8/14/2019 Fourth Ayers Paper

1/6

Sean Nalty

April 24, 2006

Professor Ayers-HIUS 723

For generations, political istorians ar!e" #it election statistics an" te #ritings of

political elites tol" te story of A!erican "e!ocracy in te nineteent cent$ry as a tri$!p of

egalitarianis! an" te presence of an infor!e" citi%enry& In recent years, istorians "issatisfie"

#it a narro# foc$s on electoral politics a'e so$gt to (roa"en te !eaning of political

engage!ent to incl$"e te actions of non-elites, te large !a)ority of 'oters& *e "e(ate o'er

#at sort of (eliefs an" aspirations tese 'oters carrie" #it te! to te polls co!es tro$g in

+icar" & allely.s The Two Reconstructions/2001 an" +icar" ensel.s The American Ballot

Box in the Mid-Nineteenth Century/20041& ot #ors see to ans#er te $estion5 at "i"

te act of 'oting !ean for or"inary A!ericans, partic$larly #ite an" (lac !ales *ro$g an

e8a!ination of social !o'e!ents an" teir connection to parties, te $se of (ot $antitati'e an"

$alitati'e so$rces, as #ell as te li!its to a rational coice teory of politics, tis paper #ill

igligt te 'ery "ifferent ans#ers to te a(o'e $estion gi'en (y eac a$tor&

ile allely sees to (ring social !o'e!ents as a !a)or factor into is analysis of te

s$ccess of te 9Secon" +econstr$ction,: ensel 'irt$ally ignores any e'i"ence of an anti-party,

grassroots acti'is! #ile concentrating on a 'oter.s i"entity as a partisan& allely "oes a nice )o(

in (ringing te rea"er.s attention to te fact tat 9protest an" contention a'e al#ays reg$late"

te politics of African A!erican electoral concl$sion&: /;1 *at sai", allely !igt a'e "one a

!ore effecti'e )o( in act$ally connecting te #ay in #ic social !o'e!ents affecte" te spere

of electoral an" instit$tional politics& For instance, allely presents te pict$re of ci'il rigts

organi%ations see!ingly #oring in tan"e! #it te

8/14/2019 Fourth Ayers Paper

2/6

politics rater tan organi%ining a !ass protest !o'e!ent& *e "i'isions o'er te in" of

strategy !ost effecti'e for ci'il rigts organi%ations also (eco!e less clear in allely.s acco$nt&

as te legalist approac of te National Association for te A"'ance!ent of >olore" People

essentially te sa!e strategy as te pacific, "irect-action, st$"ent protests of te St$"ent Non-

'iolent >oor"inating >o!!ittee or later in te "eca"e te !ilitant lac Panter Party

=('io$sly no, ($t allely still co!(ines all of tese approaces togeter #ito$t a"e$ately

"isting$ising teir "ifferent ai!s an" o()ecti'es& Anoter e8planation, in'ol'es te possi(ility

tat ci'il rigts gro$ps an" te P&

Unlie allely.s foc$s on te intersections of social !o'e!ents #it for!al electoral an"

instit$tional politics, ensel specifically states tat is interest lies in re'ising 9te gol"en age of

"e!ocracy: 'ie# s$ppose"ly el" (y nineteent-cent$ry political istorians& /2;01 *o$g e

appro'ingly cites te arg$!ents of lenn Altsc$ler an" St$art l$!in.sRude Repulic/20001,

ensel says re!ara(le little a(o$t te c$lt$ral (asis of politics o$tsi"e te polling place& As a

conse$ence, e !isses an opport$nity to "isc$ss o# aspects of !aterial c$lt$re sape" te

"egree in #ic A!ericans (eca!e politically engage"& Altsc$ler an" l$!in.s clai!s,

o#e'er, tat te a'erage A!erican 'oter of te nineteent cent$ry el" a rater a!(i'alent 'ie#

of political engage!ent !ay nee" so!e $alification& A recent st$"y fro! ar Neely, The

Boundaries o! the American "olitical Culture in the Civil #ar $ra /2001, as offere" e'i"ence

tat ele!ents of !aterial c$lt$re fo$n" in te researc collections of or"inary A!ericans, s$c as

ne#spapers, litograps, an" pins, all re'eal a !$c !ore politically a#are p$(lic tan Altsc$ler

8/14/2019 Fourth Ayers Paper

3/6

an" l$!in or e'en ensel.s st$"y #o$l" ten" to s$ggest& Again, te $estion of o# (est to

e8plain 'oting (ea'ior gets at te pro(le! of inferring te !oti'ations an" (eliefs of $!an

actors fro! frag!entary #ritten an" 'is$al so$rces& ile so!e 'oters $n"o$(te"ly 'ote" for a

straigt ticet #ito$t a (asic co!!an" of te iss$es, co!!itte" partisans clearly feare" tat

#ito$t iss$es, a large !a)ority of te 'oters !igt t$rn to oter tir"-party !o'e!ents, s$c as

te Bno#-Notings or Free Soilers& *erefore, ensel.s analysis !igt a'e profite" (y a

"isc$ssion of te po#er of tir"-party an" anti-party feelings "$ring te entire perio" of is st$"y&

Si!ilarly, te relationsip of c$rces, te #orplace, an" e'en te o!e to a !ale 'oter.s

political i"entity goes largely $ne8plore" in (ot allely an" ensel.s #ors&

*e $se of $antitati'e analysis an" !ore tra"itional so$rces "iffers !are"ly in (ot

allely an" ensel.s e8ploration of 'oting in te nineteent an" t#entiet cent$ries& allely

(ases !ost of is arg$!ents $pon te e8tensi'e rele'ant secon"ary literat$re in te fiel"s of

istory an" political science& In essence, 'ery little e'i"ence tat e $ses #o$l" strie any

specialist in eiter of te 9*#o +econstr$ctions: as ne#, ($t is strengt lies in is a(ility to f$se

te t#o perio"s togeter tro$g is !o"el of coalition-($il"ing an" instit$tional sta(ili%ation&

ereas allely loos to $antitati'e analysis to pro'i"e so!e #ay of getting at te str$ct$ral

o(stacles to a per!anent, #inning iracial+ep$(lican coalition, ensel ar"ly treats te

$antitati'e analysis of te 9ne#: political istorians at all& Instea", ensel tries to get (eyon"

te o$tco!e-(ase" ass$!ptions of tese istorians an" se" ligt $pon te e8periences of

co!!on 'oters& /'ii-'iii1 Ne'erteless, ensel !igt a'e strengtene" is arg$!ent for te

essential "is)$nction (et#een 'oting an" policy-!aing (y act$ally tracing o# politicians

conscio$sly crafte" electoral la# to s$it teir p$rposes, #eter in "isfrancising i!!igrants an"

African A!ericans or gerry!an"ering "istricts to $rt teir opponents& ensel #ises $s to tae

te testi!ony of 'oters as gen$ine, ($t e lea'es !$c of te conte8t for te earings o$t& y

"i" politicians an" parties contest certain "isp$te" elections an" not oters at role "i" te

)$"icial syste! play in saping te nat$re of nineteent-cent$ry elections *$s, #ere allely

8/14/2019 Fourth Ayers Paper

4/6

clearly so#s te po#er of instit$tions in A!erican politics, ensel c$rio$sly lea'es te rea"er

#it te i!pression tat politics e8iste" as a largely co!!$nity-(ase" ga!e (et#een partisans

#it no real conse$ence (eyon" te gain of spoils (y te 'ictorio$s si"e&

+ea"ing (ot allely an" ensel togeter so$l" gi'e one pa$se #en e!ploying a

rational coice teory of 'oting (ea'ior& allely tries to arg$e for a rational

coiceCinstit$tionalist !o"el #ere coalition-!aing prece"es an instit$tionali%ation of te ne#

coalition tro$g te crafting of policy an" a fa'ora(le )$rispr$"ence& *is pict$re of one e'ent

/coalition-!aing1 necessarily lea"ing to anoter /policy-!aingCenforce!ent1 o(sc$res te #ays

in #ic te process co$l" act$ally re'erse or fail to occ$r altogeter& For instance, allely

pro'i"es precio$s little analysis of te #ay in #ic te arren >o$rt, tro$g its "ecisions lie

Brown, effecti'ely anticipate" an" "i" not si!ply react to te actions of te oter t#o (rances of

go'ern!ent& In tis case, te >o$rt.s ref$sal to sanction a prece"ent a" pro"$ce" a pro(le! for

tose segregationists #o relie" $pon te co$rts to s$stain te! "$ring te First +econstr$ction&

Anoter e8a!ple occ$rs #en e "isc$sses te forging of a per!anent lin (et#een African

A!ericans an" te De!ocratic Party "$ring te reat Depression& allely "escri(es te "ecision

of African A!ericans as a in" of gra"$al one, (ro$gt a(o$t (y te gro#ing (elief tat te

+ep$(lican Party a" effecti'ely a(an"one" African A!ericans an" teir concerns& Still, allely

"oes not pro'i"e any sort of 'oting statistics or !$c ne#spaper an" personal correspon"ence to

reinforce tis clai! an" t$s one co$l" pla$si(ly arg$e tat African A!ericans 'ote" De!ocratic

to tro# o$t te 9"o-noting: Hoo'er A"!inistration an" get econo!ic relief& *$s, African

A!ericans 9)oine": te De!ocratic Party initially for reasons tat pro(a(ly a" 'ery little to "o

#it coalition-($il"ing&

In contrast to allely, ensel "e!onstrates te li!its of te istorian.s a(ility to ascertain

te !oti'es (ein" a person.s 'oting (ea'ior& ensel $ite properly e!pasi%es te #illingness

of partisans to e!ploy fra$" an" treats of 'iolence in or"er to infl$ence te co$rse of elections&

Ne'erteless, I (elie'e ensel p$ses is criti$e of rational-coice teory f$rter tan is

8/14/2019 Fourth Ayers Paper

5/6

e'i"ence can s$stain it& First, ensel.s acco$nt "ra#s !ainly $pon fe"erally conteste" elections

in te nortern an" (or"er states, #ile ignoring te Deep So$t tat occ$pies !$c of allely.s

"isc$ssion& In !aing te point tat 'oters respon"e" to etnoc$lt$ral infl$ences, ensel !igt

a'e consi"ere" #eter tat arg$!ent #o$l" a'e #ore" in a region s$c as te Deep So$t,

#ere race pro'e" a !$c !ore "i'isi'e iss$e tan etnicity& *ro$go$t te co$ntry, iss$es of

race an" etnicity often appeare" in ca!paign literat$re an" partisan speeces, s$ggesting tat

'oters "i" not only recei'e long "isco$rses o'er econo!ic policy& Also, I tin e ten"s to

conf$se te presence of s$(stanti'e policy iss$es #it si!ply (eing econo!ic ones& *ro$go$t

te nineteent cent$ry, politicians relie" $pon te social clea'ages of race an" etnicity to gain

an" !aintain office& Iss$es lie i!!igration, #ic a" an i!portant econo!ic "i!ension to

te! as #ell, co$l" pro'i"e 'oters #it a real, tangi(le iss$e tat co$l" play $pon alrea"y

e8isting pre)$"ices an" protect a #orer?s econo!ic interests& *$s, people co$l" 'ote for a

partic$lar can"i"ate for a !$ltit$"e of reasons, so!e rational an" oters not& I "o conce"e tat

so!e 'oters "i" not possess a strong $n"erstan"ing of te contrasting positions of te can"i"ates

"$ring elections, ($t ensel $nfort$nately ai!s to esta(lis a national pattern on te (asis of )$st

4E fe"erally "isp$te" elections o'er @7 years& *e fact tat states el" elections year-ro$n"

tro$go$t tis perio" apparently "i" not #arrant i! to tae a loo at instances of fra$" an"

coercion tere& As a $sef$l correcti'e to te istorian.s pres$!ption of rationality, ensel #ors

'ery #ell, ($t e !isses an opport$nity to generali%e is fin"ings nationally an" also in'estigate

#eter local an" state elections generate" "ifferent types of iss$es an" 'oting (ea'ior tan

fe"eral elections&

ot allely an" ensel present a contrasting portrait of 'oting in nineteent cent$ry

A!erica& ile eac a$tor a"!its tat 'oting entaile" consi"era(le fra$", te t#o "isagree on

#eter 'oters te!sel'es carrie" any sort of "eep con'ictions a(o$t p$(lic policy& allely taes

a !ore 9ne#: political istory approac an" ass$!es tat African A!ericans, #en not

inti!i"ate" or forci(ly pre'ente" fro! 'oting, rationally place" teir tr$st in te +ep$(lican an"

8/14/2019 Fourth Ayers Paper

6/6

later De!ocratic parties& ensel, o#e'er, co!plicates any easy ass$!ption of rationality (y

igligting te !essy an" "ist$r(ing $n"ersi"e of "e!ocracy, te (allot (o8 itself& *o$g

istorians cannot rea"ily "iscern te !oti'ation of co$ntless n$!(ers of 'oters, tese t#o #ors

pro'i"e a!ple foo" for to$gt #en one tries to $n"erstan" te social !eaning of 'oting in a

s$ppose"ly "e!ocratic syste!&