND TECHNOLOGY

This type o' diode e"its light when c!rrent 'lows thro!gh it in the 'orward

direction. 10orward biased.4

@ariable capacitance diode

The circ!it sy"bol is .The c!rrent does not 'low when applying the voltage o' the opposite

direction to the diode. In this condition the diode has a capacitance lie

the capacitor. It is a very s"all capacitance. The capacitance o' the diode

changes when changing voltage. /ith the change o' this capacitance the

're?!ency o' the oscillator can be changed.

The graph on the rightshows the electrical

characteristics o' a

typical diode.

/hen a s"all voltage is

applied to the diode in

the 'orward direction c!rrent 'lows easily.

Beca!se the diode has a certain a"o!nt o' resistance the voltage will drop

slightly as c!rrent 'lows thro!gh the diode. A typical diode ca!ses a voltagedrop o' abo!t 8. - 7@ 1@04 1In the case o' silicon diode al"ost 8.@4

This voltage drop needs to be taen into consideration in a circ!it which !ses

"any diodes in series. Also the a"o!nt o' c!rrent passing thro!gh the diodes

"!st be considered.

/hen voltage is applied in the reverse direction thro!gh a diode the diode

will have a great resistance to c!rrent 'low.

6i''erent diodes have di''erent characteristics when reverse-biased. A given

diode sho!ld be selected depending on how it will be !sed in the circ!it.

The c!rrent that will 'low thro!gh a diode biased in the reverse direction will

vary 'ro" several "A to !st A which is very s"all.

The li"iting voltages and c!rrents per"issible "!st be considered on a case


29/53


AND TECHNOLOGY

by case basis. 0or e(a"ple when !sing

diodes 'or recti'ication part o' the ti"e

they will be re?!ired to withstand a

reverse voltage. I' the diodes are not

chosen care'!lly they will brea down.

Recti'ication + Switching + Reg!lation 6iode

The stripe sta"ped on one end o' the diode shows indicates the polarity o' the

diode.

The stripe shows the cathode side.

The top two devices shown in the pict!re are diodes !sed 'or recti'ication.

They are "ade to handle relatively high c!rrents. The device on top can

handle as high as A and the one below it can sa'ely handle !p to 7A.

owever it is best !sed at abo!t N8J o' its rating beca!se this c!rrent val!e

is a "a(i"!" rating.

The third device 'ro" the top 1red color4 has a part n!"ber o' 7S79>>. This

diode is !sed 'or switching beca!se it can switch on and o'' at very high

speed. owever the "a(i"!" c!rrent it can handle is 7#8 "A. This "aes it

well s!ited to !se within digital circ!its. The "a(i"!" reverse voltage1reverse bias4 this diode can handle is =8@.

The device at the botto" o' the pict!re is a voltage reg!lation diode with a

rating o' @. /hen this type o' diode is reverse biased it will resist changes

in voltage. I' the inp!t voltage is increased the o!tp!t voltage will not

change. 1%r any change will be an insigni'icant a"o!nt.4 /hile the o!tp!t


30/53


AND TECHNOLOGY

voltage does not increase with an increase in inp!t voltage the o!tp!t c!rrent

will.

This re?!ires so"e tho!ght 'or a protection circ!it so that too "!ch c!rrent

does not 'low.

The rated c!rrent li"it 'or the device is =8 "A.

Generally a =-ter"inal voltage reg!lator is !sed 'or the stabiliation o' a

power s!pply. There'ore this diode is typically !sed to protect the circ!it

'ro" "o"entary voltage spies. = ter"inal reg!lators !se voltage reg!lation

diodes inside.

6iode bridge

Recti'ication diodes are !sed to

"ae 6 'ro" A. It is possible

to do only Khal' wave recti'icationK

!sing 7 diode. /hen $ diodes are

co"bined K'!ll wave recti'icationK

occ!rrs.

6evices that co"bine $ diodes in one pacage are called diode bridges. They

are !sed 'or '!ll-wave recti'ication.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

The photograph on the le't

shows two e(a"ples o'

diode bridges.

The cylindrical device on

the right in the photograph

has a c!rrent li"it o' 7A.

*hysically it is N ""

high and 78 "" in

dia"eter.

The 'lat device on the le't has a c!rrent li"it o' $A. It is has a thicness o'

"" is 7 "" in height and 7E "" in width.

The photograph on the right shows a large high-power diode bridge.

It has a c!rrent capacity o' 79A. The pea reverse-bias voltage is $88@.

6iode bridges with large c!rrent capacities lie this one re?!ire a heat sin.

Typically they are screwed to a piece o' "etal or the chasis o' device in

which they are !sed. The heat sin allows the device to radiate e(cess heat.

As 'or sie this one is # "" wide on each side and the height o' the"od!le part is 78 "".

Fight ,"itting 6iode 1 F,6 4

Fight e"itting diodes "!st be choosen according to how they will be !sedbeca!se there are vario!s inds.

The diodes are available in several colors. The "ost co""on colors are red

and green b!t there are even bl!e ones.

The device on the 'ar right in the photograph co"bines a red F,6 and green


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AND TECHNOLOGY

F,6 in one pacage. The co"ponent lead in the

"iddle is co""on to both F,6s. As 'or the

re"aing two leads one side is 'or the green the

other 'or the red F,6. /hen both are t!rned on

si"!ltaneo!sly it beco"es orange.

/hen an F,6 is new o!t o' the pacage the

polarity o' the device can be deter"ined by looing at the leads. The longer

lead is the Anode side and the short one is the athode side.

The polarity o' an F,6 can also be deter"ined !sing a resistance "eter or

even a 7.9 @ battery.

/hen !sing a test "eter to deter"ine polarity set the "eter to a low

resistance "eas!re"ent range. onnect the probes o' the "eter to the F,6. I'

the polarity is correct the F,6 will glow. I' the F,6 does not glow switch

the "eter probes to the opposite leads on the F,6. In either case the side o'

the diode which is connected to the blac "eter probe when the F,6 glows

is the Anode side. *ositive voltage 'lows o!t o' the blac probe when the

"eter is set to "eas!re resistance.

It is possible to !se an F,6 to obtain a 'i(ed voltage.

The voltage drop 1'orward voltage or @04 o' an F,6 is co"paratively stable

at !st abo!t #@.

I e(plain a circ!it in which the voltage was stabilied with an F,6 in

5Ther"o"eter o' bending apparat!s-#5.

Shotty barrier diode
http://hobby_elec.piclist.com/e_acryla6.htmhttp://hobby_elec.piclist.com/e_acryla6.htm


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AND TECHNOLOGY

6iodes are !sed to recti'y alternating c!rrent into direct

c!rrent. owever recti'ication will not occ!r when the

're?!ency o' the alternating c!rrent is too high. This is

d!e to what is nown as the 5reverse recovery

characteristic.5

The reverse recovery characteristic can be e(plained as

'ollows:

I0 the opposite voltage is s!ddenly applied to a 'orward-biased diode c!rrent

will contin!e to 'low in the 'orward direction 'or a brie' "o"ent. This ti"e

!ntil the c!rrent stops 'lowing is called the Reverse Recovery Ti"e. The

c!rrent is considered to be stopped when it 'alls to abo!t 78J o' the val!e o'

the pea reverse c!rrent.The Shotty barrier diode has a short reverse recovery ti"e which "aes it

ideally s!ited to !se in high 're?!ency recti'ication.

The shotty barrier diode has the 'ollowing characteristics.

The voltage drop in the 'orward direction is low.The reverse recovery ti"e is short.

owever it has the 'ollowing disadvantages.

The diode can have relatively high leaage c!rrent.

The s!rge resistance is low.

Beca!se the reverse recovery ti"e is short this diode is o'ten !sed 'or the

switching reg!lator in a high 're?!ency circ!it.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

apacitors

The capacitorKs '!nction is to storeelectricity or electrical energy.

The capacitor also '!nctions as a 'ilter

passing alternating c!rrent 1A4 and

blocing direct c!rrent 164.

This sy"bol is !sed to indicate a

capacitor in a circ!it diagra".

The capacitor is constr!cted with two

electrode plates 'acing eachother b!t separated by an ins!lator.

/hen 6 voltage is applied to the capacitor an electric charge is stored on

each electrode. /hile the capacitor is charging !p c!rrent 'lows. The c!rrent

will stop 'lowing when the capacitor has '!lly charged.

/hen a circ!it tester s!ch as an analog "eter set to "eas!re resistance is

connected to a 78 "icro'arad 104 electrolytic capacitor a c!rrent will 'low

b!t only 'or a "o"ent. 3o! can con'ir" that the "eterKs needle "oves o'' o'

ero b!t ret!rns to ero right away./hen yo! connect the "eterKs probes to the capacitor in reverse yo! will note

that c!rrent once again 'lows 'or a "o"ent. %nce again when the capacitor has

'!lly charged the c!rrent stops 'lowing. So the capacitor can be !sed as a 'ilter

that blocs 6 c!rrent. 1A 56 c!t5 'ilter.4

owever in the case o' alternating c!rrent the c!rrent will be allowed to pass.

Alternating c!rrent is si"ilar to repeatedly switching the test "eterKs probes


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AND TECHNOLOGY

bac and 'orth on the capacitor. !rrent 'lows every ti"e the probes are

switched.

The val!e o' a capacitor 1the capacitance4 is designated in !nits called the

0arad 1 0 4.

The capacitance o' a capacitor is generally very s"all so !nits s!ch as the

"icro'arad 1 78-0 4 nano'arad 1 78-E0 4 and pico'arad 178-7#0 4 are !sed.

Recently an new capacitor with very high capacitance has been developed.

The ,lectric 6o!ble Fayer capacitor has capacitance designated in 0arad !nits.

These are nown as 5S!per apacitors.5

So"eti"es a three-digit code is !sed to indicate the val!e o' a capacitor. There

are two ways in which the capacitance can be written. %ne !ses letters and

n!"bers the other !ses only n!"bers. In either case there are only three

characters !sed. P78nQ and P78=Q denote the sa"e val!e o' capacitance. The

"ethod !sed di''ers depending on the capacitor s!pplier. In the case that theval!e is displayed with the three-digit code the 7st and #nd digits 'ro" the le't

show the 7st 'ig!re and the #nd 'ig!re and the =rd digit is a "!ltiplier which

deter"ines how "any eros are to be added to the capacitance. *ico'arad 1 p0 4

!nits are written this way.

0or e(a"ple when the code is P78=Q it indicates 78 ( 78= or 78888p0 O 78

nano'arad1 n0 4 O 8.87 "icro'arad1 0 4.

I' the code happened to be P##$Q it wo!ld be ## ( 78$O or ##8888p0 O ##8n0

O 8.##0.

@al!es !nder 788p0 are displayed with # digits only. 0or e(a"ple $N wo!ld be

$Np0.

The capacitor has an ins!lator1 the dielectric 4 between # sheets o' electrodes.

6i''erent inds o' capacitors !se di''erent "aterials 'or the dielectric.

Breadown voltage

/hen !sing a capacitor yo! "!st pay attention to the "a(i"!" voltage which

can be !sed. This is the 5breadown voltage.5 The breadown voltage depends

on the ind o' capacitor being !sed. 3o! "!st be especially care'!l with

electrolytic capacitors beca!se the breadown voltage is co"paratively low.

The breadown voltage o' electrolytic capacitors is displayed as /oring

@oltage.

The breadown voltage is the voltage that when e(ceeded will ca!se the

dielectric 1ins!lator4 inside the capacitor to brea down and cond!ct. /hen this

happens the 'ail!re can be catastrophic.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

I will introd!ce the di''erent types o' capacitors below.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

,lectrolytic

apacitors

1,lectroche"ical type

capacitors4

Al!"in!" is !sed 'or

the electrodes by !sing a

thin o(idiation

"e"brane.

Farge val!es o'

capacitance can be

obtained in co"parison

with the sie o' the

capacitor beca!se thedielectric !sed is very

thin.

The "ost i"portant characteristic o' electrolytic capacitors is that they have

polarity. They have a positive and a negative electrode.P*olarisedQ This "eans

that it is very i"portant which way ro!nd they are connected. I' the capacitor is

s!bected to voltage e(ceeding its woring voltage or i' it is connected with

incorrect polarity it "ay b!rst. It is e(tre"ely dangero!s beca!se it can ?!ite

literally e(plode. Mae absol!tely no "istaes.

Generally in the circ!it diagra" the positive side is indicated by a 5U5 1pl!s4

sy"bol.,lectrolytic capacitors range in val!e 'ro" abo!t 70 to tho!sands o' 0.

Mainly this type o' capacitor is !sed as a ripple 'ilter in a power s!pply circ!it

or as a 'ilter to bypass low 're?!ency signals etc. Beca!se this type o'

capacitor is co"paratively si"ilar to the nat!re o' a coil in constr!ction it isnKt

possible to !se 'or high-'re?!ency circ!its. 1It is said that the 're?!ency

characteristic is bad.4

The photograph on the le't is an e(a"ple o' the di''erent val!es o' electrolytic

capacitors in which the capacitance and voltage di''er.

0ro" the le't to right:

70 198@4 Pdia"eter 9 "" high 7# ""Q

$N0 17@4 Pdia"eter "" high 9 ""Q

7880 1#9@4 Pdia"eter 9 "" high 77 ""Q

##80 1#9@4 Pdia"eter > "" high 7# ""Q

78880 198@4 Pdia"eter 7> "" high $8 ""Q


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AND TECHNOLOGY

The sie o' the capacitor so"eti"es

depends on the "an!'act!rer. So the

sies shown here on this page are !st

e(a"ples.

In the photograph to the right the

"ar indicating the negative lead

o' the co"ponent can be seen.

3o! need to pay attention to the

polarity indication so as not to

"ae a "istae when yo!

asse"ble the circ!it.

Tantal!" apacitors

Tantal!" apacitors are electrolytic capacitors that is !se a "aterial called

tantal!" 'or the electrodes. Farge val!es o' capacitance si"ilar to al!"in!"

electrolytic capacitors can be obtained. Also tantal!" capacitors are s!perior

to al!"in!" electrolytic capacitors in te"perat!re and 're?!ency

characteristics. /hen tantal!" powder is baed in order to solidi'y it a crac

'or"s inside. An electric charge can be stored on this crac.

These capacitors have polarity as well. )s!ally the 5U5 sy"bol is !sed to show

the positive co"ponent lead. 6o not "ae a "istae with the polarity on these

types.

Tantal!" capacitors are a little bit "ore e(pensive than al!"in!" electrolytic

capacitors. apacitance can change with te"perat!re as well as 're?!ency and

these types are very stable. There'ore tantal!" capacitors are !sed 'or circ!its

which de"and high stability in the capacitance val!es. Also it is said to be

co""on sense to !se tantal!" capacitors 'or analog signal syste"s beca!se

the c!rrent-spie noise that occ!rs with al!"in!" electrolytic capacitors does

not appear. Al!"in!" electrolytic capacitors are 'ine i' yo! donKt !se the" 'or

circ!its which need the high stability characteristics o' tantal!" capacitors.


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AND TECHNOLOGY

The photograph on the le't ill!strates the tantal!"

capacitor.

The capacitance val!es are as 'ollows 'ro" the le't:

8.== 0 1=9@48.$N 0 1=9@4

78 0 1=9@4

The 5U5 sy"bol is !sed to show the positive lead o' the

co"ponent. It is written on the body.

era"ic apacitors

era"ic capacitors are constr!cted with "aterials s!ch as titani!" acid bari!"

!sed as the dielectric. Internally these capacitors are not constr!cted as a coil

so they can be !sed in high 're?!ency applications. Typically they are !sed in

circ!its which bypass high 're?!ency signals to gro!nd.

These capacitors have the shape o' a dis. Their capacitance is co"paratively

s"all.

The capacitor on the le't is a 788p0 capacitor with a dia"eter o' abo!t = "".

The capacitor on the right side is printed with 78= so 78 ( 78 =p0 beco"es 8.87

0. The dia"eter o' the dis is abo!t "".

era"ic capacitors have no polarity.

era"ic capacitors sho!ld not be !sed 'or analog circ!its beca!se they can

distort the signal.

M!ltilayer era"ic apacitors

The "!ltilayer cera"ic capacitor has a "any-layered dielectric. These

capacitors are s"all in sie and have good te"perat!re and 're?!ency

characteristics.

S?!are wave signals !sed in digital circ!its can have a co"paratively


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high 're?!ency co"ponent incl!ded.

This capacitor is !sed to bypass the high 're?!ency to gro!nd.

In the photograph the capacitance o' the co"ponent on the le't is displayed as

78$. So the capacitance is 78 (78$p0 O 8.7 0. The thicness is

# "" the height is = "" the

width is $ "".

The capacitor to the right has a

capacitance o' 78= 178 ( 78=p0 O

8.87 04. The height is $ "" the

dia"eter o' the ro!nd part is #

"".

These capacitors are not

polaried. That is they have nopolarity.

*olystyrene 0il" apacitors

In these devices polystyrene 'il" is !sed as the dielectric. This type o'

capacitor is not 'or !se in high 're?!ency circ!its beca!se they are constr!cted

lie a coil inside. They are !sed well in 'ilter circ!its or ti"ing circ!its which

r!n at several h!ndred L or less.

The co"ponent shown on the le't has a red color d!e to the copper lea' !sed 'or

the electrode. The silver color is d!e to the !se o' al!"in!" 'oil as the

electrode.

The device on the le't has a height o' 78 "" is 9 "" thic and is rated

788p0.

The device in the "iddle has a height o' 78 "" 9.N "" thicness and is rated

7888p0.

The device on the right has a height o' #$ "" is 78 "" thic and is rated

78888p0.These devices have no polarity.


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,lectric 6o!ble Fayer apacitors 1S!per

apacitors4

This is a 5S!per apacitor5 which is ?!ite a

wonder.

The capacitance is 8.$N 0 1$N8888 04.

I have not !sed this capacitor in an act!al

circ!it.

are "!st be taen when !sing a capacitor with s!ch a large capacitance in

power s!pply circ!its etc. The recti'ier in the circ!it can be destroyed by a

h!ge r!sh o' c!rrent when the capacitor is e"pty. 0or a brie' "o"ent the

capacitor is "ore lie a short circ!it. A protection circ!it needs to be set !p.

The sie is s"all in spite o' capacitance. *hysically the dia"eter is #7 "" the

height is 77 "".

are is necessary beca!se these devices do have polarity.


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*olyester 0il" apacitorsThis capacitor !ses thin polyester 'il" as the

dielectric.

They are not high tolerance b!t they are

cheap and handy. Their toleranceis abo!t 9J to 78J.

0ro" the le't in the photograph

apacitance: 8.887 0 1printed

with 887L4

Pthe width 9 "" the height 78

"" the thicness # ""Q

apacitance: 8.7 0 1printed with

78$L4

Pthe width 78 "" the height 77"" the thicness 9""Q

apacitance: 8.## 0 1printed with

.##L4

Pthe width 7= "" the height 7> "" the thicness N""Q

are "!st be taen beca!se di''erent "an!'act!rers !se di''erent "ethods to

denote the capacitance val!es.

ere are so"e other polyester 'il" capacitors.

Starting 'ro" the le't

apacitance: 8.88$N 0 1printed with $N#L4

Pthe width $"" the height "" the thicness #""Q

apacitance: 8.88> 0 1printed with >#L4

Pthe width $"" the height "" the thicness #""Q

apacitance: 8.$N 0 1printed with $N$L4

Pthe width 77"" the height 7$"" the thicness N""Q

These capacitors have no polarity.


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*olypropylene apacitors

This capacitor is !sed when a

higher tolerance is necessary than

polyester capacitors o''er.*olypropylene 'il" is !sed 'or

the dielectric. It is said that there

is al"ost no change o'

capacitance in these devices i'

they are !sed with 're?!encies o'

788L or less.

The pict!red capacitors have a

tolerance o' 7J.

0ro" the le't in the photographapacitance: 8.87 0 1printed with 78=04

Pthe width N"" the height N"" the thicness =""Q

apacitance: 8.8## 0 1printed with ##=04

Pthe width N"" the height 78"" the thicness $""Q

apacitance: 8.7 0 1printed

with 78$04

Pthe width E"" the height

77"" the thicness 9""Q

/hen I "eas!red thecapacitance o' a 8.87 0

capacitor with the "eter which I

have the error was U8.#J.

These capacitors have no

polarity.

Mica apacitors

These capacitors !se Mica 'or the dielectric. Mica capacitors have good

stability beca!se their te"perat!re coe''icient is s"all. Beca!se their 're?!ency

characteristic is e(cellent they are !sed 'or resonance circ!its and high

're?!ency 'ilters. Also they have good ins!lation and so can be !tilied in

high voltage circ!its. It was o'ten !sed 'or vac!!" t!be style radio trans"itters


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etc.

Mica capacitors do not have high

val!es o' capacitance and they

can be relatively e(pensive.

*ict!red at the right are 56ipped

"ica capacitors.5 These can

handle !p to 988 volts.

The capacitance 'ro" the le't

apacitance: $Np0 1printed with

$N8H4

Pthe width N"" the height 9"" the thicness $""Q

apacitance: ##8p0 1printed with ##7H4

Pthe width 78"" the height "" the thicness $""Q

apacitance: 7888p0 1printed with 78#H4Pthe width 7$"" the height E"" the thicness $""Q


Metallied *olyester 0il" apacitors

These capacitors are a ind o' a polyester 'il" capacitor. Beca!se their

electrodes are thin they can be "iniat!ried.

0ro" the le't in the photographapacitance: 8.8870 1printed with 7n. n "eans nano:78-E4

Breadown voltage: #98@

Pthe width >"" the height "" the thicness #""Q

apacitance: 8.##0 1printed with !##4

Breadown voltage: 788@

Pthe width >"" the height "" the thicness =""Q

apacitance: #.#0 1printed with #!#4

Breadown voltage: 788@

Pthe width 79"" the height 78"" the thicness >""Q

are is necessary beca!se the co"ponent lead easily breas o'' 'ro" these

capacitors. %nce lead has co"e o'' there is no way to 'i( it. It "!st be

discarded.



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@ariable apacitors

@ariable capacitors are !sed 'or

ad!st"ent etc. o' 're?!ency "ainly.

%n the le't in the photograph is a

5tri""er5 which !ses cera"ic as the

dielectric. Ce(t to it on the right is one

that !ses polyester 'il" 'or the

dielectric.

The pict!red co"ponents are "eant to

be "o!nted on a printed circ!it board.

/hen ad!sting the val!e o' a variable capacitor it is advisable to be care'!l.

%ne o' the co"ponentKs leads is connected to the ad!st"ent screw o' the

capacitor. This "eans that the val!e o' the capacitor can be a''ected by the

capacitance o' the screwdriver in yo!r hand. It is better to !se a special

screwdriver to ad!st these co"ponents.

*ict!red in the !pper le't photograph are variable capacitors with the 'ollowing

speci'ications:

apacitance: #8p0 1=p0 - #Np0 "eas!red4

PThicness "" height $.> ""QTheir are di''erent colors as well. Bl!e: Np0 1# - E4 white: 78p0 1= - 794

green: =8p0 19 - =94 brown: 8p0 1> - N#4.

In the sa"e photograph the device on the right has the 'ollowing

speci'ications:

apacitance: =8p0 19p0 - $8p0 "eas!red4

PThe width 1long4 .> "" width 1short4 $.E "" and the height 9 ""Q

The co"ponents in the photograph on the right are !sed 'or radio t!ners etc.

They are called 5@aricons5 b!t this "ay be only in Hapan.The variable capacitor on the le't in the photograph !ses air as the dielectric. It

co"bines three independent capacitors.

0or each one the capacitance changed #p0 - 7>p0. /hen the ad!st"ent a(is is

t!rned the capacitance o' all = capacitors change si"!ltaneo!sly.

*hysically the device has a depth o' #E "" and 7N "" width and height. 1Cot

incl!ding the ad!st"ent rod.4


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There are vario!s inds o' variable capacitor chosen in accordance with the

p!rpose 'or which they are needed. The pict!red co"ponents are very s"all.

To the right in the photograph is a variable capacitor !sing polyester 'il" as the

dielectric. Two independent capacitors are co"bined.The capacitance o' one side changes 7#p0 - 798p0 while the other side

changes 'ro" 77p0 - N8p0.

*hysically it has a depth o' 77"" and #8"" width and height. 1Cot incl!ding

the ad!st"ent rod.4

The pict!red device also has a s"all tri""er b!ilt in to each capacitor to allow

'or precise ad!st"ent !p to 79p0.

Relays


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The relay taes advantage o' the 'act

that when electricity 'lows thro!gh a

coil it beco"es an electro"agnet.

The electro"agnetic coil attracts a

steel plate which is attached to aswitch. So the switchKs "otion 1%C

and %004 is controled by the c!rrent

'lowing to the coil or not

respectively.

A very !se'!l 'eat!re o' a relay is that

it can be !sed to electrically isolate di''erent parts o' a circ!it.

It will allow a low voltage circ!it 1e.g. 9@64 to switch the power in a high voltage

circ!it 1e.g. 788 @A or "ore4.

The relay operates "echanically so it can not operate at high speed.

There are "any ind o' relays. 3o! can select one according to yo!r needs.

The vario!s things to consider when selecting a relay are its sie voltage and c!rrent

capacity o' the contact points drive voltage i"pedance n!"ber o' contacts resistance

o' the contacts etc.

The resistance voltage o' the contacts is the "a(i"!" voltage that can be cond!cted at

the point o' contact in the switch. /hen the "a(i"!" is e(ceeded the contacts will

spar and "elt so"eti"es '!sing together. The relay will 'ail. The val!e is printed onthe relay.

%n the le't in the photograph is a s"all relay with a coil driving voltage o' 7# @6. It

has two electrically independant points o' contact 1switches.4


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Altho!gh the resistance and per"issible voltage and c!rrent

at the point o' contact are indistinct I thin that it will

handle several h!ndred "A.

The relay on the right in the photograph can be !sed tocontrol a 788 @A syste". Its driving voltage is = @6

and i' it is !sed to control an A syste" the "a(i"!"

resistance voltage is 7#9 @A and the per"issible c!rrent

li"it is 7A. I' it is !sed to control a 6 syste" the

"a(i"!" resistance voltage is 6=8@ and the per"issible

c!rrent li"it is #A. It has one contact only.

Both types o' relay can be "o!nted on the */B the spacing o' the co"ponent leads is

a "!ltiple o' 8.7 inches. It can also be "o!nted on the !niversal */B.

The physical di"ensions o' the relay on the le't are width 7E.9 "" height 78 "" and

depth 78 "".

The one that is on the right has the width #8 "" height 79 "" and depth 77 "".

The relay pict!red to the right is able to handle a little larger electric power.

Its driving voltage is 7# @6 "a(i"!" resistance voltage is A #$8@ and the

per"issible c!rrent li"it is 9A in case o' A syste". In a 6 syste" the "a(i"!"

resistance voltage is 6 #>@ and the per"issible c!rrent li"it is 9A. It has # contacts.

This type o' relay can not be "o!nted on the */B. It needs a socet and "o!nts on the

case or so"e other place with a screw.

The di"ensions are width ## "" height =9 "" and depth #8 "".


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ULN2003A-ULN2004A


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..S,@,C 6ARFICGT%CS *,R *ALAG, %)T*)T )RR,CT 988"A *,R

6RI@,R .188"A *,AL4 .%)T*)T @%FTAG, 98@ ICT,GRAT,6

S)**R,SSI%C 6I%6,S 0%R .IC6)TI@, F%A6S %)T*)TS AC B,*ARAFF,F,6 0%R .IG,R )RR,CT .TTF+M%S+*M%S+6TF

%M*ATIBF, IC*)TS IC*)TS *ICC,6 %**%SIT, %)T*)TS T%

SIM*FI03 FA3%)T

DES'RIPTION


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The )FC#887A )FC#88#A )FC#88= and )FC#88$A are high voltage high

c!rrent darlington arrays each containing seven open collector darlington pairs with

co""on e"itters. ,ach channel rated at 988"A and can withstand pea c!rrents o'

88"A. S!ppression diodes are incl!ded 'or ind!ctive load driving and the inp!ts are

pinned opposite the o!tp!ts to si"pli'y board layo!t.

The 'o!r versions inter'ace to all co""on logic 'a"ilies

:

)FC#887A General *!rpose 6TF TTF *M%S M%S

)FC#88#A 7$-#9@ *M%S

)FC#88=A 9@ TTF M%S

)FC#88$A


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Fyp Wirelessloadcontrollerbygsm

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