Foundations of Liberty - MR Coop United states History ... · Cahokia collapses Late 1500s Iroquois...

8

Beginnings–1848

Washington’s Inauguration at Independence Hall

by Jean Leon Gérôme Ferris, 1793

Foundationsof Liberty

The interactions among Native Americans,Europeans, and Africans reshaped the history

of the Americas. Although several Europeancountries established American colonies, it

was the English who grew to dominate theAmerican Atlantic coastline. As England’s

position in America grew more secure, however,the British colonists challenged the authority

of the distant English government. Discontentgrew to rebellion, and the United States of

America emerged from the Revolutionary War with a new form of government.

Understanding the events of America’s earlynational period will help you understand our

government’s design and our nation’s ideals.The following resources offer more information

about this period in American history.

Primary Sources LibrarySee pages 930–931 for primary source

readings to accompany Unit 1.

Use the American History PrimarySource Document Library CD-ROM to find

additional primary sources about events inearly America.

Why It Matters

Pre-Cherokee necklace,c. 1300

“The country shall beindependent, and we will be

satisfied with nothing short of it.”

—Samuel Adams, 1774

10

ConvergingCultures

Prehistory to 1620Why It Matters

Before 1492 the cultures that arose in the Americas had almost no contact with the rest of the world. Beginning in the 1300s, momentous events began taking place that would bring

the cultures of Europe and Africa into direct contact with the Americas. This contact led to the founding of European colonies in both North and South America and had profound

effects on the future of the world’s civilizations.

The Impact TodayThe convergence of the world’s cultures in the 1400s and 1500s launched an era of change that

still affects our lives today.• Many of our foods, customs, and traditions were originally introduced in the Americas as a

result of this cultural contact.• Contact among the cultures of the three continents profoundly changed the society of each.

• The society of the United States today includes elements of Native American, European, and African cultures.

The American Republic Since 1877 VideoThe Chapter 1 video, “America Before the Americans,” examines the early Americas.

A.D. 300• Hohokam culture

emerges

▲

c. A.D. 200• Mayan culture

begins to spread

▲

c. 1200 B.C.• Early Mesoamerican

civilizations arise

▲

c. 28,000–13,000 B.C.• First humans migrate

to North America from Asia

▲

28,000 B.C. 5001200 B.C. A.D. 250

c. 3000 B.C.• Sumerians create

cuneiform writing

1750 B.C.• Death of Hammurabi

in Middle East

▼A.D. 400• Ghana civilization

develops in West Africa

▼▼

11

The Landing of Columbus in San Salvador by Albert Bierstadt, 1893

1519• Cortés lands on

Mexican coast

▲

1532• Pizarro invades

Inca Empire

▲

1608• City of Quebec founded

▲

1492• Christopher Columbus

lands in America▲▲

▼▼▼

c. 1130• Drought strikes Native

American cliff dwellingsat Chaco Canyon

▼ ▼

1000 14001200 1600

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the American RepublicSince 1877 Web site at

and click on Chapter Overviews—Chapter 1 to preview chapterinformation.

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1240• Mali empire

expands inWest Africa

1095• Pope Urban II

launches theCrusades

1420s• Portugal begins

exploring theAfrican coast

1517• Protestant

Reformationbegins

1588• English defeat

Spanish Armada

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In 1925 an African American cowboy named George McJunkin was riding along a gully nearthe town of Folsom, New Mexico, when he noticed something gleaming in the dirt. He begandigging and found a bone and a flint arrowhead. J.D. Figgins of the Colorado Museum ofNatural History knew the bone belonged to a type of bison that had been extinct for 10,000years. The arrowhead’s proximity to the bones implied that human beings had been in Americaat least 10,000 years, which no one had believed at that time.

The following year, Figgins found another arrowhead embedded in similar bones. In1927 he led a group of scientists to the find. Anthropologist Frank H.H. Roberts, Jr., wrote,“There was no question but that here was the evidence. . . . The point was still embedded

. . . between two of the ribs of the animal skeleton.” Further digs turned up more arrow-heads, now called Folsom points. Roberts later noted: “The Folsom find was accepted as areliable indication that man was present in the Southwest at an earlier period than was previously supposed.”

—adapted from The First American: A Story of North American Archaeology

c. 28,000–13,000 B.C.First humans migrateto North America

12 CHAPTER 1 Converging Cultures

The Asian Migration to AmericaNo one knows exactly when the first people arrived in America. The Folsom discover-

ies proved that people were here at least 10,000 years ago, but more recent research sug-gests that humans may have arrived much earlier—between 15,000 and 30,000 years ago.

The Migration to America

c. A.D. 850Chaco Canyonpueblos are built

c. A.D. 1300Cahokia collapses

Late 1500sIroquois League created

Folsom point, lying between animal bones

✦15,000 ✦A.D. 1500✦0✦30,000

Main IdeaMany diverse Native American groupsinhabited Mesoamerica and NorthAmerica by the 1500s. They were descen-dants of Asians who probably migrated15,000 to 30,000 years ago.

Key Terms and Names Ice Age, glacier, nomad, Mesoamerica,civilization, pueblo, Cahokia, kachina,slash-and-burn agriculture, longhouse

Reading StrategyCategorizing As you read about earlyAmerican peoples, complete a graphicorganizer by filling in the names of NativeAmerican groups who lived in eachregion.

Reading Objectives• Explain why scientists believe that the

earliest Americans migrated from Asia.• Describe the early civilizations of

Mesoamerica.

Section ThemeGeography and History Scientists theo-rize that Asian nomads began settlingNorth America between 15,000 and30,000 years ago.

Regions Native American Groups

Mesoamerica

Eastern Woodlands

Southwest

Great Plains

To learn the origins of ancient peoples, scientistsstudy their skulls, bones, and teeth and analyze theirDNA (deoxyribonucleic acid, the basic chemicalbuilding material of all life). Such evidence indicatesthat the earliest Americans probably came from Asia.Radiocarbon dating provides even more information.By measuring the radioactivity of the carbon 14 mol-ecules left in ancient material and knowing how fastcarbon 14 loses its radioactivity, scientists can calcu-late the age of the material.

Geology offers other clues. About 100,000 yearsago, the earth began to cool, gradually entering theperiod known as the Ice Age. Much of the earth’swater froze into huge ice sheets, or glaciers. Thedropping water levels in the oceans eventuallyexposed a stretch of seafloor that connected Asia towhat is now Alaska. Scientists think that about 15,000years ago, or even earlier, people from Asia begantrekking east across this land bridge to America.

These early arrivals were probably nomads,people who continually move from place to place.These early peoples did not come all at once. Theirmigrations probably continued until about 10,000years ago, when rising seawater once again sub-merged the land bridge. This created a waterwaynow called the Bering Strait.

Explaining How do scientists learnthe origins of ancient peoples?

Early Civilizations in AmericaAs time passed, Native Americans learned how to

plant and raise crops. This agricultural revolutionoccurred between 9,000 and 10,000 years ago in theregion anthropologists call Mesoamerica. This areaincludes what is now central and southern Mexicoand Central America.

The first crops grown in America included pump-kins, peppers, squash, and beans. Most important wasmaize, or corn, which could be ground into flour forbread or dried for future use. Theshift to agriculture forced people tostay in one place to tend their crops.Thus, the cultivation of crops led tothe first permanent villages and alsoto new building methods.

As more and more people beganto live in one place, more complexforms of government arose, as didsocial classes. People developedspecialized skills and traded theirproducts for food and other goods.

As these village societies became more complex,America’s first civilizations emerged. A civilizationis a highly organized society marked by advancedknowledge of trade, government, the arts, science,and, often, written language.

Mesoamerica Anthropologists think the first peopleto build a civilization in America were the Olmec,beginning between 1500 and 1200 B.C. in what is todaysouthern Mexico. The Olmec built large villages, templecomplexes, and pyramids. They also sculpted imposingmonuments, including 8-foot-high stone heads. Olmecculture lasted until approximately 300 B.C.

About that same time, another people constructedthe first large city in America, Teotihuacán, close towhat is now Mexico City. Teotihuacán became a cen-ter of trade and greatly influenced the developmentof Mesoamerica until about A.D. 650, when enemiesdestroyed the city.

Meanwhile, around A.D. 200, the Mayan cultureemerged in present-day Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsulaand spread into Central America. The Maya had atalent for engineering and mathematics. They devel-oped accurate calendars and built cities such as Tikaland Chichén Itzá with great temple pyramids.

The Maya in the Yucatán thrived until the A.D.900s, when they abandoned their cities for unknownreasons. Some anthropologists believe they fled fromnorthern invaders. Others think overfarming mayhave exhausted the soil, leading to famine and riots.Mayan cities in the highlands of what is todayGuatemala flourished for several more centuries, butby the 1500s, they too were in decline.

Reading Check

Mesoamerican Civilizations Archaeological evidence such as this Mayanpyramid and these Toltec statues demonstrate that early Americans had devel-oped a complex way of life. Why did many nomadic peoples stop wanderingand settle down to create permanent civilizations?

History


1,000 kilometers0Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

1,000 miles0

N

S

EW

Gulf of Mexico

Gulf of Alaska

AtlanticOcean

ArcticOcean

PacificOcean

HudsonBay

80°W100°W120°W140°W150°W160°W170°W

50°N

40°N

30°N

20°N

INUIT

INUITDENE

DOGRIB

TLINGIT

HAIDA TSIMSHIAN

SALISH

NOOTKAKOOTENAI

NEZPERCE

PAIUTE

SHOSHONE

POMO

YOKUT

PAPAGO

COCHIMI PIMA

ZACATEC

TOLTEC

NAHUATL(AZTEC) MAYA

COAHUILTEC

APACHE

HOPI

NAVAJO

UTE

COMANCHE

KIOWA

ARAPAHO

IOWA

PAWNEE

CHEYENNEDAKOTA(SIOUX)

OJIBWA(CHIPPEWA)

CROW

ASSINIBOINE

BLACKFOOT

CREE

CHIPWYANINUIT

NASKAPI

MONTAGNAISBEOTHUK

MICMACALGONQUIAN

CREE

ABENAKI

SAUK

ILLINOIS

POTAWOTAMI

SHAWNEE

CHEROKEECHICKASAW

CREEKCHOCTAW

CALUSALUCAYO

CIBONEY SUB TAINOTAINO

TUSCARORA

DELAWARE

PEQUOTSUSQUEHANNOCK

NARRAGANSETIROQUOIS

MOHAWKONONDAGA

CAYUGASENECA

ONEIDA

CHINOOK

ZUNI

MIAMI

Agriculture

Fishing

Hunting

Hunting-Gathering

Uninhabited

Native American Cultures, Including Mesoamerica,500 B.C.–A.D. 1500

Northeasternlonghouse

Southwest pueblo

Around that time in what is now central Mexico, the Aztec civilization emerged. About 1325the Aztec established the city of Tenochtitlán(tay·NAWCH·teet·LAHN), where Mexico City nowstands. They created a mighty empire by conqueringneighboring cities, demanding tribute from them,and controlling trade in the region. By the 1500s,roughly five million people lived under Aztec rule.

Many anthropologists think that the agri-cultural technology of Mesoamerica spread north into the American Southwest and beyond.

There it transformed many of the scattered hunter-gatherers of North America into farmers.

The American Southwest Beginning about A.D. 300,a group called the Hohokam began farming in whatis now south-central Arizona. They devised irriga-tion canals to bring water from the Gila and SaltRivers to their corn, cotton, and bean fields hundredsof miles away. In the 1300s, the Hohokam began toabandon their lands, probably because of floods, andby 1500 their culture had vanished.

1. Interpreting Maps What was the mainfood source for the Northwest?

2. Applying Geography Skills Why wereGreat Plains peoples nomadic?

MotionIn

Farther north, in the Four Corners area whereUtah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico nowmeet, the Anasazi civilization arose betweenroughly A.D. 700 and 900. The Anasazi farmed in theharsh desert by building basins and ditches to col-lect rainwater. Sometime between 850 and 1100, the Anasazi in Chaco Canyon in what is now north-west New Mexico began constructing pueblos—large multi-story buildings of adobe and stone.Beginning around 1130, Chaco Canyon suffered atleast 50 years of drought, probably driving out theAnasazi. Attacks by hunter-gatherers or epidemicsmay also have contributed to the collapse ofAnasazi civilization.

Mound Builders About the time that the Olmeccivilization began in Mesoamerica, the people inNorth America’s eastern woodlands were develop-ing their own cultures. These people buried theirdead under massive dome-shaped earthen mounds.Between 200 and 100 B.C., a new culture known as theHopewell arose. The Hopewell built huge geometricearthworks that served as ceremonial centers, obser-vatories, and burial places.

Between A.D. 700 and 900, another new cultureemerged, this time in the Mississippi River valley.The Mississippian people created Cahokia, one ofthe largest cities early Americans ever built. Locatednear present-day St. Louis, Cahokia was home to anestimated 16,000 people at its peak. The city col-lapsed around A.D. 1300, perhaps because of an epi-demic, an attack by other Native Americans, oroverpopulation and famine.

Examining How did the shift toagriculture allow early peoples to advance beyond mere subsistence?

Native American Cultural DiversityMississippian culture spread widely across the

Southeast, but after its decline, the Native Americansthere were fragmented into many smaller groups.That had long been the case elsewhere in NorthAmerica.

The Far North Two different groups made the Far North their home. The Inuit inhabited thelands from what is now Alaska to Greenland; the Aleut settled present-day Alaska’s AleutianIslands. Both groups hunted seals, walruses, whales,polar bears, and caribou. They invented ingeniousdevices to cope with the harsh environment, including

the harpoon, kayak, and dogsled. They also were theonly Native Americans to develop lamps, using whaleoil and blubber for fuel.

The Pacific Many groups of fishing peoples, includ-ing the Kwakiutls and Chinook, lived along the PacificCoast from what is now southeastern Alaska toWashington state. Although not farmers, they madepermanent settlements because the coastal waters andnearby rivers teemed with salmon and other fish.

Farther inland, between the Cascade Range andthe Rocky Mountains, the Nez Perce, Yakima, andother groups fished, hunted deer, and gathered rootsand berries. To the south, the Ute and Shoshoneroamed the dry terrain between the Sierra Nevadaand Rocky Mountains. In what is now centralCalifornia, groups such as the Pomo enjoyed abun-dant wildlife and a mild climate.

The Southwest The Zuni, Hopi, and other Pueblopeoples of the Southwest were descendants of theAnasazi and Hohokam. They continued theirancestors’ farming tradition.

Like most Native Americans, these groupsbelieved in a spirit world. When men married, theyjoined the kachina cult, wearing masks and dancingto summon the kachinas, or good spirits.

Around the 1500s two other peoples—theApache and the Navajo—came to the region fromthe far northwest. Although many of the Apacheremained primarily nomadic hunters, the Navajolearned farming and settled in widely dispersedvillages.

The Great Plains The inhabitants of the Great Plainspracticed agriculture until about 1500, when theyabandoned their villages, possibly because of war ordrought. They became nomadic hunters, followingmigrating buffalo herds onfoot. Life for the Great Plainspeople changed dramaticallyafter they began taming thewild descendants of horsesbrought to North America bythe Spanish. They becameexpert riders, hunters, andwarriors.

GOVERNMENT

The Eastern WoodlandsEast of the Mississippi Riverand south of the Great Lakeslay almost a million square

Reading Check

Student WebActivity Visit theAmerican RepublicSince 1877 Web site at

and click on StudentWeb Activities—Chapter 1 for an activity on America’sprehistory.

HISTORY

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CHAPTER 1 Converging Cultures 15


miles of woodlands rich in plant andanimal life. Most Native Americans inthe Eastern Woodlands combinedhunting and fishing with farming.They planted corn, beans, and squashand hunted the plentiful deer for meatand hides.

The Iroquois of New York, like manygroups in the Northeast, practicedslash-and-burn agriculture. They cutdown forests, burned the cleared land,and used the nitrogen-rich ashes tomake the soil more fertile. They sur-rounded their villages with woodenstockades and built large rectangularlonghouses that housed up to 10 fami-lies. These kinship groups, or extendedfamilies, were headed by the elderwomen of each clan.

Despite their similar cultures, waroften erupted among the Iroquoisgroups. In the late 1500s, five groups inwestern New York—the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga,Oneida, and Mohawk—formed an alliance to main-tain peace. The Great Binding Law defined how thisIroquois League worked.

Although the ruling council was all male, thewomen who headed the kinship groups selected itsmembers and could remove appointees they dis-agreed with. Thus Iroquois women enjoyed consider-able political influence.

Like the Iroquois in the Northeast, the people inthe Southeast generally lived in towns enclosed by

stockades. Houses built of grass, mud, or thatchstood around a central plaza. Women did most of thefarming, while the men hunted deer, bear, and evenalligator.

By the 1500s, Native Americans had established awide array of cultures and languages. They had alsodeveloped economies and lifestyles suited to theirparticular environments.

Explaining How did climate andfood sources help shape Native American lifestyles?

Reading Check

Writing About History

Checking for Understanding1. Define: Ice Age, glacier, nomad,

civilization, pueblo, kachina, slash-and-burn agriculture, longhouse.

2. Identify: Mesoamerica, Cahokia.3. Explain how the agricultural revolution

led to the growth of permanent settlements.

Reviewing Themes4. Geography and History How did

geography and climate influence thesettlement of America?

Critical Thinking5. Evaluating Choose an early culture

group in Mesoamerica or NorthAmerica. What kind of civilization didthis group develop?

6. Categorizing Use a graphic organizersimilar to the one below to list NorthAmerican regions and the ways NativeAmericans in each region obtainedfood.

Analyzing Visuals7. Examining Photographs Study the

photographs of the Great SerpentMound and the copper falcon on thispage. How did the Native Americans inthis region adapt to their environment?

8. Descriptive Writing Take on the roleof an early Native American teenager.Write a journal entry describing atypical day in your life. Remember toconsider how your life might be differ-ent if you are a male or female NativeAmerican.


Region Ways of Getting Food

History

Adena and Hopewell Culture The Great SerpentMound in southern Ohio (above) is an example of theearthen mounds built by the Adena culture. The copperfalcon (right) is a Hopewell design. These artifacts helpscientists learn more about the culture of ancient civi-lizations. For what did Native Americans use theirearthen mounds?

Study Central TMTo review this section, go to

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I am Dekanawidah and with theFive Nations’ Confederate Lords I plant the Tree of Great Peace. . . .

The Mohawk Lords are the foun-dation of the Great Peace and it shall,therefore, be against the GreatBinding Law [the constitution] topass measures in the ConfederateCouncil after the Mohawk Lordshave protested against them.

All the business of the Five NationsConfederate Council shall be con-ducted by the two combined bodiesof Confederate Lords. . . . In all casesthe procedure must be as follows:when the Mohawk and Seneca Lordshave unanimously agreed upon aquestion, they shall report their deci-sion to the Cayuga and Oneida Lordswho shall deliberate upon the ques-tion and report a unanimous decisionto the Mohawk Lords. The MohawkLords will then report the standing ofthe case to the Firekeepers [theOnondaga], who shall render a deci-sion as they see fit in case of a dis-agreement by the two bodies. . . .

There shall be one War Chief foreach Nation and their duties shall beto carry messages for their Lords andto take up the arms of war in case ofemergency. They shall not participatein . . . the Confederate Council.

Whenever a very important matteror a great emergency is presented

before the Confederate Council [that]affects the entire body of the FiveNations . . . the Lords of the Con-federacy must submit the matter tothe decision of their people and thedecision of the people shall affect thedecision of the Confederate Council.

Among the Native Americangroups with the richest oral liter-ary traditions are the Iroquois.The Iroquois lived in what istoday New York state. For a longtime they were a mighty andwarlike people given to fightingamongst themselves. During the1500s a shaman, or tribal elder,named Dekanawidah urged the Iroquois to stop fighting and unite to protect themselvesfrom their common enemies.Dekanawidah’s ideas led to the formation of the IroquoisConfederation of the FiveNations, commonly known asthe Iroquois League.

Read to DiscoverHow did the Iroquois Confed-eration organize the Confed-erate Council?

Reader’s Dictionaryfoundation: basis

unanimous: in complete agreement

render: make; provide

from The Constitution of the Five Nations

Analyzing Literature1. Recall and Interpret Which of the

Five Nations settles a dispute withinthe Confederate Council?

2. Evaluate and Connect Which Nationseems to have the most individualpower?

Interdisciplinary ActivityGovernment Imagine that you and sev-eral classmates are leaders of five smallnations that are going to join together asone. In small groups, develop a new con-stitution under which all members of thenew nation will live.


In 1324 Mansa Musa, ruler of the Mali empire, made a pilgrimage to the Arabiancity of Makkah (Mecca), a place holy to his religion, Islam.

Musa had encouraged scholarship and trade in his realm, establishing his empire’sleading city, Timbuktu, as a great center of learning. A man named Mahmoud Kati, anative of the city, wrote a book praising Timbuktu for “the solidity of its institutions, itspolitical liberties, the purity of its morals, the security of persons, its consideration andcompassion toward foreigners, its courtesy toward students and men of learning andthe financial assistance which it provided for the latter. . . .”

Musa was not the first African king to visit Makkah, but no one there or along hisroute had ever seen anything as dazzling as his traveling party. With him came 60,000men, 12,000 of them personal servants he had enslaved. All were lavishly dressed.His vast caravan included 80 camels carrying 300 pounds of gold each.

Along the route, Musa’s generous spending brought prosperity to the towns he passed andmade his name famous. More importantly, the unmistakable wealth of his empire opened theeyes of North Africans, Arabs, and Europeans to the greatness of the Mali civilization.

—adapted from Wonders of the African World


European SocietyEurope’s interest in Africa came only after a long period of isolation. For centuries the

Roman Empire had dominated much of Europe. By A.D. 500, however, the Roman politicaland economic systems had collapsed, isolating western Europe from the rest of the world.

Europe and Africa

600S

Ideas of Islam begin spreadingacross Middle East and Africa

✦750 ✦1450✦A.D. 400 ✦1100

1095Pope launches first Crusade to freeHoly Land from Muslim control

1300sRenaissancebegins in Italy

1420sPortugal begins exploringAfrican coast

Mansa Musa

Main IdeaAs Europeans began exploring the world,they interacted with Africans who haddeveloped diverse cultures of their own.

Key Terms and NamesMiddle Ages, feudalism, manorialism,serf, Urban II, Crusades, Renaissance,astrolabe, caravel, Sahara, savannah

Reading StrategySequencing As you read aboutEuropean and African life, complete atime line like the one below by filling inkey events in the development of bothcontinents.

Reading Objectives• Analyze the impact of the Renaissance

on European exploration.• Describe the culture of early West

African kingdoms.

Section ThemeGlobal Connections European explo-ration of the globe set in motion eventsthat decisively shaped North Americanhistory.

1450400

Trade declined, cities and roads fell into disrepair, lawand order vanished, and money was no longer used.During the Middle Ages, as the period from about 500to 1400 is called, most people knew nothing of lifebeyond the tiny villages where they were born.

Feudalism With the weakening of central govern-ment, feudalism developed in western Europe.Under this political system, a king would give estatesto nobles in exchange for their military support. Thenobles swore loyalty to the king and providedknights, or mounted warriors, for the royal army. Inreturn, the nobles could raise their own armies, dis-pense justice, and mint their own coins. Most builtfortified castles for defense.

Peasants who could not secure their own land orprotection worked for the feudal lords and lived ontheir estates, or manors. These ranged in size fromseveral hundred to several hundred thousand acresand were largely self-sufficient, with livestock pas-tures, fields for crops, and a peasant village. Whilefeudalism describes the political relationshipsbetween nobles, manorialism describes the economicties between nobles and peasants.

In return for protection, peasants farmed the lord’sland and made payments of various goods. Theyworked long and hard and rarely left the manor.Most were serfs, people who were bound to themanor and the lord’s will. They were not consideredenslaved, however, since they could not be sold. Serfstypically lived in tiny, one-room houses with dirtfloors, a hole in the roof for a chimney, and one ortwo pieces of crude furniture. They ate bread, por-ridge, and a few types of vegetables, and they slepthuddled together for warmth.

Expanding Horizons The economy of westernEurope, devastated since the fall of Rome, began toimprove around A.D. 1000. The invention of the horsecollar and better plows enabled farmers to growmore. The ability of many villages to produce a sur-plus of food helped revive trade in Europe. At thesame time, some rulers succeeded in building strongcentral governments, thereby discouraging warfareand bandit raids. Roads soon filled with traders, andthe number of western European towns grewtremendously between 1000 and 1200.

The Roman Catholic Church also promoted stabil-ity and order. With its laws addressing doctrine, mar-riage, and morals and its severe penalties fordisobedience to Church teachings, it became a forceuniting western Europeans.

Meanwhile, the religion known as Islam sweptacross the Middle East and Africa during the 600sand 700s. The followers of Islam, known as Muslims,steadily won converts both by making armed con-quests and by instilling a sense of brotherhood.

As Muslim power grew, European Christiansbecame fearful of losing access to the Holy Land, thebirthplace of Christianity, in what is now Israel. In1095 Pope Urban II, the head of the Roman CatholicChurch, urged Christians to take up arms to regaintheir sacred sites. He spoke before a huge crowd, say-ing that Jerusalem “is now held captive by . . . ene-mies. . . . It looks and hopes for freedom; it begsunceasingly that you will come to its aid.”

The pope’s speech launched at least nine expedi-tions, called Crusades, over the next two centuries.The Crusades changed western European society inseveral ways. First, they helped break down feudalismand increased the authority of kings. As kings levied

The Middle Ages The Bayeaux tapestry(right) and this prayer book (below) showart styles in Europe in the Middle Ages.What aspect of life in the Middle Agesdoes the tapestry depict?

History Through Art

taxes and raised armies, nobles joining the Crusadessold their lands and freed their serfs. Second, theCrusades brought Europeans into contact with theMuslim and Byzantine civilizations of the MiddleEast. Europeans began demanding spices, sugar, silk,and other goods from the East. Chinese and Indiantraders sold these items to Arab merchants, who then moved them overland to the Mediterraneancoast. Arab merchants then sold the goods to Italianmerchants for huge profits.

The expanding trade with the Middle East andAsia changed Europe’s economic system as well. Astrade increased, merchants found bartering impracti-cal, and many Arab traders insisted on monetary pay-ments. This led to the rise of an economy based onmoney and to greater demand for gold to make coins.

The development of the Mongol Empire in the 1200salso facilitated the flow of goods from the East. Mongolhorsemen emerged from central Asia in the early 1200s

and built one of the largest empires in world history.The Mongol conquest integrated much of Asia’s econ-omy by breaking down trade barriers, opening bor-ders, and securing the roads against bandits.

By the 1300s, Europe was importing vast quantitiesof luxury goods from Asia. However, when theMongol Empire collapsed in the 1300s, Asia againsplit into dozens of independent kingdoms. The flowof Asian goods declined, and the price of spicessoared. Many Europeans began to look for a route toAsia that would bypass the Muslim traders. Perhaps,they thought, they could reach China by sea.

Summarizing How did theCrusades change Europe?

New States, New TechnologyBy the 1300s, western Europeans had the motive

but not the means to seek a direct water route to Asia.Feudalism and frequent warfare had kept rulers andmerchants from amassing the wealth necessary tofinance exploration and overseas trade. Europeansalso lacked the technology to attempt a long-distancevoyage by sea.

GOVERNMENT

The Emergence of Strong States Things beganchanging in the 1300s. The feudal system was indecline, weakened by the Crusades and trade withAsia. The rise of towns and merchants had providedkings and queens with a new source of wealth theycould tax. They used their armies to open up andprotect trade routes and to enforce trade laws and acommon currency within their kingdoms.

Revenue from trade and loans from merchants,who also stood to benefit from increased commerce,made western European rulers less dependent on thenobility for support. Monarchs began centralizingpower, and by the mid-1400s, four strong states—Portugal, Spain, England, and France—had emerged.All four started financing exploration in the hope ofexpanding their trade and national power.

Scientific Advances At about the same time thatEuropean kingdoms were unifying, an intellectual rev-olution known as the Renaissance began. Lasting fromabout 1350 to 1600, the Renaissance marked an artisticflowering and a rebirth of interest in the cultures ofancient Greece and Rome. European scholars rediscov-ered the works of Greek and Roman philosophers,geographers, and mathematicians. In their quest forlearning, they also read the teachings of Arab scholars.

Reading Check


• The Crusades broadened Europeanhorizons and stimulated interest inluxury goods.

• Monarchs of new states wanted toacquire gold to strengthen their rule.

• The Renaissance promoted ascientific and practical view of theworld.

• New technology like the compassand astrolabe made explorationpossible.

• An exchange of goods and ideasbetween Europe and the Americasbegan.

• European diseases devastated NativeAmerican populations; Americandiseases spread to Europe.

• Europeans became increasinglyinvolved in the West African slavetrade.

European explorations brought profound cultural changesto many parts of the world.

Evaluating How did technology play a role in exploration?

By the 1400s, western Europeans had acquiredknowledge of a key navigational instrument, theastrolabe, from Arab texts. An astrolabe uses theposition of the sun to determine direction, latitude,and local time. Europeans also acquired the compass,a Chinese invention that reliably shows the directionof magnetic north.

Navigational tools were vital to exploring theworld, but the most important requirements wereships capable of long-distance travel. Late in the1400s, Europeans began building ships withredesigned sails, multiple masts, and repositionedrudders. These improvements made ships muchfaster.

Prince Henry the Navigator Portuguese explorers,outfitted with ships called caravels that incorporatedthe latest technology, were the first Europeans tosearch for a sea route to Asia. In 1419 Prince Henry ofPortugal, known as Henry the Navigator, set up acoastal center for astronomical and geographicalstudies. Mapmakers, astronomers, and shipbuildersfrom throughout the Mediterranean went there tostudy and plan voyages of exploration.

In 1420 Portuguese captains began mappingAfrica’s west coast. They discovered the Azores, the Madeira Islands, and Cape Verde. In 1488 aPortuguese ship commanded by Bartolomeu Diasreached the southern tip of Africa, later named theCape of Good Hope. A little over nine years later,four ships commanded by Vasco da Gama sailedfrom Portugal, rounded Africa, and then landed onthe southwest coast of India. A water route to easternAsia had been found.

During the decades that Portuguese ships wereexploring the African coast, they began trading withWest African merchants. European goods wereexchanged for gold, ivory, pepper, and palm oil. ThePortuguese also began purchasing enslaved Africansto work on Portuguese sugar plantations.

Examining What political and tech-nological developments made it possible for Europeans tobegin exploring the world?

West African CivilizationLong before the arrival of the Portuguese, trade had

been a central feature of West African civilization. Thethree great empires that arose in this region betweenthe 400s and 1400s—Ghana, Mali, and Songhai—gained much of their prosperity by trading in two pre-cious commodities: gold and salt.

The Lay of the Land West Africa is an immensebulge of territory bordered on the north by theMediterranean Sea and on the west and south by theAtlantic Ocean. Its northern and southern perimetersare well watered and fertile, but between them lies avast desert, the Sahara.

The Niger River, which cuts through West Africa,long served as its major pathway for east-west trade.Important trade routes across the Sahara did notdevelop until camels arrived from Arabia betweenthe A.D. 200s and 400s. Camels could carry moreweight and walk for longer periods than oxen orhorses. Most important, camels could go withoutwater for over a week and could withstand thedesert’s scorching days and cold nights.

Merchants began using camels to transport gold,ivory, ostrich feathers, and furs from regions southof the Sahara to North Africa. As demand for thesegoods increased, large trading settlements devel-oped around the northern and southern boundariesof the Sahara.

Ideas as well as goods traveled along the Africantrade routes. The Muslim nomads who controlled thecaravans in the Sahara carried Islam into the heart ofWest Africa. There, many people in the cities andmarket towns embraced the religion.

The Lure of Gold West Africa prospered primarilybecause of the gold trade. The Muslim conquest ofNorth Africa led to a much greater demand for gold

Reading Check

Early compasses

The CompassWhile the Europeans made numerous advances in

navigation, it was the Chinese who invented one of themore important seafaring tools: the compass. Evidenceof this includes a Chinese document from 1086 that talksof sea captains relying on a “south-pointing needle” tohelp them find their way in foggy weather. The date onthe document is more than 100years earlier than the firstrecorded use of the compass inEurope. What other inven-tions aided European exploration?

in the 800s and 900s because the new Muslim statesof the region used gold coins. Later, in the 1200s,European rulers shifted from using silver and coppercoins to using gold coins, and they too sought goldfrom Africa.

The African people who lived on the southernedge of the Sahara were perfectly positioned to bene-fit from the growing trade in gold. With access toboth gold from the south and salt and other goodsfrom the north, they were able to amass wealth andpower and build large empires.

Ghana The earliest African empire to emerge wasGhana in the A.D. 400S. The Soninke people settledbetween the gold mines of Bambuk (just east ofpresent-day Senegal) and the salt mines of Taghazain the Sahara, where they controlled the region’strade. After the Muslims conquered North Africaand the Sahara, Ghana’s merchants grew rich bytrafficking in gold and salt. Ghana’s ruler taxed thetrade and gained great wealth as well. Most people,however, were farmers and herders.

Ghana became a Muslim kingdom inthe 1100s, but frequent wars with theMuslims of the Sahara took their toll.Equally damaging was a change in theenvironment that left Ghana’s landexhausted and its farmers unable to feedits people. At the same time, new goldmines opened in Bure to the east. Traderoutes to these mines bypassed Ghana,depriving its rulers of the wealth theyneeded to maintain their empire. By theearly 1200s, the empire of Ghana hadcollapsed.

Mali East of Ghana, the Malinke peoplecontrolled the upper Niger valley andthus the gold trade from Bure. With their newfound wealth and power, theMalinke conquered Ghana and built theempire of Mali. By the mid-1300s, Malistretched east past the city of Timbuktuand west to the Atlantic Ocean.

The emperor of Mali, called themansa, was based in the capital. In out-lying towns, traditional rulers managedlocal affairs, collected tribute from the farmers, and sent a portion to the

capital. To enforce this system, the mansa relied on a large army. Although Mali’s rulers and traders adopted Islam, many people—especially thefarmers—clung to their traditional belief in “spiritsof the land.”

The empire of Mali reached its peak in the 1300sunder the leadership of Mansa Musa and his brotherMansa Sulayman. By that time, the opening of newgold mines had shifted the trade routes farther eastand helped make Timbuktu a great center of tradeand Muslim scholarship.

Songhai The Sorko people who lived along themiddle Niger, east of Mali, built the Songhai empire.The Sorko fished for a living and controlled tradealong the river. This gave them wealth and power,and by the 800s they had created the kingdom ofSonghai.

When Mali began to decline, the ruler of Songhai,Sonni Ali, seized Timbuktu in 1468. He then pushednorth to the Taghazi salt mines and expandedsouthward about 200 miles down the Niger.According to legend, Sonni Ali’s army never lost abattle.

Songhai’s next great leader, Askiya Muhammad,was a devout Muslim. He revived Timbuktu as a great


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West Africa, c. 1100–1525

Ghana, c. 1100Mali, c. 1350

Songhai, c. 1492Benin, c. 1450

Kongo/Mbundu, c. 1525Trade route

Wooden stoolfrom GhanaWooden stoolfrom Ghana

1. Interpreting Maps Which African empire claimed themost territory?

2. Applying Geography Skills What natural feature determined the location of these empires?



Checking for Understanding1. Define: feudalism, manorialism, serf,

Renaissance, astrolabe, caravel, savannah.

2. Identify: Middle Ages, Muslim, Urban II, Crusades, Sahara.

3. Explain why Songhai became a greatempire.

Reviewing Themes4. Global Connections How did slavery

change as trade between Africa andEurope flourished in the 1400s?

Critical Thinking5. Comparing How were West African

societies different from Europeansocieties?

6. Contrasting How were the WestAfrican empires of Ghana, Mali, andSonghai similar to one another?

7. Categorizing Use a graphic organizersimilar to the one below to list theeffects of the Crusades.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examining Artifacts Study the West

African artifacts on pages 22 and 23.The craftsmanship of these items indi-cates a society able to devote time toartistic pursuits instead of simple sur-vival. What two commodities wereessential to the prosperity of WestAfrica?

9. Descriptive Writing Imagine you are a Portuguese explorer in West Africa.Write a journal entry describing a WestAfrican civilization.

center of learning, encouraged more trade across theSahara, and centralized power in the capital, Gao.Songhai remained a powerful and wealthy empireuntil 1591, when Moroccan troops shattered its army.

Benin The sprawling empires of Ghana, Mali, andSonghai arose on West Africa’s expansive savannah,a kind of rolling grassland. In the dense, almostimpenetrable forests of West Africa’s southern coast,an area called Guinea, smaller kingdoms such asBenin developed.

The Edo people of Benin were a mix of hunters,farmers, and traders living in small village communi-ties. They developed Benin as a city-state in the 1000sor 1100s. By the mid-1400s, Benin had become anempire stretching from the Niger delta west to aboutwhere the city of Lagos, Nigeria, is located today.When the Portuguese reached Benin, the Edo soldthem ivory, pepper, gum, and cotton. They alsotraded Africans they had captured and enslaved asthey expanded their territory.

Examining Why were the WestAfrican kingdoms in Guinea smaller than those in the savannah area?

Slavery and SugarSlavery had existed in Africa and other parts of the

world for centuries. At first, most African slaves werewar captives who were eventually ransomed back totheir people or absorbed into their captors’ culture.West African slavery began to change with the arrivalof Arab traders, who exchanged horses, cotton, and

other goods for slaves. The gold trade alsoincreased the demand for slaves. In theearly 1400s, the Akan people beganmining gold and trading it to theMali empire. To boost their produc-tion, the Akan people acquiredenslaved Africans from Malitraders for use in clearing theland and mining the gold.

Sugar growers from Spainand Portugal sought Africanslaves as well. Until about 1100,the people of western Europehad generally used honey andfruit juices to sweeten theirfoods. During the Crusades,they learned about sugarcanefrom the Muslims, and thedemand for sugar rose steadily.

In the 1400s, Spain and Portugal establishedsugarcane plantations on the Canary and MadeiraIslands off the west coast of Africa. There, unlikemost of Europe, the climate and soil were favorablefor growing sugarcane. Chopping the tough cane andproducing sugar required heavy manual labor,though, and plantation owners brought in enslavedAfricans for that purpose.

Because Europeans had a limited amount of landavailable for sugarcane, their participation in theslave trade remained modest during the 1400s. This would change dramatically after ChristopherColumbus landed in America.

Analyzing Why did Europeanswant slaves?

Reading Check

Reading Check

Crusades

Akan memorial head



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In 1492 Christopher Columbus led 87 sailors on a voyage into the unknown. OnSeptember 9 Columbus noted in his log: “This day we completely lost sight of land, and manymen sighed and wept for fear they would not see it again for a long time.” As the voyagedragged on, the sailors grew nervous and began plotting mutiny. Columbus wrote:

“All day long and all night long those who are awake and able to get together never ceaseto talk to each other in circles, complaining that they will never be able to return home. . . .I am told . . . that if I persist in going onward, the best course of action will be to throw meinto the sea some night.”

Then, on the morning of October 12, the Pinta’s lookout, Rodrigo de Triana, let out a joy-ous cry—“Tierra! Tierra!” (“Land! Land!”). At dawn a relieved and triumphant Columbuswent ashore. He believed he had arrived in the Indies—islands located southeast of China.

—adapted from The Log of Christopher Columbus


✦1510 ✦1530

The Vikings Arrive in AmericaAlthough his historic journey set the stage for permanent European settlement in the

Americas, Christopher Columbus was not the first European to arrive there. Strongarchaeological evidence credits that accomplishment to the Norse, or Vikings, a peoplewho came from Scandinavia.

Europe EncountersAmerica

1492Christopher Columbuslands in America

1494Treaty ofTordesillas

1513Vasco de Balboa sees thePacific Ocean

1522Ferdinand Magellan’s expeditioncompletes first trip around the world

✦1490

A replica of a Spanishcaravel at sea

Main IdeaColumbus sought a sea route to Asia.Instead, he encountered several outlyingislands of North America.

Key Terms and NamesLeif Ericsson, Claudius Ptolemy, SanSalvador Island, line of demarcation,Treaty of Tordesillas, Ferdinand Magellan,circumnavigate, Columbian Exchange

Reading StrategyOrganizing As you read about Europe’sexploration of the Americas, complete achart like the one below by filling in theoutcome of each exploration listed.

Reading Objectives• Describe Columbus’s journeys and

their impact on Native Americans andEuropeans.

• Evaluate the workings and impact ofthe Columbian Exchange.

Section ThemeGlobal Connections The Treaty ofTordesillas helped determine that Spainwould be the first strong European powerin the Americas.

Exploration Outcome

Vikings

Columbus

Vespucci

Balboa

Magellan


Beginning in the late 700s, Viking ships, calledlongboats, began to venture from their homeland.Around A.D. 1000, Leif Ericsson and 35 Vikingsexplored the coast of Labrador and may have stayedthe winter in what is now Newfoundland. Althoughthe Vikings later tried to found colonies in the region,their attempts failed, largely because they were out-numbered by hostile Native Americans.

Examining How do we know thatColumbus was not the first European in the Americas?

Columbus’s PlanDuring the Renaissance, the scientific works of

scholars like Claudius Ptolemy were rediscovered.In the A.D. 100S, he had drawn maps of a round worldprojected onto a flat surface, complete with lines oflongitude and latitude. Nonetheless, Ptolemy hadseriously underestimated the distance that eachdegree of longitude represented, making the earthseem much smaller than it actually was.

Basing his calculations on Ptolemy’s, an Italiannavigator named Christopher Columbus reckonedJapan to be only 2,760 miles (4,441 km) west of Spain.In reality it was five times farther. Columbus wasalso unaware that a large landmass lay in the Atlanticbetween Europe and Asia.

Columbus needed financial backing to make avoyage across the Atlantic to Asia. For six yearsColumbus tried to persuade the rulers of Portugal,England, France, and Spain to fund his expedition.He promised Spain’s King Ferdinand and QueenIsabella that his scheme would bring them wealth,empire, and converts to Catholicism. Finally, in 1492,after it became clear that Portugal was about to reachAsia by going east around Africa, the Spanish rulersagreed to finance his venture.

Explaining Why did the rulers ofSpain agree to support Columbus’s voyage to Asia?

Columbus’s ExplorationsIn all, Columbus made four expeditions to the

Americas. His first ended in glory and the promise offuture riches. Each succeeding journey, however,brought him no closer to fulfilling that promise orfinding the expected sea route to Asia.

TURNING POINT

The First Voyage Columbus and his three shipsfinally left Spain in August 1492, embarking on the

harrowing westward voyage across the Atlanticand reaching what is today the Bahamas in October.He probably landed on present-day San SalvadorIsland. Columbus called the people he encounteredIndians, thinking he had reached the fabled Indies.

Columbus headed deeper into the Caribbeansearching for gold. He found the island of Cubaand then the island of Hispaniola, which the coun-tries of Haiti and the Dominican Republic nowshare. Columbus mistakenly concluded that Cubawas the coast of China and that Hispaniola wasJapan.

The islanders Columbus met must have beencurious about the white-skinned, bearded Spanish.Columbus described their meeting this way:

“The people kept coming down to the beach, call-ing to us and giving thanks to God. Some brought uswater, some food; others, seeing that I did not wish togo ashore, swam out to us. . . . [They] kept shouting,‘Come and see the men who have come fromHeaven; bring them food and drink.’”

—quoted in The Voyage of Christopher Columbus

Reading Check

Reading Check

Archaeological Evidence This carving of aEuropean figure (left), and Viking calendar(above) prove that the Vikings arrived in NorthAmerica before Columbus. Why were Vikingsunable to colonize successfully?

History Through Art


The ColumbianExchange

European contact with the Americas marked the start of an extensive exchange of plants and animals between the two areas of the world. Dramatic changesresulted from the exchange of plant life,leading to a revolution in the diets ofpeoples in both hemispheres.

Maize (corn), potatoes, many kindsof beans, tomatoes, and pumpkinswere among the products the EasternHemisphere received from theAmericas. Meanwhile, the EasternHemisphere introduced rice, wheat,barley, oats, melons, coffee,bananas, and many other plantsto the Western Hemisphere.

AnimalsThe Spanish reintroduced horses to the Americas.Horses native to the Americas had died out duringthe Ice Age. Their reintroduction transformedNative American societies.

➤

PlantsBy about 1600, American maize and sweetpotatoes were staple crops in China. Theycontributed to a worldwide populationexplosion beginning in this period.

➤

On Christmas Eve, Columbus’s flagship, the SantaMaría, struck a reef off Hispaniola and broke apart.Columbus built a small fort called La Navidad on theisland and left about 40 crew members to search forgold while he headed home with his remaining ships.

In March 1493 Columbus made a triumphantreturn to Spain, bringing back gold, parrots, spices,and Native Americans. The king and queen awardedhim the titles “Admiral of the Ocean Sea” and“Viceroy and Governor of the Indies.” Ferdinand andIsabella listened closely as Columbus promisedspices, cotton, and “as much gold as they want iftheir Highnesses will render me a little help.”

The Treaty of Tordesillas Although pleased withColumbus’s findings, Ferdinand and Isabella wereconcerned about claiming the new lands. Portugal,after all, had claimed the right to control the Atlanticroute to Asia. To resolve the issue, the two Catholicnations appealed to the pope. In 1493 PopeAlexander VI established a line of demarcation, animaginary north-to-south line running down themiddle of the Atlantic. Spain was to control every-thing west of the line, while Portugal would controleverything to the east.

In 1494, with the Treaty of Tordesillas, a line wasapproved by both nations. The treaty confirmed

Portugal’s right to control the route around Africa toIndia. It also confirmed Spain’s claim to most of thenewly discovered lands of America.

Columbus’s Later Voyages Columbus made threemore voyages from Spain in 1493, 1498, and 1502. Heexplored the Caribbean islands of Hispaniola, Cuba,and Jamaica, and he sailed along the coasts of CentralAmerica and northern South America. Columbusclaimed the new lands for Spain and established set-tlements, but he did not satisfy his dreams.

Analyzing Why did Spain andPortugal sign the Treaty of Tordesillas?

Continuing ExpeditionsLater explorations made it clear that Columbus

had not reached Asia but a part of the globeunknown to Europeans, Asians, and Africans. In thefollowing years, the Spanish explored most of theCaribbean region, paving the way for the SpanishEmpire in the Americas.

Naming America In 1499 an Italian namedAmerigo Vespucci, sailing under the Spanish flag,repeated Columbus’s attempt to sail west to Asia.

Reading Check


Exploring the coast of South America, Vespucci, likeColumbus, assumed he had reached outermost Asia.

Vespucci made his next voyage in 1501, this timerepresenting Portugal. After sailing far south alongthe coast of South America, he realized that this largelandmass could not be part of Asia. Vespucci’sdescriptions of America were published and widelyread in Europe. In 1507 a German scholar, MartinWaldseemüller, proposed that the new continent benamed America for “Amerigo the discoverer.”

GEOGRAPHY

Spanish Explorations In 1513 the Spanish gover-nor of Puerto Rico, Juan Ponce de Leon, sailed north.Legend has it that he was searching for a wondrousfountain that could magically restore youth. Whetheror not this was his motive, Ponce de Leon did dis-cover a land full of blooming wildflowers and fra-grant plants. He claimed the area for Spain andnamed it Florida, which means “land of flowers.”

In 1510 Vasco de Balboa, an indebted planter fromHispaniola, stowed away on a ship heading west tothe American mainland. He and a group of followersfounded a colony on the Isthmus of Panama. ThereBalboa heard tales from Native Americans of a

“south sea” that led to an empire of gold. Avid for thetreasure, he hacked his way across steamy, disease-ridden jungles and swamps until he reached theopposite coast. There, in 1513, Balboa became the firstEuropean known to gaze upon the wide ocean thatactually does lead to China and India.

In 1520 Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguesemariner working for Spain, discovered the strait laternamed for him at the southernmost tip of SouthAmerica. After navigating its stormy narrows, hesailed into the ocean Balboa had seen. Its watersseemed so peaceful—or pacific, in Portuguese—thatMagellan gave the new ocean that name. AlthoughMagellan died in the Philippine Islands on the wayhome to Spain, his expedition returned in 1522.Magellan is credited as the first person tocircumnavigate, or sail completely around, the globe.

Synthesizing Why was Magellan’sexpedition significant?

The Columbian ExchangeThe arrival of European colonists in the Americas

set in motion a series of complex interactionsbetween peoples and ecologies. These interactions,

Reading Check

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SquashQuinine

SweetPotatoes

Avocados

PineapplesPeppers

Turkeys

Corn

Pumpkins

Cassava Peanuts

Potatoes

TomatoesTobacco

CocoaBeans

Beans

Vanilla

CoffeeBeans

Onions Olives

CitrusFruits

Bananas

Grapes

Turnips Peaches &Pears

SugarCane

Grains

Livestock

Honeybees

Disease- Wheat- Rice- Barley- Oats

- Cattle- Sheep- Pigs- Horses

AMERICAS TO EUROPE, ASIA, AND AFRICA

EUROPE, AFRICA, AND ASIA TO AMERICAS

DiseaseEUROPE

AFRICA

NORTHAMERICA

The Columbian Exchange, c. 1500s

Europeans also unwittingly brought many diseases to the Americas, includingmeasles, mumps, chicken pox, and typhus. The consequences were devastating toNative Americans. Some Native American groups suffered a 90 percent populationloss in the first century after European contact. This catastrophe reduced the laborsupply available to Europeans, who then turned to enslaving Africans. Thus slavery inthe Western Hemisphere is traceable in part to the Columbian Exchange.

MotionIn

called the Columbian Exchange, would bringchange to almost every culture in the world.

From America to Europe Native Americansintroduced the Europeans to new farming methodsand crops. Corn, which colonists soon made a sta-ple, traveled back to Spain with Columbus andthen spread to the rest of Europe. Other Americanfoods, such as squash, pumpkins, beans, sweetpotatoes, tomatoes, chili peppers, peanuts, choco-late, and potatoes, also made their way to Europe,as did tobacco and chewing gum. Europeans alsoadopted many Native American inventions, includ-ing canoes, snowshoes, hammocks, ponchos, andtoboggans.

One of the most important discoveries forEuropeans was the potato. European farmerslearned that land planted with potatoes instead ofrye could support about four times as many people.Potatoes had another key advantage. Because grainhad to be harvested all at one time and then stored,families risked losing an entire year’s supply to pil-lagers. Potatoes, by contrast, could be left in theground all winter and dug up only when neededfor eating.

From Europe to America The Europeans intro-duced Native Americans to many new sources offood, including wheat, oats, barley, rye, rice, coffee,onions, bananas, oranges, and other new citrusfruits. Europeans also brought over domestic live-stock such as chickens, cattle, pigs, sheep, andhorses. In addition, they introduced Native

Americans to new technologies, including new met-alworking and shipbuilding methods, as well asfirearms and other new weapons.

Offsetting these beneficial imports, however, wasa deadly and invisible one—the bacteria and virusesthat caused influenza, measles, chicken pox, mumps,typhus, and smallpox. Europeans carried someresistance to these diseases, but Native Americanshad never experienced them and therefore had noimmunity. Exposure led to epidemics in which mil-lions died. The movement of disease was not oneway—Europeans may have also brought NativeAmerican diseases back to Europe. Those illnesses,however, did not lead to a catastrophic collapse of theEuropean population.

Within 50 years after contact with Europeans,groups living in parts of the Caribbean had becomeextinct. On Hispaniola, the native populationplummeted from about 1 million to about 500. InMayan Mexico, an estimated 95 percent of the localpeople died.

No one should discount the negative effects of theexchange Columbus initiated: the tragic epidemicsand military conquests that devastated NativeAmericans and, later, the introduction of slavery. YetColumbus’s explorations led ultimately to thefounding of the United States and the building of anation that honors individualism and protectshuman rights and freedoms. This too is part ofColumbus’s legacy.

Describing Why did millions ofNative Americans die as a result of contact with Europeans?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Define: line of demarcation, circumnav-

igate, Columbian Exchange.2. Identify: Leif Ericsson, Claudius

Ptolemy, San Salvador Island, Treaty ofTordesillas, Ferdinand Magellan.

3. Explain why the Vikings did not settlein Canada.

Reviewing Themes4. Global Connections How did the

maps drawn by Ptolemy revolutionizeEuropean sea exploration?

Critical Thinking5. Analyzing Why did Spain’s rulers

agree to Columbus’s second voyage?6. Categorizing Use a graphic organizer

similar to the one below to list theexchanges between the NativeAmericans and the Europeans in theColumbian Exchange.

Analyzing Visuals7. Examining Images Study the images

on page 26 and 27 illustrating theimportance of the Columbian Exchange.Do you think the positive effects of theexchange outweigh the negative effects?Explain your answer.

8. Descriptive Writing Take the role of asailor on Columbus’s first voyage to the Americas. Write a journal entryabout the Caribbean islands you havediscovered.

EuropeansReceived

Native AmericansReceived

Columbian Exchange




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Social StudiesSocial Studies

Reading a Time Line

The Americas

c. 1000Vikings arrive

1270sDrought forces Anasazito abandon pueblos

1492Columbus arrives

1095Pope Urban IIlaunches Crusades

1271Marco Polo journeysto China

1324Mansa Musa makespilgrimage to Makkah

c. 1475Ptolemy’s Geographyis republished

✦ ✦✦✦1400 1410 1420 1430

✦ ✦✦✦1490 1492 1494 1496

29

The World

c. 1300Cahokia collapses

✦✦✦1000–1100s 1200s 1300s 1400s

Applying the SkillReading a Time Line Extend the time line on this pageto include at least five additional events that took placein North America between A.D. 500 and 1000.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive WorkbookCD-ROM, Level 2, provides instruction andpractice in key social studies skills.

Why Learn This Skill?When you read a time line, you see not only

when an event took place but also what eventstook place before and after it. A time line can helpyou develop the skill of chronological thinking.Developing a strong sense of chronology—whenevents took place and in what order they tookplace—will help you examine relationships amongthe events. It will also help you understand whatevents caused or were the result of other events.

Learning the SkillA time line is a chart that lists events that

occurred between specific dates. The number ofyears between dates is the time span. A time linethat begins in 1490 and ends in 1500 has a 10-yeartime span. Some time lines are divided into cen-turies. The twentieth century includes the 1900s, thenineteenth century includes the 1800s, and so on.

Time lines are usually divided into smaller seg-ments, or time intervals. If you look at the twotime lines below, you will see that the first time linehas a 30-year time span divided into 10-year timeintervals, and the second time line has a 6-yeartime span divided into 2-year time intervals.

Practicing the SkillSometimes a time line shows events that

occurred during the same time period but in twodifferent parts of the world. The time line aboveshows some events in the Americas and in the restof the world during the same time span. Study thetime line, and then answer the questions.

1 What time span and intervals appear on thistime line?

2 What important event took place around A.D.1300 in North America?

3 How many years before Ptolemy’s Geographywas published did the Vikings reach NorthAmerica?

4 When did Pope Urban II begin the Crusades?

Skills AssessmentComplete the Practicing Skills questions on

page 39 and the Chapter 1 Skill ReinforcementActivity to assess your mastery of this skill.

In the spring of 1519, a courier arrived in Tenochtitlán, capital of the Aztecempire. He had news for the emperor, Montezuma II. Bearded white men bearingcrosses were encamped on the eastern shores of the emperor’s realm.

Montezuma was worried. For several years he had heard reports of strangemen with “very light skin” operating in the Caribbean. His subjects had also seen“towers or small mountains floating on the waves of the sea.” Now these strangewhite men had come to his lands, and Montezuma did not know what to do.

The men on the coast were Spanish soldiers. As they watched the soldiers, thepeople of eastern Mexico felt both fear and awe. One Aztec later recalled:

“They came in battle array, as conquerors . . . their spears glinted in the sun, and theirpennons fluttered like bats. They made a loud clamor as they marched, for their coats of mailand their weapons clashed and rattled. . . . They terrified everyone who saw them.”

—quoted in The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico

Spain and France Build Empires


The Conquest of MexicoLeading the Spanish march into the Aztec Empire was 34-year-old Hernán Cortés.

He had sailed from Cuba with two aims: to find Native Americans to toil for the Spanishin Cuba, and to investigate reports of a wealthy civilization on the Yucatán Peninsula.

Aztec depiction of Montezuma viewing ominous omens of invaders

1519Cortés lands onMexican coast

✦1550 ✦1650✦1500 ✦1600

1532Pizarro invadesInca empire

1565St. Augustine, Florida,established

1608City of Quebecfounded

1609–1610Santa Fe, New Mexico,founded

Main IdeaThe Spanish and French colonies inAmerica reflected the values of European society and the geography of the regionsin which they settled.

Key Terms and NamesHernán Cortés, conquistador, FranciscoPizarro, Hernando de Soto, presidio,hacienda, vaquero, encomienda, Quebec,Northwest Passage

Reading StrategyTaking Notes As you read about theSpanish and French colonies in NorthAmerica, use the major headings of thesection to create an outline similar to theone below.

Reading Objectives• Describe the early Spanish settlement

of North America.• Explain how New France was founded

and settled.

Section ThemeCulture and Traditions Native Americanreligious beliefs helped the Spanish over-come the resistance of central and SouthAmerican cultures.

Spain and France Build Empires

I. The Conquest of MexicoA.B.

II.A.B.

Cortés landed in the Yucatán with 11 ships, 550men, and 16 horses. Soon after, thousands of NativeAmericans attacked. Although outnumbered, theSpanish had superior weapons. Their swords, cross-bows, guns, and cannons quickly killed more than200 warriors. As a peace offering, the NativeAmericans gave Cortés 20 young women. One wasMalinche, who helped translate for Cortés as he con-tinued up the coast. Malinche became one of Cortés’sclosest advisers. He had her baptized and gave herthe name Doña Marina.

The Spanish Meet the Aztec From local rulers,Cortés learned that the Aztec had conquered manypeople in the region and were at war with others,including the powerful Tlaxcalan people. He decidedto make allies of the Tlaxcalans by impressing themwith his army’s might. The local people had neverseen horses before. Their foaming muzzles and theglistening coats of armor they wore were astonishingand terrifying. When they charged, it seemed to oneAztec chronicler “as if stones were raining on theearth.” Equally terrifying were the “shooting sparks”of the Spanish cannons. After several displays ofSpanish power, the Tlaxcalans agreed to join withCortés against the Aztec.

Two hundred miles away, Montezuma fretted. Hebelieved an old prophecy foretelling thatQuetzalcóatl—a fair-skinned, bearded deity—wouldsomeday return to conquer the Aztec. Montezumadid not know if Cortés was Quetzalcóatl. To be safe,he sent envoys promising a yearly payment to the

king of Spain if Cortés halted his advance. As furtherappeasement, the envoys sacrificed several captivesand gave their blood to the Spanish to drink. This acthorrified the Spanish and alarmed Montezuma, whoknew that Quetzalcóatl hated human sacrifice.

With a joint Spanish-Tlaxcalan force headingtoward him, Montezuma decided to ambush Cortésat the city of Cholula. Warned in advance by DoñaMarina, the Spanish struck first, killing over 6,000Cholulans. Montezuma now believed Cortés wasunstoppable. On November 8, 1519, Spanish troopspeacefully entered the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán.

The Aztec Are Defeated Sitting on an island in thecenter of a lake, Tenochtitlán astonished the Spanish.It was larger than most European cities and featuredstone canals that people traveled by canoe. The cen-tral plaza had an enormous double pyramid and ahuge rack displaying thousands of human skulls—asight that repelled the Spanish.

Surrounded by thousands of Aztec, Cortés decidedto take Montezuma hostage. Montezuma did notresist. Following orders from Cortés, he stopped allhuman sacrifice and had the statues of the Aztec godsreplaced with Christian crosses and images of theVirgin Mary. The Aztec priests were furious andorganized a rebellion in the spring of 1520. The battleraged for days before the Spanish, realizing theywould be overrun, retreated. Over 450 Spaniards died,as did more than 4,000 Aztec, including Montezuma.

Cortés and his men took refuge with the Tlaxcalansand began building boats to attack the Aztec capital by

Aztec Defeated Hernán Cortés led theSpanish attack on the Aztec people. Though theAztec killed many Spanish, their weapons wereno match for Spanish cannons and guns. TheAztec depiction of one of the battles (left) showsthe uneven match. What other circumstancesgave the Spanish an advantage?

Aztec war club

Spanish sword

History Through Art

water. At the same time, smallpox erupted in theregion, devastating the defenders of Tenochtitlán. Asone Aztec recounted, “We were covered with agoniz-ing sores from head to foot. The illness was so dreadfulthat no one could walk or move.” In May 1521, Cortésagain attacked the greatly weakened Aztec forces. ByAugust he had won.

Examining What was the purposeof Hernán Cortés’s expedition to Mexico?

New Spain ExpandsOn the ruins of Tenochtitlán, the Spanish built the

city of Mexico, which became the capital of thecolony of New Spain. Cortés then sent several expe-ditions to conquer the rest of Central America. Themen who led these expeditions became known asconquistadors, or “conquerors.”

Conquering the Inca Spain also sent adventurersto South America. In 1526 Francisco Pizarro foundthe Inca Empire in Peru. He returned to conquer theInca in 1532 with a small force of infantry and cav-alry. Pizarro stationed his troops in the town ofCajamarca and invited the Inca ruler, Atahualpa, tomeet him there. The emperor arrived with some 6,000followers. When Atahualpa rejected the Bible aSpanish priest handed him, Pizarro ordered the can-nons to fire and the cavalry to charge. He and 20 sol-diers then took the emperor prisoner.

Pizarro tried to rule Peru by keeping Atahualpa asa hostage. Less than a year later, however, he exe-cuted Atahualpa and installed a series of figurehead

emperors who had to follow his orders.Although many people accepted the

new system, others fled to themountains and continued to

fight the Spanish until 1572.

Searching for Cities of Gold The riches Pizarrofound in Peru fueled rumors of other wealthy cities.In 1528 Pánfilo de Narváez vainly searched northernFlorida for a fabled city of gold. Then he and his menbuilt rafts and tried to sail to Mexico. They made it topresent-day Texas, although most of the men, includ-ing Narváez, died in the attempt. The survivors, ledby Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and an enslaved mannamed Estéban, wandered across what is now Texasand New Mexico before reaching New Spain in 1536.

Many conquistadors had also heard of the SevenGolden Cities of Cibola north of New Spain. Hoping tofind Cibola, in 1540 Francisco Vásquez de Coronadoheaded into what is now the American Southwest.Members of his expedition traveled west to theColorado River and east into present-day Kansas.Finding nothing but windswept plains and strange“shaggy cows” (buffalo), Coronado returned to Mexico.

Meanwhile, Hernando de Soto took an expeditionnorth of Florida. They searched the region for severalyears, killing many Native Americans and stealingsupplies from them. They were the first Europeans tosee the Mississippi River. After de Soto died, his menburied him in the Mississippi and returned home.

Settling the Southwest The failure of explorers tofind gold or other wealth north of New Spain slowedSpanish settlement of the region. It was not until 1598that settlers, led by Juan de Oñate’s expedition,migrated north of the Rio Grande, almost perishingwhile crossing northern Mexico. When they finallyreached the Rio Grande, the survivors organized a feastto give thanks to God. This “Spanish Thanksgiving” isnow celebrated each April in El Paso, Texas.

The Spanish gave the name New Mexico to the ter-ritory north of New Spain. Pedro de Peralta, the firstgovernor of New Mexico, founded the capital city ofSanta Fe in 1609 or 1610. The Spanish built forts calledpresidios throughout the region to protect settlersand to serve as trading posts. Despite these efforts,

Reading Check

Spanish armor and helmet

Spain, 1492 ChristopherColumbus proudly carried theSpanish banner of Castile and León to the shores of the Bahamas. The flag’scastle represented QueenIsabella. The lion sym-bolized her husband,King Ferdinand.

few Spaniards migrated to the harshregion. Instead, the Catholic Churchbecame the primary force for coloniz-ing the southwestern part of America.

Throughout the 1600s and 1700s,Spanish priests built missions andspread the Christian faith among theNavajo and Pueblo peoples of NewMexico. Beginning in 1769, Spanishmissionaries led by the Franciscanpriest Junipero Serra took control ofCalifornia by establishing a chain ofmissions from present-day San Diego toSan Francisco. A road called El CaminoReal—the Royal Highway—linked themissions together.

The priests and missionaries inCalifornia and those in New Mexicotook different approaches to theirwork. In California they forced themostly nomadic Native Americans to live in villages near the missions.In New Mexico, on the other hand,the priests and missionaries adaptedtheir efforts to fit into the lifestyle of the Pueblo people. They builtchurches near where the Pueblopeople lived and farmed and tried toteach them Catholic ideas andEuropean culture.

The Spanish priests tried to end traditional NativeAmerican religious practices that conflicted withCatholic beliefs. Some priests beat and whippedthose who defied them. In response, a NativeAmerican religious leader named Popé organized anuprising against the Spanish in 1680. Some 17,000warriors destroyed most of the missions in NewMexico. It took the Spanish more than a decade toregain control of the region.

Identifying Where did most peoplewho colonized the southwest part of North America come from?

Spanish American SocietyThe conquistadors were adventurers who had

come to America seeking wealth and prestige. Thesociety they built in New Spain reflected those goals.

Mining, Ranching, and the Encomienda Whenthe Spanish realized that most Native American citiesdid not have much gold, they built mines.Ultimately, it was not gold that enriched Spain, but

silver. The Spanish discovered huge deposits of silverore in the 1540s and set up mining camps all acrossnorthern Mexico, transforming the economy. Thework in the dark, damp mineshafts was very diffi-cult. Many miners were killed by explosions andcave-ins. Others died from exhaustion.

To feed the miners in this arid region, Spaniardscreated large cattle ranches called haciendas. The landcould not grow crops but it could feed vast herds ofcattle and sheep. The vaqueros who worked with thecattle later influenced cowhands in the United States.

Another feature of Spanish colonial society wasthe encomienda, a system that granted control ofNative American towns to Spanish encomenderos. Thevillagers paid their encomendero a share of what theyharvested or produced and also worked part-time forhim for free. The encomendero, in return, was sup-posed to protect the villagers and try to convert themto Christianity. Sadly, many abused their power andworked the Native Americans to death.

A Class-Based Society The people of Spain’scolonies in the Americas formed a highly structuredsociety based on birth, income, and education. At

Reading Check


i n H i s t o r y

Bartolomé de Las Casas1474–1566

In the years following the Spanishconquest, many people began toprotest against the abuses of theencomienda system. One prominentadvocate for the Native Americans wasBartolomé de Las Casas, Bishop ofChiapas. As a young man, Las Casastraveled to Hispaniola in 1502. He soonbecame horrified by what he saw. TheSpanish settlers tortured, burned, andcut off the hands and noses of NativeAmericans to force them to obey.

Las Casas maintained that theChurch and the king had a duty to pro-tect Native Americans. In this view, hehad the support of the pope. “The saidIndians,” declared Pope Paul III, “are byno means to be deprived of their libertyor the possessions of their property . . .nor should they in any way beenslaved.”

Las Casas published several booksdescribing the destruction of the NativeAmericans. His books were readthroughout Europe, creating pressureon the Spanish to change their policies.

In response, the Spanish governmentstopped granting encomiendas andbanned Native American slavery.Slowly, as encomenderos died withoutheirs, the encomienda system came toan end. Las Casas died in 1566, stilloutraged at the treatment of the NativeAmericans. “Surely,” he wrote in hiswill, “God will wreak his fury and angeragainst Spain some day for the unjustwars waged against the AmericanIndians.”

the top were peninsulares—people who had beenborn in Spain. They held most of the high govern-ment and church positions. Below the peninsulareswere criollos—those born in the colonies to Spanishparents. Many criollos were wealthy, but they held slightly lesser positions. Next came the numer-ous mestizos, people of Spanish and NativeAmerican parents, whose social status variedgreatly. A few were part of the upper class. Othersworked as artisans, merchants, and shopkeepers.Most, however, were poor and relegated to the low-est class, along with Native Americans, Africans,and people of African and Spanish or African andNative American descent. These people providedmost of the labor for New Spain’s farms, mines, andranches.

To govern this vast, diverse empire in America,the Spanish king divided it into regions called

viceroyalties, each ruled by a viceroy. The king alsocreated the Council of the Indies to advise him. TheCouncil advised the king and watched over all colo-nial activities. To manage local affairs, the king cre-ated a special court in Mexico known as the audiencia.The audiencia’s members were not only judges butalso administrators and lawmakers.

Describing Why did the Spanish setup mines and cattle ranches in northern Mexico?

The French Empire in AmericaIn 1524, three years after Cortés conquered the

Aztec, King Francis I of France sent Giovanni daVerrazano to map North America’s coastline.Verrazano wanted to find the Northwest Passage—anorthern water route through North America to thePacific Ocean. He traveled from what is today NorthCarolina to Newfoundland but found no sign of thepassage.

Ten years later, realizing that Spain was growingwealthy from its empire, Francis sent anotherexplorer named Jacques Cartier. Cartier made threetrips to North America, discovering and mapping the St. Lawrence River. In the decades after his lastvoyage in 1541, fighting between Catholics andProtestants tore France apart. For the next 60 years,the French largely ignored North America.

New France Is Founded In 1602, with the religiouswars over, King Henry IV of France authorized a col-onization effort by a group of French merchants. Themerchants, who hoped to build a profitable fur tradewith Native Americans, hired Samuel de Champlainto help them. In 1608 Champlain founded the tradingpost of Quebec, which became the capital of thecolony of New France.

Instead of having settlers clear the land andbuild farms, the backers of New France soughtprofits from fur. As a result, the colony grew slowly.By 1666 it had just over 3,000 people. Most of thefur traders did not even live there, preferring tomake their homes among the Native Americanswith whom they traded. Jesuit missionaries, knownas “black robes,” likewise lived in the woods withthe local people.

France’s Empire Expands In 1663 France’s KingLouis XIV made New France a royal colony andfocused on increasing its population. The governmentpaid the shipping costs for over 4,000 immigrants, andit sent some 900 young women to provide wives for the

Reading Check

Refugee Migration to AmericaPast: The HuguenotsFrench Protestants, known as Hugue-nots, migrated to America in largenumbers during the late 1600s. Violentpersecutions under King Louis XIVcaused around one million people toleave France. Many settled in SouthCarolina, while others found sanctuaryin Rhode Island, New York, and Virginia.

Present: Jewish ImmigrationFollowing the tragic events ofWorld War II, thousands of home-less European Jews came to theUnited States. Many Eastern Jews,particularly from Iran and Syria,soon followed. With the collapseof the Soviet Union in 1991, manyRussian Jews migrated to Amer-ica. Unlike the Russian immi-grants of the 1800s, these Jewshad little opportunity to maintainJewish customs or to studyHebrew.



Checking for Understanding1. Define: conquistador, presidio,

hacienda, vaquero, encomienda,Northwest Passage.

2. Identify: Hernán Cortés, FranciscoPizarro, Hernando de Soto, Quebec.

3. Explain how the fur trade contributedto the slow growth of New France.

Reviewing Themes4. Culture and Tradition How did

Mesoamerican culture aid Spain’sefforts to conquer the resistance ofnative peoples?

Critical Thinking5. Synthesizing How did competition

between France and Spain affect theircolonization of North America?

6. Categorizing Use a graphic organizersimilar to the one below to list thesocial classes that developed in NewSpain.

Analyzing Visuals7. Analyzing Art Study the Aztec image

on page 31 of the Spanish conquest ofthe Aztec capital city of Tenochtitlán.What elements of the image give youclues that the two sides were unevenlymatched?

8. Persuasive Writing Write an adver-tisement for a French newspaper toencourage people to settle in NewFrance.

many single men in the colony. It also gave couplesfinancial incentives to marry young and have manychildren. By the 1670s New France’s population wasnearly 7,000, and by 1760 it was over 60,000.

In addition, the French began exploring NorthAmerica. In 1673 a fur trader named Louis Joliet anda Jesuit priest named Jacques Marquette begansearching for a waterway the Algonquian peoplecalled the “big river.” The two men finally found it—the Mississippi. In 1682 René-Robert Cavalier de LaSalle followed the Mississippi all the way to the Gulfof Mexico, becoming the first European to do so. Heclaimed the region for France and named the terri-tory Louisiana in honor of Louis XIV.

GEOGRAPHY

Settling LouisianaThe geography of the lower Mississippi hin-

dered settlement. The coastline had no good har-bors, and shifting sandbars made navigationdangerous. The oppressive heat caused food tospoil quickly, and mosquito-filled swamps madethe climate unhealthy. The French did not establisha permanent settlement in the region until 1698,when Lord d’Iberville founded Biloxi. Mobile, NewOrleans, and several forts followed over the nextfew decades.

The French settlers in southern Louisiana realizedthat the crops that could be grown there, such assugar, rice, tobacco, and indigo, required hard laborthat few settlers were willing to do. As a result, theFrench began importing enslaved Africans to workon their plantations.

Rivalry With Spain The Spanish had always beenconcerned about the French in North America.Indeed, they had founded St. Augustine, Florida, in1565 to counter French settlement attempts to thenorth. St. Augustine prospered and became the firstpermanent town established by Europeans in what istoday the United States.

The arrival of the French at the mouth of theMississippi River spurred the Spanish to action onceagain. In 1690 the Spanish built their first mission inwhat is today eastern Texas. In 1716 Spanish settlersarrived to secure Spain’s claim and to block Frenchexpansion into the region. The French and Spanishempires in North America now bordered each other.Neither, however, posed a serious threat to the other.The real challengers for domination of NorthAmerica were the rapidly growing English coloniesalong the Atlantic coast.

Explaining How did making NewFrance a royal colony help the colony?

Reading Check

Highest ____________________________________________________________

Lowest ____________________

Flag of New France Settlers in New France oftenflew this flag of the French Royal Navy.They also flew the FrenchRoyal Banner, which wasblue instead of white.



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LEARNING FROM GEOGRAPHY1. What factors determined the selec-

tion of a mission site?

2. Why did the Spanish station troopsat missions?

Geography&History

sions by gifts and by the prospect offinding safety and food.They wereinstructed in Catholicism and Spanish.Women wove cloth and cooked; menlabored at handicrafts or in the fields.In addition to the native beans andcorn, the converts planted crops intro-duced by the Spaniards such as wheat,oats, oranges, olives, and grapes.

Some of the missions would notallow the Native Americans to leavewithout permission once they hadentered the community. Making thistransition to a regimented life was difficult, and escapes were common.To enforce order and hunt down run-aways, many missions had a smalldetachment of soldiers.The soldiersrode on horses, which the Spaniardsbrought to the Southwest.

The Spaniards also broughtmeasles and smallpox—devastatingdiseases against which the Indians hadno natural immunity. Mission cemeter-ies often held the bones of thousandsof Native Americans who died of theseEuropean diseases.

SpanishMissions

The Spanish settlers who cameto the American Southwesthad two aims: to claim theland and to convert theNative Americans to Catho-

licism.To achieve these aims, theSpaniards set up fortified religious settlements known as missions.

The missions reflected both theculture of Spain and the demands of life in an arid land. By the late eigh-teenth century, the missions were thriving, self-contained communities.

Arranged in a quadrangle around a central courtyard, the complex was a bustling world of workshops, storageareas, gardens, and living quarters. Itslocation was often determined by theavailability of wood, water, and fieldsfor raising crops and grazing the live-stock that the Spanish brought to theAmericas.The form of the mission was dictated by the building materialsavailable.The thick walls of the one-story buildings were usually made ofstone or sun-dried mud bricks knownas adobe.

For security, most of the mission’sresidences were connected, and allwindows faced inward.The entranceswere locked at night. A coveredarcade, or outdoor hallway, ran alongthe inner walls of the residences.Thecomplex was usually dominated by a large church.Thousands of NativeAmericans were attracted to the mis-

Crops

Watering trough

Stable

Priests’

quarters

Soldiers’ barracks

Santa Fe

Horcasitas

Monterrey

San Antonio

Tucson

Tomé

Socorro

San José y SanMiguel de Aguayo

El Paso

San Francisco

Tubac

Fronteras

Loreto

San Diego

San Juan Capistrano

SanLuis Obispo

San Juan

N

S

WE

0

0 200 kilometers

200 miles

Mission

Mission &Presidio

Presidio

Present–dayboundary

Migration

Road

Spanish Missions, 1776


The Spanish built the church of SanJosé y San Miguel de Aguayo in SanAntonio, Texas, in the 1720s. Suchchurches were only part of much largermission complexes. The art aboveshows the layout of a typical mission.

Years before the English unfurled their flag at Jamestown, Spanish missionaries andcolonists from New Spain, as Mexico wasknown, were settling in the Southwest. Themap shows their major migration routes into present-day New Mexico, Texas, andCalifornia, as well as the location of their missions and presidios, or garrisoned forts.

The Virgin of Guadalupe adorns the church at themission of San José y San Miguel de Aguayo.

Living quarters

Soldiers

Fruit trees

Gate

Workshop

Pottery makers

Well

Tannery andworkshops

Garden

Cemetery

and garden

Oven

Entrance

Fruit trees

Catholic

church

Granary

Nut

trees

Livestock corral


Reviewing Key Facts25. Identify: Mesoamerica, Cahokia, Crusades, Sahara, San

Salvador Island, Treaty of Tordesillas, Francisco Pizarro,Quebec.

26. How did Asians migrate to the Americas during the Ice Age?

27. How were slave labor and the cultivation of sugarcanerelated to one another?

28. What major factors encouraged European exploration in the1400s and 1500s?

29. Why were Europeans searching for a sea route to Asia?

30. Why were the Spanish able to defeat the Aztec and the Inca?

31. How were the missionary practices of the Spanish different in California than in the Southwest?

32. What factors determined a person’s social class in Spanishcolonial society?

33. What was the purpose of the Council of the Indies?

1. Ice Age

2. glacier

3. nomad

4. civilization

5. pueblo

6. kachina

7. slash-and-burn agriculture

8. longhouse

9. feudalism

10. manorialism

11. serf

12. Renaissance

13. astrolabe

14. caravel

15. savannah

16. line of demarcation

17. circumnavigate

18. Columbian Exchange

19. conquistador

20. presidio

21. hacienda

22. vaquero

23. encomienda

24. Northwest Passage

Reviewing Key TermsOn a sheet of paper, use each of these terms in a sentence.

• A.D. 1095—late 1400s: The Crusades, the emergence ofstrong states, the Renaissance, and new technology lead toEuropean exploration of Africa and North America.

• 1400s: European explorers map the west coast of Africaand begin using enslaved Africans on sugarcane plantations.

• Late 1400s: Europeans arrive in the Americas, explore the region, and begin to establish colonies.

Europe

• A.D. 400—1450: Various African groups with differentcultures shaped by the environment developed in West,Central, and Southern Africa.

• 1400s: The arrival of Europeans leads to an expansionof the slave trade; many cultures are destroyed as the demand for enslaved Africans increases.

Africa

• Between 15,000 and 30,000 years ago: Asians begin migrating to North America.

• Between 9,000 and 10,000 years ago:Agricultural revolution begins.

• A.D. 200—late 1500s: Various NativeAmerican culture groups shaped by theenvironment develop.

• 1500s: Native American groups begin to beaffected by European diseases and militaryconquests.

• 1565—early 1600s: Spanish and Frenchestablish towns in St. Augustine, Quebec,and Santa Fe.

North America

Critical Thinking34. Analyzing Themes: Cultures and Traditions How did

environment, climate, and food supplies influence thelifestyles of early peoples in the Americas?

35. Forming an Opinion If you had been King Ferdinand orQueen Isabella, would you have agreed to supportChristopher Columbus’s voyages to the Americas? Why orwhy not?

36. Categorizing Use a graphic organizer similar to the onebelow to list how the relationships between NativeAmericans and the Spanish differed from those betweenNative Americans and the French.

Practicing Skills 37. Reading a Time Line Refer to the time line on page 29.

Then answer the following questions.a. What is the time span on this time line?

b. How much time elapsed between the republicationof Ptolemy’s Geography and Columbus’s landing inAmerica?

Chapter Activities38. Technology Activity: Using a Database Search a library or

the Internet to find information about the early civilizationsin the Americas and Africa that were discussed in this chap-ter. Build a database collecting information about the cul-tures of these early civilizations. Include information aboutreligious customs and traditions, ways of making a living,government, and housing. Include a map showing the loca-tions of these civilizations.

39. American History Primary Source Document Library CD-ROM Read “Letter From Christopher Columbus” underExploring the Americas. Work with a few of your classmatesto describe how Columbus mapped the region he visited.

Writing Activity40. Portfolio Writing: Script for a Documentary Choose an

early civilization described in the chapter. Write a script for ascene in a documentary featuring this civilization. Describe

the setting of the scene, and explain what the people in thescene would be doing. Place the script in your portfolio.

Geography and History41. The map above shows the routes of the Crusades. Study the

map and answer the questions below.a. Interpreting Maps Which Crusade ended at

Constantinople?

b. Applying Geography Skills Which Crusade traveledalmost exclusively by land?

Directions: Choose the best answer to thefollowing question.

The Treaty of Tordesillas resolved differences between

A Spain and France.

B Spain and Portugal.

C Portugal and England.

D France and Portugal.

Test-Taking Tip: In addition to thinking about what the pur-pose of the Treaty of Tordesillas was, you can use theprocess of elimination to help answer this question. Whichcountry listed in the answer choices was not discussed inthis chapter?

Native American relations Native American relations with the Spanish with the French

500 kilometers0

500 miles0

Azimuthal Equidistant projection

N

S

EW

20°W 0° 20°E 40°E

40°N

30°N

50°N

NorthSea

Black Sea

Mediterranean Sea

AtlanticOcean

SICILY

IBERIANPENINSULA

BRITISHISLES

JerusalemAcre

Constantinople

Venice

Rome

Cologne

Regensburg

Lyon

Lisbon

ParisMainz

PisaGenoa

BrugesDartmouth

The Crusades, 1095–1204

Islamic world

Christian world

1st Crusade

2nd Crusade

3rd Crusade

4th Crusade

Self-Check QuizVisit the American Republic Since 1877 Web site at

and click on Self-Check Quizzes—Chapter 1 to assess your knowledge of chapter content.

HISTORY

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