FLOOD VULNERABILITY AND ADAPTATION IN ACCRA: EXAMINING ASPECTS OF NON CLIMATE FACTORS ·...

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

FLOOD VULNERABILITY AND ADAPTATION IN ACCRA: EXAMINING ASPECTS OF BOTH CLIMATE AND

NON-CLIMATE FACTORS

ERIC KOFI AFORNORPE

10363823

THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN

PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF M.Phil

GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT DEGREE.

MARCH, 2016

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh

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DECLARATION

I, Eric Kofi Afornorpe, do hereby declare that, except for references to other people’s work

which have been duly cited in this research, the rest of the research is as a result of my own

work under the supervision of Dr. Kwadwo Owusu and Mr. Sosthenes Kwadzo Kufogbe of the

Department of Geography and Resource Development, University of Ghana, and that neither

in whole or in part has this work been presented anywhere for the award of a degree.

SIGNATURE:

DATE:

PRINCIPAL SUPERVISOR: DR. KWADWO OWUSU

SIGNATURE:………………………………….

DATE:………………………………………....

CO-SUPERVISOR: MR. SOSTHENES K. KUFOGBE

SIGNATURE:………………………………….

DATE: …………………………………………


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DEDICATION

To God be the glory. I gladly and humbly dedicate this work to my family.

.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

“Anyone who has done what Napoleon could not do needs to be uplifted”. The first and

foremost recognition and appreciation goes to my supervisors, Dr. Kwadwo Owusu and Mr.

Sosthenes Kwadzo Kufogbe for their exceptional guidance.

Similar appreciation goes to all lecturers in the Department of Geography and Resource

Development in the University of Ghana, and in the Department of Geography and Rural

Development (KNUST) for their rigorous training and knowledge they have imparted in me.

Next are my sponsors, including PERIPERI-U and BSU-EC for their financial supports.

Without them I would not have successfully finished my thesis. To them I say Ayekoo!

A lot of appreciation also goes to my Research Assistants and Interpreter including Samuel

Dumenya and Jacob Doku Tettey, the community focal persons and respondents including

Addrah Pascal. I was able to effectively gather data through their contributions. May your

contributions be rewarded.

I am equally indebted to the staff of the NADMO (HQ) and communities where data was

collected and particularly Ga-Mashie Cantonment, Nima, Agbogbloshie and Korley Dudor,

Staffs from AMA and MLGRD, Ghana Health Service, Fire Service, the Hydrological

Department, Ghana Meteorological Agency for providing me data.

To all my numerous course mates at the Department, I enjoyed, and appreciate our togetherness,

advice and all manner of support since we became students in the University of Ghana.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................... iv

DEDICATION .......................................................................................................................... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................... iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................ iv

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................. vii

LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. viii

LIST OF BOXES ......................................................................................................................x

ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................. xi

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... xiv

CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................................1

GENERAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ................................................................................ 1

1.1 Introduction to the General Background........................................................................................ 1

1.2 Problem Statement ......................................................................................................................... 4

1.3 Research Questions ........................................................................................................................ 6

1.4 Objective of the Study ................................................................................................................... 7

1.5 Propositions to the Study ............................................................................................................... 7

1.6 Justification/Significance of the Study .......................................................................................... 8

1.7 Limitation to the Study .................................................................................................................. 9

1.8 Organization of the Study ............................................................................................................ 10

1.9 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................ 11

CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................12

LITERATURE REVIEW..........................................................................................................12

2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 12

2.2 Background of Flood Disasters.................................................................................................... 12

2.3 Extent of Flood Disaster .............................................................................................................. 14

2.4 Causes of Flood Disasters ............................................................................................................ 17

2.4.1 Non-Climatic Factors and Urban Flooding ..................................................................... 19

2.5 Flood Risks and Vulnerable Areas in Accra ................................................................................ 23

2.6. Adaptation to Flood through Vulnerability Reduction ............................................................... 25

2.6.1 Governments Initiatives to Flood Adaptation .................................................................. 30

2.7 Conceptual Framework of Vulnerability and Adaptation to Disaster .......................................... 34


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2.8 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................ 38

CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................40

STUDY AREA AND STUDY DESIGN ........................................................................................... 40

3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 40

3.2 Study Area Profile ....................................................................................................................... 40

3.2.1 History and Location of Accra......................................................................................... 40

3.2.2 Geology ........................................................................................................................... 42

3.2.3 Climate and Vegetation ................................................................................................... 42

3.2.4 Population and Migration ................................................................................................ 45

3.2.5 Housing ............................................................................................................................ 46

3.2.6 Poverty ............................................................................................................................. 48

3.2.7 Slums, Illegal Settlements and Unauthorized Structures and Dwellers ........................... 49

3.2.8 Disaster Zones ................................................................................................................. 51

3.2.9 Waste Management ......................................................................................................... 52

3.3 Study Design ................................................................................................................................ 53

3.3.1 Types and Sources of Data .............................................................................................. 54

3.3.2 Data Gathering Methods .................................................................................................. 55

3.3.3 Sampling Design .............................................................................................................. 56

3.3.4 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................... 58

3.3.5 GIS Overlay Operation on Flood Zones .......................................................................... 59

3.4 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................... 61

CHAPTER FOUR ...................................................................................................................62

ANALYSIS OF CLIMATE AND NON-CLIMATE FACTORS TO FLOOD DISASTER ..62

4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 62

4.2 Background of the Respondents. ................................................................................................. 62

4.3 Knowledge and Perceptions on Disaster ..................................................................................... 63

4.4 Climate Change and Disasters ..................................................................................................... 65

4.5 Causes of Flood Disaster in Accra ............................................................................................... 66

4.6 Changes in Rainfall and other Climatic Conditions .................................................................... 75

4.7 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................ 82

CHAPTER FIVE .....................................................................................................................84

SPATIAL DIFFERENCES AND ADAPTATION TO FLOOD DISASTER ..........................84


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5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 84

5.2 Discriminant Analysis of Spatial Variation on Flood Disaster .................................................... 84

5.3 Experience of Flood Disaster in Accra ........................................................................................ 94

5.4. Adaptation Strategies to Flood Disasters. ................................................................................... 96

5.5 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 100

CHAPTER SIX .....................................................................................................................102

DISCUSSION OF MAJOR FINDINGS .................................................................................102

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................ 102

6.2 Flooding in Accra ...................................................................................................................... 102

6.3. Causes of Flood Disasters ......................................................................................................... 103

6.4 Spatial Variation and Severity to Flood Disasters ..................................................................... 105

6.5 Respondents’ Recommended Adaptation Strategies ................................................................. 107

6.5 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 109

CHAPTER SEVEN ...............................................................................................................111

SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................... 111

7.0 Introduction................................................................................................................................ 111

7.1 Summary of Key Findings ......................................................................................................... 111

7.2 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 114

7.3 Recommendations .................................................................................................................... 115

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................118

APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................128

APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRES ..................................................................................128

APPENDIX B: AVERAGE MONTHLY AND ANNUAL RAINFALL AND

TEMPERATURE DATA FROM 1961-2000 FROM ACCRA AIRPORT STATION ...133

APPENDIX D1: MAP OF SLUM AREAS AND FLOOD DISASTER ...........................136

APPENDIX D2: MAP OF ACCRA METROPOLITAN AREA ......................................137

APPENDIX D3: A MAP OF SLUM AREAS IN THE METROPOLIS ..........................138

APPENDIX D4: A MAP OF COMBINED FLOOD DISTRIBUTION IN ACCRA ......139

APPENDIX D5: A MAP OF COMBINED FLOOD AND SLUMS .................................140


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LIST OF TABLE

Table 2.1 Vulnerability Model ...............................................................................................26

Table 4.1: Background of Respondents ................................................................................63

Table 4.2: Respondents’ Knowledge on Disasters ................................................................64

Table 4.3: Respondents’ Observation of Disasters ..............................................................65

Table 4.4: Disasters with Strongest Relation to Climate Conditions .................................66

Table 4.5 Changes and Variability Observed in the Climate by Respondents .................76

Table 4.6: Observed Changes and Variability on Climate Conditions .............................77

Table 5.2: Knowledge and Perception of Flood Disaster Variations .................................89

Table 5.3 Group Statistics (means and standard deviations) ..............................................90

Table 5.5: Pooled Within-Groups Matrices ..........................................................................91

Table 5.6 Box's M and Log Determinants ............................................................................92

Table 5.7: Summary of Canonical Discriminant Functions (Eigenvalues) ........................93

Table 5.8: Standardized Canonical Discriminant Function Coefficients ..........................94

Table 5.9: People Affected by Flood Disaster in Accra .......................................................95

Table 5.10 Where Respondents Experience Flood Disaster ................................................95

Table 5.11: Response on Efforts to Cope with Flood Disaster ............................................96

Table 5.12: Adaptation Efforts towards Flood Disasters in Accra .....................................97

Table 5.13 Recommended Adaptations from FGD (at Ga Mashie) ...................................99

Table 5.14 Priority Investment ............................................................................................100


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.2: Adaptation Focus Model .....................................................................................27

Figure 2.3 Conceptual Framework on Flood Disaster, Causes and Adaptation ...............35

Figure 3.1: Map of Accra Metropolitan Area ......................................................................41

Figure 3.7 GIS Overlay Operations of Flood and Communities ........................................60

Figure 4.1: Reasons for Flood Occurrences in Accra ..........................................................67

Figure 4.3: Average Monthly Rainfall over Four Decades in Accra ..................................79

Figure 4.4: Average Annual Rainfall from 1961-2000 in Accra .........................................80

Figure 4.5: Average Monthly Temperature over Four Decades in Accra .........................81

Figure 4.6: Average Annual Temperature from 1960-2000 in Accra ................................82

Figure 5.1: A Map of Slum Areas in the Metropolis ............................................................85

Table 5.1: Listing of Flood Disaster Zones (communities) over Accra ..............................86

Figure 5.2: A Map of combined Flood Distribution in Accra .............................................87

Figure 5.3: A Map of combined Flood and Slums. ..............................................................88


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LIST OF PLATES

Plate 4.1: Deposition of Wastes in Drains at Ga-Mashie .....................................................69

Plate 4.2 Building on Waterways and Chocked Gutters Agbogbloshie .............................70

Plate 4.3 Chocked Gutters in Old Fadama (A and B) .........................................................71

Plate 4.4: Narrow and silted Drain at James Town .............................................................72

Plate 4.5: Waste Collected and left at the Bank of Drain in Ursher Town ........................73

Plate 4.6: Dredging Work on Choked Odaw River .............................................................73

Table 4.5 Changes and Variability Observed in the Climate by Respondents .................76

Table 4.6: Observed Changes and Variability on Climate Conditions .............................77


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LIST OF BOXES

Box 4.1: Resident’s Story ........................................................................................................68

Box 4.2: Public Relation Officer’s Story ...............................................................................74


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ABBREVIATIONS

AAP Africa Adaptation Programme

AMA Accra Metropolitan Assembly

BSU-EC Building Stronger Universities Platform on Environment & Climate

CARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief

CDA Classification Discriminant Analysis

CRED Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters

DRR Disaster Risk Reduction

EM-Dat Emergency Events Database

EPA Environment Protection Agency

FGD Focus Group Discussion

GAMA Greater Accra Metropolitan Assembly

GAMADA Ga-Mashie Development Agency

GCM Global Circulation Model

GHGs Green House Gases

GIS Geographic Information System

GMet Ghana Meteorological Agency

GoG Government of Ghana

GPHC Ghana Population and Housing Census

GSGDA Ghana Shared Growth Development Agenda

GSS Ghana Statistical Service

IFRCRCS International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

IFRI International Forensic Research Institute

IIED International Institute of Environment and Development


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IIPAC Innovative Insurance Products for Adaptation to Climate Change

ILGS Institute for Local Government Studies

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

KNUST Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology

LDCs Less Developing Countries

MEST Ministry of Environment Science and Technology

MESTI Ministry of Environment Science Technology and Innovation

MLGRD Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development

MMDAs Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies

MWRWH Ministry of Water Resource Works and Housing

NADMO National Disaster Management Organization

NCAP Netherlands Climate Assistance Programme

NCCAS National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy

NCCASP Netherland Climate Change Adaptation Study Programme

NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

OCHA Office of for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

OFDA Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance

OST Office of Science and Technology

PERIPERI-U Partners Enhancing Resilience for People Exposed to Risk-University

SPSS Statistical Package of Social Science

UN United Nations

UNCT United Nations Country Team

UNDP United Nation Development Programme

UNEP United Nation Environment Programme


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UNESCO United Nation Education, Scientific and Culture Organization

UNFCCC United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change

UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme

UNISDR United Nation International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

US United States of America

WFP World Food Programme

WMO World Meteorological Organization


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ABSTRACT

Flood is most predominant natural disaster in the world, affecting most cities in Africa

especially during rainy seasons. Only an average of 100 floods per decade used to occur.

However, since middle of 20th century, flood cases have increased to more than 2,800 per

decade. In Sub-Saharan African countries, efforts at managing flood disasters are mainly

reactive approaches such as provision of relief to affected people. Reasons are that there is low

level of technology for adaptation and there is still high perception that flood is natural and

inevitable disaster.

This study sought to analyse flood disaster as caused by both natural factors (climate) and

human induced factors, including poor drainage systems and waste management making people

more vulnerable to floods. The study also examined flood distribution, severity, and the

adaptations to such flood disaster. A mixed method research strategy was adopted for data

gathering and analysis. Reponses were gathered from 440 respondents using questionnaires,

focus group discussions (FGD) and in-depth interviews from household heads and institutional

heads. Questionnaires were analysed using SPSS v.20 and results shown in tables, charts and

maps. Classification Discriminant Analysis was used to classify flood situation in selected

communities. Geographical Information System (GIS) –ArcGIS v.10 was used to map spatial

distribution of floods.

Flood disaster is a serious challenge in Ghana where it emerges as a leading natural disaster

causing damage to lives and properties. Both climatic and human factors were established as

contributors to flood disaster in the Metropolis. Nonetheless, the human factors act as catalysts

to exacerbate flood occurrence and the extent of damage. Residents’ vulnerability to floods

have been linked to human factors including poor housing, inadequate and chocked drainage


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systems, and poor waste management practices among others. Rainfall was identified to be

erratic and is becoming more intensive with high run-off. The study also established that flood

occurrence and effects in the Metropolis were not evenly distributed. Slum communities and

other low residential areas experienced more floods. Efforts by institutions, civil society

organization and local communities do not focus on reducing people’s vulnerability to the

floods. There is the need for making the city more resilient through efficient planning and

building structures such as houses, drainage systems, awareness creation on flood risks, proper

waste management systems.

Key words: Floods, Climate Change, Vulnerability, Adaptation.


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CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction to the General Background

Globally, climate change related disasters have increasingly caused destruction to people’s

livelihoods, lives and properties. Munich Re (2002) noted that natural hazards including

floods have had extensive negative effects on people’s lives, economic and social

infrastructures over the last four decades. Over the past 10 years, the world has suffered an

increasing number of natural disasters resulting from changes in climate and non-climate

conditions. These disasters include floods that affect more than 2.5 billion people, killing

about 500,000 and an estimated economic loss of US$700 billion (Foresight OST, 2013).

Askew (1999) stated that floods constitute about one-third of all deaths, one-third of all

injuries and one-third of all damages from natural disasters. UN-HABITAT (2010) noted

floods to be responsible for half of the world’s disasters constituting 84% of all disaster

related deaths. Floods also trigger other problems including spread of diseases such as

cholera, diarrhoea, typhoid, scabies, malaria and contaminating water supply sources mostly

in urban poor settlements (UN-HABITAT, 2010). This situation has increased global

concerns over how to reduce or mitigate people’s vulnerability in exposure to environmental

risks especially in cities.

Urban areas are seen as crucibles of hazards because of the wide range of risks urban

dwellers continue to face (Bull-Kamanga et al, 2003). Although flood disasters are noted to

be natural phenomenon, ActionAid (2006) noted that the damages suffered are the

consequences of human actions. Bull-Kamanga et al (2003) further stated that the


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vulnerability of urban populations to disasters is not only natural but rather because of the

failed social, economic and political systems, that governs it. The socio-economic structural

processes that accelerate the processes of urbanization, population movement and

population concentrations increase the vulnerability of urban dwellers (UNEP, 2009).

IPCC (2002) provided a definition of vulnerability in relation to climate change as “the

extent to which a natural or social system is susceptible to sustain damage from climate

change”. This emphasises the significant role of social systems in combating flood disasters

in cities. The poor in cities are noted to be the most vulnerable and at risk to natural hazards

because of their low resilience (UN, 2009). The increasing urban populations, increasing

built up surfaces, poverty and poor city infrastructure planning, exacerbate vulnerability of

cities (Bull-Kamanga et al, 2003: Songsore et al., 2009). Adedeji et al. (2012) cited poor

infrastructure planning in cities as a restriction to free flow of flood and storm waters, a

situation likely to increase flood and its damages.

With the rise in world urban populations, the number of urban dwellers at risk to flooding

will consequently increase. Global urban population has increased by a factor of five from

0.7 billion in 1950 to 3.9 billion in 2014 (UN, 2014). Further, projections indicate that

global urban populations will further increase by 60% by 2050, translating into urban

populations of 6.3 million. Adedeji et al (2012) expressed the view that the frequency and

intensity of disasters witnessed globally is because of unpredictable climatic conditions

manifesting in severe floods, fire, drought, terrorism epidemics and urbanization especially

in developing countries.

Several cities are becoming hot spots for floods and other disasters, especially in Sub-

Saharan Africa, which has also recorded high reported rates of urbanization, urban poverty,

vulnerability and extreme rainfall regime over the last few decades (OFDA-CRED, 2010).


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The period 1997-2008 alone witnessed over 166 urban disasters in 28 African cities (EM-

Dat, 2008; cited in Songsore et al, 2011).

From 1900 to 2006, floods in cities of Africa killed nearly 20,000 people and affected

approximately 40 million people. Total cost of damage was estimated at about US$4 billion

(Mulungeta et al., 2007). Floods are among the most devastating natural disasters in Africa,

with flash floods among the greatest hazards arising from tropical cyclones and severe

storms. Floods contribute extensively to loss of life, damage of property, and promote spread

of diseases such as malaria, dengue fever and cholera over coastal communities in the urban

Africa (Songsore et al, 2011).

According to UNDP (2007), 72% of African urban populations live under slum and other

vulnerable conditions predisposing them to flood disasters. The increasing destruction to

properties and lives by floods and associated cost prompted the need to put the necessary

adaptation strategies in place. Unfortunately, efforts at reducing vulnerabilities associated

with flood disaster among slums and other vulnerable locations in over 100 communities in

Africa by governments, development partners, non-governmental organizations (NGOs),

private and civil society organizations have not yielded much success (Mulungeta et al.,

2007).

Ghana has suffered devastating floods over the years. There is no specific period of time

when floods are most likely to occur, but what is known for sure is that, floods set in with

the rains (Agyemang, 2013). The causes of flood disaster in Ghana is due to intense rainfall-

run-off, dam burst and tidal waves. The latter occurs mostly along the coastal zones with

the first two as a perennial situation occurring all over the country (Karley, 2009).


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Natural factors are known to trigger flooding in Ghana but human or anthropogenic factors

in recent times have aggravated the situation further (Karley, 2009; Songsore et al., 2009;

Osei, 2013).

Ghana crossed the urban divide in 2010 with more than 50 percent of Ghanaians living in

cities, more than 44 percent in the preceding ten years, with the remainder residing in rural

communities. The country of over 25 million has rapidly urbanized without adequate

infrastructure development. That is to say that the rate of infrastructural development has

not been commensurate with the population growth. The situation has led to many towns

and cities witnessing uncontrolled developments in the form of slums and illegal settlements

with vulnerable conditions that predisposes settlers to flood and other forms of

environmental risks.

1.2 Problem Statement

Globally, population in cities continues to grow at high rates due in part to the relentless

migration of rural populations into urban areas (Price & Vojinovic, 2015). The high

populations in urban centres (30% of low and middle-income dwellers), are said to live in

informal settlements in overcrowded and deteriorating conditions in Asia and Africa

(Dodman et al., 2012). Satterthwaite (2011) found out that such cities lack good

infrastructures including poor drainage, water storage, sanitation, roads, healthcare and

emergency services system. These conditions increase the vulnerability of such populations

to different forms of risks mostly flooding and landslides in Asia and Africa (Hardoy et al,

2001).

Ghana like many other developing countries continue to suffer devastating effects of climate

change related disasters. Prominent among these disasters is the perennial floods occurring

in every rainy seasons of a year. Accra the capital city of Ghana has recorded devastating


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floods over the years. Factors accounting for the perennial floods in Accra remain both

natural and anthropogenic (Songsore et al., 2009; Karley, 2009).

Aside the natural factors that contribute to urban floods, the National Co-ordinator of

NADMO, cited human factors that exacerbate flood disasters in Accra. He stated “Poor

planning resulting from lack of co-ordination, illegal structures as well as undersized

hydraulic structures, designing problems, rapid changes in land use patterns due to

urbanization, development of settlement in water courses and flood plains were some other

causes of floods” (cited in UNEP/OCHA, 2011). This comment was made after October 26th

2011 flooding in the city, which affected over 43,000 people with 17,000 losing their place

of residence and 14 losing their lives. There were also large infrastructural damage to roads,

waterways and bridges. In addition, over 100 cases of cholera were recorded after the floods

(UNEP/OCHA, 2011).

Further, NADMO noted that the government of Ghana has spent huge sums of money to the

tune of 700 million dollars to restore, rebuild and resettle the flood affected populations

between the periods 2007and 2011 (Agyemang, 2013). Agyemang (2013) cited the National

Board for Small Scale Business (2011) that the devastations caused by the floods are

estimated to cost private and individual firms some 3 billion dollars in Ghana.

Historically, Accra has witnessed severe floods and continues to face increasing risks of

flooding (Karley, 2009). The incident of flooding in the capital goes far back to the 1930’s

caused by the flooding of the Odaw Basin, the creation of the artificial lake on the Volta

River and the rains (Karley, 2009). Daily Graphic (2005) also chronicled flood disasters and

the severe impacts on the Accra population since 1968 to 2014. Flood disasters over the last

decade have shown extensive destruction to life and properties in the capital including the


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November 1st, 2011 floods in Accra, which destroyed over 43,000 homes, and killing almost

14 people.

In a recent report by the UNCT (2015), the June 3rd Flood Disaster brought to a halt all

economic activities in the capital city, destroying vehicles, buildings, schools and other

infrastructure. During the flood, there was an explosion of a fuel filling station that killed

over 150 people and many others left with various degrees of injuries. On his visits to

affected flood areas the President of the Republic of Ghana announced a release of 50

million Ghana cedis, partly for relief to victims and partly for clearing of drainage and

waterways. The flood disaster has been attributed to the heavy downpour, poor sanitation

and poor city planning and enforcement among other human factors.

Agyemang (2013) noted that flood forecasting is non-existent in Ghana since monitoring is

apparently not available, despite warnings on rainstorms. With authorities facing huge

challenges in developing new schemes to plan the city, there is the need to re-examine the

human and climatic factors that together cause flooding in Accra.

To fill the gap in addressing flood disasters in Accra, additional research is needed to unravel

the combined role of natural and human factors that contribute to the vulnerability of urban

populations to flood disaster. As such, the current study sought to examine aspects of

climatic and non-climatic conditions that increase the vulnerability of city populations to

flood disaster.

1.3 Research Questions

Subsequent to the above problem, the study posed various questions with focus on people’s

knowledge about flood disasters and their distribution, the extent of changes in the climate

and non-climate factors. In addition, people’s perception and knowledge on various


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adaptation strategies adopted were assessed. The study therefore sought to answer the

following specific questions;

i. What is the nature of flood disaster in the Accra Metropolis?

ii. What climatic conditions have a direct bearing on flooding in Accra?

iii. What human conditions predispose populations to flood disaster?

iv. What is the distribution of flood disasters in Accra?

v. What adaptation strategies are adopted to reduce the vulnerability to floods?

1.4 Objective of the Study

The general objective of the study was to ascertain climate change and human factors that

causes flood disaster, the distribution and the adaptation strategies adopted to reduce

people’s vulnerability to flood disaster. To understand the general objective, the following

specific objectives were set:

i. To assess the nature of flood disaster in Accra.

ii. To examine changes in climate conditions such as temperature and rainfall and their

direct bearing on flooding in Accra.

iii. To investigate the human conditions predisposing populations to severe flood

disasters.

iv. To examine the level of distribution of flood disaster in Accra

v. To assess people’s experience of flood and their adaptation strategies

1.5 Propositions to the Study

a) Flood disaster is a predominant disaster in communities in Accra

b) There are changes in the climate that have triggered flood disaster in Accra

c) Communities with poor drainage, poor housing and poor sanitation experience more

flood disaster in Accra

d) Adaptation to flood disaster is more of a reactive approach


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1.6 Justification/Significance of the Study

The relevance of research on flood resulting from both changes in climate and human

vulnerability is a concern to everybody, individuals, firms, governments, non-governmental

organizations and civil society, due to its developmental and environmental repercussions.

Flood disaster is among the leading disaster, increasingly destroying homes, properties,

infrastructure and lives. Flood disaster also brings many businesses to a standstill. Ghana

has a long history of flooding, especially in its major capital Accra. Accra has suffered many

devastating flood disasters attributed in recent times to climate change and anthropogenic

factors. Many researches have concentrated on climatic factors or anthropogenic causes to

floods in Accra. Despite the number of research studies, the situation remains a seasonal

affair. Many people have continually blamed central governments and city authorities for

not providing the necessary mechanisms for reducing floods in the city.

Every year about 85% of NADMO’s resources and efforts are used for addressing issues

related to hydro-meteorological disasters in Accra and other parts of the country (MEST,

2012) even though several efforts have been made, from research to policy, to arrest the

perennial floods situation. Increasing vulnerability of city dwellers to flood disaster risks

has not been properly explored.

Large amounts of water flow from rivers upstream enter the city. In addition, there is clear

indication of climate change affecting the rainfall regime of Ghana and Accra making it

more extreme, more intensive, erratic and unpredictable. Sea level may increase posing a

higher flood risk to coastal Accra. The situation in part is exacerbated by the increasing

changes in the land use forms in Accra. Such changes include the construction of

infrastructure in waterways, the conversion of bare ground to concrete and paved surfaces,

inadequate and choked drains. River receptacles among others need better environmentally

friendly designs.


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This study is an attempt by the researcher to unfold some of the findings necessary to address

the problems posed by flood disaster as a developmental challenge in Accra. At a policy

level, this study will serve as baseline information to the implementation of the national

climate policies and strategies on climate change effects. The study is also a sequel to some

priority areas and activities provided in the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy

under implementation from 2010-2020, specifically to its priority area four (4): “Adapting

to climate change through enhanced research” (MEST, 2011).

The study is also to review the main contributions made by researchers on climate, non-

climate conditions and flood disaster and linkages between them. This is needed relate the

study to concepts and theories developed by other authors in this subject area. This survey

would help build on the strengths and the weaknesses of approaches used by other scholars

and their recommendations in order to make additional or new recommendations for areas

that require further research and implementation. Above all, findings and recommendations

arising from this study will be used to deal with similar problems elsewhere in other

communities.

1.7 Limitation to the Study

The study was confronted with a few challenges arising from data collection, transport,

personnel, respondents’ behaviour, language barrier to mention but few. Due to the nature

of work involved in data collection, mainly focus group discussions, there was a need for

research assistants and an interpreter. The Research Assistants assisted the researcher in

reaching out to the respondents, organising FGD meetings, questionnaires and gathering

their views. Research Assistants had to be trained for the fieldwork and monitored through

the data collection process to attain success on the process and obtain valid data.


10

In addition, the researcher was faced with difficulties in using the local language. To cope

with the situation, an Interpreter was used to bridge the language barrier gap. In most

cases, the Interpreter had to summarise the views expressed by the respondents.

Understanding of terminologies such as climate change, vulnerability and adaptation by

some of the respondents demanded further explanation. In most cases, these terms had to be

explained through the use of examples to ensure the understanding of respondents.

There was also conflict of interest among respondents in identifying the head of the

household. On some occasions, the researcher had to visit the same household twice or find

alternative household due to disagreement on the head of the household or readiness to

respond. This situation did not only incur frustration in the research team but also posed

additional cost and time in terms of transport. A lot of data have not been classified into

rural urban and rural and community by community in Accra. The challenges were

surmounted by successful findings and recommendations.

1.8 Organization of the Study

The study has been organised into seven (7) chapters with a summary after every chapter.

The first chapter includes the introduction, problem statement, objectives of the study,

proposition, significance of the study, and the limitations to the study. Chapter 2 focuses on

the literature review on flood disaster, climate and non-climate causes, adaptation to floods

and conceptual framework. Chapter three (3) examines the study area profile and study

design. Chapter four (4) is devoted to the results and analysis of the data collected including

flood disaster and causes. Chapter Five (5) focuses on the mapping and statistical analysis

of variations and severity of flood disaster in Accra; and the level of effects and adaptation

strategies of the flood disaster. Chapter six (6) discusses major findings, and finally chapter


11

seven (7) includes summary of the study, conclusion and recommendations, references and

appendices.

1.9 Chapter Summary

This chapter began with a background introduction to the study. This section provided a

general background related to flood disaster at a global level, in Africa and Ghana. The

background provided the research with a situational context of the problem investigated.

The problem statement threw much light on climatic and non-climatic conditions in Accra

that together increase people’s vulnerability to flood disaster. This was followed by a section

that provided information on the aim and objectives of the study and the proposition that

guided the study. The chapter further looked at the significance of the study with details

justified the need for additional research to make recommendations to the current problem.

Finally, the chapter examined the limitations of the study and details on the chapter

organizational structure of the entire study.


12

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The chapter reviews the existing literature and the contributions by other researchers on the

issues, concepts and theories relating to flood disaster, climate change, human induced

factors to flooding, and adaptation efforts targeted at mitigating flood disasters. The

literature is organized into eight sections, which includes an introduction and outline of the

sections of the chapter. The second section examines the background and concepts of flood

disaster; section three examines the extent of flood disasters in Africa especially flood

records and damage in cities such as Accra; section four is dedicated to flooding caused by

climatic and human induced factors. The fifth and sixth sections are focused on flood risk,

incidences of flood disaster and adaptation in Accra. Further, section seven dwells on the

conceptual frameworks on how climate change and non-climate change conditions interact,

their ramifications on flood disasters and possible adaptation strategies.

2.2 Background of Flood Disasters

Floods are by far the most hazardous, disastrous, frequent and widespread disaster

throughout the world (Dhār and Nandargi, 2001), causing extensive damages to lives and

property especially in developing countries where there are still bottle necks in achieving

sustainable resilience (Dilly et al, 2007). According to Mulungeta (2007), flood has been

one of the most serious threats to city dwellers especially among coastal communities in

Africa, where populations continue to rise and there are limited options for sustainable

adaptation.


13

Floods usually occur during an overflow of water that submerges land usually dried and not

covered by vegetation, irrespective of a cause and effect (Britannica Encyclopaedia, 2013).

Descriptions and categorizations of floods vary, based on a combination of a number of

factors including the location, sources, causes and impacts (Jha et al., 2012). According to

Jha et al (2012) such combinations enable us to characterize floods generally into river (or

fluvial) floods, pluvial (or overland) floods, coastal floods, groundwater floods or failures

in artificial water systems or dam spillages. Jha et al (2012) added that river floods occur

when rivers overflow their banks due to high surges from heavy rainfall upstream that the

existing river channel cannot contain, or are due to downstream blockage by soil, wastes or

other water bodies. They described overland and groundwater floods as those occurring on

the surface of the earth and underground.

Bulkeley et al (2009) state that classification of floods as urban and rural is a challenge

because definitions are not clear on distinction between urban and rural areas and the

similarities in the type of floods that occur over the two geographical spaces. Bulkeley et al

(2009) noted that urban floods should be distinguished from rural floods based on the extent

of damage and geographical area covered. This is because urban floods occur in smaller

geographical areas and such disasters records higher intensity of damage, whereas rural

floods happen over considerably large areas with little damage to property and life. Bulkeley

et al (2009) could not provide full reasons behind the distinction between the urban and rural

floods.

Jha et al (2012), contributes to the discourse by stating that the level of infrastructure in rural

areas exposed and damaged by floods is low compared to the floods which occur in urban

areas. In their literature, Siegel et al (2008) categorize urban flooding into four forms. The

first is referred to as localised flood or flash flood. This form of flood occurs more frequently


14

and in most cases covers very small and deplorable areas such as slums with poor drainage,

limited drains and blocked culverts with all forms of waste. This flood closely relates to

overland or pluvial floods described by Jha et al. The second form of flood occurs in areas

along small streams in urban areas, which rise quickly after heavy rains, flowing through

small culverts under roads. Although authorities design channels stream very well, changes

in the structure of urban areas, including increasing number of settlements along streams

coupled with increased rainfall intensity may result in an overflow of the stream when its

drainage capacity is exceeded.

The third form of flood has to do with bursting of dams and major rivers, which provide

water to urban communities, due to poor engineering works, dam water spillage and

deposition of sediments in the dam. Further, coastal floods may also occur because of sea

level rise and overflow of inland water over immediate delta plains. According to ILGS and

IIED (2012), floods that are more frequent in Accra include flash floods and river floods

(occurring when there is an overflow of the Weija Dam). Coastal flood also occurs along

low-lying coastal communities in Accra (Appeaning, 2011).

2.3 Extent of Flood Disaster

Every year, floods affect more than 200 million people with a higher record than the records

shown by other climate related disasters (UNISDR, 2011). Floods have become the most

frequently occurring and devastating disaster in Africa, causing loss of lives, damage to

property and promoting the spread of disease such as malaria, dengue fever and cholera

(Baffoe-Bonnie et al., 2006). Mulungeta (2007) highlighted that floods in Africa killed

almost 20,000 people and affected nearly 40 million more, and caused damage estimated at

about US$4 billion between 1900 and 2006. A number of floods occurred in Ethiopia in

May 1968, August 1994, and May 2005, causing damage estimated at US$ 0.9, 3.5, 1.2,


15

and 3.5 million, respectively (OFDA/CRED, 2010). The period 1997-2008 alone witnessed

about 166 floods and many other natural urban disasters in 28 African cities (EM-Dat, 2008;

cited in Songsore et al, 2011).

Flooding has been a serious environmental problem in Ghana causing extensive damage to

lives and properties of people living in communities in towns and cities. As early as 1968,

heavy floods affected almost every part of the country (Sam, 2009). Narrating the flood

antecedents in Ghana, Atuguba and Amuzu (2006) and Sam (2009) indicated that the major

rivers including the Pra, Ofin and Ankobra overflowed their banks causing floods in

adjoining communities and cities. Transportation (rail and vehicular) was seriously impeded

and many commercial activities were halted. Serious flooding has been experienced ever

since. Quite recently in the last decade, the years 1999, 2001, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 and

2011 experienced quite destructive floods all over the country.

In 1999, rainfall induced storms caused coastal floods that resulted in many deaths across

coastal parts of Ghana, with Accra very much affected. In June 2001, torrential rains caused

widespread flooding in Ghana and particularly, Accra, leaving 11 people dead and over

100,000 homeless. In 2005, Ghana was one of the worst hit countries in western Africa that

experienced severe flooding. The Daily Graphic (2005) reported that about 20 human lives

were lost across the Upper East, Upper West and Northern regions of the country during the

floods of 2005.

In 2007, floods affected Northern Ghana; killing 61 people with 25,923 houses affected

(damaged, collapsed, or washed away). In addition, 70 feeder roads were destroyed and over

97,000 hectares of farmlands destroyed. The government and other international agencies

spent about US$25 million in relief and recovery activities. In 2009, the damage cost was


16

approximately US$5,800,000 and 51,965 people were affected in seven regions (Western,

Central, Brong-Ahafo, Volta, Ashanti, Eastern and Greater Accra).

Ghana National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO), estimates that about

350,000 people were severely affected during the 2005 floods and during that time several

hundred hectares of crops and farmlands were completely washed away (ActionAid, 2006).

The study of ActionAid (2006) projected that many more deaths attributable to flash floods

could occur across Ghana, in addition to those resulting from the more usual cause of river

flooding. Together with ActionAid (2006), Atuguba and Amuzu (2006), indicated that over

25% of the population of Accra lives on fluvial flood plains or areas identified to be at risk

from fluvial flooding. Greater Accra Region has about 50% of its population living on the

floodplain of the Densu and tributaries of other rivers (Atuguba and Amuzu, 2006).

NADMO (2009) reported that floods had led to the death of twenty people, displaced tens

of thousands of households, and destroyed millions of property in communities such as

Alajo. The Report of NADMO (2009) also indicated that between 1995 and 2009, more

than ten incidents of flooding were recorded in Accra that resulted in human casualty,

displacement of households, infrastructure damage, and disruption to economic activities

(AMA and UN-HABITAT, 2011).

According to Jankowska (2009), the effects of floods cut across all the demographic and

socioeconomic groups in the Metropolis varying from delay in economic activities,

psychosocial stress, and emotional disturbance among others regardless of where one lives.

Jankowska (2009) added that apart from property damage and loss of lives, floods have

contributed towards disease outbreak and the pollution of water bodies available for urban

consumption. He noted also that many areas in the Accra metropolis have had their drinking

waters contaminated and face the risk of a cholera outbreak.


17

2.4 Causes of Flood Disasters

Globally, there are increasing changes in the climate, with varying rainfall patterns, wind,

temperature, sunshine, etc. Following various scenarios, including that of Global

Circulation Model (GCM) and organizations such as IPCC, UNFCCC and WMO, and

climate related research on local knowledge and perceptions, much evidence has been

obtained across the globe regarding the level of change in the climate, particularly since

1990s (Würtenberger et al, 2011; Selvaraju et al, 2006; IPCC, 2007). IPCC (2007) explained

that over the 20th century and until today, there has been a faster rate of change in the climate,

resulting in more unpredictable and extreme climate events such rainstorms and excessive

heat than previously.

In Ghana, annual rainfall is highly variable on inter‐annual and inter‐decadal timescales and

long-term trends are difficult to identify (Brown and Crawford, 2009; Meehl et al, 2007;

Stanturf et al, 2011). According to Minia (2008), rainfall over Ghana was particularly high

in the 1960s, and decreased to particularly low levels in the late 1970s and early 1980s,

producing an overall decreasing trend in the period 1960 to 2006, with an average

precipitation of 2.3 mm per month (2.4%) per decade.

According to NOAA (2007), average global rainfall had increased over last century;

however according to Wurtermberger et al (2011), rainfall has decreased in Ghana and most

parts of Africa over the last four decades. The decreasing pattern of rainfall in Ghana

however, has not correlated directly with increasing floods in Ghana (Karley, 2009), though

rainfall is believed to be a natural cause of flooding in most part of the world. Arguments

have been made however, that current floods are because of abnormally intensive,

unpredictable and destructive rains accompanying tropical cyclones and storms (UNEP,

2012, Ferris, 2012). According to Huong and Pathirana (2013), primary observations made


18

on rainfall is its high intensive pattern in urban communities result from rooftop, flashing

and running over impervious urban surfaces with high run-off causing various degrees of

floods.

Nethler (2012) indicates that the erratic and unpredicted nature of rainfall in modern times

is a major contribution to floods in most communities where they occur. Additionally, the

unpredicted nature of rainfall makes it difficult for meteorologists to give warning and

advice on looming volumes of rainfall in any upcoming season, so that preparation by

people in terms of relocation, flood defences and other preparedness that reduces the extent

of damage could be made.

Wurtermberger et al (2011) noted that during rainy seasons, various rivers and streams are

filled and over flow their banks, a situation which has devastated many communities along

the River Volta and many other rivers in the country. Similarly, rivers and streams in Accra

are always heavily flooded. Such rivers include the River Densu and Odaw River running

down to the Gulf of Guinea.

Many authors were of the view that the amount of rainfall in Accra is less significant in

increasing the volume of rivers and their over flow (Atuguba and Amuzu, 2006; Songsore

et al 2011). It was further argued that if floods should be associated with annual rainfall in

Accra, which is about 700mm according to its location in a dry coastal savannah and dry

coastal vegetation and climatic belt, then positively linking rainfall to increasing river flood

is a mere assertion. Separate studies conducted by Adank et al (2011), UN-HABITAT

(2011) and Aboagye (2011) revealed that rivers flowing into Accra experience relatively

higher rainfall upstream from their main channels and tributaries, whereas Accra is located

downstream and in a destination where they finally enter into the Sea (Gulf of Guinea).


19

2.4.1 Non-Climatic Factors and Urban Flooding

According to Gallopin (2006), climate- related disasters such as floods are expected to

increase due not only to increasing climatic changes but also to also non-climatic factors.

Considering climate change and the associated natural disasters, many people viewed it as

inevitable and beyond the available technological capacity (Fara, 2001). A study conducted

by Cutter et al (2000), however, indicates that, apart from climate change, vulnerabilities

generated through human actions have the potential to exacerbate flood disasters. The work

of Cutter et al (2000) coincides with Fussel (2009), whose study on climate change

vulnerability indicates that communities in developing countries remain more vulnerable to

flood disaster due to their deplorable social, economic, political, natural and human capitals,

which negatively affect their resilience.

According to the IPCC (2007), a combination of natural hazards such as floods with

persisting social and economic vulnerable conditions has increased disaster occurrence in

poor urban communities, especially in urban areas in Least Developing Countries (LDCs).

Vulnerability to climate change may not only be the extent to which a natural or social

system is exposed or susceptible to risk of flood hazard but also the capacity of affected

populations to recover from their effect (IPCC, 2007).

Sanderson (2000) identified rapid urbanization as one of the causes of increasing urban

vulnerability to floods and other disasters in urban communities in modern times.

“Recent natural disasters show that it is almost always the poorest who are worst

affected. The rapidly urbanizing cities of Asia, Africa and Latin America present

unprecedented concentrations of poverty, and in so doing mark new levels of

vulnerability” (Sanderson, 2000).


20

United Nations, ISDR, Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015, indicate that increased

population densities and other conditions in cities may worsen the impacts of natural hazards

(UN/ISDR, 2009). WHO and United Nations Human Settlements Programme Report

(UNHST, 2010) shows that more than half the global population lives in cities. This is

projected to reach 70% by 2050, with a growth of nearly 60 million people every year

(UNEP, 2011). Despite the deplorable conditions, including poverty in Africa, the continent

is fast urbanizing with many more people now living in urban areas (AAP, 2010).

Correspondingly, Ghana is one such country in Africa with more than 50% of the population

living in urban areas (GPHC, 2010), with a 4.2% annual growth rate.

According to EPA and UNDP (2012), the increase in urban populations in Ghana have

significant challenges for city authorities. Challenges including urban waste management,

vehicular traffic, affordable and adequate housing, sprawling of slums and growing

“distressed” spots are some manifestations. Progressively, people in cities continue to face

greater risks that expose them to the negative impacts of climate change as a result of a

combination of factors including natural hazards (flooding, windstorms, heat spells), high

population density, poor infrastructure and low resilience to economic shocks.

According to Lino (2012), cities are distinguished by better facilities and better living

conditions plus employment, education and business. However, with huge developmental

disparities in the rural-urban divide, there is incessant out-migration of poor people from the

countryside into the cities. Urban place and space have become more vulnerable and are

described by writers as crucibles of hazards. Urban conditions have been described by Red

Cross Society as “the Social Geography' of many towns and cities to ‘reflect the

vulnerability of different areas to natural hazards’ (Lino, 2012).


21

Rapid urbanization is unfortunately not responding to the increasing demand for housing,

employment, waste and water management, drainage systems and proper planning and land

use in Ghana (Adank et al, 2011). According to AMA (2011), most slums and other informal

communities highly exposed to flood. They are areas where job seeking migrants initially

settled with difficulties with accommodation. They resorted to accommodation in the low

residential communities and places along the fringes of the city, where rent is less expensive.

People occupy buffer zones along drains, which are not officially sold to them. Aboagye

(2012a) and Adank et al. (2011) discussed poor drainage systems and lack of maintenance

culture as other sources of floods in cities. The UN/1SDR (2011) indicates that most

flooding occurs in cities which lack storm water drainage channels to regulate run-off. Lack

of well-engineered drainage systems, especially in densely populated areas, water run-off

from the roofs of buildings, improper waste management and the extensively paved urban

land surfaces all contribute to flooding. Atuguba and Amuzu’s (2006) study in Alajo,

recommended the need for the expansion of drainage channels especially from the Odaw

River. The subsequent expansion work done on the Odaw River saw a reduction in the

incidence of flooding in Alajo community.

A study by Anomanyo (2004), shows that lack of and/or proper management of drainage

systems in Accra was just one of the bases for flood occurrence in the city. He explained

that, bad waste practices have affected the free flow of water in gutters (drains). He stated

that, although about 60 to 75% of solid waste generated in the city is collected, the solid

waste that remains uncollected often finds its way into open drains, thus obstructing free

flow of water causing overflows that result in floods (Anomanyo, 2004; Fobil, 2007 cited

in Adank et al, 2011). A few years back, similar studies were conducted in Old Fadama, a

typical slum in Accra by ILGSS and IIED (2012), which found that although there is a sturdy

improvement in waste practices, attitudinal change remains a major challenge to proper


22

waste management. They indicated that 94% of waste is collected in Old Fadama every day

and the rest deposited in hidden corners, gutters or is openly burnt. As a result, waste

materials constantly find their ways into open gutters obstructing the smooth flow of water

upstream in the Odaw River and other streams, which exit into the Gulf of Guinea. Again,

Atuguba and Amuzu (2006) noted that lack of routine maintenance has impeded the efficient

functioning of the drainage systems, leading to severe flooding during rainy seasons in

Accra.

In most cities, land use planning and control are a pre-requisite to any form of development

and a first step to building sustainable flood resilience. According to Karley (2009) improper

planning in modern cities is characterized by poor land use plans that are manifested in poor

zoning of settlements, industrial activities and proper drainage. He indicated that most often

certain locations become the receptacle of the negative consequences from poor planning.

He also, emphasized the need to manage the urban water system completely to avoid such

occurrences as flooding. Studies by Afeku (2005) and many others argued that the master

plan for the development of Accra was outmoded to regulate planning and development of

Accra and needs updating. Further, he underscored the need to enforce the existing laws

properly whilst working hard on attitudinal change as a prime concern to curb the increasing

vulnerability of city dwellers.

Sam (2009) and Afeku (2005) raised concerns about corrupt and ineffective administration

of the system that continues to grant building permits without due diligence. This action

results in the haphazard citing of buildings in waterways and in unauthorized locations.

Such lands and settlements do not have good access roads, drainage, proper waste disposal

spaces and services because of their illegal development. Such areas also become more

liable to flooding (Sam, 2009). Recent road projects and other urban developments have


23

made substantial investments in tertiary drains but little or no attention has been paid to

primary and secondary drains for the recent increase in volume of run-off. Adank et al

(2011) add that institutional frameworks related to storm water drainage are weak.

Haphazard urban planning and development, evidenced by the lack of drainage systems in

settlements, poor construction of existing drains and corruption in institutions and

management system for buildings are some of the identifiable human related causes of

flooding. It is culturally and legally unacceptable in Ghana, including Accra to build on

spaces that are earmarked for green development or public space but the opposite is the

obvious situation (Rain et al, 2011). Rain et al., indicate that housing development on green

spaces decreases the natural storage capacity of soil thereby resulting to increased run-off

in those areas. In a study that covers urban poor settlements in Accra (Ghana), Kampala

(Uganda), Lagos (Nigeria), Maputo (Mozambique), and Nairobi (Kenya), flooding in urban

areas can be seen as a consequence of multiple factors including, housing development in

floodplains, inadequate waste management and lack of maintenance of storm water drainage

channels (Dodman et al, 2013).

The combined effect of these factors together with the intensive and erratic rainfall

exacerbates flooding problems in the urban communities. Floods are indeed not only a

natural environmental problem but also a result of human and anthropogenic factors that

have further aggravated the situation (Dodman et al, 2013).

2.5 Flood Risks and Vulnerable Areas in Accra

Flood disasters occur in many parts of the country, but are more prevalent in the low income

or slum areas. Figure 2.1 shows that where the urban poor live is mostly unplanned and

informal in its physical layout making such locations very vulnerable to floods (Atuguba

and Amuzu, 2006; Adank et at.2011). Nyarko (2000), in his study used GIS to map out flood


24

hotspots in Ashaley Botwe, Ashaiman, and Legon Farm, Alajo, Odorkor, Accra Newtown,

etc. in the AMA of Greater Accra Region.

Figure 2:1 Map of Slum Areas and Flood Disaster

Source: AMA Medium Term Development Plan, 2010-2013

Communities along the 8km Densu River below the Weija Dam are also vulnerable

whenever there is spillage of excess water. The communities that suffer from the spillage

include Dansoman area and those along the Lafa Stream, which crosses the Winneba and

Motorway extension roads (AMA, 2011). In the low-lying areas of the Korle-Chemu

Catchment, flooding is a serious problem, with many houses being inundated by floodwater

during and after heavy rains. Similar problems occur in the industrial land cemetery area

around the Obetsebi Lamptey Circle, where the interceptor drains and culverts are

inadequate and often chocked.


25

There are many other areas including Nima, Dzorwulu, Darkuman, which have experienced

localized flooding, caused by inadequate drainage channels and low topography (AMA,

2011). In the Kpeshie Catchment area, drainage in the La Township is inadequate and

many waterlogged areas become flooded with light rains. In periods of heavy rains, fence

walls collapse and foundations are broken (AMA, 2011). A particular case is the flood that

occurred at the end of October 2011. Even though the rains and floods are perennial, heavy

rain can occur off-season and cause flooding. Since the preparedness for floods in the off-

season is low, the effect of the flood can be quite extensive (UNEP, 2011).

Most of the vulnerable areas identified were characterized by limited infrastructure

(drainage) and high run-off, including the Lafa and Sakumo II Basin, which are very prone

to flooding. Floods occur more extensively in low-lying areas and places with inadequate

provision of drains, thus, regulation of human encroachments in the low-lying areas could

prevent many annual floods in the AMA (UN-HABITAT, 2011).

2.6. Adaptation to Flood through Vulnerability Reduction

Fara (2001) indicates that efforts towards managing floods and other natural disasters

include the provision of relief to affected people. Relief in the form of food aid, drugs and

clothing mainly provided by governments and NGOs, developed countries and international

organizations. However, disasters since late 1990s are known to be due to human induced

phenomena (Holloway, 2000), hence adaptation to flood and other disasters have sought to

take a human face through initiating actions to build the resilience of people and their

communities. According to Birkmann (2006), vulnerability to flood disasters includes

exposure to floods as a result of building along flood plains, and low resilient

accommodation structures. He added that population which is weak in terms of age, gender,

health status, and infirmity suffer flood effects more and are less able to recover.


26

Authors such as Turner et al, (2003); Ellis (2003 and 2013); Broos, (2003) outlined wide

range of vulnerability sources which were summarised by Fussel (2007) in Table 2.1. They

agreed with other discussions that disasters are not only because of people’s exposure to

natural or because of what is termed as biophysical conditions, but also human induced

factors, which they term as socio-economic factors.

Table 2.1 Vulnerability Model

Sphere/

Domain

Domain

Sphere Anthropogenic conditions Biophysical/Natural Conditions

Internal Household income, Topography (e.g., lowlands)

Social and economic

amenities/services

Climate conditions

Access to social network/ information Land cover

People’s participation in decision

making

Soil, water, etc.

Equity, etc.

External Ethnic diversity, migration, Climate change/variability

National policies Floods, severe storms

International aid Disease outbreak

Economic globalization Heat waves

International relation/global

partnership

Sea level change rises

Source: Fussel (2007)

This distinction is quite comprehensive with Fussel (2007) who indicated that vulnerability

as a concept is broad, hence the need to identify specific vulnerable locations, people,

elements and other attributes which constitute risk, plus the hazards people have been

exposed to and variations in space. Fussel’s vulnerability analysis is summarized in Table

2.1.


27

Metzger et al (2005) states that the term vulnerability is used with reference to particular

situations in a particular locations in order to focus adaptation options. According to Smit

and Pitifosova (2001), cited in Fussel (2007, 2009), once people’s vulnerability is reduced

through well-focussed adaptation strategies, communities and their residents will become

resilient, adaptive and robust to hazards.

Figure 2.2: Adaptation Focus Model

Source: Smit et al (2001)

Adaptation strategies targeted towards reducing vulnerability is more sustainable (Gallopin,

2006). IPCC (2000) defines adaptation as adjustments in ecological, social or economic

systems, in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects. In line with this

definition, Gallopin (2006) states that adaptation to the effects of climate change should

incorporate response to climate change hazards such as flooding and reducing extent of

exposure to and building resilience against further incidence through strengthening the

necessary infrastructural capacities.

ADAPTATION TO WHAT?

Climate Related

Stimuli

Flood over

• Time/Space Scales

HOW DOES

ADAPTATIONS OCCUR?

TYPES

• Processes

• Outcomes People/Comty.

WHO AND WHERE?

SYSTEM

• Definition

• Characteristics

HOW GOOD

IS THE ADAPTATION?

•Evaluation

• Criteria

• Principles

NON-CLIMATE

Forces and

Conditions SYSTEM

• Definition

• Characteristics


28

Smit et al (2001) developed the general concept of adaptation or adaptive capacity in climate

change and climate related impacts extensively. They consider various components

including form, scale and process of adaptation as summarized in Figure 2.2. Smit et al

deepened the components of adaptation with reference to systems, interest, activities, sector,

community or group’s adjustment to something related to shocks, stress or stimulus from

climate and climate related hazards.

The question “where” and “who” in the adaptation model is relevant since adaptation

strategies needed to be targeted towards particular areas and groups of people. With the

increasing human induced disasters associated with floods especially in urban communities

and dwellers, Smit et al advocated for a greater focus on socio-economic activities and

infrastructure and ecosystem management. It is very important to acknowledge the

description made by Sanderson (2000) that urban areas are increasingly becoming more

prone to disasters especially in regions with endemic poverty. Doing this would promote

better adaptation strategies and practices.

Jha et al (2012), discussed adaptation options extensively, by looking at the following areas:

Use of probability models to determine vulnerability and potential damages of

climate change hazards

Using maps to show communities more affected by disasters in order to determine

what strategies are best in adapting to the disasters in those areas

Development of early warning systems

Awareness creation and education

Land use planning and settlement development

Drainage system development

One of the views expressed by Jha et al was on clearly mapping the areas that are affected

and prone to disaster, an approach they believe is more economical, more realistic and action


29

focused. The capacity to adapt varies considerably among regions, countries, and

socioeconomic groups over time. The most vulnerable regions and communities are those

that are highly exposed to hazardous climate change effects, and have limited adaptive

capacity. Countries with limited economic resources, low levels of technology, poor

information and skills, poor infrastructure, unstable or weak institutions, and inequitable

empowerment and access to resources have little capacity to adapt and are highly vulnerable

(Smit and Pilifosova, 2000).

Adaptive measures also differ based on demographic, ecological and socioeconomic

characteristics of the people. The ILGS and IIED (2012) noted that at the individual level,

residents make prior arrangements for floods, which routinely occur every year. People

resort to using blocks, stones and furniture to create higher platforms, stay with family and

friends during floods among others as coping mechanisms.

During floods or rainstorms, neighbours adopt a number of coping strategies. Many try to

draw each other’s attention to the upsurge of flood, especially during heavy downpours of

rain. In the process, they help each other to carry property in and out of houses before, during

and after floods (Action Aid International, 2006). Some residents undertake collective work

to open up drainage channels while others temporarily move to lodgings and public places

such as mosques sport stadiums and churches until floodwaters recede. Some also make

temporary outlets to ease floodwater movement/flow near their homes (Action Aid

International, 2006). Most of these efforts are coping strategies and not sustainable

adaptation options responding to the unpredictable nature of rainstorms and the potential

increase in floods in recent times.


30

2.6.1 Governments Initiatives to Flood Adaptation

Most African governments have national disaster and emergency policies. Uganda has

special ministries responsible for disaster preparedness and response. The overall objective

of disaster preparedness and management in Uganda, for instance, is to save lives and

livelihoods, reduce Uganda’s vulnerability to potential disasters in cooperation with local

communities, NGOs, local and international donor organizations among others. They also

seek to enhance the country’s ability to contain or minimize the social and economic effects

of disasters. In particular, the Uganda strategy aims at mitigating the impact of hazards in

order to avoid disasters. This implies good land use planning and avoiding building in

hazardous locations (Mulungeta, 2007).

In Mozambique, a Master Plan for prevention and mitigation of natural disasters was

developed 2006, as part of the 2005–2009 poverty reduction strategy. Notably, the policy

highlights the development of flood warning systems and the recognition of effective

disaster management as key component of poverty reduction and was a step to achieving

the Millennium Development Goals (Mulungeta, 2007). The plan addresses issues at the

national level, and does not give special attention to urban areas.

Ghana is a signatory to a number of global interventions on climate change and disasters.

For example, the United Nations Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which expects

national governments to ensure that climate change issues are integrated into national

development frameworks and plans. Similarly, Ghana signed for the Hyogo Framework for

Action (HFA) 2005-2015 and Sendai Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005-2015:

Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters. The frameworks aimed

at reducing casualties as well as socio-economic and environmental losses because of

disasters, in a sustainable manner (MEST, 2012).


http://www.unisdr.org/we/coordinate/hfa

http://www.unisdr.org/we/coordinate/hfa

31

Ghana’s initiative towards streamlining climate change adaptation into policies and

strategies started little over fifteen (15) years ago under the Netherlands Climate Change

Study Assistance Programme (Würtenberger et al, 2011). This support and many others

including UNDP Supported Climate Change-Dare Programme led to the formulation of the

National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (2011) and streamlining climate change

adaptation into Ghana’s Shared Growth and Development Agenda 2010-2013 and 2014-

2017. The National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy was transformed into a National

Climate Change Policy, 2014 to guide the processes leading to streamlining climate into

national policies, strategies and programmes. Before a national policy framework is

approved as a working document, it is ensured that issues of Climate Change (CC) and

Disaster Risk Reductions (DRR) are prominently featured. More importantly, CC/DRR

issues have to be accepted as a national priority and a sine qua non to sustainable

development.

Additional effort made by Ghana include the development of a National Urban Policy with

some activities focusing on development of urban drainage, waste collection, and climate

change as well as disaster management.

One of the challenges that continues to hinder the successful implementation of the policies

and programme is lack of proper implementation guidelines, financial constraints and

commitments, and lack of proper consultation and monitoring (ILGS and IIED, 2012). In

addition, there is very low attention paid to and priority of urban vulnerability and adaptation

to the climate change. The extract below indicates urban vulnerability and the need to focus

on climate change adaptation for building resilient cities:

“Ghana’s urban population is expected to increase from 52% of the

total population of 2010 to around 65% in 2030 based on a projected

urban rate of around 3% per year. Accra alone constitutes 16.1% of the


32

total population in Ghana with a growth rate of 2.8% in the 2000 (GSS,

2000). The number of people living in slums in Ghanaian cities was

estimated at 5 million at a growing rate of 1.8% per annum in 2001.

This is pronounced in Accra, Kumasi and Tamale (GSGDA, 2010 –

2013). This puts pressure on infrastructure development.

The peri-urban communities, occupied by migrant settlers and low-

income urban dwellers have deplorable conditions in respect of

infrastructure, services and housing quality. The impact of climate

related hazards such as floods are high in view of weak infrastructure

due to poor planning and decision, as a result of lack of appropriate

building code and design standards and methods” (MEST, 2012).

The National Disaster Management Organization Act (Act 517), 1996 created NADMO.

The purpose of NADMO is to coordinate emergency and disaster response, and general

national disaster preparedness (NADMO Act 517, 1996). Key emergency committees and

protective services that operate in Accra are the Ghana Police Service, the Ghana National

Fire Service, and the Ghana Red Cross Society. All of these institutions operate under the

institutional coordination of the National Disaster Management Organization (NADMO). A

number of Sub-committees are under NADMO, addressing issues such as geological

hazards including earthquakes, landslides, and coastal erosion; pest and insect infestation;

relief and reconstruction; hydro/meteorological disasters; bushfires and lightening;

epidemics; and human induced disasters (Atuguba et al., 2006).

There are two pressing concerns for NADMO including the capacity to deliver on its

mandate and disaster communication. The present ability of the Ghanaian government to

respond to anthropogenic and natural disasters is inadequate. Currently, according to studies

on disaster preparedness of Accra, disaster response times in Accra are normally as high as

13 to 15 minutes due to bad communication and improper planning of buildings and other

structures (Atuguba & Amuzu, 2006).


33

Actions at a policy level for the implementation of the NADMO law include the

establishment of NADMO offices at the national, regional and district levels, drawing of

disaster management plans at the national, regional and district levels, the establishment of

disaster management committees at the national, regional and district levels and plans to

coordinate the activities of all collaborating agencies. Atuguba and Amuzu (2006) shared

the view that, although there are institutional structures all over the country, the limited

resources available have reduced their abilities to implement their mandates fully.

NADMO’s activities range from awareness creation, desilting of gutters, provision of relief

items, victims’ registration, needs assessment, search and rescue operations. Others carry

out demolition exercises on waterways to allow easy flow of run-off in the metropolis

(Action Aid International, 2006; NADMO, 2005). The Ghana Red Cross Society has

advised communities to reinforce their roofs and build embankments along their walls

to strengthen them. Families have been advised to put in place individual emergency and

contingency plans during emergencies.

In Accra, emergency response teams have continually encouraged communities in flood

prone areas to desist from indiscriminate dumping of refuse into gutters and to develop

and implement evacuation plans (IFRC,2009). Attempts to solve the perennial flooding have

always been a knee-jerk approach. There must be a holistic assessment of the flooding

process before, during and after the floods for the appropriate strategies. Such assessments

could be very useful in building the capacity and resilience of cities.

Studies by Action Aid International (2006) among slum dwellers in six African cities,

uncovered very few if any, collective mechanisms towards reducing flood risks, or for

managing floods once, they happen in the cities. Local coping strategies and traditional

knowledge need to be synergized with scientific knowledge for appropriate interventions


34

(UNFCCC, n.d). These strategies are necessary, as adaptation measures are most effective

when developed to incorporate community-based experiences.

2.7 Conceptual Framework of Vulnerability and Adaptation to Disaster

Conceptual frameworks are used to show complex interconnections among elements that

seek to explain causes and effects of phenomena and integrate several components. This

study used a framework (Figure 2.3) to identify climate, non-climate and multiple factors

that lead to disasters, and the adaptation resulting strategies used by communities. It also

provided a structure for vulnerability assessment for capacity building for climate change

impacts management, and adaptation to the disaster (Macchi, 2011 and Fussel, 2007).

According to Practical Action (2011) it is emphasized that the relevance of the framework

is its contribution to reducing vulnerabilities and strengthening resilience of communities

(local community, regional, national and international).

The framework indicates that flood disaster occurs as a result of both climate and non-

climate conditions. Gallopin (2006), Cutter et al (2000), Fussel (2009), and IPCC (2007)

further elaborated this synergy in their research findings. The climate factors are the natural

biophysical factors as identified by Fussel (2007). These include precipitation, temperature,

winds, and other climatic variables. Accra records very high intensity of rainfall especially

in June/July almost every year, which in many cases leads to high run-off and floods.

Flooding, especially river flooding is not always due to the occurrence of rainfall in Accra

but also rainfall upstream of the rivers/stream flowing through Accra. Non-climatic

conditions including economic, social, demographic, technological, and political factors

also contribute to flooding. The framework specifically identifies population density in

urban communities, encroachment on public habitable and non-habitable areas, housing


35

problems, poor incomes, sanitation, decision making and policy formulation,

implementation and regulation as non-climatic factors.

Figure 2.3 Conceptual Framework on Flood Disaster, Causes and Adaptation

Source: Adapted and Modified from Macchi, 2011

Urban dwellers are supposed to have available capital assets due to opportunities provided

in cities; however, increasing population in the cities has reduced the number of available

opportunities, and demarcated social classes with the poor mostly living in more deprived

areas without adequate housing, drainage, water, good health, etc. Urban poverty has

ADAPTATION

Policies/Research

Individual knowledge

Processes

Mitigation

Adaptation

Coping

NON-CLIMATIC/

HUMAN FACTORS

Population Density

Encroachment

Housing

Income

Sanitation

Decision-making

Policy and Regulation

Social protection

VULNERABILITY/CATALYTIC CONDITIONS

Exposure, Sensitivity Coping Capacity

Resilience, Robustness................ Adaptive Capacity

CLIMATE CHANGE

AND VARIABILITY:

Rainfall (Intensity,

Volume,

Predictability

Wind (Intensity,

Volume,

Destruction)

Other climate

DISASTERS

Flood

Pest/Disease Illness,

Heat waves

Drought

PEOPLE/COM’TY

AFFECTED


36

increased beyond rural poverty rate in recent times in Accra (GSS, 2005; GSS, 2008). The

poor are indeed simply more vulnerable to physical hazards because of their exposure,

sensitivity and low adaptive capacities (UN-HABITAT, 2007).

Vulnerability has been related or equated to concepts such as resilience, marginality,

susceptibility, adaptability, fragility, and risk’ relating to climate change (Liverman, 1990).

Fussel (2007) further added exposure, sensitivity, coping capacity, criticality, and

robustness to this list. According to Fussel (2007), the degree of any individual’s

vulnerability to impending hazard-including extreme changes in climate and socio-

economic conditions may vary depending on the extent of exposure, sensitivity and

resilience.

Vulnerability to flooding is driven not only by climatic factors but also by many other

variables, and had to be developed into a more integrated, policy-driven system as shown in

the framework. Climate change vulnerability constitutes the degree to which a system is

susceptible to or unable to cope with adverse effects of climate change, including climate

variability and extremes (IPCC, 2001). Fussel (2007) describes climate related vulnerability

based on the characteristics of the vulnerable system such as the urban poor communities,

the type and number of stressors and their root causes, their effects on the system, and the

time horizon of the vulnerability. Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude and

rate of climate variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity and its adaptive

capacity (IPCC, 2001). It is identified that flood disaster does not occur everywhere except

in communities where both climate and human induce factors interplay more extensively.

In Accra, such phenomena are common in low residential areas and mainly where there are

slums as mapped by AMA and UN-HABITAT (2011). People with low resilient structures,


37

low income capitals and are located close to river banks in Accra are more exposed to fluvial

floods.

Lastly, the framework indicates coping, adaptation, recovery and mitigation processes

regarding climate and non-climate related hazards. Adaptation to climate change is

necessary, in addition to mitigation strategies to offset unacceptable impacts of

anthropogenic change (IPCC, 2007). Adaptive Capacity is the ability of a system to adjust

to climate change, to moderate potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities, or to

cope with the consequences (Owaygen, 2010).

Mitigation actions are based upon origin and evolution of activities that aim at reducing

greenhouse gas emissions directly or indirectly (e.g. by changing behavioural patterns, or

by developing and diffusing relevant technologies) through capturing GHGs before they are

emitted into the atmosphere or sequestering GHGs existing in the atmosphere by enhancing

their sinks (IPCC, 2001). Mitigation usually requires long term and advanced technological

course of action.

Adapting to flood disaster as per the diagram (Figure 2.3) remains complex in terms of what

constitute the adaptation, where, how, when as elaborated by Smit et al (2001) in Figure 2.2.

The framework indicates coping within the adaptation process. Individuals cope by

temporally relocating to live with relatives and friends when displaced by floods (ILGS and

IIED, 2012). In terms of adaptation, some people in Accra develop flood defence walls,

sand bags around the water entry points to prevent water from entering their homes.

Adaptation is a process that involves policy driven institutions and individual involvement

in decision-making. That is why it was very necessary to explore individual knowledge and

perception in the field to compliment concepts and findings from other researches and

existing policy documents.


38

The framework showed that flood disasters are not only result of intensive rainfall but also

exposure of people to vulnerable locations and conditions and other myriad of factors

including institutional roles and individual efforts.

2.8 Chapter Summary

The chapter reviewed literature beginning with concepts, extent and distribution of flood

occurrences. The literature indicates that flood has risen in recent times with increasing

damage to property and affecting more than 2.5 billion people, killing about 500,000 and

causing economic losses of about US$700 billion. The review proceeded by identifying the

causes of flood disaster which includes both climate and non-climate factors. It indicates

that changes in the climate is evident by the pattern of rainfall, which is unpredictable,

intensive and erratic, co-existing with strong wind and high temperature.

Various authors have research focus on urban disasters, vulnerability and adaptation. This

chapter has explained that flood disaster has increased in urban communities, which are

increasingly characterised by high population density, functions, poor and unorganised and

less resilient infrastructure. It has been noted that urban communities are becoming more

prone to many disasters including floods in recent times.

The literature identified efforts in Ghana and other countries on climate change policies,

strategies and disaster management activities. In Ghana for instance, the intensified

integration of climate change into national development plans and policies occurred about

a decade ago. This led to efforts at formulating the Ghana Climate Change Adaptation

Strategy in 2011, and the Climate Change Policy in 2014. The establishment and activities

of National Disaster Management Organization was also discussed.

The conceptual framework indicated inter-connections among flood disaster, climate factors

as natural phenomena and vulnerable conditions arising mainly from human behaviour and


39

influence. The framework for Macchi (2011) was adapted to suit the phenomena in Accra.

The framework summarises that flood disasters are not only a result of intensive rainfall but

also exposure of people to vulnerable locations and conditions. Adaptation processes were

included in the framework and discussed.


40

CHAPTER THREE

STUDY AREA AND STUDY DESIGN

3.1 Introduction

This chapter addresses two (2) major issues including the profile of the study area and study

design. The chapter is divided into four sections. The first provides an introduction and the

second focuses on the profile of the study area. The third section explains the study design

and fourth sections is a chapter summary.

3.2 Study Area Profile

This section examines the geographical and demographic characteristics of the study area.

It further unearths socio-economic conditions as situated in the District to help appreciate

the potential and challenges of development in the area. In view of this, the chapter

specifically looks at the physical background, demographic characteristics, climate

conditions, poverty, drainage patterns and the economy of the Accra Metropolitan Area

(AMA). The chapter finally provides a detailed methodology adopted for the study.

3.2.1 History and Location of Accra

The city of Accra originated from Ga-Mashie, which is made up of James and Ursher Towns

(AMA, 2011). It is traditionally believed that the ancestors of the present inhabitants of

James Town (Ngleshie) migrated from Nigeria, at the beginning of the 15th century. The

Ga-Mashie people – meaning indigenous Ga’s followed them. These people first settled in

Accra Central – James Town. New settlements later developed including Nungua, La, Osu

(Christianborg), Teshie and Tema (AMA, 2010).

At present, Accra Metropolitan Area (AMA) or simply Accra, is found with almost all the

tribes or ethnic groupings in the country since its designation as the national capital of


41

Ghana, coupled with rapid migration and urbanization(GAMADA Factsheet, 2008) and it

has expanded to the area shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Map of Accra Metropolitan Area

Source: Field Work, 2013.

The Accra Metropolitan Area (AMA) was initially made up of six Area Councils of 58

District Councils that were integrated under the New Local Government System to include

Ablekuma, Ashiedu Keteke, Kpeshie, Okaikwei Kpeshie, Osu-Klottey, with semi-

autonomy. Like any other MMDAs, the AMA was established by the Local Government

Act, 1993 (Act 462) and Legislative Instrument 1615 with Sub-Metropolitan Assemblies

including Ablekuma Central, Ablekuma North, Ablekuma South, Ashiedu Keteke,

A MAP OF AMA SHOWING STUDY COMMUNITIES


42

Ayawaso Central, Ayawaso East, Ayawaso West, Okaikoi North, Okaikoi South, Osu

Klottey (AMA, 2013).

It covers an area of 173 square kilometres. The Metropolis is located on Longitude 05°35'N

of the Equator and on Latitude 00°06'E of the Greenwich Meridian. Accra Metropolis shares

a boundary with Ga South to the North, Ga West to North-West, Ga East to the North,

Adenta Municipal to the North East, Ledzo-Kuku-Krowor to the East and the vast Gulf of

Guinea to the South (Aboagye, 2012b, AMA, 2010 and 2011). Figure 3.1 shows the map of

AMA, which was originally a base map, scanned and digitised. It shows numerous

communities in the Metropolis, including that of the communities selected for the study.

This involves James and Ursher Towns, Korley Dudor, Agbogbloshie, Nima and

Cantonment.

3.2.2 Geology

The geology of the AMA consists of Precambrian Dahomeyan Schists, Granodiorites,

Granites Gneiss and Amphibolite to late Precambrian Togo Series comprising mainly

Quartzite, Phillites, Phylitones and Quartz Breccias. Other formations found are the

Palaeozoic Accraian Sediments - Sandstone, Shales and Interbedded Sandstone-Shale with

Gypsum Lenses, together with sandy beaches near the mouth of the lagoons that usually

provide surface area for erosion by heavy downpours (Quatey-Papafio, 2006). Such rapid

erosion has been intersected by the resistant coastline rock of Accra. The coastline is

exposed to strong coastal wind action, which result in intense erosion; a phenomena which

is a major contributor to coastal flooding (AMA, MLGRD and UNESCO, 2000).

3.2.3 Climate and Vegetation

The Accra Metropolitan Area lies in the Coastal Savannah climatic zone with two rainy

seasons (Ofori-Sarpong and Annor, 2001). The first rainy season begins in May and ends in


43

mid-July and the second season begins in mid-August and ends in October. The average

annual rainfall is about 780mm, which falls primarily during the two rainy seasons (EPA

UNDP, 2012). Rains are mostly unpredictable and intensive but with short durations with

storms giving rise to local flooding where drainage channels are obstructed (AMA, 2010).

Relative humidity is generally high averaging 65% at mid-afternoon to 95% at night.

Data available shows that there is a very little variation in temperature throughout the year

over the Accra Metropolis (Ghana Meteorological Agency, 2013). The mean monthly

temperature ranges from 24.7°c in August (the coolest) to 28°c in March (the hottest) with

relatively high annual average of 26.8°c (EPA and UNDP, 2012). According to Rashid-

Sally (2011), the high average temperature contributes to the increased heat of Accra

especially in the Central Business District where there is frequent temperature inversion.

Proximity of the study area to the equator makes daylight hours practically uniform

throughout the year.

The predominant wind direction in Accra is from the WSW to NNE. Wind speeds normally

range between 8 to 16 km/hr. High wind gusts occur with thunderstorm activity, which pass

in squalls along the coast. The maximum wind speed recorded in Accra is 107.4 km/hr (58

knots). Strong winds associated with thunderstorm activity often cause damage to property

through the removal of roof materials among other damage. The high intensity of strong

wind is experienced just before the end of the raining season, especially when accompanied

by intensive and unpredicted rainfall that creates problems in Accra (AMA, 2010).

Several areas in Accra experience micro climatic effects. Low profile drainage basins with

a North-South orientation are not as well ventilated as those oriented East-West. Air is often

trapped in pockets and an insulating effect giving rise to a local increase in air temperature

of several degrees. This mainly and often occurs in Accra Newtown and Azumah Nelson


44

Sports Complex and its environs. Similarly, some communities immediately along the coast

experience sea breeze from WSW with relatively high moisture, which sometimes cause

rusting, and erosion to metals, roofs, etc (UN-Habitat, 2011).

Vegetation of the Metropolis has been altered in the recent century by climatic and other

human factors (Quartey-Papafio, 2006). The Accra Metropolitan Area was believed to have

been covered by dense forest with only a remnant trees surviving currently because of both

human-environment interactions and changes in climate conditions, which are not

favourable to some plant species (Quartey-Papafio, 2006; AMA, 2010). There are three

broad vegetation zones in the Metropolitan area, comprising shrub land, grassland and

coastal savannah vegetation which appears similar to the Southern shell, Sudan and Guinea

Savannah north of the Accra plains.

To the west of the Metropolis are shrub lands, which move towards the Aburi hills. The

coastal zone comprises of two vegetation types: wetlands and dunes. The wetlands consist

of mangroves with estuaries and lagoons. Their protection as coastal wetland is very

important to the long-term sustainability of fish and bird which are poached by people..

The dune lands have been formed by a combination of wave action and wind. Most coconuts

were planted in this zone in the 1920s but it is estimated that over 80% of those plantations

have disappeared because of felling, disease and coastal erosion. The severity of sea erosion

along the coast is manifested in the disappearance of long stretches of coconut plantations

(AMA, 2010).

A number of trees have been introduced including the shrubs such as Neems, mangoes,

cassias, avocados; palms and bougainvillea are becoming prominent trees on the landscape

of the Metropolis. The Achimota Forest is the only forest reserve in the AMA. The total

area covered by the forest has reduced largely due to encroachment, bush fire, sand


45

collection and illegal tree felling. As settlements and other human activities continue to

expand, forests are depleted for development (Stow et al, 2012).

3.2.4 Population and Migration

The population of Accra is 4.3 million with additional daily influx of 1 million (AMA, 2012)

who commute to the City for various socio-economic activities. The population of AMA in

general and its sub-metros may see population changes (see Table 3.1 for projected change

figures).

While the high population provides a large market base for investors, it also poses problems

of sanitation, waste management as well as traffic jams especially during the peak hours of

the day. During peak hours, Accra hosts about 25% of the national population and has

population influx on a daily basis for economic activities aside from the residential

dimension captured by the 2000 National Population Census (GSS, 2013; UN-Habitat,

2011).

The period between 1960 and 1970 saw rapid industrialisation and expansion in the

manufacturing and commercial sectors in some major areas within the Metropolis. This

factor contributed to high immigration to Accra, and resulted in high population growth rate

(6.32%) in 1960-1970 (UN-Habitat, 2009). The stagnation of the Ghanaian Economy

during the 1970’s had an adverse effect on the growth rate of the Accra population as shown

in the growth rate (7.51%) of 1970-1984.

The decline in agriculture in rural communities in Ghana and industrialisation in urban

regions, coupled with the boom in the service sector in the late 1980s and 1990s also

propelled immigration to Accra. In addition, the concentration of social infrastructure in

the metropolis compared to other regions remains a pull factor attracting people.


46

Nonetheless, rural-urban migration alone accounts for over 35% of the population increase

in Accra.

Table 3.1: Population Changes of AMA according to Various Sub-Metros

Sub-Metro Area

(KM2)

2000 2010 2011 2012 2013

Ablekuma Central 11.5 181,541 619554 646195 673981 827950

Ablekuma North 13.6 140,063 483253 504033 525706 295200

Ablekuma South 15.1 211,493 729712 761089 793816 494679

Ashiedu Keteke 4.4 88,717 260174 271361 283030 408060

Ayawaso Central 6.0 155,947 435984 454731 474285 159661

Ayawaso East 5.8 128,641 359643 375107 391237 424173

Ayawaso West 35.2 50,334 140717 146768 153079 447534

La 36.0 133,721 373844 389919 406686 306424

Okaikoi North 21.1 141,085 394433 411394 429083 476533

Okaikoi South 12.0 96,600 270066 281678 293791 392149

Osu Klottey 12.0 96,634 270162 281778 293895 827950

Total 173 1,424,776 4337542 4524053 4718589 5060313

Total population

density

173

82.36 250.73 261.51 272.75 292.50

Source: Accra Metropolitan Assembly, 2011

As the population increases in the city, its density over land and pressure on social

infrastructure also increases. Population density in 2000 was 82.33 and 292.50 by the end

of 2013, with Ashiedu Keteke being the most densely populated sub metro. Accra’s

population like that of other urban centres is very youthful, with 56% of the population

under the age of 24 years. It will be realised from the age sex ratio that 51% of the

population are females and 49% are males. The dominance of females over males is a

reflection of the nationwide trend of the 2010 Ghana Population and Housing Census.

3.2.5 Housing

It is estimated that annually only 21.4% of housing units are added to total housing units in

the Accra Metropolitan Area (AMA, 2010a). This leaves a backlog of 300,000 housing units


47

needed to solve the housing deficit in the AMA. The AMA needs a minimum of 25,000

housing units annually to respond to the huge housing deficit in the AMA (AMA, 2010a).

In Accra, the dominant form of housing is private formal and informal housing. Individuals,

families, own the private formal houses, cooperate organisations, religious and other non-

governmental organizations. They are also rented sometimes out to individuals or families.

The private informal buildings are much common in the indigenous communities such as

Ga-Mashie.

The informal housing structures are predominantly visible in slum communities (UN-

HABITAT, 2010). Most of these informal houses are characterised with poor access to

essential services such as drainage systems, pipe borne water and electricity, roads and

waste management services. About 20 % of all housing structures in Accra are made from

temporal structures made up of plywood (GSS, 2010) which hardly stand up to the surface

running water. The inability of the AMA to meet the housing needs of the growing

population has led to sub-standard structures, insanitary environments, squatter, and slum

communities (UN-HABITAT, 2010). People settle on encroached lands, waterways,

drainages, open spaces including government and individual lands.

On the other hand, there are residential areas with better housing conditions mainly in the

high-class residential areas such as Cantonments and Airport Residential Areas. The

buildings are solid, with good access to road, sanitation, drainage, good drinking water and

fresh air (Quartey-Papafio, 2006). There are under-utilized and vacant lands in high income,

low-density residential areas for intensive redevelopment into first class, high quality mixed

residential areas for varied purposes including commercial uses. This dichotomy between

informal and formal housing areas has perpetuated the level of causes, effects and

distribution of disasters in the city. Slum areas unfortunately are more vulnerable and are


48

persistently hit by seasonal floods. Fires also easily occur in the slum communities as result

of the wooden structures, poor access and illegal connections to electricity and

overcrowding. Malaria, cholera, noise, dust and heat are common phenomena in such

informal settlements (Quartey-Papafio, 2006; AMA, 2010).

3.2.6 Poverty

In spite of the economic boom (Ghana Human Development Report, 2007), there exists a

number of challenges, high unemployment levels and increasing urban poverty across the

Metropolis as depicted in Table 3.2. It is contradictory to note that while poverty in Ghana

is generally reducing from 39.5% in 1998/99 to 28.5% in 2005/06, that of Accra is

increasing from 4.4% in 1998/99 to 10.6% in 2005/06 (MDG, 2010). This is depicted in a

number of “poverty pockets” in the Metropolis. Poverty is wide spread mong certain

communities in the Metropolis including the La Old Town, Akweteman, Osu Anehor, La

Bawaleshie, Ga Mashie, Chorkor, Sabon Zongo, Nima, Ayidiki, Avenor, Gbegbeyese,

Mamponse (UMLIS, 2011).

Poverty pocket means the segment of the population that verifiably lacks information, power

and resources and is usually excluded from development interventions (UN-HABITAT,

2011). It usually includes women and vulnerable groups which always require particular

attention. The poor in parts of the city are defined as people who know what they want but

cannot realize these desires for lack of or denial of access, or lack of economic means due

to sex, age, tribe or social group, location etc. (AMA, 2013). Poverty also relates to social,

political, cultural and environmental/physical factors such as discrimination based on

gender, ethnicity, caste, age or disability; lack of access to education and training; poor

health; lack of representation; lack of empowerment; and vulnerability to shocks and crises


49

(World Bank, 2007). The poor are also vulnerable and socially excluded in several parts of

the City especially in low residential areas (Jankowska, 2009).

Table 3.2: Poverty and Extreme Poverty Trends in Ghana and Accra

Regions Poverty Extreme Poverty

1991/92 1998/99 2005/06 1991/92 1998/99 2005/ 06

Accra - 4.4 10.6 - 1.9 5.4

Greater Accra 26.0 5.2 11.8 13.0 2.4 6.2

National 51.7 39.5 28.5 36.5 26.8 18.2

Source: Ghana Human Development, 2007

Vulnerability is a state of persistent deprivation based on poverty and denial of other basic

rights and entitlement leading to the exclusion of certain groups from active participation in

economic, political and social life. Social exclusion refers to people who are persistently

deprived of their socio-economic rights. They are eventually excluded from the mainstream

of activities of decision-making process and lack the ability to compete. The major

vulnerable and excluded groups in the metropolis include women, children, and the aged,

those who cannot read or write (Jankowska, 2009).

3.2.7 Slums, Illegal Settlements and Unauthorized Structures and Dwellers

Urbanization in Accra is at an annual rate of 4.2% and still increasing with increasing rural-

urban drift (World Bank, 2007). This phenomenon has resulted in the springing up of slums

due to the gross inadequacy in low-income housing for the increasing population (UN-

HABITAT, 2011). According to the UN-HABITAT (2011), Ga-Mashie communities have

increasingly become a big slum with characteristics described in Table 3.3.

About 90% of the populace of the slum dwellers falls within the low to very low-income

brackets (AMA, 2010). There are about Twenty-Nine (29) slum communities in Accra,


50

including, Ga Mashie, Chorkor, Gbegbeyese, Mamobi, Sabon Zongo, Nima, Alajo, Ayidiki,

Akweteman, Avenor , Abuja, Sodom and Gomorrah (Old Fadama) and Babylon

(GAMADA Factsheet, 2008).

Table 3.3: Characteristics of Ga-Mashie Community

Indicator Characteristics of Ga-Mashie

Slum population 100,342 persons

Total slum population (disaggregated index Female: 51.8%; Male: 48.2%

Land area cover by slum 90.0 hectares

Number of dwellings 1794

Population density 1103

Average household size 5.5 person

Room occupancy 10.6 person per room

Proportion of permanent dwellings (cement block or

burnt bricks wall, iron sheet or other permanent roof)

66.6%

Proportion of semi-permanent dwellings (mud/pole

walls, iron sheet roofs)

32.35%

Proportion of temporally dwellings (mud/poles

wooden walls

1.1%

Availability of period potable water on a compound 27.4%

Availability of potable water not on a compound 70.4%

Distance to potable water (if not on a compound) Max 50metres

Proportion of households depending on sources other

than potable water (water vendors, wells)

2.2%

Availability of electricity of connections in dwelling 100%

Average monthly household income GHc 299.55 (USD 78.83)

Source: AMA, 2011

There are a growing number of unauthorised structures throughout the Metropolis. To solve

this challenge, the Assembly undertakes demolition exercises to eliminate or reduce these


51

unauthorised structures (AMA, 2010) yet there is still the need to support and invest in the

upgrading and transformation of some of these settlements.

3.2.8 Disaster Zones

Densu River Catchment and Sakumo Lagoon constitute the largest of all the four coastal

basins within the Metropolitan Area (AMA, 2010). Flooding is common along the 8km

Densu River below the Weija dam whenever there is overtopping or deliberate release of

water over the spillway (Sam, 2009). Flooding is also prevalent in the Dansoman area and

along the Lafa stream where it crosses the Winneba and motorway extension roads. Few of

the drainage channels in the catchments are constructed. As a result, there is heavy erosion

of drainage channels - many of which flow down existing tracks and roads. Access to this

area is often cut off and roads become inaccessible during heavy rains (GoG/MWRWH,

2007).

Another basin is the Korle - Chemu Catchment which is bounded on the west by a line,

running roughly south to north from Gbegbeyese, Dansoman, Kwashieman, and New

Achimota; on the north by the Achimota -Legon axis; and to the east by East Legon, the

Airport and Ridge (AMA, 2010). The principal streams that drain the catchments are the

Odaw River and its tributaries, the Nima, Onyasia, Dakobi and Ado. The principal outlet

for water in this catchment is the Korle Lagoon.

The Korle-Chemu catchment contains the major urbanised areas of Accra. Many of the

drainage channels are poorly developed and maintained. Erosion and siltation of drains is

a serious problem. In low-lying areas, flooding is a serious problem, with many houses been

inundated by floodwater during and after heavy rains (UN-HABITAT, 2011).


52

In low-lying areas near the Accra Academy in Kaneshie, rapid run-off from Asaredanho

overflows into the Bank of Ghana flats because the inlet to the Kaneshie drains is

inadequately designed (Karley, 2009). Similar problems occur in the industrial land

cemetery area around the Obetsebi Lamptey Circle where the interceptor drain and gullies

are inadequate. There are many other areas, like Nima, Dzorwulu, Darkuman and Alajo,

which have localised flooding problems caused by inadequate drainage channels and the

flat nature of the land terrain.

In addition, the Kpeshie Catchment which is bounded on the east by the Military Academy

at Teshie and on the north by a line south of Madina and Ajirignano (AMA, 2010; UN-

HABITAT, 2011). It covers the eastern part of Accra, Ridge, Cantonments, Osu, Labadi

and Burma camp areas. Streams in the catchment generally flow north to south, emptying

directly into the principal outlet to the sea at Kpeshie Lagoon or the small Korle Lagoon at

Osu. Drainage in the La Township remains inadequate and many waterlogged areas

become flooded with light rains.

Other areas liable to flooding in the Metropolis are as follows:

i. Panbros Salt Ponds

ii. Dansoman - Mpoase - South Odorkor corridor

iii. Dansoman - Sukura - Chorkor corridor

iv. Mataheko - Abossey Okai - Korle Lagoon corridor

v. Odaw - Dzorwulu - Awudome - Industrial Areas System

vi. Darkuman - North Kaneshie

3.2.9 Waste Management

The city generates about two thousand tonnes (2000) of garbage daily, of which the

Assembly is able to collect one thousand five hundred tonnes (1,500) daily based on their


53

existing capacity (AMA, 2010). According to AMA (2011) the huge backlog is reflected in

choked drains, overflowing garbage heaps, littered pavements, etc. Sources and forms of

waste generated in the Metropolis include domestic/households, industrial/commercial,

markets, schools and hospitals. Also, 3% of plastic recycling by the informal sector, 80% of

metals recycling by the informal sector, organic, paper, plastic, glass, metals, textiles,

inert and materials also constitute wastes generated in the Metropolis (AMA, 2011).

The collection of solid waste is carried out by barrels and compactor roll on containers, and

manual handling from pilling at collection points or by request. Waste collection is a

municipal responsibility, which largely is contracted to different private companies (UNEP,

2011). The Assembly also implements Fee-Based Solid Waste Collection System (based

on the Polluter Pay Principle) alongside other strategies such as waste-to-energy project and

recycling, creation of more dumpsites, mass gutter cleaning exercise to improve the waste

management practices in the Metropolis (AMA and UN-HABITAT, 2011).

3.3 Study Design

The study made use of mixed method (both quantitative and qualitative) with the method of

triangulation of data gathering, analysis and interpretation (Denzin, 2006). The choice of

this method was for the purposes of checking or testing consistency or validity of the

findings obtained (quantitative); and using one method to clarify, explain, elaborate and

justify the other; and fostered the emergence of more research questions (qualitative)

(Greene et al., 1997). Different from the concurrent approach was a sequential approach,

which was applied to the study during the data gathering process (see 3.3.2). This made it

easier for the researcher to collect data using the questionnaire and Focus Group Discussion

(FGD).


54

The study also made use of a case study approach where communities were selected and

primary data were gathered on knowledge and perceptions regarding changes in climate,

effects, and vulnerability and residents’ adaptation strategies.

3.3.1 Types and Sources of Data

Two main sources of data including primary and secondary sources were adopted. The

secondary data was gathered from books, book-chapters, journals, articles, working papers,

newspapers, published and unpublished conference papers. These were pre-existing

literature, which serve as secondary sources of information to the study.

As part of the secondary data, climate data was gathered from Ghana Meteorological

Agency (GMet), specifically from Kotoka International Airport Station. Data included

monthly and annual average rainfall and temperature records. The data covered 1961 to

2000, and was used to complement knowledge and perceptions expressed by people on

changes experienced in climate conditions.

In addition, socio–economic and physical demographic characteristics data was gathered

from Accra Metropolitan Assembly and Ga-Mashie Development Agency (GAMADA).

This included the profile of AMA and other available documents from the District. The

disaster profile of AMA and beyond was also available at the AMA, NADMO and Ghana

Hydrological Department. These included the recent disasters especially flood records,

extent of damage and communities affected in the City.

Primary data based on knowledge and perceptions of changes in climate conditions of the

area including rainfall, temperature seasonal variation or fluctuations, flood disasters,

vulnerable conditions of the people and adaptation measures were gathered. Concerning the

background information of the respondents, data was gathered on age, marital and


55

educational status of the respondents. Others included income levels and occupancy ratios

to determine people’s vulnerability due to housing conditions. The perception and

experience of flood disaster was interesting, as respondents expressed their views on the

flooding situation in the city. At the same time, data on how communities adapt to the

disaster situations was also gathered.

3.3.2 Data Gathering Methods

The primary data was collected using questionnaires, structured interviews (in-depth

interview) and focus group discussions (FGD). The questionnaire captured most of the

quantitative data from the field, whilst the FGD and in-depth interviews were used to capture

most of the qualitative data from the field. Moreover, the questionnaire was designed

mainly for those who could read and write, whilst the FGD and in-depth interviews were

designed for those who could not read and write but none-the-less have appreciable

knowledge to share on flood vulnerability and adaptation strategies.

Wherever possible, the researcher assisted interviewees to provide information required by

the questionnaires. The researcher made observation to situations difficult to account for

by the respondents on the questionnaires and focus group discussion. . This included the

housing conditions, waste management, etc. Again, many participatory methods (FGD, In-

depth interviews) were employed as the work sought to understand community-based

vulnerability adaptation strategies. To this effect, additional data was gathered sufficient

to buttress the quantitative data gathered by questionnaires.

Under the FGD, the following methods were used: community historical timeline, seasonal

calendar, and community ranking of hazards, while the discussion was going on among the

various groups in the communities (see Sub-section 3.3.4). These sub-methods enhanced a

better understanding of climate and flood hazard and adaptation strategies and assets of the


56

communities in the study area, changes they perceived, their capacity to cope with the flood,

their needs, as well as the role of other institutions in coping and adapting to floods.

3.3.3 Sampling Design

The population size of the respective communities was used to generate the total sample.

The sampling was done using both probability and non-probability methods of sampling.

Using the simple random sampling technique and based on the population sizes, a sample

(S) was drawn using the formula [N (N)/N+1]*(a) 2, where N= Total population, a=margin

of error, 1=a constant (Basil and Jones, 2009). With a total population size of the selected

communities 347, 7799 as indicated in Table 3.4 and margin of error 0.05 and the sample

size was determined as follows:

S= [N (N)/N+1]*(a) 2 = [347799(347799)/ 347799+1]*(0.05)2

= (120964144401/347800)*(0.0025)

= (347798.00)*(0.0025)

=434

Stratified or strata probability sampling method was used purposively to select the final

sample from the six communities, Nima, Agbogbloshie, James Town, Ursher Town, Korle

Dudor and Cantonments. The strata probability method was used as a result of the

heterogeneous population distribution among selected communities. In the calculation of

sample for a strata sample of the selected communities, Sample for a Strata = Population of

Strata * Total Sample Size/Total Population

Nima= 143434*434/347799 = 179

Agbogloshie=19797* 434/347799 = 24

James Town=38209*434/347799 = 47

Korley Dudor =64300*434/347799 = 80


57

Ursher Town=62133*434/347799 = 77

Cantonments=22104*434/347799 = 27

Table 3.4: Sample Distributions by Community

Communities Total Population Sample

Nima 143434 179

Agbogbloshie 19,797 24

James Town 38,209 47

Korle-Dudor 64,300 80

Ursher Town 62,133 77

Cantonments 22,104 27

Institutions 6

Total 347799 440


The systematic random sampling method was employed to select the households. The

purposive sampling method was used to select household heads for the interview. Purposive

sampling method was used because in certain cases, household members had to decide who

should be the head.

In addition, 6 respondents were purposively selected from the institutions including Ghana

Meteorological Agency, Ghana Health Service, AMA, NADMO, Fire Service and Ga

Mashie Development Agency (GAMADA).

Table 3.6: Sample Distributions of the Communities based on the Data Gathering

Tools

Selected

Communities

Questionnaires Focus Group

Discussion

In-Depth

Interview

Grand

Total

Nima 110 24 45

Agbogbloshie 16 8

James Town 21 16 10

Korle Dudor 53 14 13

Ursher Town 36 16 25

Cantonments 22 0 5

Total 242 86 106 434

Source: Field Work, 2013


58

The Tables 3.4 and 3.5 show distribution of sample by communities and data gathering

methods from respective populations. The units of analysis of the study included household

heads from the selected communities together with representatives from institutions.

3.3.4 Data Analysis

Data gathered through close-ended questionnaire were edited, coded and entered into

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. The open-ended

questionnaires were re-grouped, edited, coded and also entered into the SPSS after which

outputs were generated in the form of frequency distribution tables, pie chart and graphs.

Microsoft Excel 2007 was used to edit tables, charts and lines appropriately.

The SPSS includes a statistical tool called Classification Discriminant Analysis (CDA),

introduced by Elo and Kyngäs, 2007 to show the differences in two or more situations. In

this study, it was used to determine spatial variation of flood disaster under Chapter Five

(5), based on people’s knowledge and perception. It was used to compare the flood disaster

in the selected communities based on the frequency, fatality and extent of damage of flood

disaster. The communities were dependent variables while frequency, fatality and damage

indicators were the independent variables. The main assumption of the CDA is that the

dependent variables must be different from each other. Because any similarity or correlation

between them would not satisfy the result of the CDA. The CDA statistic employs other

statistics to enhance the validity and to give further explanations to the results of the CDA.

These statistics are briefly explained below and used in chapter 5.

i. Group statistical table showed the mean difference between the independent

variables.

ii. Test of Equality of Group Means further test for differences among the independent

variables: Wilk Lambda between 0 and 1, F-test more than 1 and significance less


59

than .05 show higher significant variation or difference among the independent

variables.

iii. Pooled within Group Matrices statistic explain whether the independent variables

are correlated. Once they are correlated, their differences would not be felt hence,

their ability to classify the communities in terms of the flood disaster would be weak.

iv. Box M and log determinant. It is by this statistic that the differences among the

selected communities would be realised. Box M would show that with low/no

significant (e.g ≥ 0.05) means that there is less or no difference in the communities.

F > 1 would imply there is differences in the communities in terms of the flood

disaster.

v. Canonical functions using eigenvalues and canonical correlation is a function

analysing part of the dependent variables that can or cannot be explained by the

independent variables.

vi. Standardization was employed to shows which independent variable had highest

discriminant score and portray the portions of the dependent variables that can or

cannot be explained by the independent variables.

3.3.5 GIS Overlay Operation on Flood Zones

Raster maps of the Sub-metros, communities and slums of Accra Metropolitan Area

(AMA) were procured. Feature Classes of communities, slums and flood zones were

created in ArcCatalog.

The individual raster maps were geo-referenced with the following description:

i. Feature Class: AMABD new

ii. Projected Coordinate System: Ghana Metre Grid

iii. Projection: Traverse Mercator


60

iv. Linear Unit: Meter

v. Geographic Coordinate System: GCS Leigon

vi. Datum: D Leigon

vii. Prime Meridian; Greenwich

viii. Angular Unit: Degree

Figure 3.7 GIS Overlay Operations of Flood and Communities


In ArcMap, the editor toolbar was activated and editing was carried out. Digitizing or editing

was completed under different layers/feature classes which include Sub-metros,

Communities and Slums. Where there were no available map data, GPS Coordinates were

picked from the field. The corresponding attribute table of each layer were constructed and

edited as well, to include fields of communities affected by flood, number of people affected.

Procurement of raster map

e.g. communities

Procurement of raster map

e.g. flood zones

Geo-referencing

Creation of Feature Class

Attribute Table Development for communities, slums

and floods

Digitizing

Symbology/ Map Creation

Overlay of vector i.e. Communities, Slums and Floods


61

Additionally, various map outputs were created for display purposes and symbols were

applied to generate an overlay of communities, flood and slums in the of AMA. The

procedure is summarised in the Figure 3.7.

3.4 Chapter Summary

The chapter examined the profile of the study area and the study design. The first section

included discussion on history and location of Accra, the geology, climate and vegetation

of Accra. Also, the population and migration trends were examined, housing, poverty,

slums, illegal settlements and unauthorized structures and dwellers. Further, the section also

looked at the disaster zones of Accra and the waste management practices in the study area.

The second section discussed the study design. It examined sources of data, data gathering

tools and sampling design. Method of data analysis was discussed including the

Classification Discriminant Analysis tool for measuring the level of difference in flood

disaster in Accra and description of the procedures involved in the GIS overlay operations

on flood and community distribution.


62

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF CLIMATE AND NON-CLIMATE FACTORS TO

FLOOD DISASTER

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents analysis of data gathered from the selected study communities in the

Accra Metropolis. The analyses are based on the background of the respondents; the

knowledge and perception of respondents to flood disasters and its causes. This was done

to relate knowledge and perception of people with the pre-existing concepts and theories of

flood disaster. Graphs, charts, box and plates have been combined to give clearer

interpretation and understanding of the issues analysed.

4.2 Background of the Respondents.

Data was gathered on age and sex in order to explore the social and demographic

characteristic of the respondents. Table 4.1 provides a summary of the age and sex

distribution of respondents. The respondents (83) were within the ages of 35-44, followed

by 73 respondents who were at least 45 years of age (See Table 4.1). The age group (15-

24) had the lowest frequency of 36 respondents. Respondents within the age group of 35-

44, 45 and above constituted the majority because most of them were old and household

heads who were born, bread and had lived several years in the community and could bear

witness to the long term occurrence of climate change and flood disasters in the city. Most

of the respondents within the older age group retired from active service, were resting at

home, and were more available to respond to the questionnaires. It was observed that many

of the young men and women were not at home at the time of the data collection; some went

to school, market and were engaged in other businesses. Most of the elderly people were


63

found in Ga-Mashie, including Ursher Town and James Town because these are indigenous

communities where the elderly hardly travel outside their communities.

Table 4.1: Background of Respondents

Background Communities/Frequencies

Age Group Nima James

Town

Ursher

Town

Korle

Dudor

Cantonment Total

15-24 17 0 8 9 2 36

25-34 35 9 2 4 0 50

35-44 28 2 17 27 9 83

45+ 30 10 9 13 11 73

Sub-Total 110 21 36 53 22 242

Sex

Male 66 9 14 33 17 139

Female 44 12 22 20 5 103

Sub-Total 110 21 36 53 22 242


Out of the sample population of 242,139 were males and 103 females as indicated in Table

4.1. The females in the study communities constituted the majority as this reflects the

national population trend (GSS, 2010). It was discovered that many young men travel to

other communities for more opportunities leaving behind the women. This shows that in

times of flood, more females would be more exposed as compared to their male counterparts

in the Accra Metropolis. Nima however showed predominant male migrant population.

This pattern was difficult to justify. It could be linked to the high number of migrants from

the northern part of Ghana who are mainly males. Further studies are needed to explore this

variation.

4.3 Knowledge and Perceptions on Disaster

Flood has been perennial over the last two decades, posing various challenges to the

socioeconomic development of Ghana. Exploring knowledge and perception of the

respondents about flooding was very important. The study revealed varied views on flood


64

disasters and the implications of those floods. The majority of respondents (88%) were

aware of all forms of disaster particularly floods that occur in Accra as shown in Table 4.2.

Only a few people (13%) were not aware of any events because of the short duration they

have been resident in Accra. This group of people were mostly found in the Nima Township

and most had lived less than six (6) months in the Community.

Table 4.2: Respondents’ Knowledge on Disasters

Awareness Communities, Frequency, Percentage (%)

Nima James Ursher Kol.Dudor Cant ‘ment Total Percentage

Yes 83 21 36 51 22 213 88

No 17 0 0 0 0 17 7

No Idea 10 0 0 2 0 12 5

Total 110 21 36 53 22 242 100

Source: Field Work (2013)

Respondents who indicated they were aware of number disasters indicated this was through

their personal or experiences and what they had heard. Amongst the disasters listed, floods

were listed (208 / 213) because of their frequency and devastating nature to property in parts

of the Accra Metropolis. Discussion with the respondents found that flood occurs almost

every year with lives lost and damage to property. Respondents mentioned 1995, 1997,

2010, and 2011 as the years in which they experienced serious flood disasters in Accra. The

dominance of flood disaster among the list is not strange because the previous studies by

Afedzi (2009) revealed that flood has become a perennial event mostly in the rainy seasons

in Ghana.

The second dominant disaster was fire (187 of 213 respondents), followed by cholera (158

of 213 respondents), and road accidents (98 of 213 respondents). Others included building

collapse, (93 of 213 respondents) among others. Around Agbogbloshie, fires occur almost

every day. This was disclosed during the in-depth interview and FGD held in these areas.


65

Respondents stated that fire has been a disrupting event because of the way it destroys

people’s property. In a FGD, one respondent shared the view that:

“During Harmattan season, we could hear fire events in most communities in

Accra” (FDG,

March 2013).

Table 4.3: Respondents’ Observation of Disasters

Disasters Frequency

Floods 208/213

Fires 187/213

Cholera Outbreak 158/213

Road accidents 98/213

Others 39/213


The table portray a fair knowledge on disasters in the Metropolis. Further studies are needed

on other disasters including fires, cholera outbreak, accidents. It was gathered that cholera

outbreak occurs during rainy season after flood inundates many houses especially in the

slum areas.

4.4 Climate Change and Disasters

Many authors attempt to relate disasters to climate change. Climate has direct are indirect

bearing on the nature of occurrence of some disasters hence changes in the climate also

affect the level of occurrence of those disasters. In the Table 4.4, 145 of total respondents

indicated that flood had high association with changes in climate conditions.

A resident in Korley Dudor was of the view:

“Flood is our biggest problem........ Whenever it rains flood occurs. Water enters

our houses. Some places become muddy. Our gutters are small and chocked”

(Focus Group Discussion, 2013)


66

Table 4.4: Disasters with Strongest Relation to Climate Conditions

Hazards/Disasters Communities, Frequency

Nima James Ursher Kol.Dudor Cantonment Total

Floods 56 16 21 33 19 145

Cholera

Outbreak/other

disease

12 5 10 8 3 38

Fires 15 0 5 4 0 24

Road Accidents 0 0 6 6

Total 83 21 36 51 22 213


Responses on cholera was 38 out of 213. Many of them found it difficult to link up cholera

to climate conditions directly. Respondents stated that cholera is common when run-off

waters inundate their homes. Interviewing respondents further on cholera and its association

with climate conditions, a resident at Agbogbloshie indicated as follows:

“Cholera usually occurs when it is a rainy season. Cholera occurs where flood water

enters people’s houses and outside. Some of these areas (pointing to other homes)

experienced cholera last year............” (In-depth Interview, March 2013).

The relationship between climate conditions and fire disaster is quite weak. Only 24

respondents relate fire to climate outbreaks in the city. Meanwhile domestic fire has become

an everyday occurrence in mostly slum communities especially in Agbogbloshie and Old

Fadama (FGD, 2013). This shows that both cholera and fire outbreak are indirect effects of

climate change in Accra Metropolis.

4.5 Causes of Flood Disaster in Accra

Flood is an annual phenomenon in the Metropolis affecting properties, houses and

businesses of victims in general. Floods result from both climate and non-climate factors.


67

Respondent views were generally explored to identify causes of flood. The results were

summarised in Figure 4.1.

In figure 4.1, 70 of 145 of the respondents indicated improper waste disposal as a main cause

of floods in Accra. Ineffective Settlement planning and implementation (27 responses),

drainage problem (24 responses), rainfall (13 responses) and attitudinal behaviour (11

responses) all emerged.

Figure 4.1: Reasons for Flood Occurrences in Accra Source: Field Work, 2013.

Findings at the focus group discussions augment the result that some people dump rubbish

into gutters and the main river at night whether or not there are dustbins. It was explained

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Nu

mb

ber

Fre

qu

ency

of

Res

po

nse

s

Communities

Causes of Floods in Accra

There are no enough

drainage in those

communities

Disposal of sewerage

into the gutters

Rainfall

Settlement planning and

implementation

Attitudinal behavior


68

that dustbins along the street are not many. Some said that waste collectors could be well

paid for the waste collection service but they do not come regularly.

At Nima, a retired public servant was interviewed about his experience and observations of

waste practices. The resident was named Musa. He was a 68 year old retired Public Servant

at the time of the interview. He was sitting in an armchair in front of his gate. It was 11:16

am and he was relaxing and waiting to go to the Mosque at 1:00pm. He originated from

Bawku but is now permanently settled in Nima, Accra. He was asked to describe his

observations and experiences on waste management in Accra. His experiences are

summarised in Box 4.1.

Box 4.1: Resident’s Story

Source: Fieldwork, 2013

Plate 4.1 to 4.6 were used to illustrate the level of waste management, choked gutters,

building on waterways and some few dredging works in Accra. Plate 4.1 specifically shows

Life in Accra has changed over his 32-year stay in Nima. Nima was a nice place that

attracted every one coming to Accra. The environment was neat and buildings well

arranged. Those days my household used to have dustbin at home and every morning

my wife, later on my children will sweep the house and rooms, gather the rubbish into

the dustbin and carry them to Bola (rubbish dump). We were few in the community and

people used to generate small amount of waste. Now population has increased, more

waste has been generated and the “Bola” points have been closed down except some

small one down there. I no longer allow my children to take bola (rubbish) out. Other

people just leave their bola around carelessly and rain carry them away, but for me I

can’t complain because some people do not even know where to sleep or what to eat, let

alone to provide dust bin themselves.


69

the initial deposition of waste into drains of Accra during dry season. This will accumulate

and gradually chock gutter. There are many gutters in the city with this outlook. One would

wonder if people are doing this with conscience. I personally met one Taxi Driver dumping

in this gutter as soon as he came to park at the station.

Plate 4.1: Deposition of Wastes in Drains at Ga-Mashie


Passengers left waste into the taxi, alighted and went off. Leaving waste I a car is permitted

in Ghana so that people would not dump them on the road. The Taxi Driver collected the

waste and dumped them into nearby drain. I asked him to pick it up with all humility and

he said to me:

Gentleman, mind your business. I cannot carry this rubbish in the car. When we

dump it into the gutter here, people come to collect them. People from the Assemblies


70

come for them. We are paying them taxes so they must not give excuses why waste

we dump we dump in this gutter should remain there (Resident, 2013)

Plate 4.2 Building on Waterways and Chocked Gutters in Agbogbloshie


Many plans have been developed in the city to provide effective land use including building,

and development of drainage in Accra. The increase in the population and pressure on lands

lead people to build in areas earmarked for no habitation.

Every year, erection of wooden and illegal structures in communities including, Old

Fadama, Agbogbloshie and Ga-Mashie is on the increase. Building near the major streams


71

such as Odaw River, Korley Lagoon is regulated although a few structures were still

observed along the river bodies.

The general attitude of people in the Accra Metropolis remain a major obstacle to managing

urban waste. People’s behaviour and attitudes towards waste disposal was cited to be the

third strongest reason for the increasing flood impacts in Accra. It includes non-adherence

to building regulations and dumping in open gutters and drains among others. The

behavioural aspect cut across all other challenges.

Plate 4.3 Chocked Gutters in Old Fadama (A and B)


The behaviour of residents influenced the level at which people dump in gutters, building

in unauthorised places including building in waterways. Poor behaviour and attitudes is a

serious problem because even people who are very educated in both formal and informal

A B


72

ways are also part of the problem though efforts are being made to reducing dumping in the

city.

Plate 4.4: Narrow and silted Drain at James Town


The drainage situation forms parts of the reason for the perennial flood disasters in the city.

The drainage system are in a deplorable state. Limited drainage was observed in many

communities with the available ones been either too narrow, broken or chocked with solid

waste.

It was observed that drainage is limited and those available either too narrow, broken or

chocked with solid waste.


73

Drainage and the waste situation constitute very serious problems in Accra. It was revealed

that a much waste goes into the gutters because most of the drains are open and uncovered.

Plate 4.5: Waste Collected and left at the Bank of Drain in Ursher Town


Plate 4.6: Dredging Work on Choked Odaw River


Waste dumbed into the gutters becomes difficult to remove, as it becomes stacked and

congested. Worst of it all, waste collectors remove the waste and leave it at the bank of the

drains as shown by Plate 4.3. Many respondents, believed that poor land use and planning


74

and poor engineering methods have exacerbated the problem even though they identified

rainfall as serious factor to urban flooding.

An interview with the Public Relations Officer of AMA on the cause of perennial floods in

Ghana. The Officer worked in the Assembly for over 10 years. He was very much

conversant with the efforts and challenges of the Assembly. His knowledge was summarised

in Box 4.2

Box 4.2: Public Relation Officer’s Story



Rainfall contributes largely to floods in Accra. There is a high run-off in Accra during rainy

season resulting flood. In addition to the responses in Figure 4.1, a resident in James Town

who works at Kwame Nkrumah Circle phone shop, Mr. Samuel Armah shared his

experience on the pattern of rainfall below:

There were number of comprehensive plans for Accra to promote effective land use and

development. The recent one was 1993 to 1998. These plans earmarked areas for settlement

residential areas, industrial, commercial and administrative areas. Areas not to be inhabited

includes the buffer zones along the drains and waterlogs, and recreational areas for evacuation

during floods and other dis asters. These spaces were provided so when there is flood in the buffers

nobody will lose properties or lives. After some time these areas were encroached, some were sold

and distorted. Unstable governance, lack of proper monitoring and enforcement of plans led to

improper execution of the comprehensive plans we had for Accra. It is rather unfortunate! Today,

there are thousands of people leaving in Alajo, which was marshy and preserved as storage of

excess run-off. All buffers along the six drains in the GAMA including Odaw River were inhabited.

Development of drainages and adequate measures for enforcement of bye-laws were limited. We

should not be surprised why floods inundate these communities and areas at the peak of rainy

season. We need to re-engineer the city.


75

Rainfall has become quite different in recent times. In a short, rain could fall heavily and

stopp. It could happen like that until many places are flooded here (referring to Kwame

Nkrumah Circle). Before one realised, there is flood all over. Where to pass becomes a

problem. Water could enter our shops, station and everywhere here (In-depth-

Interview, 2013)

Section 4.6 examined the changes in rainfall conditions and rainfall intensity in Accra and

how these are related to the incidence of flooding.

4.6 Changes in Rainfall and other Climatic Conditions

The resident’s awareness about the changes in rainfall and other climatic conditions and

their ramification with flood disaster. Results obtained indicated that 70 percent of the

respondents were aware of some changes in climatic pattern. Twenty-four percent (24%) of

the respondents admitted they had not observed any changes and 6 percent were not certain,

perhaps because they could not see marked differences in rainfall.

Those who agreed that there were marked changes, did so because of the weather related

activities they engaged in. For example, those at James and Ursher Town were

predominantly fishermen and so the changes in the sea levels, temperature and wind

behaviour provided some clue to changing weather patterns. The basis of the opinions on

the changes in the climate was due to the length of time these respondents had been part of

the local community, in many cases for at least 30 years.

Very few respondents did not observe any change in weather conditions and if they did it

was because of their short period of residing in the community. For example, in

Cantonments and Nima, residents who did not notice any change in climate conditions were

mostly migrants who have not stayed in the community for long. Generally, most

respondents across all five (5) communities indicated that there were changes in the climate.


76

Thirty three (33) percent of respondents indicated that there were significant changes in the

wind. Usually, a strong wing comes with rainfall in the city. Temperature constituted (32%),

rainfall (30%) and others represented by 5 percent. The other elements mentioned included

sunshine and heat but with a small percentage.

Table 4.5 Changes and Variability Observed in the Climate by Respondents

Personal

Observation

Communities, Frequency

Nima James Ursher Kol.Dudor Cantonment Total Total

Percentage

(%)

Yes 59 21 34 46 13 169 70

No 39 0 0 7 9 58 24

No idea 12 0 2 0 0 15 6

Total 110 21 36 53 22 242 100

Source: Field Work (2013)

The diverse views expressed by the respondents on weather elements reflected not only the

dominance of any particular element at the time of data collection but also related to

activities they perform. The extreme events that come with the change in the climate

conditions is also a factor. Their choices were largely influenced on how much knowledge

they had on one element over the other. The study confirmed that strong winds prevalent at

James Town, Korley Dudor and Ursher Town due to their proximity to the Gulf of Guinea

coast (sea).

The study examined knowledge and perception about the nature of changes in the climatic

conditions. The changes were categorised under three major weather elements including

rainfall, temperature and wind. In Table 4.6, 16 percent of the respondents said annual


77

rainfall has decreased, 32 percent indicated that rainfall pattern is unpredictable in recent

times, 45 percent said rainfall is more intensive and destructive in modern times.

Table 4.6: Observed Changes and Variability on Climate Conditions

Climate Conditions Frequency Percentage

(%) Rainfall

Unpredictable 77 32

High Intensity 109 45

Reduction in Annual Quantity 39 16

No much changes 17 7

Sub-Total 242 100

Temperature

Generally high 169 70

Colder in wet season and extremely hotter in

dried season

36 15

Increasing heat 24 10

No much changes 12 5

Sub-Total 242 100

Wind

Increase in intensity/strength 80 33

Increase in magnitude (volume) 19 8

Becoming more destructive 113 47

Did not see much change 30 12

Sub-Total 242 100


Seventy percent of the respondents said temperature has been generally high, 15 percent

said temperature is colder in wet season but extremely hot in the dry season. Twenty four

(24) respondents accounting for 10% of total respondents admitted that heat in Accra has

increased in recent years making living conditions uncomfortable.


78

Respondents suggested that there are changes in the wind pattern. Thirty three (33) percent

of total respondents noticed that wind has increased in its intensity and strength over the

years. Other respondents (47%) said wind has been more destructive in recent times. Eight

percent of agreed to the fact that there has been an increase in the magnitude of wind. All

responses provided indication that residents have fair knowledge about climate change,

which can help decision in terms of adaptation and mitigation of climate related disaster in

the city.

Average monthly and annual rainfall and temperature data from Ghana Meteorological

Agency (GMet, 2013) shows more scientific and reliable data to determine changes in the

climate conditions. This was done to support the knowledge and perceptions of the

interview respondents. In the first place, mean monthly rainfall was measured to determine

the monthly variation from 1961-2000 year period. It showed a short variation and changes

in the climate (over at least 30 years period). The monthly rainfall analysis was also carried

out to explain the high run-off and the perennial floods in the June/July. The figure shows

that rainfall starts in March/April and peaks in May, June and July, which is the major rainy

season. During this time, there is a very high run-off generation leading serious flooding in

Accra.

In July and August, rainfall is very low and the period that is minor dry season between the

major rainy season and the minor rainy season. The second rainfall season starts in

September, reaches its peak in October, and is referred to as the minor rainy season. In some

years, rain is very intensive and highly unpredictable. December through to March shows

the longest period of dryness, where rainfall is scanty with no floods. With the changes and

variability associated with climate in recent times, Accra sometimes experiences a short rain

in the dry season.


79

In some exceptional cases including October and November, 2011, there were some floods

in Accra even though the season was almost into dry season. Usually such flood are very

destructive because most people would not be in preparation for it.

Figure 4.3: Average Monthly Rainfall over Four Decades in Accra

Source: Ghana Meteorological Agency, 2013

In addition to the mothly rainfal pattern over various decades between 1961-2000, mean

annual rainfall was also analysed. The trend shows a negative slope. The early and late

1960s, and middle 1990’s show relatively high values. The maximum recession was

recorded in the 1980s. The rainfall shows a decline at rate of 10mm per year over the period

which may be as a result of climatic changes.

The Average Annual Rainfall (ANN) potrays a rise and fall in rainfall occurrence over the

four decades in Accra (see Figure 4.4). In addition, the Average Annual Rainfall (Linear

y = -1.605x + 76.345R² = 0.01

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Rain

fall

(m

m)

Month

Average Monthly Rainfall in Accra Months in 1961-1970

Months 1971-1980

Months in 1981-1990)

Months in 1991-2000

Mean ofMonths from1961-2000


80

ANN) shows the overall decrease in rainfall over Accra. Further characteristic of the rainfall

pattern between two-year blocks was compared.

Figure 4.4: Average Annual Rainfall from 1961-2000 in Accra

Source: Ghana Meteorological Agency (2013).

Regarding temperature patterns, monthy and annual average records from 1961-2000 were

analysed to have increased over the last year except in the middle of the year where it falls

with a positive slope.

From Figure 4.5, the average monthly temperature from November through January to April

is significantly high with the peak in February. This is due to the dry season or the Harmttan

period where there are fewer or no low clouds accompanied by heat through to February. It

begins to deline from May to September with the lowest point in July/August. The pattern

of temperature over the past 4 decades also remained almost the same, falling across all

y = -7.7652x + 967.44

R² = 0.1724

0.0

200.0

400.0

600.0

800.0

1000.0

1200.0

1400.0

1600.0

Ra

infa

ll (

mm

)

Year

Average Annual Rainfall (ANN) (1961-2000) in Accra

ANN

Linear (ANN)


81

decades from 1960 till the present time over Accra. The periods 1980s and 1990s showed

levels appreciably above the 1960s and 1970s.

Figure 4.5: Average Monthly Temperature over Four Decades in Accra

Source: Ghana Meteorological Service Department, 2013

In Figure 4.6, the study analysed temperature per annum from 1961 to 2000. This was

carried out to indicate the change in the temperature within the period. In the Figure 4.6,

unlike the rainfall trend showed that temperature followed a positive trend. It shows that

temperature was low during the 1960s relatively below 27 oC and picked up to about 28.2oC

in the early 1970s. The figure later dropped in the 1970s but continued with a rising trend

towards the early 1990s.

The considerable long term increase in the temperature from late 1970s to 1980s is explained

by the long term drought experienced during the period. During that period, there was

25.0

26.0

27.0

28.0

29.0

30.0

31.0

32.0

33.0

34.0

Tem

pe

ratu

re (

⁰C)

Month

Avearge MonthlyTemperature over Four Decades in Accra

Average Max.1961-1970)

Average Max.(1971-1980)



Linear (AverageMax. 1961-1970))


82

drastic reduction in the amount of rain which was needed to cool the temperature of the

earth.

Figure 4.6: Average Annual Temperature from 1960-2000 in Accra

Source: Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet), 2013

The land was then exposed to extensive bush burning and deforestation which aggravated

the rising temperature phenomenon. Mean Temperature equally shows a positive trend since

1961 with higher trend from 1980 indicating excess or surplus heat in the atmosphere

leading to global warming.

4.7 Chapter Summary

The chapter explained the relationship between flood and climate and non-climate factors

in Accra. Results were presented under various sections including the background of

respondents to determine respondents’ their knowledge and perceptions on flood disasters,

climate change and non-climate factor causing the floods. The other sections included the

knowledge and perceptions of changes in rainfall and other climatic conditions and the

nature of these changes. The result of the study shows that the majority of the respondents

y = 0.0374x + 26.493R² = 0.5839

26.2

26.4

26.6

26.8

27.0

27.2

27.4

27.6

27.8

28.0

28.2

Tem

per

atu

re(°

C)

Year

Average Annual Temperature from 1960-2000 in Accra

Ann

Linear

(Ann)


83

were between the ages of 35 and above with more males than females. In relation to the

climate change phenomenon, the majority of the respondents demonstrated good knowledge

on climatic changes occurring over time. Specifically, temperature was indicated to have

increased over the years as did wind which was observed to have increased in intensity and

magnitude over the years. However, rainfall has shown a decreasing trend but with higher

intensity and run-off in June/July (peak of major season), causing flood disaster.

Residents were also assessed on their perceptions on disasters in their localities. In the Accra

Metropolis, flooding was noted as the most frequent disaster with very close association

with climate change. Specific perceived causes associated with disasters included

unpredictable heavy rainfall and run-off, ineffective plan implementation including

haphazard building structures, encroachment on low-lying areas, and poor waste

management practices.


84

CHAPTER FIVE

SPATIAL DIFFERENCES AND ADAPTATION TO FLOOD DISASTER

5.1 Introduction

Flood occurrence is a perennial phenomenon in urban communities attributed to changes in

climatic conditions and human or anthropogenic factors. This chapter seeks to examine

observed spatial differences in flood disaster and adaption strategies adopted.

5.2 Discriminant Analysis of Spatial Variation on Flood Disaster

Flood incidence in Accra is not evenly distributed across space. Some communities are

more prone to flooding than others as a result of their geographical locational differences.

Figure 5.1 shows the map of all the major communities in Accra, highlighting major slums

in the metropolis. The UN-HABITAT (2002 p.21) defined slum as “a contiguous settlement

where the inhabitants are characterized as having inadequate housing and basic services. A

slum is often not recognized and addressed by the public authorities as an integral or equal

part of the city”. There are a number of communities in Accra that are classified as slums,

with major ones such as Nima, Agbogbloshie, Old Fadama, Korley Dudor among others.

Cantonments, Ridge, Kanda, and Asylum Down however are not classified as slums but as

residential areas.

Figure 5.2 shows the map (enlarged form attached in Annex D) of flood catchment areas in

the Accra Metropolis. In-depth discussions held with respondents provided insights into the

spatial variations of floods in Accra in terms of frequency of occurrence. Some of the

communities noted to be prone to flooding included: Avenor, Gbegbeyese, Korle

Dudor/Graphic Roads, Agbogbloshie/Galloway, Darkuman, Kwashieman, Awoshie, Santa


85

Maria, Dansoman, Liberty and Tunga Down, Mukose, Avenor, Atico, Odawna, Adabraka

(see list in Table 5.1).

Figure 5.1: A Map of Slum Areas in the Metropolis


Observation from the field found that almost all settlements in Accra have some segment of

slum. Communities such as Cantonment, Ridge, East Legon, and Westland, which are all

high residential areas, have some slum areas. These slums came into existence as result of

the settlement of the indigenous people who still maintain their old structures. This is typical

of the East Legon slums. Another reason is those who used to provide labour for

construction works initially going on in those communities. There others who were also


86

selling provisions and food in this communities. There all leaving there temporary initially

but now became permanent residents (AMA, 2011).

Table 5.1: Listing of Flood Disaster Zones (communities) over Accra

Events Locations

Flooding in

Accra

Korle Dudor/Graphic Roads,

Agbogbloshie/Galloway,

Darkuman,

Kwashieman,

Awoshie,

Santa Maria,

Dansoman,

Liberty and Tunga Down,

Mukose,

Avenor,

Atico,

Odawna,

Adabraka,

Official Town,

West Legon,

Alogboshie,

Kissema,

West Legon,

Nii Boi Town,

Olengele Kronaa,

Apenkwa,

New Achimota.

Kinaphama Down,

Tesano(Adama),

Christian Village,

Osu Doku,

Alajo North and South,

Kotobabi North

and South,


Data on flood disasters in Accra has been gathered through different sources. Records on

floods were accessed mostly from NADMO and newspaper reviews. This data was used to

create a flood map for the Accra Metropolis (see sub-section 3.3.5 for detailed GIS

procedure).

The purpose of the map was to determine the spatial distribution and severity of urban floods

in the study area. The map of the slum areas and the flood prone zones were overlaid to

spatially locate communities with flood incidences. The final map (figure 5.3) (enlarged


87

map in Annex D) reveals that floods are unevenly distributed in AMA with slum areas

being the most vulnerable.

Figure 5.2: A Map of combined Flood Distribution in Accra


Reference is made to areas around Mamobi, Kotobabi, Alajo, Westward to Alajo, Old

Tesano. Kaneshie, Kokomlemle, and Abossey Okai, which occupy the central portion of

Accra. To the extreme south, along the coast from the west to east, such areas as Korley

Gonno, Gbegbeyese, Korley Dudor, Agbogbloshie, Accra Central and James/Ursher Town

represented vulnerable communities prone to flooding. Others include Santa Maria,


88

Dansoman, Liberty and Tunga Down, Mukase, Avenor, Atico, Odawna, Adabraka and

Official Town.

Figure 5.3: A Map of combined Flood and Slums.


The spatial distribution of floods in Accra’s slum and low class residential areas, which have

dense and packed populations, makes such communities more vulnerable to floods.

Notwithstanding this, middle to high class residential areas including Cantonment, Burma

Camp, up to Airport Residential and down to Ridge also remain prone to floods (see figure

5.3) (Enlarged size in Annex D). The only difference is that the frequency of flood

occurrence, loss of life and property among other negative effects remain highest among

slum and low residential areas.


89

The study further sought to assess resident’s knowledge and perceptions on the spatial

distribution of flood disasters in Accra. The results of the knowledge and perception of the

respondents were analysed using Classification Discriminant Analysis, which was

explained in Chapter 3. The flood indicators used included the frequency of occurrence of

flood disaster, property damage and fatality.

The ratings provided by residents of all the five (5) communities indicated that despite the

difficulties of not taking records of flood events, 89 out of 208 respondents indicated that

there are community variations in the occurrence and effects of flood events in terms of

frequency, damage and fatalities. Notwithstanding, the variations shown in Table 5.2 shows

that respondents rated frequency of occurrence as the highest observed variation, followed

by property damage and fatality among the indicators (see table 5.2).

Table 5.2: Knowledge and Perception of Flood Disaster Variations

Independent Variables Nima James

Town

Ursher

Town

Korley

Dudor

Cantonment Total

Frequency of Occurrence 11 6 13 19 4 53

Property Damage 7 2 1 12 2 24

Fatality to lives 2 0 0 7 3 12

Total 20 8 14 38 9 89


The study also tested for the extent of difference in community floods using the indicators

of frequency of occurrence, property damage and fatality. The three indicators were used as

independent variables against all five-study communities as dependent variables. The aim

of the analysis was to determine whether these predictor variables would discriminate one


90

community from the other using the Classification Discrimant Analysis with F-test and

significance level.

Table 5.3 Group Statistics (means and standard deviations)


The classification sought to reveal the most important variable(s) by inspecting the group

means and standard deviations as provided in sub-section 3.3. According to Table 5.4, there

is a significant variation among the independent variable (fatality of disaster and property

damage). The variations are shown by Wilks' Lambda values. Inferred from Section 3.3.5

between 0 and 1, values of Lambda are significant to proof the difference between the

dependent variables.

Table 5.4 shows that frequency of flood disaster is 0.145, Fatality is 0.154 and Property

Damage is zero. 127. All three indicators were tested at a 0.000 significance level which

means that, the value of P < 0.05 significance test level. This statistics revealed a significant

difference in the three indicators (frequency of disaster, fatality of disasters and damage)

and the respondent’s community of residence with F = (123.93, 115.74 and 144.52).

The Pooled Within-Group Matrices (Table 5.5) was used to establish the inter-correlations.

The low correlation indicates that a high difference between the predictors (Frequency,

Residential Areas Mean Std. Deviation

Total Frequency of the Disaster 3.4944 0.85445

Fatality of the Disaster 3.5393 0.73941

Property Damage 3.4831 1.15908


91

fatality and property damage) once their predicting behaviour on the dependent variable

remain different.

Table 5.4 Tests of Equality of Group Means

Tests of Equality of Group Means

Independent

Variables Wilks' Lambda F df1 df2 Sig.

Frequency of the

Disaster .145 123.932 4 84 .000

Fatality of the Disaster .154 115.740 4 84 .000

Property Damage .127 144.517 4 84 .000


Table 5.5: Pooled Within-Groups Matrices

Pooled Within-Groups Matrices

Independent

Variables

Frequency of the

Disaster

Fatality of the

Disaster Property Damage

Frequency of the

Disaster

1.000 .727 .269

Fatality of the

Disaster

.727 1.000 .214

Property Damage .269 .214 1.000


The log determinants appear different but with no large variation and Box M is 176.474

with F = 11.615 which are significant at p <0.03 (Table 5.6). This situation is because of the

difference between the means of the independent variables. Once the significant figure is


92

less than 0.05 with F value more than one, the conclusion is that disaster occurrence among

the study communities differed.

Table 5.6 Box's M and Log Determinants

Box's M 12.346

F Approx. 1.696

df1 6

df2 11.615

Sig. 0.038

Log Determinants

Residential Areas Rank Log Determinant

James T 3 -5.432

Ursher F 2 .a

Nima 3 -6.531

Korley Dudor 1 .a

Cantonment 2 .a

Pooled within-groups 3 -7.181


The first function produced the highest Eigenvalues (10.517a) with variation of 96.8% of

the total data projected onto a dimension that best separates or discriminates between the

communities shown in Table 5.7. The second function accounts for 3.0% whilst the third

function accounts for 0.2% indicating lower discriminating ability.

These Eigenvalues (Table 5.8) are related to the canonical correlations and describe how

much discriminating ability a function possesses. The magnitudes of the Eigenvalues are

indicative of the functions' discriminating abilities. The canonical correlation of the


93

predictor variables (frequency of disaster, frequency of fatality and property damage) and

the communities were also determined.

Discriminating variables were one set of variables and the set of generated grouping variable

were considered over a canonical correlation analysis performed. From the analysis, a

canonical correlation was arrived at, for example (Table 5.8) a canonical correlation of 0.956

which suggests that the model explains 91.3 percent i.e., (0.956)2of the variation in the

dependent variable. About 8.7 percent of flood attributes among the communities was

unexplained by the frequency/quantity, fatality and damage of the disasters.

Table 5.7: Summary of Canonical Discriminant Functions (Eigenvalues)

Eigenvalues

Function Eigenvalues % of Variance Cumulative %

Canonical

Correlation

1 10.517a 96.8 96.8 0.956

2 0.328a 3.0 99.8

3 0.025a 0.2 100.0


The Standardized Canonical Discriminant Function Coefficients was used to calculate the

discriminant score for a given case. For the data, frequency/quantity, fatality and damage as

the variables were standardized as discriminating variables. For each case, the function

scores were calculated using the following equations:

Score1=0.312 frequency/quantity+ 0.353 fatality + 0.643 damage

Score2=0.617 frequency/quantity + 0.274 fatality - 0.815 damage

Each score was standardized to have a mean of zero (0) and standard deviation of one (1).

The magnitudes of these coefficients indicate how strongly the discriminating variables


94

affect the score. From the result, it is also realised that the standardized coefficient for

damage in the first function is greater in magnitude than the coefficients for the other two

variables.

Table 5.8: Standardized Canonical Discriminant Function Coefficients

Independent

Variables Function

Disaster Attributes 1 2 3

Frequency of the Disaster 0.312 0.617 -1.306

Fatality of the Disaster 0.353 0.274 1.386

Property Damage 0.643 -0.815 -0.032


Thus, property damage had the greatest impact, with functions of 0.643 damage and -0.815

damage (out of maximum of one or -1), of the three on the first discriminant score. In the

second function, property damages -0.815 damage (out of maximum of -1) again the highest

impact of discriminating followed by frequency or quantity of the floods. The third function

was not included in the score model because its Eigenvalue was not statistically significant.

5.3 Experience of Flood Disaster in Accra

The study also collected data on victims of flood and non-victims. The data set assisted in

understanding the number of affected people and the extent of coverage. According to

Table 5.9, 91 people representing 44% of total respondents have been victims of flood


95

disasters with as many as 119 (56%) stating that they have not personally, or directly been

affected by floods.

Table 5.9: People Affected by Flood Disaster in Accra

Respondents Frequency Percentage

Affected 91 44

Never Affected 119 56

Total 208 100


Table 5.10 Where Respondents Experience Flood Disaster

Communities Respondents Percentage

Nima 42 46

James Town 4 4

Ursher Town 19 21

Korley Dudor 24 26

Cantonment 2 2

Total 91 100


The Table 5.10 indicates that majority of respondents (46%) who have suffered from flood

disasters live at Nima. Korle Dudor and Ursher Town communities had 26 percent and 21

percent respectively of residents who were victims of flood disasters. James Town and

Cantonments had 4 percent and 2 percent of respondents respectively indicating that they

have suffered from flood disaster.

Discussions with the respondents also showed that most respondents who were affected also

lost their properties and belongings. Some specifically identified such lost items as carpets,

clothes, books among others. They also indicated some immediate strategies adopted to

safeguard their property. Most of them indicated the raising of tables and other platforms


96

above the floor upon which items were placed. According to a Resident of Nima who was

severely affected by flood in 2011, she narrated:

I had to sleep at my cousin’s residence for some few days while draining the

floodwater and clearing my damaged properties from the house...and with the

upcoming rainy season, I do not know what am going to do (FGD, 2013).

The two victims of flood in Cantonment explained that, even though they have been victims

of floods, the incidence occurred rather at their former residence at Accra Newtown but not

Cantonment. One person noted that, they moved into Cantonment after his husband got a

political appointment.

5.4. Adaptation Strategies to Flood Disasters.

Adaptation strategies have always been an important measure to assess community’s ability

to respond to an impending hazard or disaster. Aggregating responses from all study

communities, majority of respondents (120) indicated that they were aware of certain

adaptation strategies to flood hazards. However, 88 respondents could not trace or recall any

form of adaptation strategy initiated by governments, NGO’s or civil societies in times of

flooding.

Table 5.11: Response on Efforts to Cope with Flood Disaster

Efforts Communities

Responses Nima James Ursher Kol.Dudor Cantonment Total

Yes 41 11 22 41 5 120

No 46 7 12 21 2 88

Total 87 18 34 62 7 208


Adaptation efforts varied. Residents mentioned adaptation strategies that are by

government, NGOs and individual. Nima, Korley Dudor and Ursher Town had larger


97

number of residents indicating awareness on adaption strategies by government institutions,

NGOs, civil society organizations and individuals in the Accra Metropolis.

Table 5.12: Adaptation Efforts towards Flood Disasters in Accra

Institution Flood Climate Drainage, Waste, Housing

Condition

Government -Japanese Donation of

vehicles to NADMO

-Clean-up exercise

before major rains

-Public sensitization

jingles

Creating Public

Awareness

Public awareness NADMO

display and educates the

public on dos and don’ts

through multimedia,

maintenance of gutters,

provision of reliefs,

National Sanitation Day

NGO Provision of relief

Assist in clean-up

exercise

Not much Provision of reliefs services

Community Assist in clean-up

exercise

Participating in the

Public awareness

Programmes

Clean-up exercise,

education to neighbours,

Individual Assist in clean-up

exercise

Participating in the

Public awareness

Programmes

Fence walls, evacuation

Other (Church,

Clubs,

Associations

Assist in clean-up

exercise

Take part in some

of the awareness

programme

Assist in clean-up exercise,

Awareness activities


When assessing the specific adaptation strategies for managing flood disasters, varied

strategies were adopted at individual, community and institutional levels. Government

provides vehicles to institutions managing floods, clean-up exercises prior to rain, public

sensitization campaigns among others. Before major rains, NADMO and its disaster


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management partners undertakes general clean-up exercise in the Metropolis. NADMO

partners with institutions such as the Security Services, Zoom Lion and Civil Society

Organization, NGOs etc. (see Table 5.12).

The private and benevolent organizations also help in the clean-up exercises, especially

Zoomlion, corporate societies, market women, etc. NGOs also provide relief services

during and after the flood disasters. They help provide temporal housing structures, food,

drugs and sensitize communities. For the community at large especially in the flood prone

communities, they assist NADMO officials during the clean-up exercises for example;

residents at Korley Dudor were organized to assist the officials in the 2012 and 2013 clean-

up exercises in and around their community. Churches and other societies sensitize members

and communities on flood incidences, although this is not on a regular basis.

From all responses, the most common adaptive strategies included the construction of

barriers (fence wall), sensitization and desilting of gutters as well as providing relief items.

In extreme cases, there are some forms of relocation by victims. These strategies could

provide basis for the development of enhanced approaches to flood adaptations. A blend of

scientific and local knowledge on flood adaptation strategies will provide a more robust

framework to flood management and promote platforms for innovations for city authorities

in physical planning.

5.4.1 Adaptation Strategies Recommended by the Respondents

The major public stakeholders identified to be managing the urban disasters included

NADMO, and AMA. The role of these institutions included intensive education awareness

on flood disasters, relocation policies, expanding and constructing new drains, mapping and

strategic spatial plans and effective disaster response systems. Private organizations such as

CSO, CBO and NGO’s on the other hand, were expected to support projects financially,


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promote awareness on flood disasters, make technological and innovative strategies to

combat urban disasters and engage in effective monitoring of the implementation of

supported projects.

Table 5.13 Recommended Adaptations from FGD (at Ga Mashie)

Institutions Recommendation

Ministries,

Assemblies (AMA)

NADMO

Other

a) Education and awareness

b) Relocation

c) Upgrading and rebuilding poor settlement

d) Construction of more drainages

e) Covering of drainage and cleaning gathers

f) Development control

g) Proper sanitation management

h) Put fines

i) Mapping and strategic spatial planes

j) Re-zoning and re-alignment

k) Effective delivery on disaster emergency

CSO,CBO, NGOs a) Promotion of education and awareness

b) Motivation to best practices

c) Financial support

d) Technology and innovation

e) Monitoring and evaluation

Individual Efforts f) Attitudinal change and discipline

g) Proper clean-up

h) Cooperation,

i) Participation

j) Providing primary data in support of decision

making


Respondents were also requested to recommend some adaptation strategies. From a number

of community discussions, key recommendations were recommended as summarised in the

Table 5.13. The recommendations made, cut across government institutions, private


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organizations and individuals. Residents at the individual level are also expected to have

attitudinal change towards keeping the environment clean and participate in community

clean-up exercises (See Table 5.13)

Table 5.14 Priority Investment

Strategies Frequencies

Planning arrangement 26

Development control and enforcement 40

Education and awareness 79

Citizens participation 42

Others- 21

Not Accounted for 21

Source: Field survey, 2013

The result in Table 5.14 showed that the increasing flooding in Accra is due to increasing

human vulnerability as the majority of respondents (79%) called for human centred

directives including sensitization programs in addition to development control and law

enforcement amongst others in the Metropolis.

5.5 Chapter Summary

The Chapter began with an introduction that explained the sub-divisions of the chapter. The

next subsection was devoted to the analysis of the spatial variations and severity of the flood

disasters in the city. The section revealed that floods are not evenly distributed across the

city space but rather in areas with pre-existing flood-favourable conditions. The second

section used the Classification Determinant Analysis, to understand the variations in the

frequency of flood occurrence, fatality of floods and the damage caused by floods in five

study communities. Finally, the chapter examined the adaptation strategies adopted by


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governments and private organizations as well at the community levels in mitigating flood

events and aftermath damage.


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CHAPTER SIX

DISCUSSION OF MAJOR FINDINGS

6.1 Introduction

The chapter discusses major findings from the results presented in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5.

It focusses on the extent of floods in Accra, its causes, adaptation strategies and

recommendations. The chapter is organised into six sections beginning with the

introduction; section two on nature and extent of flood in Accra; the third section on causes

of flood disaster; fourth section on spatial variation and severity of flood; the fifth section

recommends action; and the sixth section is the chapter summary. Where necessary, the

results and discussions are placed in the context of the literature reviewed under Chapter 2.

6.2 Flooding in Accra

The majority of the respondents (213 of the total respondent representing 88 percent) who

were aware of disaster occurrences in Ghana referred to flood as dominant disaster in Accra.

Compared with cholera, fires, road accidents and other disasters in Accra, floods are said to

be the most frequent, causing area wide damages to the property of individuals and

communities especially during the raining seasons. The increased awareness of urban flood

disasters is a result of the mass campaign across the mass media and sensitization by civil

society organizations. The UNISDR (2011) also identified urban floods as predominant in

urban communities worldwide. Floods affected over one hundred people up to the 1940’s;

rising to 2800 in the 1990 is which saw over 200 people badly affected. This is also in

agreement with Dar and Nandargi (2002) who stated that floods are natural phenomenon

aggravated by extreme climate change and hydro-meteorological events. It is noted as the


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most disastrous, frequent and widespread disaster causing extensive damages to lives and

property.

6.3. Causes of Flood Disasters

Floods have been linked to several causes. Studies have linked flood events to climatic

factors (UNEP, 2012; IPCC, 2011 cited in Gyekye, 2013) even though this study shows that

the causes of urban floods are rather multifaceted. Generally, people have agreed to the

changes in the climate through their personal experiences, research and media

(Wurtermberger, 2011). Respondents expressed their perceptions on the rate at which

climate is changing based on the number of years they have stayed in the community and

their experiences with the weather and climate conditions. The majority of the respondents

(70%) referred to the changes in the climate as intensive rainfall resulting in high run-off

and unpredictable weather making it difficult to establish pattern and prepare for its impacts.

Another finding was that temperature has increased over time. Responses indicated that all

climate conditions are occurring with more extremes including rain and windstorms, flood,

heat waves, etc. The changes in the climate based on temperature, supports the position on

ISDR (2008) and Stanturf et al. (2011) that global temperature will increase by 6.4% by the

end of this century with sea level rising at a rate of 59cm.

About 145 respondent representing 68 percent indicated that flooding has strongest

relationship with rainfall or rainfall intensity because it is during the rainy season that

flooding occurs in Accra. Respondents mentioned improper waste management as serious

cause to floods in Accra. This supports the work of Anomanyo, 2004; Fobil, 2007 cited in

Adank et al that, although about 60 to 75% of solid waste generated in the city is collected,

the solid waste that remains uncollected often finds its way into open drains, thus obstructing

free flow of water causing overflows that result in floods. They explained that human


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induced causes are catalyst to the extent of damage to properties and life lost. Other human

induced causes mentioned are housing conditions (27 responses), drainage problem (24

responses), rainfall (13) and attitudinal behaviour (11responses). Poor attitudes include

encroachment on low-lying areas or marshy areas, dumping of refuse in gutters and other

public spaces. According to Satterthwaite et al. (2007), hundreds of millions of urban

dwellers live in poor-quality homes on illegally acquired or sub-divided lands. This

reduces the desire of the individuals to invest in more resilient building structures and areas.

As a result, many wooden structures are found in these areas, which are easily destroyed by

flood (Gyekye, 2013). Most of the slum areas are of weak and temporal structures.

The level of peoples’ vulnerability to flood according to Gyekye (2011) also varies due to

their socio-economic status, available knowledge on flooding and attitudes of people

towards environmental management. The increasing practice of building on watercourses

and wetlands, indiscriminate dumping and silting of drains has exacerbated the perennial

urban flood in the Accra Metropolis. This result confirms the findings of Aboagye (2012)

and Adank et al. (2011) that increased incidence of floods in developing countries is because

of the low-lying nature of the land, high rainfall intensity and duration, deposition of

sediments in storm drains. Others include dumping of refuse into stream and storm drains,

construction of undersized drains and culverts, and building without permit in flood plains

mostly because of institutional weaknesses in the Metropolis.

Number of respondents linked changes in the climate, especially high intensity and erratic

nature of rain to the flood. In addition, many others associated human negligence, such as

nature of drainage settlement (planning, building) waste disposal and attitudes to the

perennial floods in Accra. It was explained further that human induced factors such as

improper waste management, inadequate drainage, and attitudes in terms of excessive


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encroachment on watercourses as constituting the main factors that influence urban flooding

are likely to increase with the increasing level of urban population and poor attitudes. The

implication of the result is that, unless concerted effort by institutions is centred on proper

urban planning, enforcement of laws, construction of adequate drains and public education,

calls for flood disaster mitigation will not yield any fruitful result.

6.4 Spatial Variation and Severity to Flood Disasters

The challenges we face is that most of the global environmental problems can find their

precedence and causes, directly or indirectly in urban areas because everybody wants to

settle in urban areas (UNEP, 2009). Urban areas provide a number of socio-economic

opportunities for jobs and income generation, but are simultaneously becoming crucibles of

hazards and risks, especially for poorer city dwellers in developing countries. People’s

exposure to environmental risk and hazard is because of the physical processes that creates

these hazards (for example building and construction, urban planning, infrastructure

provision or transportation), and human processes that lead to vulnerabilities (for example,

lifestyle choices and consumption).

The result of the study shows that even though the people of middle and low-income

categories in the Accra Metropolis mostly feel many neighbourhoods in the Accra

Metropolis experience floods, the effects. This includes people living low residential areas

usually slums, in the streets, etc. People in these communities are more vulnerable to flood

disasters as compared to other areas with resilient structures and proper drainage systems in

the Metropolis.

The results show that flood disaster is more severe in the slum communities such as Avenor,

Korley Dudor and Ursher Town. The Classification Discriminant Analysis and Maps reveal

that some of the communities have shown uneven flood disaster distribution. The severity


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of flood incidence in these communities is closely related to the poor environment with poor

sanitation, and housing conditions. The findings of Olorunfemi (2011) supported this trend,

that most urban poor dwellers are increasingly exposed to hazards due to poor conditions

they are subject to (cited in Gyekye, 2013). Findings showed that even though many

neighbourhoods in the Accra Metropolis experienced flooding, the people of middle and

low-income individuals mostly feel the effect. According to Table 5.9, 91 people

representing 44% of total respondents have been victims of flood disasters with 56% stating

that they have not personally or directly been affected by floods.

The Table 5.10 indicates that majority of respondents (46%) who have suffered from flood

disasters live at Nima. Korle Dudor and Ursher Town communities had 26 percent and 21

percent of residents who were victims to flood disasters. James Town and Cantonments had

4 percent and 2 percent of respondents indicating that they have suffered from flood disaster.

This agrees with the position of Huntington (2006) that the affected people are mostly those

who have low living standards reflected by poor infrastructure and living conditions.

Urban areas are not prone to disaster by nature; rather the socio-economic conditions and

processes, rapid urbanization, migration increase the risk of urban dwellers to disaster.

Migrants, settle in areas that originally are liable to flood with pre-existing weak structural

conditions.

Some results indicated that urban vulnerabilities are not limited to just low-income residents

but middle and high-income groups residing in flood prone areas including waterways or

flood plains, and those weak housing structures are more highly affected. In addition, the

level of destruction to lives and properties in the low residential areas are more significant.


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6.5 Respondents’ Recommended Adaptation Strategies

Floods usually results in widespread disasters affecting life and properties of victims. To

address these problems, governments and private institutions, local communities and

individuals must play their roles to minimise flood impacts (see Table 5.13). From the

analysis, most of the measures revealed the building of strong resilience in people to floods

but centred on relief and aid offering. These measures are temporal and do not holistically

address the issues of building resilient cities and communities (UNEP, 2007).

Adaptation efforts towards disaster risk management emerged more strongly in 2008 when

UNDP started a short project together with the National Disaster Management Organization

of Ghana (NADMO) on ‘Enhancing National Strategies for Effective Disaster Risk

Reduction in Ghana’ (Würtenberger et al., 2011). This project focused mainly on preparing

a Comprehensive Disaster Risk Management and Climate Adaptation Program for Ghana

and taking stock of all DRM situations in the country in 2010-2012.

Other programmes introduced included the ‘Programme for the Improvement of

Capabilities to Cope with Natural Disasters Caused by Climate Change” supported by the

Japanese Government. Another one is ‘Raising awareness for climate change project to

establish an early warning system for disaster prevention and recovery in Ghana” funded by

Vodafone Ghana. They were all aimed at building urban cities capacities towards reducing

climate change effects (Würtenberger et al., 2011).

In spite of the significant amount of progress made by the aforementioned strategies, the

study revealed a number of shortcomings, and most of the efforts did not yield their intended

benefits. The programmes have suffered from low reliability of climate models, access to

information, participation and financial constrains among others. The initiatives also lacked


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effective coordination due to inadequate coordinating agencies at the regional and local

levels.

Local adaptation efforts in the study areas ranged from clean-up exercises, sensitization

programmes for communities, donation of foodstuffs and other relief items after floods

among others. This finding reaffirms the studies of Atuguba et al. (2009) and Fara (2000)

that efforts in Ghana disaster risk management were characterized with the provision of

relief items. Disaster response in Ghana has largely been seen as reactive rather than been

proactive (Atuguba et al., 2009). More sustainable physical construction work and

coordinated effort including planning, development drains or culvert, instituting proper

waste management system and reinforcing policies and laws on land use codes are needed.

The issue of reducing urban flood vulnerability also faces huge challenge due to rapid

urbanization. The increasing immigration of people into the city also exacerbates the urban

challenges as the population of Accra continue to exceed access to resources and services.

There is the need for a holistic assessment of a shift away from the “gift adaptation” to

capacity building and other preventive measures in the form of removing unauthorized

structures on flood prone areas, proper waste management, and adequate sensitization,

attitudinal change coupled with construction of adequately covered culvert or drains.

Human rights concerns should be considered in carrying out these actions. The local people

also called for adequate and timely provision of aids, provision of logistics and installation

of early warning systems in the prone zones.

Strategies and approaches towards the management of flood disasters have to consider the

integration of both climate change indicators and urban planning rules into national policies

and development programmes towards reducing human vulnerabilities to potential risks.


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During the FGD’s seventy-nine (79) respondents indicated the need for more education and

continuous awareness creation. Such activities will result to a change in perceptions on

climate change as a natural and inevitable phenomenon, and the need to strengthen long-

term resilience rather than ad-hoc interventions. These changes would reduce human

activities that exacerbate flooding in Accra while developing plans to handle the attitudinal

changes.

The study by ActionAid International (2006) in six African cities and by Jha et al (2012)

recommended the need for collective mechanisms towards reducing flood risks, or for

managing floods once, they happen in the cities. These strategies are necessary, as

adaptation measures are most effective when developed to incorporate community-based

experiences. The study revealed that there were few strategies targeted at reducing flood

risks or for managing floods once they occurred in the cities. Individuals devise their own

means by coping with the flood disasters. Some residents are not ready to leave from the

flood disaster prone areas but stay to cope with the situation. There is the need to synergize

local knowledge on coping strategies with government policies and scientific knowledge for

holistic strategies to adapting and mitigating floods (UNFCCC, n.d).

6.5 Chapter Summary

The chapter began with an introduction followed by the nature and extent of floods, the

causes, distribution and recommended strategies. It provided discussion on the findings that

flooding is the most dominant disaster in Accra. The causes of floods goes beyond rainfall

which is more intensive with high run-off, to more human induced conditions including

poor waste management, poor attitude of the residents leading to dumping in gutters and

building in flood prone areas. The chapter explained the findings that flood occurrences and

the effect of flooding varies among communities where slum and low residential areas

experience more severe flood disaster that medium to high residential areas. Recommended


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strategies were discussed. The explanations were linked to the relevant literature reviewed

in chapter 2.


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CHAPTER SEVEN

SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.0 Introduction

Cities are increasingly vulnerable to floods resulting from both climatic and human induced

factors. In most African countries including Ghana, efforts at managing flood disasters are

mainly reactive approaches due to low technology and high perception that flood is natural

and inevitable disaster. The current study aimed at assessing flood disaster resulting from

climate change and human vulnerability and adaptation practices of people in the affected

communities in Accra to flood disasters. The study was to assess the trend of flood disaster

in Accra; to examine changes in climate conditions such as rainfall and temperature and

their bearing on flooding in Accra; investigate the human conditions predisposing

populations to severe flood disaster; determine the distribution and severity of floods in the

communities and finally to ascertain the adaptation strategies to flood disasters.

Mixed method research strategy was adopted for data gathering and analysis. Reponses

were gathered from 440 respondents using questionnaires, focus group discussions (FGD)

and in-depth interview from household heads and institutional heads. Questionnaires were

analysed using SPSS v.20 and results shown in tables, charts and maps. Classification

Discriminant Analysis was used to classify flood situation from a community to the other.

Geographical Information System (GIS) –ArcGIS v.10 was used to map spatial distribution

of flood.

7.1 Summary of Key Findings

Following analysis and discussion of the key objectives, the study arrived at some findings.

The key ones are briefly discussed below.


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i. It was found that flooding is the most predominant disaster in Accra. Flooding is

most frequent and is cumulatively claiming lives and causing damage to property ,

companies and the public especially during rainy seasons. The increased awareness

of urban flood disasters is because of the mass campaign across the city through

mass media and engagement by civil society organizations.

ii. The study established that factors leading to floods in the Accra Metropolis were

multifaceted in nature. This includes poor waste management, inadequate settlement

planning and implementation, drainage problems, rainfall, and human behaviour all

of which are serious causes of floods in Accra. Increasing urbanisation and

population growth has led to the widespread development of slum communities in

the Metropolis. There is a growing pressure on urban lands, which forces people to

settle on lands that are earmarked for water storage basin and waterways, which are

usually prone to flooding. Enforcement of regulations to prevent people building in

these areas is weak. Extension of infrastructure and services including waste

collection and building of drains in these areas is inadequate. Poor waste

management was identified as the most serious challenge. This includes lack of

proper waste collection by waste collectors who are paid, dumping of waste in

gutters, hidden places and inadequate provision of waste bins at public spaces. The

wastes chock gutters making run-off overflow the drains, which leads to flooding.

The changing pattern and high intensity and run-off in June/July in Accra has been

a major cause of flood disaster.

One finding was that rainfall is becoming more intensive within a short duration,

which is difficult for fast infiltration. Many part of the city is paved resulting to very

high run-off during heavy downpours. A lot more water flows from upstream to


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Accra through the Odaw River and its tributaries. Drainages are narrow and not

maintained to enable easy flow of water from upstream and within Accra.

iii. Distribution of flooding in Accra was found to be varied among the communities.

Some communities are more susceptible and affected than others. Geographical

location of classified communities in Accra has led to the uneven distribution of

flood incidences. Mapping flood areas with Geographical Information Systems

informed further classifications of the flooding in the city. The Classification

Determinant Analysis reveals that the frequency of disaster occurrence, the fatality

of disaster and the extent of property damage was significantly dependent on the

community of residence. Most of the communities mentioned are low residential

areas usually slums. They are characterised by poor and weak housing structures,

poor drainage systems and inadequate waste collection services. These communities

are highly hit by most of the major flooding in Accra, claiming lives, destroying

properties, and halting businesses.

iv. Adaptation strategies were identified at different levels of the society from

individual, community, civil societies, private organisations and government

institutional levels. Across the board, adaptation strategies included awareness

creation and sensitisation programs, clean up exercises and evacuation during flood.

Awareness creation is a major adaptation efforts made in all communities. A lot of

public education and sensitisation have been ongoing to avoid dumping into drains,

avoid building in waterways especially with structures that are weak and easily

destroyed by run-off. Clean-up exercises by NADMO and other organizations was

found to be in place especially just before the major rainy season. These activities

are said to have been reducing flooding to an appreciable level. Everyone applauded

the clean-up exercise and encouraged it to continue.


114

v. Areas found out to be more important in tackling flooding according to respondents

includes planning, building resilient infrastructure, development control and

enforcement, educations and awareness, citizens participation. Government through

NADMO has spent huge amounts of money on the provision of the relief items.

Providing relief items including beds, food and temporal accommodation to flood

affected people has been one of the common strategies in adapting to the flood in

Accra. There is limited technology and proper early warning systems in place to

enable strong flood resilience in Accra. The Town and Country Planning, NADMOs

and other institutions must provide the necessary plans, coordinate, and build

resilience in Accra.

7.2 Conclusion

The Accra Metropolis historically has suffered from devastating floods. Residents are

increasingly vulnerable to flood disasters. With flooding incidences unevenly distributed

depending on one’s location, the complexities of the urban environment and urbanization

and social problems, slum and low residential areas are noted to be the most vulnerable to

floods. In spite of the literature supporting the view that flood in Accra is attributable to

changes in climatic conditions (rainfall intensity) human factors have intensified the

situation. The current study examined the changes in rainfall of Accra Metropolitan Area

and the human factors. Data gathered from the Ghana Meteorological Agency confirms the

view on changes in climate conditions with rainfall increasing in intensity and run-off

generation becoming much more unpredictable over the years.

Further, interviews and surveys conducted also revealed that human factors including poor

waste management, building in waterways, inadequate drains and poor attitudes of people

significantly contributed to the perennial flooding in Accra.


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Flood frequency of occurrence, fatality of disaster and the extent of property damage were

noted to vary among communities. The study recognized the need to sensitize and create

awareness on environmental management, reinforce city planning and management,

development control and enforcement. The Accra Metropolitan Area remains vulnerable to

floods in its major urban challenges. Thus, there is a need to give more urgent and robust

measures targeted at reducing vulnerabilities and building a resilient city.

7.3 Recommendations

Based on the research findings and suggestions made by city dwellers, the following

recommendations have been made for consideration in efforts at reducing and preventing

flood disasters and reducing people’s vulnerability in Accra.

i. Enhancing public awareness and sensitization in the society is very important. This

must be a constant process. People need more understanding and an appreciation of

the fact that flooding is not only a natural phenomenon. There are aspects of flooding

that are largely caused by human and are avoidable conditions. People must be

educated to avoid dumping into gutters even if bins are not adequately provided at

public spaces. Education should be done at household level, social media, radio,

television, market places, churches and other gathering and NGOs. While doing this,

people should be made to fully participate in the discussions that they are

comfortable with. School curriculum should incorporate flood disaster, its causes,

effects and adaptation. Governments must make this process a top priority in

planning and implementation by providing adequate resources to support the

awareness process.

ii. Land use planning, implementation and enforcement are very necessary in the

current flood disaster challenges. With a good land use plans, areas uninhabitable

are well-earmarked and proper drainage system can be developed. City authorities


116

and ministries must make sure proper plans are in place and enforced without any

fear or favour. The Town and Country Planning Departments and MMDAs must

provide and strengthen the necessary actions towards granting development permits,

controlling building and construction codes and ensuring that they are strictly

followed. This will go a long way to regulate building in waterways and

development of slum communities.

iii. There must be conscious efforts to desilt chocked gutters, culverts and major drains

in the city to ease water flows especially during the rainy seasons. All Assemblies

must support households in adopting best waste management practices through

provision of dustbins and timely collection of refuse. Most chocked gutters and

drains are mostly packed with household and industrial wastes of all kinds. A

properly designed scheme to manage city waste generated will potentially add up to

efforts to reduce vulnerability to floods. There is a need for proper design of the

drainage systems. The hydrological, Geological and Urban Roads Departments all

have roles to play in implementing a good drainage system. The capacity of these

departments must be built to enable them work. Their works are more capital

intensive hence many resources will be needed for their activities.

iv. Scientific research, technology and early warning systems must be in place. Further

approaches to dealing with flood disaster in urban areas is needed. Urban systems

are going through many changes. People are becoming more difficult to handle

hence it takes many efforts to enforce the law to guarantee a resilient city.

Development planning must consider social dimensions. Where necessary research

must find synergies between physical and sociological aspects of development.

Appropriate technology must be adopted to reduce run-off by creating water storms.


117

There must be early warning systems to monitor upcoming rain, preparedness in

terms of roles and finance, awareness and recovery.


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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRES

This exercise is in partial fulfilment for the award of Master of Philosophy in Geography

and Resource Development. The result of this research is thus for pure academic purpose

and your responses will be dealt with utmost confidentiality as per the appropriate research

ethic. Thank you.

Section A: General Background

1. Age of the respondent.........................................................................................

2. Sex

(1) Male [ ]

(2) Female [ ]

3. Educational status:

(1) No formal education [ ]

(2) Basic/JHS [ ]

(3) SHS [ ] (4) Tertiary [ ]

4. Marital Status:

(1) Married [ ],

(2) Single [ ],

(3) Divorced/Separated [ ]

Section B: Flood Disaster: extent and causes

5. Are you aware of any disaster in Accra

(1) Yes [ ]

(2) No [ ]

(3) Can’t Tell [ ]

6. Could you mention the major disaster you are aware of in Accra?

..........................................................................................................................................

....

7. Identify one major cause of flood disaster

..........................................................................................................................................

....

8. Are aware of the changes in climate of Accra?

(1) Yes [ ]

(2) No [ ]


9. Comment on the table below: the changes you have observed on the corresponding

elements.


129

Conditions Changes Observed 1 Changes Observed 2 Changes Observed 3

Rainfall

Temperature

Wind

Humidity

Sunshine

Atmos.

Pressure

10. Which of the following indicators could you associate with the recent floods in

Accra?

(1) High frequency of flood [ ]

(2) High damage to property [ ]

(3) High fatality [ ]

Section: Spatial Variation in Flood Disaster

11. Could you list some weather elements that have been showing some differences in the

recent times?

12. Comment on the table below: List the event, location, date and effects

Event Specific

Location where disaster occurred

Month/

Year

Flood

Section 4: People’s Experience of Flood

13. Have you been affected by flood before?

(1) Yes [ ]

(2) No [ ]

14. When was the last time you were affected?

(1) This year [ ]

(2) No Last Year [ ]

(3) Last two years [ ]

(4)Every year [ ]

15. How were you affected?

(1)Properties destroyed [ ]

(2) I lost life [ ]

(3)Very disturbed and sick [ ]

(4)Other [ ]


130

Section E: Efforts/Policies on Adaptation to Climate Related Hazards/Disasters

16. Do you think a lot of efforts have been done so far?

(1) Yes [ ]

(2)No [ ]

(3)Not aware [ ]

17. Comment on the table below

Institutions/Benefactors EFFORTS MADE DATE/YEAR

Government

NGOs

International

Organizing

Community itself

Individuals

18. Are these efforts (question......) enough?

(1) Yes [ ]

(2) No [ ]


19. State the any other efforts you think should be in place

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

................

INTERVIEW/FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE FOR THE RESPONDENTS

1. List any disaster your aware of

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

...............

2. Indicate the most predominant disaster in Accra

.....................................................................................................................................

........

3. Could explain how climate conditions and their changes result in flood of Accra?

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

................................

4. Could you explain how any other factors apart from those from the atmosphere/air

result to floods in Accra?


131

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

........................................

5. List the communities associated with slums: wooden and unarranged structures,

many people could not have a place to sleep, poor waste disposal and poor

drainage.

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

.......................

6. List the communities where flood occur since the last five years

7. What changes have you observed in the weather conditions in the city now as

compared with past decades?

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………

8. Explain how flood has affected people in the communities

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………

9. Explain what you do before the rainy season

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………

10. What do you or people do during and after flood in Accra

.....................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................

...............

11. Apart from your adaptive measures, what are the measures put in place by the

government and the stakeholders in curtailing the flood problem in Accra?

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………

12. Are the measures effective?

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………


132

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………

13. Which possible solutions will you recommends reducing if necessary halt the

occurrence of those disasters in the Accra Metropolis?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………


133

APPENDIX B: AVERAGE MONTHLY AND ANNUAL RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE DATA

FROM 1961-2000 FROM ACCRA AIRPORT STATION

Average Monthly and Yearly Rainfall (mm)

Years/

Month Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Annual

Average

Rainfall

1961 51.1 29.0 56.1 85.9 70.6 493.0 83.1 4.3 88.1 11.2 39.4 14.0 1025.8

1962 7.9 16.3 82.5 31.0 138.6 715.0 47.0 22.3 24.1 63.7 26.4 54.9 1229.7

1963 23.6 25.7 35.1 88.4 193.5 248.4 212.3 121.4 190.0 82.5 79.8 48.3 1349.0

1964 16.5 0.0 202.9 208.5 105.7 293.1 19.8 2.0 0.0 0.8 0.0 16.3 865.6

1965 10.2 33.5 5.6 216.7 103.4 367.5 139.7 50.8 28.5 45.2 27.9 24.4 1053.4

1966 8.4 7.9 127.3 136.7 83.6 64.5 62.5 7.1 10.2 65.3 0.0 1.0 574.5

1967 33.8 0.0 77.2 122.2 112.8 319.8 3.8 5.8 93.0 11.4 28.2 3.3 811.3

1968 27.8 40.1 18.3 96.5 79.0 292.9 371.3 85.9 227.1 135.4 33.3 7.4 1415.0

1969 10.4 1.0 95.3 75.2 91.7 222.5 21.3 7.9 21.8 102.1 11.2 6.3 666.7

1970 75.4 83.3 37.6 67.1 257.8 158.0 24.9 7.6 37.6 84.6 40.6 19.1 893.6

Mn(61-70) 26.5 23.7 73.8 112.8 123.7 317.5 98.6 31.5 72.0 60.2 28.7 19.5 988.5

1971 0.0 107.4 59.7 111.0 40.9 277.6 89.1 59.9 64.5 12.2 35.3 10.4 868.0

1972 0.3 37.3 61.0 256.8 40.9 126.3 2.8 2.3 35.3 51.3 22.3 3.6 640.2

1973 0.0 1.8 77.7 56.6 114.8 411.2 78.5 33.0 129.8 51.3 0.0 25.7 980.4

1974 7.9 1.5 78.7 46.7 213.6 345.4 118.1 11.9 97.8 8.4 45.7 22.3 998.0

1975 0.0 71.4 80.5 68.3 138.4 271.3 55.9 6.9 44.7 10.9 64.3 55.6 868.2

1976 0.0 45.7 46.2 132.9 50.2 119.9 12.0 2.3 16.6 100.0 22.8 1.0 549.6

1977 4.0 11.2 24.7 108.0 73.4 55.2 2.5 14.4 22.0 121.3 7.4 12.9 457.0

1978 0.3 11.8 2.8 121.7 260.0 48.2 21.5 4.7 27.7 56.3 0.3 0.0 555.3

1979 0.0 0.0 49.3 39.4 165.2 256.2 52.1 55.9 78.5 160.4 60.4 0.0 917.4

1980 0.0 5.3 44.5 181.1 245.0 167.2 71.1 59.9 98.0 76.0 45.4 7.3 1000.8

Mn(71-80) 1.3 29.3 52.5 112.3 134.2 207.9 50.4 25.1 61.5 64.8 30.4 13.9 783.5

1981 2.0 11.4 39.3 23.4 140.2 144.6 84.0 56.9 98.8 68.0 12.2 0.3 681.1

1982 17.8 18.6 74.4 114.5 170.1 278.0 60.8 2.3 0.3 36.7 0.3 0.0 773.8

1983 0.0 0.0 4.6 33.1 53.8 152.3 1.3 10.5 55.5 2.3 5.4 14.3 333.1

1984 12.8 0.0 61.0 81.0 122.0 96.2 58.7 85.3 99.3 49.0 14.2 25.4 704.9

1985 4.8 6.6 62.0 67.0 212.7 121.6 23.3 20.8 37.5 52.2 64.2 7.9 680.6

1986 0.0 63.7 65.9 19.8 144.1 60.7 33.1 0.8 29.9 83.1 38.5 5.6 545.2

1987 3.8 3.3 21.7 24.6 62.2 16.7 18.7 79.3 275.8 83.2 9.1 41.9 640.3

1988 0.0 9.2 79.6 50.8 241.8 254.9 97.7 12.0 31.4 130.3 53.7 27.5 988.9

1989 0.0 4.1 39.3 132.9 109.6 148.7 74.9 11.0 45.7 86.1 4.4 0.0 656.7

1990 9.6 6.0 1.5 105.9 99.5 127.8 39.6 0.2 24.9 30.7 37.8 85.1 568.6

Mn(81-90) 5.1 12.3 44.9 65.3 135.6 140.2 49.2 27.9 69.9 62.2 24.0 20.8 657.3

1991 13.1 5.5 52.2 174.6 277.7 123.5 263.1 21.1 12.4 64.1 0.7 0.0 1008.0

1992 0.0 0.0 93.2 65.9 171.1 93.0 55.7 8.5 8.2 35.1 26.1 0.2 557.0

1993 20.6 5.8 6.3 96.2 49.0 81.4 4.1 17.2 75.0 37.2 66.7 49.8 509.3

1994 TR 7.1 52.7 6.1 135.2 178.1 11.0 16.6 24.6 90.0 26.5 TR 547.9

1995 0.0 27.5 154.9 89.8 88.5 278.3 273.9 11.5 2.2 39.2 62.7 1.3 1029.8

1996 0.0 50.3 59.0 86.2 246.1 126.3 68.7 38.8 15.0 7.0 15.5 3.7 716.6

1997 2.8 0.0 185.2 269.4 135.7 353.3 37.8 4.6 9.5 112.0 48.7 64.5 1223.5

1998 0.0 8.7 1.5 25.2 178.5 35.9 12.3 0.5 13.4 208.9 14.1 14.6 513.6

1999 19.4 38.6 6.8 47.1 53.1 327.3 61.9 19.4 30.6 26.8 8.4 2.4 641.8

2000 0.7 0.0 59.2 28.2 127.1 116.4 19.9 12.4 8.6 36.8 25.9 77.0 512.2


134

Average Monthly and Yearly Temperature (°C)

Year/

Month Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Annual

Average

Temperature

1961 27.4 28.0 28.3 27.6 28.1 25.8 24.6 23.9 24.7 26.4 27.2 27.5 26.6

1962 27.7 28.2 27.5 28.2 26.8 24.9 25.2 24.3 25.3 26.2 26.9 26.8 26.5

1963 27.4 27.5 27.8 27.6 27.2 26.4 25.5 25.4 26.2 26.4 27.1 27.4 26.8

1964 27.4 28.4 28.1 27.4 26.9 25.7 24.2 24.1 25.1 25.7 26.6 26.8 26.4

1965 27.1 27.3 28.2 27.3 27.3 25.7 24.4 24.5 25.3 26.4 27.5 27.2 26.5

1966 27.3 28.0 28.4 27.4 27.6 26.5 25.9 25.1 25.5 26.8 27.3 27.8 27.0

1967 27.2 28.3 27.6 27.7 27.2 25.4 24.6 24.4 24.9 25.9 27.0 27.4 26.5

1968 26.7 28.4 27.4 28.4 27.3 26.1 25.3 25.4 25.4 26.5 27.2 27.4 26.8

1969 27.8 28.8 28.3 28.8 28.1 26.3 24.9 25.1 25.6 26.2 27.5 27.8 27.1

1970 27.8 28.6 28.2 28.4 27.2 26.3 25.1 25.0 26.0 26.9 27.2 27.4 27.0

Mn(61-

70) 27.4 28.2 28.0 27.9 27.4 25.9 25.0 24.7 25.4 26.3 27.2 27.4 26.7

1971 27.4 27.2 27.7 27.6 27.8 25.8 25.1 24.6 25.6 26.5 27.3 26.9 26.6

1972 27.7 28.3 28.2 27.6 27.7 27.5 25.5 24.8 25.8 27.2 28.1 28.1 27.2

1973 28.6 29.4 28.8 28.9 28.0 26.4 25.8 25.7 26.0 27.2 27.9 27.4 27.5

1974 27.4 28.5 28.4 28.3 27.2 25.8 25.2 25.3 25.4 26.5 27.6 26.8 26.9

1975 27.5 27.7 27.6 27.7 27.2 25.9 25.2 24.5 25.3 26.6 27.1 27.0 26.6

1976 27.2 27.6 27.8 27.5 27.2 25.7 24.5 24.7 25.6 26.2 27.1 27.5 26.6

1977 27.7 28.4 28.9 28.4 27.9 26.2 25.4 24.9 26.1 26.8 27.8 27.5 27.2

1978 28.2 28.7 28.5 27.7 27.2 25.8 25.0 25.1 25.7 26.7 27.8 28.1 27.0

1979 28.8 29.0 28.5 28.7 27.8 26.2 25.4 25.5 26.0 26.7 27.4 27.6 27.3

1980 28.2 28.6 28.4 28.5 27.0 26.3 25.3 25.1 26.0 26.6 27.3 27.1 27.0

Mn(71-

80) 27.9 28.3 28.3 28.1 27.5 26.2 25.2 25.0 25.8 26.7 27.5 27.4 27.0

1981 27.0 28.7 28.5 28.8 27.3 26.8 25.1 25.0 26.0 27.5 28.1 28.1 27.2

1982 28.2 28.5 28.9 28.9 28.4 27.6 27.1 26.5 26.0 27.2 27.9 28.2 27.8

1983 28.6 29.5 30.0 29.4 28.6 26.1 25.5 25.3 26.1 27.6 28.1 27.7 27.7

1984 28.5 29.0 29.0 28.4 28.5 26.7 26.2 26.4 25.9 27.3 28.1 27.9 27.7

1985 28.0 28.7 28.7 28.3 26.8 26.1 25.5 26.0 26.2 26.3 27.7 27.6 27.2

1986 27.2 28.3 28.1 29.0 28.0 29.5 25.3 25.2 26.1 26.5 27.3 27.7 27.4

1987 28.5 28.8 29.0 29.8 28.6 27.6 27.1 26.4 26.3 27.2 28.5 27.9 28.0

1988 28.4 29.4 28.7 28.9 28.1 26.5 25.5 25.2 26.2 26.8 27.6 27.3 27.4

1989 27.1 28.7 28.5 28.6 27.7 26.7 25.8 25.6 26.1 26.7 28.5 28.4 27.4

1990 28.1 28.6 29.6 28.6 27.6 27.1 25.0 25.4 26.4 27.3 28.3 27.5 27.5

Mn(81-

90) 28.0 28.8 28.9 28.9 28.0 27.1 25.8 25.7 26.1 27.0 28.0 27.8 27.5

1991 28.3 28.7 28.9 27.8 27.5 27.0 25.6 25.1 26.3 26.4 27.8 27.9 27.3

1992 27.9 29.3 29.0 28.7 27.6 26.0 24.8 24.9 25.9 27.1 27.5 28.0 27.2

1993 27.6 28.5 28..5 28.4 28.5 26.9 25.5 25.3 26.4 27.5 27.7 28.0 27.3

1994 27.8 28.8 28.8 29.0 27.9 26.5 25.5 25.3 25.7 26.7 28.1 28.3 27.4

1995 28.5 29.9 28.2 29.0 28.1 26.7 25.9 26.0 26.8 27.3 27.9 28.3 27.7

1996 28.4 28.7 28.8 28.9 27.7 26.5 25.7 25.2 25.8 27.3 28.2 28.1 27.4

1997 28.4 29.1 28.1 27.7 27.3 26.1 25.1 25.3 27.2 27.7 28.1 28.1 27.4

1998 28.5 30.1 30.7 30.5 28.5 27.3 26.3 25.9 26.7 27.5 28.6 28.2 28.2

1999 28.1 28.5 28.9 28.7 28.5 27.0 25.9 25.7 25.8 26.9 28.1 28.6 27.6

2000 28.3 29.0 29.3 28.9 28.2 26.7 25.7 25.5 26.4 27.4 28.0 28.0 27.6

Mn(91-

00) 28.2 29.1 29.0 28.8 28.0 26.7 25.6 25.4 26.3 27.2 28.0 28.2 27.5


135

APPENDIX C: GROUP MEAN

Residential Areas Mean Std. Deviation

James T Frequency of the

Disaster 1.3750 .51755

Fatality of the

Disaster 1.7500 .46291

Property Damage 1.1250 .35355

Ursher F Frequency of the

Disaster 2.9286 .26726

Fatality of the

Disaster 3.0000 .00000


Nima Frequency of the

Disaster 3.4500 .51042

Fatality of the

Disaster 3.5000 .51299


Korley Dudor Frequency of the

Disaster 4.0000 .00000

Fatality of the

Disaster 4.0000 .00000


Cantonment Frequency of the

Disaster 4.2222 .44096

Fatality of the

Disaster 4.1111 .33333


Total Frequency of the

Disaster 3.4944 .85445

Fatality of the

Disaster 3.5393 .73941

Property Damage 3.4831 1.15908


136

APPENDIX D1: MAP OF SLUM AREAS AND FLOOD DISASTER

Source: AMA Medium Term Development Plan, 2010-201


137

APPENDIX D2: MAP OF ACCRA METROPOLITAN AREA



138

APPENDIX D3: A MAP OF SLUM AREAS IN THE METROPOLIS



139

APPENDIX D4: A MAP OF COMBINED FLOOD DISTRIBUTION IN ACCRA



140

APPENDIX D5: A MAP OF COMBINED FLOOD AND SLUMS



141


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FLOOD VULNERABILITY AND ADAPTATION IN ACCRA: EXAMINING ASPECTS OF NON CLIMATE FACTORS ·...

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