First Advanced Training Workshop an Theory and...
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First Advanced Training Workshop an Theory and Development Strategies for Rural Education
March l-April 11,1999 , (’ /.
UNESCO International Research and Training Centre for Rural Education, Nanjing, China
1. First International Advanced Training Workshop on Theory and Development Strategies for Rural Education was organized between March 1 and April 11, 1999 at INRULED, Nanjing, China.
3. Professor Chen Jingpu, * deputy director of INRULED Nanjing is giving a lecture on Introduction to Rural ~ Education. I
01 2. Professor Huang Tao, vice president of Nanjing Normal University is giving a lecture on comparison of rural education between developed and developing countries.
Q- 4. In chilly weather as evidenced by the child with warm cap, participants are having a cordial talk with pupils in Nanliuji Primary School, northern Jiangsu.
FIRST INTERNATIONAL-tVORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part 1 Proceedings ................................................... 1 1.1 Workshop Summary ............................................. 1
1.2 Theories on Rural Education ................................. 3
Part r[ Theses of Trainees ZAMBIA
Rural Educational Reform and Strategies for the Development of
School Education : The Zambian Experience
By Ndawambi Daka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
NAMIBIA
Education of Reform and Educational Development in Rural Areas
in Namibia
By G. Kauna Ekandjo . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
GHANA
Rural Education as a Factor in Rural Development -The
Ghanaian Perspective
By Jsaac Oppong Manu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.. 33
KENYA
Strategies on Fund Raising and Mangement for Schools
By Patrick Kaaria Kiugu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
ETHIOPIA
Selecting Contents and Teaching Methodology for the Rural Adult
Class
By Kebede Sima . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
TANZANIA
Provision of Basic Education for Disadvantaged Rural Children in
Tanzania
By Ms Julia Thadeus Hoza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
CHINA
New Perspective of Literacy Education Corresponding Strategies By Liu Yibing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
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Unbalanced Development of Rural Education in China and its
Countermeasures
By Wang Qiang . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
A Survey on Rural Non - Formal Education Promoting Local
Economic Development -A case study of the Extension of Mushroom
Production Techniques in Huang zhuang Village, Nanxi Town, Jing zhai
County
By Zhang Jiayong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.. . . . . . . 1.. . . . . . . 81
The Impact of Rural Women Non - formal Education on Women’
s Living Quality
By Zhuang Xizheng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
An Investigation of Rural Non - formal Education in Rugao
County and its Implication
By Sun Dejun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
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Part One : Proceedings
I. Workshop Summary
1.1 Introduction The First Advanced Training Workshop on Theory and Development
Strategies for Rural Education was organized at the International Research and
Training Center for Rural Education Nanjing during March 1 and April 11, 1999.
12 experts, scholars and officials from NarQbia, Tanzania, Kenya, Zambia,
Ethiopia, Ghana. and China participate in the training workshop.
Mr. Yousif, a UNESCO expert, Mr. Yu Fuzeng, secretary-general of Chinese
National Commission for UNESCO, Chen Nailin, deputy director of Jiangsu
Education Commission, Ms. Zhu Xiaoman, vice president of Nanjing Normal
University, Mr. Huang Tao, vice president of Nanjing Normal University,
Professor Diao Peie, a well-known specialist in rural education and some other
representatives were present at the opening ceremony. Mr. Yousif and Mr. Yu
Fuzeng addressed to the opening ceremony. Professor Chen Jingpu, deputy director
of International Research and Training Centr for Rural Education Nanjing briefed
the training program and arrangement of the workshop. Ms Gertrude Kauna
Ekandjo, on behalf of all participants, expressed thanks and confidence in ideas
sharing at the workshop.
1.2 Theme and Objectives The main theme of the workshop is ” Rural Education and Rural
Development”, which covers both basic theories and experiences in rural education.
The purpose and task are to facilitate all the participants to acquire basic knowledge
and principles in research of and implementation of rural education. The participants
keep abreast of the main challenges confronted in the innovation and development of
rural education in developing countries, and probe into innovative, responsive and
initiative strategies.
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1.3 Materials for Training The main materials developed by INRULED specialists and experts are: Rural
Education and Rural Development, Introduction to Rural Education, Rural
Education, College and Agriculture Development, Rural Anti-illiteracy Education
and Rural Girls Education. Some reference materials on different themes in the field
of rural education are offered at the workshop.
1.4 Cultural Exchanges Participants watched with keen interest the performances by teachers and
students of the Music Faculty of Nanjing Normal University. Academic Salon was
organized among the trainees to the Advanced Workshop and the college students in
Nanjing Normal University including some overseas students, so the participants
changed ideas and experiences that they are interested in.
1.5 Field Visits and First-hand Information During 12 days’ field visits and on-spot training in western undeveloped area
(Gansu Province > , central area ( Hebei Province ) and eastern developed area
(Jiangsu Province) in China, the participants achieved a better understanding and
perceptual knowledge of rural education in China. In Baoding the participants visited
the modern agriculture education of Hebei Province and the display of achievements
named “ Road to Taihang Mountains “. On the street famous for agricultural
technology, the participants saw retired professors solving farmers’ problems at
Caichang village. They visited the strawberry base, tasted the fresh strawberry
asthey had cordial and warm discussions with administrators, technicians and
farmers.
In Gansu, Mr. Ma Peifang, vice director of Gansu Education Commission
introduced the comprehensive reform program of Rural Education in Gansu. The
participants paid a visit to Tibetan Elementary School in Tibetan Autonomous
District at an latitude of over 3, 000 meters. In a poor natural and economic
contexts, the Elementary School serve as a multi-functional and, a cultural center.
In Jiangsu the participants see the differences and gaps in rural education
between different regions. Agricultural technology, in Siyang Agricultural
Vocational high School accelerates rapid development of rural vocational education. 2
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Advanced teaching equipments, computer rooms, the electronics lab, and the
physics, chemistry and biology laboratories are impressive. Young plants, apple
experimental farm, green houses, large-scale pig raising farm, the rabbit warren
embody the true concept of rural vocational education for rural development.
1.6 Thesis Presentation After over a months’ training and field visit, the trainees have a better
knowledge of rural education in theories and experiences. Based on the conditions in
their own countries, each trainee completed a thesis on a certain theme in rural
education. On April 10, 1999 a formal session for thesis presentation and comments
was organized in INRULED Nanjing and all the trainees at the First Advanced
Workshop on Theory and Development Strategies for Rural Education made
presentations.
II. Theories on Rural Education
2.1 Definition of Rural Education
In a broad sense, rural education is defined as the education for rural
population fostering rural economic and social development in order to constantly
raise agricultural productivity and promote urbanization of rural areas. For many
developing countries, rural education can be defined as education for rural people to
obtain knowledge and working skills, awareness of modern citizenship and
entrepreneur skills at the transitional phase from agricultural to industrial civilization
when rural and urban areas coexist and farmers are under disadvantaged conditions.
Source: Chen Jingpu, Introduction to Rural Education
2.2 Major Challenges in Rural Education Major problems of human progress found in those areas (namely rural areas) of
the world are: high infant mortality, lack of education opportunity, little literacy
education, short life-span. The others were shortage of equipment for health care,
lack of knowledge of environmental protection and portable water and low housing
standard. It is estimated that the rural population can only have half the public 3
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medical and health care and safe portable water and one quarter of sanitary
equipment compared with urban population. The educated section takes up 98 % of
the total population in industrialized countries, 60 % in developing countries and only
37% in the least developed countries. The percentage of primary school dropouts is
as high as 60% in the least developed countries, 39 % in developing countries and
only 11% in industrial countries.
Source: Work Report at the International Symposium of Rural Education in
Developing Countries UNESCO, June, 1991
2.3 Purpose of Rural Education - - Rural population gain knowledge and working skills through education. This is
the cultural precondition to the elimination of ignorance and poverty among rural
people. Ignorance is brought about by backwardness in culture. ” In rural areas,
economic poverty usually results from cultural poverty. ” This is a conclusion made
by Professor Lu Jie after her investigation into some poor villages. She says, ” It is
necessary for everyone, including children, youngsters and adults, to have the
opportunity of education to meet their basic needs for learning. These needs include
basic means of study such as reading, writing, oral expression, calculation and
solution of questions, and basic contents of study such as knowledge, skills, values
and attitude. These contents and means are necessary for people to survive, fully
develop their abilities, live and work in dignity, participate in development as much
as they can, improve the quality of their own life, make wise decisions and carry on
their study. The categories and methods of basic learning vary in different countries,
cultures and times. ”
- - Rural population acquire the modem citizenship awareness, which is the mark
of personality and political precondition to the development of rural people. The
character refers to the combination of all the characteristics of human nature,
temperament and ability. Character education includes not only the process of
cultivating an individual’s good nature and moral standard of behavior but also the
process of developing one ’ s sense of citizenship such as justice and obligation.
- - Rural population obtain the capability of starting new undertakings, which 4
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forms a motive mechanism in rural people’ s self-development in adaptation to
economic and social reforms. In the International Symposium on Education For the
21st Century held in Beijing in December 1989, UNESCO suggested that students
should obtain “the third certificate of learning, namely the certificate of enterprising
spirit and entrepreneurship. It requires education of enterprising spirit and
entrepreneurship to be raised to the same level as the education for academic and
vocational certificates at present. Its aims are cultivation of skills in thinking,
planning, cooperation, exchange, organization, solution of questions, follow-up and
estimation. ”
2.4 Nature of Rural Education Rural education has some distinctive features: It is an education of
enlightenment in both scientific and technological culture, and humanist culture in
the new era. It is a universal basic education, education for all disadvantaged
population in the disadvantaged areas, and a kind of entrepreneur education that can
help rural people and society get rid of poverty and go on a track of sustained
development.
Priority Target
Rural education, carried on in the rural areas of developing countries, is
therefore the essential form to meet the goals set by UNESCO in elementary
education, literacy education, girls ’ and women ’ s education and special needs
education. Rural education can be regarded as the educational task set by the
international community to gain human development and sustained economic and
social development with a focus on the people who are in the urgent need of
education under the most difficult conditions.
Priority Strategies
Elimination of cultural poverty and economic poverty will result in greater
success in both cultural and economic achievements that could bring forth a new life
for rural people. Although East Asia has achieved an admirable 6% to 10%
economic growth rate for years, some of the Southern Asian countries fell behind
and became the least developed countries in the world. According to A Report of the 5
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World Education by UNESCO in 1995, only fifty percent of the male and twenty-
five percent of the female population can read and write in Pakistan and Bengal. In
India, only sixty-six percent of the male and thirty-eight percent of the female
population can read and write. Despite of a remarkable educational progress in East
Asia, the gender difference in educational attainment is becoming greater. It is
obvious that economic growth and human progress, if any success is to be expected,
must in the long run advance simultaneously. Therefore, rural areas in the
developing countries should start with enlightenment.
Secondly, the enlightenment today gives publicity to democracy and the legal
system, and to learning to live together as well. Special concern must be given to the
poor, school-age children deprived of education, school-age girls, women and the
disabled for their rights and opportunities of being educated, and to their personality
development.
Basic Education as a Passport for Future Life
The basic education for children can be defined as ( formal or informal)
enlightenment education. This kind of education will be in principle for children
from age three to age twelve. Basic education is a necessary passport to future life,
which can give every person the right to choose his or her future occupation, to
participate in building his or her collective future and to continue his or her study.
Basic education is also of vital importance in eliminating unequal phenomena such as
sex discrimination and so on, or the inequality between countries. In order to reduce
the pain brought by illiteracy to women, rural residents, poor people in urban areas,
minority people and millions of child laborers without any education, basic education
is the first step that must be taken.
Source: Learning: The Treasure Within.
Jacques Hallak of the International Institute for Educational Planning believes
that basic education is education at an initial level that calls for official entry, and the
comer-stone of the whole educational system. The definition of basic education is
flexible enough to cover (i) a minimum number of years of education in which a
beneficiary is expected to obtain, and ( ii ) the maximum number of years of
education that a government can afford to provide for all or most of its citizens. The
World Conference on Education for All calls for the establishment of a comprehensive 6
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system of basic education which includes preschool education, primary education,
literacy education for youth and adults and the survival skill training for them which
gives priority to the least advantaged people. Primary education must be
universalized to meet the basic learning needs of all children, which should take into
account community culture, needs and opportunity.
Source: The World Declaration on Education for All
2.5 Entrepreneur Education for Poverty Alleviation and Sustained Development
Entrepreneur Education
“Learning to care” was suggested as a call to the reform of education at the
International Symposium on Education Towards 21st Century held in Beijing, 1989.
Against this background, Mr. Colin N. Power put forward the issue of entrepreneur
education.
Entrepreneur skills are the strong practical ability conceived, developed and
improved in practical activities. They are integrated skills with entrepreneur
practices as the key to its formation. Its creative features, embodied in the self-
development and self-realization process, are of great social value and significance.
Entrepreneur skills are an operation format closely connected with individual
inclination and characters that have emotional quality and willpower. They are a
stable psychological mode formed with the classification and generalization of
knowledge and skills that will be transferred and spread widely in new activities and
environments, thus bringing impact upon the manner, pace and efficiency of
activities.
Source: Mao Jiarui, Peng Gang, and Chen Jingpu, Some Issues in
Entrepreneur Education. From Education Research, No. 1 1992.
2.6 Functions of Rural Education II Rural education promotes the development of rural people
- - Improving the physical quality of the rural population
- - Developing awareness of health
- - Informing about basic knowledge of healthy life
- - Training rural people in the skills of pursuing healthy life
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0 Eliminating the cultural poverty of the rural population
In a broader sense, human resource exploitation refers to educating, training
and utilizing the internal potentials of human beings ,W as to bring about social
progress and economic development. According to the definition of UNDP, human
resource exploitation has five ’ stimulating components ’ : education, health and
nutrition, environment, employment, political and economic freedom. Four of these
’ stimulating components’ are interrelated and interdependent, whereas education is
the base of all four. It is the most basic factor in the promotion of health and
nutrition, in the maintenance of a high-quality environment, in the development and
improvement of labor reserve forces, and in the preservation of political and
economic responsibilities.
II Rural education promotes the development of rural economy
- - The approach of rural education in amplifying economic function
Rural education, to rural people personally, increases their participating
opportunities in economic production. The popularization of rural education, to the
broad masses of rural population, is equal to the spread of numerous economic
participating opportunities. -- The implementation of rural education enables rural people to form an
adventurous and creative concept and the operating skills through participation in
new opportunities of economic development. Undoubtedly, it will help them to
transform opportunities of economic development from potentiality into reality,
cl Rural education promotes the development of rural society
The new concept of development is the “sustained development”. The function
of rural education in rural social development should also be premised on promoting
the reform of rural society, promoting the harmony and sustained development of
various factors, such as rural population, environment, urban and rural
relationships, building of democracy and the legal system, etc.
- - Sustained reproduction of rural education and the rural population
The key factor of rural education’s sustained development : It is not only the integral
part of welfare but also a factor in welfare development, through interrelation of 8
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various factors like population, economy and society. Various factors of the
sustained reproduction of education and population have a close relationship with the
decrease of nationality, morbidity, and mortality, the increase of population quality,
and the promotion of population migration.
- - Promoting the sustained development of the natural environment,
First is broadcasting the knowledge of environmental protection.
Second is fostering the consciousness of protecting the natural ecological
environment.
Third is training rural people’ s skills of environmental protection.
0 Rural education promotes the harmonious development of urban and rural areas
Disparities between urban and rural areas are the premise of the existence of
rural problems including rural education.
- - Rural education promotes rural industrial reform.
- - Rural education promotes the rational cross-regional flow of rural population.
- - Rural education promotes the urbanization of rural areas and the modernization
of rural life.
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ZAMBIA
Part Two: Theses of Trainees
Rural Educational Reform and Strategies for the Development of School Education: The Zambian Experience
By Ndawambi Daka
I. Introduction Rural educational reform and strategies for the development of school education
is quite a comprehensive field of study that is related with a wide range of contents
and far-reaching scope. In this paper, Zambia ’ s efforts in the development of a
sound and efficient system of education have been discussed. Starting with a brief
outline of Zambia’ s colonial and missionary educational history and how it proved
inadequate to meet the country ’ s manpower needs after independence, the paper
describes the implementation of various development strategies designed to alleviate
such shortages both in the short and long terms.
That Zambia managed to rapidly expand and integrate its school system, at the
same time made the education offered relevant to Zambia’s unique needs is a story of
success of which the country can rightly be proud of. At the same time “Morework
and much harder work, remains to be done! ” This paper therefore also presents
insights into the nature of remaining problems and their possible solutions.
Literature reviewed in this paper includes various resolutions and action
programmes on the problems of development of school education, various documents
about educational reform and strategies presented in government ministries and
practical experiences of their implementation. The reasoning and applicability of
fundamental school education concepts are proved through the study of historical
experiences and lessons.
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II. Background Both history and past scientific studies on education have helped shape current
thinking on the development of school education in Zambia.
2.1 Traditional Education
The people living in where is today called Zambia had evolved their own system
of education long before Europeans penetrated the African continent. Indeed, the
security and well-being of any tribal community depended on the efficacy of training
given to its members from infancy to adulthood. Traditional education was
essentially practical training which was designed to enable the individual member to
play a useful role in society. It is true that the skills of reading, writing and
mathematical computation as we know them today were not part of traditional
education; buit the role of traditional education was vital, and in fact, indispensable
for the smooth integration of growing children into society. Therefore, to the extent
that traditional instruction made a contribution to the preparation of boys and girls
for living in society, it was in every sense true education.
Traditional education varied from tribe to tribe, both in content and the
methods used, as these were determined largely by nature of the environment. For
example, in a predominantly pastoral community much of the training of the boys
upon herding cattle. On the other hand, among the lakeshore or island dwellers
living on fishing the boys were provided with the training of such skills as making
nets, fish-traps and canoes. In both situations, the growing child was required to
serve his community and appreciate the interdependence of its members. However
divergent the content and methods of traditional education among tribes, training
had one common aim; it was meant to preserve the cultural heritage of the tribe. In
this context tradition education sought to adapt the young generation to their
physical environment so that they could use it fruitfully for their own benefit and
that of the community.
In tribal society all reasonable persons of any age group assumed some
responsibility for training children in specific skills or in promoting their
understanding of the laws and customs of the tribe. However, parents were
generally responsible in collaboration with their own grown-up children and close 11
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relatives, for educating their offspring, more especially during the years of its
infancy.
Formal instructions in conduct were given to boys during their initiation, a
period when they were secluded from normal life of society and subjected to severe
tests of courage and physical endurance, hornest and sense of responsibility before
they were allowed to enter the ranks of adulthood. Education and training was also
given to girls when they reached the age of puberty. They were secluded for a period
of time, and, according to Elizabeth Colson, sometimes for as long as three to four
months among “the Plateau Tonga”. The place of seclusion could be regarded as a
school in which the final instructions were given concerning their responsibilities in
adulthood-responsibilities, which had direct relevance to their marital life in future.
One of tragic consequences of Western culture and civilization upon African
traditional life has been its corrosive effect. Today much of what was good and
useful in African traditional life has disappeared. The emphasis which traditional
education placed on proficiency of individual in the practical skills, hut building, net-
making, blacksmithing, pottery or even doctoring, was intended to illustrate the
interdependence of individual members of the community. Above all the growing
child’ s traditional education stressed at every stage the importance of strict
adherence to the accepted moral code. Few missionaries who started schools at the
turn of the nineteenth century in various parts of Africa held a broad view of
education. To them only skills of writing and reading constituted education.
Therefore, they did not only disdain African tradition but they discouraged its
practice except in a very few instances. Their opportunity to develop a complete and
wholesome educational system, incorporating the best that was practised in
traditional training, was missed at least for a long period of time.
2.2 Early Education Establishments During the period from 1882 to 1905 there was intense missionary activity
which led to the establishment of several mission stations throughout Zambia. The
basic motive, which prompted early missionaries to establish mission stations in
Zambia, was evangelisation of the indigenous people, their conversion to the
Christian faith and reclamation of their lives. The provisions of schools and
educational facilities by the missionaries were merely complementary to their much- 12
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desired objectives of increasing the numbers of their Christian followers. With very
few notable exceptions, very little was done by the early missionaries to stress the
importance of education for its own sake. Recruitment of pupils was quite difficult
and sustaining the interests of the pupils who were eventually enrolled was even
more difficult because the school environment was neither inspiring nor sufficiently
organised to provide truly worth while and interesting occupation for pupils.
Instructions in village schools were given under the open sky, or within a grass
shelter, or under the shade of a tree, except at some schools where mud-and-pole
classrooms were provided. Absenteeism in village schools was the order of the day,
which made some missionaries adopt some incentives for some pupils in the form of
part-time employment for very little pay.
The early days of educational development in Northern Rhodesia were difficult.
Before 1928, there were few, if any, in fact hardly any qualified indigenous teachers
who were capable of delivering effectively the three R’s and Bible knowledge because
opportunities for obtaining a reasonably satisfactory education had been severely
limited. Therefore, whereas education was effective at mission stations, in the
village schools the level of education was generally ineffective and completely
unsatisfactory. Also teachers’ pay was poor and conditions of service unsatisfactory.
School equipment in the form of chalk, desks and other educational requirements
were either in short supply or unavailable. The poor quality of education was
recognized by the missionaries who wished to improve the level of educational work
but improvement was difficult to achieve without the necessary funds and support
from the central administration - - the British South African Company.
In spite of the early difficulties and problems of educational development, a
fairly widespread educational system had been established in Zambia by 1924 when
the British Government assumed direct responsibility for the administration. Of the
estimated number of 200,000 Af rican children for whom educational provision was
required at the end of 1923, only about 50,000 were in any kind of school. Only
600 out of that 50,000 were in non-mission schools. Along side with the missionary
schools, the Colonial government had also established governmenal schools. In
contrast to the restricted, inadequately financed system of education for Africans in
Northern Rhodesia, European education was more efficiently organized and more
adequately provided with funds during the Colonial government’ s control of the 13
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territory. Rigid separations of races in education were enforced. There were separate
schools for Africans, separate schools for Asians and Coloureds, and segregatory
schools for Europeans. All these schools formed watertight racial compartments of
education. With very few exceptions, European schools were generally superior to
schools built for other races in terms of staff qualifications, school buildings,
equipment and facilities for sport and the welfare of pupil’s.
Missionary educators were the pioneers in providing vocational training in
Northern Rhodesia. Besides teaching the three R’ s and religion work in schools,
learning in carpentry, building, agriculture and other manual-work also formed a
significant part of the curriculum. In agricultual learning, the importance of
combining theoretical instruction with practical demonstration in the gardens was
emphasized. Teachers ’ training was also an important form of post-primary
education for Africans, especially before secondary education was firmly introduced
in 1939.
The educational scene in Northern Rhodesia was dominated by the missions
almost to the date of independence in 1964.
2.3 The Problem of 1964 Due to shortcomings of the Colonial Government’ s educational policy in
Northern Rhodesia, Zambia’s problems about human resouces were very serious on
the eve of independence in 1964. Compared with other Brtish independent
territories, Zambia was under unfavourable condition in terms of available local
educated human resources. While Zambia could count only 1,200 Zambians with full
certificate in 1964, Ghana had reached this target before 1943, at least fourteen
years before her independence. Kenya and Tanzania had attained this target in 1957
and 1960 respectively. The number of university graduates was pitifully small at the
end of 1964, estimated at about one hundred.
Apart from the problem of shortage of human resonrces, the inadequate
educational system, the uneven distribution of educational facilities and the
disparities in educational opportunities throughout the country encouraged young
people to migrate from rural area to urban areas. It was not possible to make major
reform in 1964 before considering, with care, certain minor issues and finding
appropriate solutions. The immediate expansion of secondary schools and revising 14
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procedures for recruitment of foreign teachers for secondary schools and other post
primary institutions were imperative. The heavy dependence upon expatriate
teachers in secondary schools inevitably increased the cost of education. More serious
was the problem of curriculum content at primary school as it was largely foreign
with very little relevance to the African children’ s environment. Many textbooks,
too, were unsuitable. This situation applied to secondary schools because senior
secondary schools were geared to meet the requirements of external examinations.
Facilities for adult education were not only inadequate but also unevenly distributed
in the country. The problem of girls’ education, the poor standard of rural primary
schools’ buildings, classrooms and teachers ’ houses and etc. added to the grave
difficulties, which confronted the new government at the beginning of 1964.
III. The Growth of Education after Independence
When UNIP came to power in 1964, among its educational priorities were the
elimination of racial segregation in schools, expansion of educational provision and
achievement of rapid output of high-level human resources. In order to implement
these priorities, a number of bold decisions had been taken. The structure and
organization of the educational system were changed; tuition and boarding fees were
abolished; the capacity of the system was substantially increased and governmental
expenditure on education services increased at unprecedented rates.
3.1 Quantitative Education Developments, 1964 - 1990
During the period 1964 - 1990, Zambia made great strides in the provision of
facilities for formal in-school education. From the colonial situation where access to
education beyond the most elementary level had been available for only a few,
educational opportunities at all levels expanded at a very rapid rate. The enrolment
in primary schools increased fourfold in the period 1964 to 1990, growing at an
average annual rate of 5.5 % . Secondary school enrolment increased by more than
twelvefold in twenty-five years, growing at an average rate of more than 10. 5 %
annually throughout these years. In 1990, there was room in the primary schools for
approximately 9 out of 10 children of school-going age while 1 out of every 4 could 15
_.
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL, EDUCATION
proceed to secondary school. In terms of numbers there were 1.452 million children
enrolled in primary schools in 1990, of whom approximately 47 % were girls; at the
secondary school level there were some 170,000 enrolled, of whom 38 % were girls.
At higher levels of education, two universities were established and in contrast
with the frequently lamented figure of over 100 graduates at the time of
independence the country enjoys an annual output of approximately 900 university-
trained individuals in a wide variety of disciplines and fields. The education sector’s
own needs are met by an annual output of some 1, 800 trained teachers from 11
colleges for primary school and 550 qualified secondary school teachers from the
University of Zambia and other institutions. A coordinated policy of training in
technical and vocational areas was adopted in 1960s and followed through in the
following years, with formal pre-service and in-service training.
But the rapid numerical expansion of education was not maintained after 1985.
Primary school enrolments, which had grown by almost 30 % in the period 1980 -
1985, increased by less than 10% in 1985 - 1990. The deterioration was even more
marked in grade one, where enrolments grew by more than 35 % in 1980 - 1985 but
less than 21% in 1985 - 1990.
This slowing down of rate occurred because strategies adopted in 1975 to
increase the enrolment by more intensive use of existing facilities through double
sessions and excessively large classes was not accompanied with additional
investment. Therefore in 1990, approximately 190,000 children of primary school
age could not find places in schools. The problem was more serious in Lusaka and
rural areas where only three-quarters and two-thirds of the school-aged children were
enrolled in primary schools respectively.
3.2 Issues of Quality and Finance The qualitative and quantitative problems that beset educational provision can
be attributed to the declining level of public resources for education and in part to
structural deficits in the way of funds for the sector teing utilisedp. The proportion
of public funds devoted to the education sector dropped from 13.8 % in 1981- 1985
to 9. 8% in 1987 - 1991. Th’ is severe drop occurred when the system was still
expanding numerically, even if at a decreasing rate than earlier years. In 1980.
K269.5 million was spent on the educational needs of 1.15 million students of all 16
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL, EDUCATION
kinds. While in 1989, K151 million was spent on the needs of 1. 65 million
students: while the total number of students increased by half a million. The global
expenditure decreased by K118.5 million. The diagram below brings out clearly the
increasing enrolments and declining expenditures.
Equally low levels of spending on recurring departmental charges matched the
low level of investment for the sector’ s infrastructure. From 1980, a significantly
large proportion of the recurrent education budget was devoted to personal
emoluments for staff (97 % at primary level in 1991)) boarding and students welfare
(over 97% in 1989), and university students allowances. Between 1988 and 1990,
the proportion spent in this way accounted for more than one-fifth of all educational
expenditures. Consequently, limited resources were availlible for supplying
institutions with and other educational materials, for carrying out necessary
maintenance and repairs, and for providing* the system back up and the monitoring
of inspectors and others. The result of this was the decline in the levels of students’
achievements. In other words, the price that was paid for quatitative developments
was serious deterioration in the quality of education.
IV. Strategies for Development of School Education
4.1 The Nature of Zambian Society
Zambia is evolving into a new kind of society inspired by democratic values and
by fundamental respect for dignity and rights for all human beings. In the face of
grave economic problems it is seeking to ensure increased justice, liberty and equality
for all by facilitating living conditions worthy of human dignity. This new society is
a co-operative and developing venture of individuals and groups in which each one
grows with the opportunity to be fully-developed human and each one accepts
responsibility for promoting the human development of others.
4.2 The Aim and Goals of the Zambian Education System The fundamental aim of the school system in Zambia is to promote the integral,
harmonious development of the physical, intellectual, affective, moral and spiritual
endowment of all students so that they can develop into complete persons for their 17
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
personal fulfilment and for the common good of the society of which they are already
members and in which they share responsibilities as adults.
In the circumstances of Zambian society today, it necessitates a thorough and
sound intellectual formation; an appreciation for the achievements and traditions of
the past; a careful and critical study of the social and physical sciences and
technology; the development of the imaginative, affective and creative dimensions of
each student; the development of important character traits and a personal sense of
moral values; an appreciation of the importance of work in human development; and
provision of a substantial and systematic preparation for adult life.
In attaining these goals, the schools education has the following tasks:
To help all students to become independent learners and to assume responsibility
for their own education. The curriculum should be centred on the student rather
than on the material to be covered, promoting active students’ participation rather
than passive reception;
To awaken the individual’s political consciousness so that the student become
increasingly aware of the existence of social power and its components and of the
forces working in schools, the local community and the nation. The student-centred
teaching will encourage students to express their own ideas freely and to be tolerant
of the views of others thereby fostering democratic virtue of respect for others,
whatever their race, tribe, age, gender, religion, educational background, or social
and economic status;
To give all young people rigorous training in fundamental communication and
numeracy skills so that their capacity for subsequent education and training is
enhanced ;
To foster in all members of the education community the deep conviction that
every human being has a dignity which is independent of gender and which reflects
the individual’s unique inner worth. In particular, it must seek to eliminate every
practice and attitudes which demeans, excludes or under-represents women and girls
or which shows itself more favourable to men and boys;
At the time when the earth’s resources are being damaged or dissipated through
wasteful practices, deforestation, soil erosion, over-fishing, atmospheric, soil and
water pollution, and other human practices, the education system has the task of
instilling a reverence for creation as encountered in one ’ s own environment and a 18
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
desire to participate maintaining a healthy ecological balance. Only then will the
earth become fruitful for the generation to come;
To ensure that the living cultural tradition of Zambia are safeguarded from
further erosion and that opportunity is provided for their enrichment and
refinement, the education system will encourage a healthy appreciation for one’ s
own and other’s cultures by giving prominent role to local languages, expressions,
rites, symbols and art.
4.3 Adjustments in Policies Affecting Education Transformations in Zambia ’ s sociopolitical structures and economic
developments in the direction of trade liberalization and the market have had their
impact on the education sector. Arising from the changed socio-political and
economic environment, there have been some major adjustments in educational
policies and strategies.
The most significant changes concern the provision and financing of education.
Until recently, the view prevailed that the government should be the principal
provider of educational services. The attitude towards voluntary agencies and private
providers was one of benevolent tolerance. Although the government expressed
appreciation for the education contributions of voluntary agencies, Educational
Reform (1977) effectively marginalised these bodies when it stated that the ultimate
goal was that the state should make educational provision for everyone.
But the thinking expressed in official government documents has changed in
recent years. The Interim National Development Plan (INDP, 1987) stated clear
terms that “the responsibility for the education of children rests primarily with
parents and it is they who must ultimately provide educational services. ” The
recognition of parents’ rights and responsibilities has led to a clear understanding of
the community’s role in all that concerns education. Consequently there has been
development towards more pluralism in educational provision. In principle,
beneficiaries are now expected to make major contributions to boarding and similar
costs, although in practice their contribution remains minimal in relation to the total
costs. But manifestly, the principle of cost sharing has been accepted. What remains
to be seen is whether it will be applied in a cost-effective manner where it is already
in operation and whether it can be extended to areas such as tuition and book cost in 19
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
secondary schools.
4.4 Priorities in the Delivery of School Education National policy statements have expressed the need to give more priority to
primary education. This priority is based on equity, social, economic and
educational grounds. The social benefits that primary education brings are
impressive. Child mortality rates of educated mothers are lower than those of
mothers without education, while women with a full primary education tend to have
fewer children than those with incomplete or no education. Children of educated
parents are more likely to enrol in schools and to complete more years of schooling
than children of uneducated parents. The primary school is a major agency in
inculcating new attitudes, values and ways of behaviour, and in opening up the
minds of students to new ideas and methods. Those who have completed primary
school are likely to be more active in community affairs and to participate more
dynamically in the process of change and development than those who have little or
no education. The economic benefits of primary education are also positive. There is
abundant evidence to show that primary education promotes agricultural productivity
and that, in relation to the amount invested, the returns from primary education are
very much higher than those from secondary and high education. There is also
increasing evidence to show that countries that invested more heavily in improving
the quality of primary education have made greater economic progress than those
which invested less, while evidence from across the world bears out that providing
the poor with primary education is a key approach to the eradication of poverty.
The education grounds for concentrating on primary education are that it is at
this level that the foundations are laid for further education and training.
Performance in secondary schools will obviously improve with better graduates from
primary schools and as this improvement works its way up to higher levels, the
entire education and training system benefits. On the other hand, when quality is
poor at the lower levels, considerable resources must be spent at each level
remedying the deficiencies carried forward from the lower level.
“Poor primary schools compromise the entire system of human capital
development. They produce graduates who are poorly prepared for secondary and
tertiary education and ill equipped for life-long learning. The consequence is an 20
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL, EDUCATION
insufficient number of truly educated managers, workers and parents who can
efficiently contribute to development” .
Republic of Zambia, Ministry of E&cation, Educational Reform Proposals
and Recommendations, Government Printers, October, 1977, P. 77
A further consideration that is of importance in the universalization of primary
education is that the more -widespread primary education becomes, the greater is its
positive impact on agricultural productivity, fertility and nutrition. Individuals
appear to find it difficult to adopt new practices, even beneficiaries, if they are
foreign to the society to which they belong. If primary education is to realise its full
potential in bringing social and economic benefits, it must be spread to every sector
of the community and be universalised.
These equity, social, economic and educational considerations justify the high
priority that is now being accorded to the expansion and improvement of the primary
sub-sector. But it should be clearly understood that priority to primary schools does
not mean neglect of secondary schools or higher-level institutions. The priority to
primary education must be viewed in the context of an integrated education system
and of qualitative improvements at all levels. But for the reasons already outlined,
and because there has been so much neglect in the past, more detailed attention and
more generous support will be given to the enhancement of quality at the primary
level.
4.5 The Investment Priorities for the Education Sector Confronted with the evidence for a growing crisis in education, the Zambian
Government has set as its most general educational investment priority “to reversing
the decline in the quality of and access to education that has resulted from the
difficult economic situation” . More specifically, it “has set as its principal goal to
reorient public expenditure towards primary education”. It is also the governmental
policy, as a part of the economic restructuring programme, to increase the current
departmental charges for education (and other social sector areas), thereby reducing
the proportion that must go to salary payments. Public documents have also
expressed concern in the proportion between public spending per student at the
university and in primary schools and have expressed the intention of rectifying this
imbalance by requiring university students to pay more of their personal and tuition 21
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
costs. Implementation of the policies that have been enunciated would see an
increase in the volume of public resources devoted to the education sector, and
within the sector, a recognition of commitment would remedy the structural defects
that prevented funds being used in ways that respond to national priorities and the
objective of the sector.
Within the policy framework of according highest priority to the quantitative
and qualitative development of primary schools, the following strategies will be
adopted :
The necessary human, material and financial resources will be provided for the
physical expansion, development and rehabitation of primary schools and, to the
extent necessitated by these developments, of the primary teacher training colleges;
Emphasis will be put on schools as institutions where students are suppose1 to
learn and teachers are suppose1 to teach. This will entail completed by: providing
educational materials, textbooks, supplementary readers and library books to
primary schools; improving the quality of the pre-service teacher’ s education and
promoting the on-going professional development of serving teachers; reforming the
secondary selection examination; developing and facilitating the professional and
managerial competence of primary school heads, school inspectors and education
officers; improving the overall management, organisation and planning capacities
within the education sector as a whole; and fostering the community’s demand in
primary education by curriculum improvements and measures to the special needs of
disadvantaged groups.
At the secondary level, priority in the allocation of resources will be given to
the physical rehabitation of classrooms, laboratories and specialist rooms ; the
provision of textbooks, library books, and other educational materials; re-equipping
science laboratories and providing consumables ; improving the professional and
managerial competence of school heads; facilitating the professional activities of
school inspectors +
v. Concluding Remarks Implementation of these strategies requires considerably more information of the
educational sector than what is presently available. Sufficient information is lacking 22
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL, EDUCATION
in such areas as the employment and the use of primary school teachers; the number
and use of non-teaching staff in secondary schools; the physical state of primary
schools and the extent of rehabitation programme that needs to be undertaken. Data
are also need for teacher ’ s accommodation needs in the rural areas. High priority
must be accorded to filling this information gap and to developing a management and
information system that will provide a sound basis for educational planning.
National resources alone will not suffice to meet all the needs of primary sub-
sector. Hence, there will be a continuing need for aid from abroad to supplement
national resources and efforts to revitalize and develop primary education and effect
substantive qualitative improvements in secondary schools.
References 1. J. M. Mwanakatwe, The growth of education in Zambia Since Independence,
Oxford University Press (1974)
2. Republic of Zambia, Ministry of Education, Education Reform Proposals and
Recommendations, Government Printers, October, 1977
3. Republic of Zambia, Ministry of Education, Focus on Learning Strategies for
the Development of School Education in Zambia, Government Printers May,
1992
4. Republic of Zambia, Ministry of Education Annual Reports, Government
Printers
5. Republic of Zambia, Second National Development Plan, Government Printers
(1971)
6. Republic of Zambia, First National Development Plan, Government Printers
(1966 - 1970)) Government Printers (1966)
23
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
NAMIBIA
Education of Reform and Educational Development in Rural Areas in Namibia
By G. Kauna Ekandjo .
I. Introduction and Background Namibia is a large country with a total population estimated at 1.6 million. In
1990, Namibia achieved its independence from South Africa and has changed its
image to a multi-party democratic country. After Independence, the Namibian
government inherited an education system characterized by fragmentation along
racial and ethnic lines, unequal access to education and training, irrelevance of
curriculum and a lack of democratic participation within the educational system.
Three separate educational systems were introduced by the colonial government, one
for the Whites, one for the Blacks and another for the Coloreds with huge gaps and
unequity between them. School attendance for the Whites and the Coloreds was
compulsory whereas most Blacks had no access to education. According to the
Human Development Report of 1992, it was estimated that 60% of the adult
population were illiterates. @ At the same time, in the early 1990s it was estimated
that more than 400, 000 Namibian young adults were functionally illiterate. o
According to the 1991 Namibia National Census, 21% of the unemployed aged 15
and over had no schooling while 78 % had just primary or junior secondary
education. Only 1% of the unemployed had senior secondary or university
education. o In 1992, it was noted that over half of the teachers in Namibia had not
attained the required credentials that could match with their positions. 60
It is also a recognized fact that the country’s rural areas share the fundamental
characteristics of underdevelopment and widespread poverty which has led to
complex interrelated problems. Key problems are of health and educational standards
due to inadequate availability of social services, health, education, and skill training
facilities. There is a high level of poverty due to a low level of food production. As a
result, most of the rural poor are affected by malnutrition. o Widespread 24
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FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
unemployment is evident amongst the economically active population in most regions
as well as low levels of popular participation in local decision-making. On this
account, the development of education in Namibia should be understood based on its
historical context. Above all, the need for educational reform and educational
development in Namibia should be seen as playing a pivotal role in nation-building
and national cohesion.
II. Provision of Education after Independence The Namibian government is committed to endorsing the World Conference on
Education for All held in Jomtien, Thailand by the year 2000. @ Immediately after
Independence, the Namibian government, especially the Ministry of Education and
Culture, embarked upon a strategy which included a wide range of studies such as
indepth situation analysis with the assistance from individuals and various
institutions. These initiatives resulted in a theoretical framework, structure for the
new educational system as well as in a strategy for its implementation. To mention a
few, among the initiatives have been Basic Education Reform, Language Policy
Formulation, Junior Secondary Curriculum Reform, Teacher-in-service Training,
Literacy Programme Development and Distant Education. ’
2.1 Basic Education Reform
Practically, the government has embarked upon a policy document “Toward
Education for All”, which gives clear direction as to what the educational system has
set itself to achieve. @ For example, the government is committed to achieving 80 %
literacy by the year 2000. Other estimates on Namibia indicate that 80 - 85 % of
school-aged children begin primary school. @ As shown by the government ’ s
commitment to education for all, the Ministry of Education and Culture developed
and approved a common curriculum that intends to build on the learners’ needs and
social context; that promotes reconstruction of knowledge; that encourages active
learning and participation of the learner; that prepares the learners for the world of
work and that equip them with various skills and attitudes. @
25
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
2.2 Language Policy Formulation The government ’ s efforts have also been directed at building an equal and
democratic society. As a part of the reform process, in 1992, the Ministry of
Education and Culture launched a National Conference on the New Language Policy
Implementation which resulted in declaring English as an official national language
for Namibia. This initiative was based on the fact that, in the past, Afrikaans was
used to legitimise the inequalities of power and privileges by serving the colonial
administration. @ Although English has been officially declared as a national
language, all local languages are regarded equal. @
2.3 National Literacy Programme This programme is targeted towards meeting the needs among the youth and
adults who are functionally illiterate. The programme was officially launched in 1992
by the Department of Adult and Non-formal Education, Ministry of Education and
Culture. The initial programme enrollment was 15,000 participants with an annual
expansion and target enrollment of 80, 000. @ This justifies the move by the
government in rectifying the situation after it was estimated that 400,000 Namibians
were functionally illiterate. @ On the other hand , non-governmental organisations
are expected to reach a target of 10, 000 more participants through their literacy
programmes. l5 The programme aims at teaching English and local dialects as well as
setting up income-generating projects in order to promote and enhance the capacity
of adults for self-reliance.
2.4 Distance Education As a strategy, Distance Education is targeted mostly towards adults and young
adults who have already completed formal and non-formal education, and at the
same time, who seek to upgrade their skills. This area attracts a wider audience
from the society due to its flexibility. For example, learners can combine their work
and studies. The course content varies from English, in-service teacher education,
community management skills, etc. @
2.5 Continuing Education Continuing education accommodates learners who have basic literacy knowledge
26
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FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
and who wish to continue with their education. Prior to Independence, the learners’
enrollments stood at 5, 000 and were drawn from 33 Continuing Education
Centres. Q
2.6 University of Namibia Established in 1992, the main objective of the University of Namibia is to
develop human resource and to advance education and research. Several institutions
of higher education have been established country-wide with the aim of providing
various courses and access to education of university. Higher education, in this
respect, is expected to produce competent expertise in areas of productivity,
advanced technology, teacher education, etc. @
2.7 Teacher Colleges The government successfully established Teachers’ Training Colleges in various
regions as well as The National Institute for Education Development( NIED) . NIED
aims at curriculum development and revision as well as teachers’ in-service training.
2.8 Polytechnic Education Coordinated efforts on polytechnic education are geared towards students who
have completed full secondary education. The Ministry of Education and Culture is
responsible for school curriculum design and non-formal education as well as technical
training. On the other hand, the Ministry of Labor and Manpower Development
takes on the responsibility of artisanry, etc. The Ministry of Agriculture and Water
Affairs provides formal agricultural education and training and in-service training for
extension workers. Generally, the content of training comprises technical services,
accounting, information systems, technical education, management and
administration, hotel and catering services, etc. @ Although the g ovemment ’ s major
role is to forge for strong cooperation and coordination among various institutions,
coordinated efforts seem to be lacking in some aspects of programme
implementation. Thus, most of the time, programmes are run in a fragmented
manner. @I
27
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FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
III. Positive Aspects of Namibia’ s Educational Reform In pursuing the policy of “Education for All”, Namibia has set itself some major
goals based on access, equity, quality, and democracy. @ Expanded access towards
“Education for All” contains the provision of universal basic education and covers ten
years of general comprehensive education. The rationale is to expand capacity in
terms of school facilities, teaching staff, etc, and to consolidate equity in terms of
expanding equitable education to all. Affirmative action programmes are being
embarked on and they serve as a cornerstone in addressing discriminatory practices of
the past. @ Quality is geared towards the content of education as well as to teacher
training. In this sence, teachers are prepared to take on major responsibilities and to
develop their skills and expertise. A conducive environment is also created for
learners by improving the physical facilities. @ The cornerstone of the educational
system, on the other hand, is based on the principle of democracy. The
government’s commitment is to teach the rights and responsibilities of citizens and it
is believed that democracy would only function better with a literate community.
The government has committed itself to establishing networks of cooperation
and collaboration based on governmental minorities, non-governmental organistions,
international organisations, etc. The purpose of all these combined efforts involved
in education is to provide substantial capacity in the area of non-formal basic
education.
IV. Experiences/Lessons from China
With only nine years of Independence, the Namibian government continues to
show tremendous efforts towards educational reform and development. However,
the government still has got a long way to go in solving problems related to
education, especially with reference to rural education. However, the country can
learn and benefit from China’ s long experience with educationel reform and
education development. In this respect, China could serve as a good model for
Namibia on rural education and for sharing the same status as developing countries.
There are several reasons why Namibia needs to pursue and put more emphasis
on rural education. First, it is evident that Namibia’s major problems are related to 28
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
rural development due to the fact that most of the rural population is poor. Namibia
encounters problems such as inadequate availability of social services, health,
education, and skill training facilities; high levels of poverty related to low levels of
food production; widespread unemployment amongst economically active population
in most regions; and low levels of popular participation in local decision-making. @
Other related problems are that, with 64% of the population living in rural
areas in 1995, Namibia’s human poverty remains three times that of urban areas
with 35. 99% the urban population. @ Thus, the Hu m a n Poverty Index ( HP1 )
value for Namibia is rated at 30.0 % with ranking at 41 as compared to China, with
only a 17.1% HP1 value ranked at 16. @ In view of the above, China’s low HP1
value could be attributed to compulsory basic education coupled with a strong
political will which serves as a key to rural education and rural development. With a
total population estimated at 1.2 billion in 1997, China’ s adult illiteracy rate has
been lowered to 18.5 % as of 1995. @ Historically, just like Namibia, in the past,
China’s colonial educational system reinforced the nation of second-class citizenship
and favored the most privileged class. On the other hand, skills development was
neglected. In the period before 1949, China’s illiteracy rate topped 85 % of the total
population and 95 % in the rural areas@. This prompted New China to opt for a new
democratic educational system as a first step to educational reform which attracted
more workers and farmers.
China’ s leaders have shown a high political will and commitment. For
example, Mao Zedong strongly felt that “ when workers and farmers become
empowered politically and their lives has improvedt, they themselves and their
children become more eager to go to school and learn knowledge”. Thus, to him,
wiping out illiteracy among 80 % of the population is an important task in New
China. @a
As a strategy for rural education, in 1988, China introduced Integrated
Education Reforms for Rural Development as a National Programme. Emphasis is
put on the rural poor with less weight put on academic learning. Thus, China’s
rural education includes vocational and adult basic education, agricultural and
technical education with rural-based agrotechnology. Due to this strategy,
improvement has been noted in terms of technological and literacy levels. It is worth
noting that there is a strong combination between training practical skills with 29
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
. teaching of literacy skills and numerical knowledge. The rationale behind this
approach is to induce interest and to win the learners’ /farmers ’ enthusiasm for
participating in literacy programmes.
Extensive training courses are carried out in rural areas to prepare farmers for
new changes in technological fields such as in planting, farming, etc. More
emphasis is put on science and technology, and a series of techniques and methods
related to agriculture are demonstrated to the rural poor.
Strong linkages between agricultural colleges, technical bodies and grassroots
communities exist, especially for farmers. More interestingly, school technicians
and agricultural university professors are continuously in contact with the farmers.
Through their efforts, model agro-technical households have been identified and
established. Expert advice rendered is based on periodical on-site lectures, etc.
On the other hand, financing of rural education in China is mostly dependent on
inputs from the central government, local government, and individual donations.
The State Compulsory Education for the rural poor is the sole responsibility of the
central government whereas the development of middle and junior-level education
have been shifted to governments at provincial, prefecture, county, and township
levels . Special conditions have been attached to the appropriation of funds directed
towards rural education . For example , 70% or more of the project funds are to be
directed to the poorest counties as determined by the central government. ’ Also,
appropriated project funds are to be used for special purposes otherwise the actions
could be termed as illegal as well as criminal. (lecture notes ,7th April) . @
v. Considerations/Suggestions
In view of China’s progress, Namibia, as a developing country, could benefit
more in various ways. Areas of consideration are as follows:
A shared vision and strong political will are needed for success in rural
education. To accomplish this, through the policy of decentralization, greater
autonomy and responsibility should be given to local governments authorities for
decentralized development planning and management in educational matters as well .
as with the management of natural resources. Thus, local governments ’ main 30
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
responsibilities should be to bring together different sectors, governors, councillors,
teachers, extension workers and affected communities to share their vision on rural
development and education.
At the national level, priority should be given to long-term planning of linking
education and poverty eradication programmes in conjunction with local agencies.
Thus, there is a need for a national programme on the integrated education reform
for rural development. In this regard, the government’s coordinating role needs to
be strengthened in order to promote greater accountability of responsibilities.
Intense investment in education in poverty-stricken areas is needed in order to
ensure sustainability and to address regional disparities that exist regionally.
Higher institutions of learning such as universities and colleges should embark
upon integrated research with focus directed to rural areas. Research should strive
for new orientation toward technology education as well as vocational education in
order to serve as a breakthrough for restructuring no only rural development but the
rural educational system.
VI. Conclusion
In the Namibian context, educational reform and educational development in
rural areas should be understood in light of correcting the past imbalances and
reducing inequalities of access to education. Though in its infancy, the Namibian
government is committed to the principle of “Education for All. ” Close cooperation
with non-governmental organizations and the private sector is pursued to address
problems of rural poverty, unemployment, education, etc. Finally, building on
experiences accumulated over the past nine years of Independence, and experiences
from other developing countries, Namibia remains in a powerful position in
overcoming most of its problems. Thus,
to ensure that all its citizens benefit from
the government ’ s fundamental concern is
planned socioeconomic development.
Endnotes : 1. Human Development Report, 1992, United Nations Development Programme,
NY 31
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
2. Toward Education for All : A Development Brief for Education, Culture,
and Training, 1993, P. 102
3. National Census Statistics for Namibia, 1991
4. Same as in 2, P.75
5. The National Agricultural Policy of Namibia: Related Cross Sector-al Issues,
Rural and Regional Development, P. 42
6. Same as in4, PP.3,5
7. Same as in 6,P.20
8. Reform Forum, July 1996, P. 20
9. Same as in 7, P-72
lO.Same as in 8, P.20
11. Same as in 9, P. 65
12.Same as in 11
13. Same as in 12, P. 102
14. Same as in 13
15. Same as in 14
16. Same as in 15, P. 104
17. Same as in 16
18. Same as in 17, P. 109
19. Same as in 18, PP. 93,94,116 117
20. Same as in 19, P .94
21. Same as in 20, P . 67
22. Same as in 21
23. Same as in 22
24. Same as in 5, P.3
25. United Nations Statistics Division, 1997, United Nations Publications
26. Human Development Report, 1998, United Nations Publications
27. UNESCO Division of Statistics in 1994
28. Han Jialing, Historical Experiences in China ’ s Rural Education : A case
study of Leishan County
29. Sameas in 2S, P.3
30. Lecture notes
31. Lecture notes 32
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL, EDUCATION
GHANA
Rural Education as a Factor in Rural Development -the Ghanaian Perspective
By Jsaac Oppong Manu.
I. Background
Like most developing countries, Ghana is a predominantly agricultural country.
Its population in 1960 (three years after independence in 1957) was approximately 6
million. But due to the relatively high population growth rate, which now stands at
about 2. 9% per annual, the population of Ghana has increased to 18 million.
According to the 1998 UNDP Human Development Report, 64 % of Ghana’ s
population is rural, engaged in agriculture-related occupations.
Until the mid-1970’s Ghana had one of the most highly developed and effective
educational systems in West Africa. The economic decline of the 1970 ’ s however
deteriorated the educational system. Enrolment rates, once the highest in Sub-
Saharan Africa, stagnated or fell, apparently due to quality decline. The percentage
of GDP allocated to education dropped from 6.4 % to 1.5 % in 1984. Government
resources were no longer available to construct, complete, or maintain educational
facilities. At the same time, foreign exchange dried up, preventing the purchase of
textbooks and other essential instructional materials. There was a mass exodus of
trained teachers to other countries, and at the basic education level the ratio of
trained to untrained teachers fell significantly.
By the mid-1980’s it had become evident that the quality of education provided
in the school system had deteriorated considerably and this had adversely affected the
quality of manpower produced. The school curriculum, had lost its relevance to the
social cultural and economic needs of the country and the duration of pre-university
education was too long and therefore not cost effective. Access to education had also
reduced considerably with an increasing drop-out rate. A significant 5. 6 million 33
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
adult Ghanaians were illiterate, representing about 30% of the population. To halt
this situation the Government initiated an Educational Reform Programme in 1987.
II. Educational Reforms
Given the long term vision of Ghana that by the year 2020 the country will
have achieved a balanced economy and a middle-income country status, there was
the need to enhance the quality of the country’s human resources. The decay in the
educational system was therefore incompatible with the country’s long term vision,
hence the need for reforms.
Under the reforms all children of school-going age are to attend school under
the formal sector educational programme known as “the Free, Compulsory and
Universal Basic Education ( FCUBE ) ” . The educational structure up to pre-
university level has been changed from 10: 5 : 2 ( ie 10 Years elementary, 5 years
secondary and 2 years senior high school ) to 6 : 3 : 3. This new structure has reduced
the pre-university school years from 17 to 12 years. Out of the 12 years the basic
schooling covers 9 years ( Primary and Junior Secondary School [ J . S. S ] level >
which is compulsory.
A curriculum enrichment programme was introduced which made sure that
students are taught subjects relevant to the nation’s needs. New textbooks using
Ghanaian situation and examples were written to enhance the reform programme.
A functional literacy programme was also initiated and the Non-Formal
Education Division (NFED) of the Ministry of Education was established in 1992
with the aim of reducing the illiteracy rate within a decade and helping the 5. 6
million illiterates to become functionally literate by the year 2000.
III. Funding of Projects
In addition to Government’ s own funding, substantial donor support was
received from International agencies. The World Bank credit of US $65.1 million
and International Development Agency ( IDA) support of US $200 million helped
greatly in carrying out the reforms. The reform programme which runs through the 34
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
entire educational system, from basic and secondary to tertiary and adult literacy,
involves changes in structure and content and aims at improving access , equity and
quality of teaching and learning.
The first phase of the reform concentrated on the nationwide implementation of
the J. S. S programme. This was followed by the second phase which included
Primary School Development Programme (PSDP) . The PSDP involves:
0 The construction of 10,977 classroom pavilions in most deprived areas and
two-bed room houses for Head-teachers at each site;
0 Re-roofing of 1,546 Classrooms ;
II Eliminating all fees and levies not officially approved by the Ministry but
imposed on primary school children;
Cl Orientation of key district officials and community leaders from each school
area ; and
0 Training and retraining of Head-teachers in school level supervision.
IV. Progress on Reforms
Reviewing the extent of progress on Ghana’ s Educational Reforms, the
President of Ghana, in his address to Parliament quoted in the newspaper Du;Zy
Graphic of 15th January, 1999, gave the following account of the outcome of the
Reforms :
“Apart from upgrading all 5,260 f ormer Middle Schools to Junior Secondary
Schools, an additional 339 JSS h ave been established since the reforms started in
1987, Primary School enrollment has risen from 1,625,137 in 1987/88 to 2,333,
504 in 1997198 , an increase of 43.6 % .
The proportion of school-going age population in primary school also increased
from 69.2 % to 76.5 % over the same period. The annual primary one intake has
grown from 188,529 to 478,688, an increase of 153.9% ; whilst the number of
primary schools has increased from 9,424 to 11,775 or 25 % .
Enrolment at JSS level increased from 610, 094 in 1987/88 to 695, 468 in
1997/98, representing an increase of 14 % , Th e numble of students entering JSS
increased from 180,855 to 260,172 or 44 % increase; whilst 127,349 JSS students 35
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FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
graduated in 1987/88 as against 202,000 in 1997/98, representing an increase of
58.6 % . Enrolment at the Senior Secondary School recorded a 33. 2 % increase
whilst graduate from SSS in creased from 20,158 to 57,708 in 1997/98. “@
V. Non-formal Education
With the need to adequately communicate to the population in programmes such
as the Economic Recovery Programme and rural development strategies, the
Government initiated the Functional Literacy Skills Project. This is designed to give
particularly women and people living in the rural areas the necessary consciousness,
attitudes, skills and ledge so that they can participate fully in national development.
So far NFED has established 48,000 classes for 1.3 million learners made up of 40 %
males and 60 % females.
The programme has several components including literacy classes, development
activities, income-generation, monitoring and evaluation taught by volunteer
facilitators in 15 local languages. Primers include topics such as civic awareness,
health, life skills, occupational skills, and lessons are based on daily life and
concerns such as family planning, animal rearing, child caring and potable water.
It is hoped that the programme will reduce considerably the illiteracy rates which,
according to the 1996 World Bank Development Indicators was 35.5 % overall, with
male illiteracy at 24 % and Females 46.5 % of adults.
VI. Effect of Education Reforms on Rural Developmenit
Ghana has over 64% of population in the rural areas who are engaged in
agriculture. Therefore rural development in this context has to be assessed mainly on
the extent that rural education, both formal and non-formal, has contributed to the
promotion of agriculture and agri-based industries in the rural areas. It is only by
this means that the long-term transformation of the rural people, their economy and
society could the assured.
This is based on the premise that it is only through the use of new scientific and
technological imevations in agriculture through rural education that the rural 36
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FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
economy could be industrialized and then gradually lead to the urbanization of the
rural areas. In Ghana, with the provision for health services, safe drinking water,
improved access roads and an ambitious rural electrification programme across the
length and breadth of the whole country, the enabling environment has been created
and visible signs of rural development are all over the country. Value-added agri-
based processing like palm-oil extraction, Shea-butter processing, soap making, gari
processing, log milling and a host of other cottage industrial ventures are established
in the rural areas.
The link between urbanization of a country and its development is shown in
Table 1 below:
Table 1: the Correlation of. Rural Population and the World Hunan Development
Index Ranking (HDI) in 1995
Country HDI Ranking Rural Population Real GDP per Capita
(as% of total) ($)
Singapore
Chile
Namibia
Ghana
China
Tanzania
Ethiopia
28 0% 22.604
31 16% 9.930
107 64% 4,054
133 64% 2.032
106 70% 2.935
150 76% 636
169 85% 455
Source: Human Development Report 1998, UNDP.
The table shows that the less rural population in a country, the higher it is
human Development and real GDP per Capita. Therefore “ the major way of
transition is to raise the agricultural productivity and the level of urbanization of rural
areas so as to turn more and more rural people into urban inhabitants through
introducing science and technology and investing the capital of manpower motivated
by education”. @
37
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
VII. Problems of Correlation Betweem Education and Development
Although one can not easily discount the positive role that adult literacy and
functional education programmes of NFED have played in rural development in
Ghana; it is a little more difficult to establish the effect of formal rural education on
rural development in the country. “In fact there is solid evidence to suggest that the
education which is imparted in primary and secondary schools has often been
counter-producfive to rural development. It is implicated in the exodus of talents
from the rural areas; it orients students towards the small modern sector which is
concentrated in the cities that is already hard-pressed to absorb the influx of young
labor force entrants; its curricula and structures are patterned on colonial models and
ignore the real learning needs of the rural poor”. @ Even those who stay on in the
rural areas largely disdained manual work, and rarely choose to continue with the
parental occupation of agriculture.
In recognition of this reality, the President of Ghana, in his address to
Parliament, spoke about efforts “to make the unemployed and unemployable youth
more employable. He touched on the programme to mobilize. the youth for
agricultural production as well as enabling the 24 National Vocational Training
Institutes double their intake of J. S. S graduates by the year 2000. To encourage
these graduates to become self-employed, the Ministry of Employment and Social
Welfare, in conjunction with EMPRETEC, has developed 20 business profiles of
short gestation projects in the agricultural, industrial and services sectors 9) @I .
VIII. Lessons From China’s Education Reforms
By virtue of China being the largest developing country with the highest rural
population and the most successful rural education, it would be worthwhile drawing
lessons from the Chinese example, not withstanding the apparent vast differences in
size, population, culture, and political orientation. Table 1 above shows that Ghana
and China have many others things in common and therefore good enough for
comparison. 38
FIRST INTERNATIONAL. WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
Professor Lu Jie of Nanjing Normal University, China concludes that “In rural
areas, economic poverty usually results from cultural poverty”. To her “the first
purpose of rural education is to make it possible for rural people to gain knowledge
and working skills through education. This is the cultural precondition to elimination
of ignorance and poverty among rural people. The other purposes are to acquire
modem citizens Consciousness, and the capacity of starting new undertakings or
enterprising spirit” . @ The Chinese successful story was witnessed by participants of
the UNESCO’s Advanced Workshop for Rural Education Theory and Development
Strategies in March 1999 during our visits to selected schools in various parts of
Jiangsu Province in China. We observed that right from the Primary Schools
through to the Senior High and Vocational Technical Schools, curriculum was
designed to produce graduates with skills to serve the local economy and to export
excess labor to the urban centres.
Schools train students in all round development in morality, intelligence,
physique, esthetics and labouring. The most remarkable area of particular interest is
the education of pupils with “labouring technology so as to fit into the society”. By
this, the schools actually engage in practical agriculture and get every student to
participate actively in it. This is followed by extension of scientific knowledge to
farmers with in the community who by this become models in the process of
economic development. Modem scientific and technological ways are thus
transferred to farmers in the catchment areas of the schools. In addition to this,
winter schools and adult education programmes are organized for farmers by these
schools. There is complete devotion to duty by teachers who are well-motivated by
high salaries and decent accommodations for all categories of teachers.
For the vocational schools, the Jinnan Middle School in the Jinhu County of
Jiangsu Province provides a shining example worthy emulation. This school which
became a combined junior and senior high school in 1970, had the senior part
converted into a vocational school in 1982. Its slogans are Labour Market
Orientation, Enterprise Orientation, and National Defense and Security
Orientation. The products of the school are middle-level managers, accountants,
technicians, caterers, security personnel etc. who are readily employed by the
factories and hotels in the province. Those graduates from J . S. S unable to go on
further are given additional one year in technological instructions to become fit for 39
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
the society.
In short, rural education in China does not lose touch with the needs of the
rural areas, so there is always a big impact made by schools on the social and
economic standards of its area of location.
IX. Proposals
Putting the Ghanaian and the Chinese rural educational systems into
perspective, the following proposals are suggested for consideration by all developing
countries :
1. There is the urgent need to link theory with practice. Here practice should
not he limited to the laboratories and experimental farms but rather should be
practised on the farms or factories right from the primary school level.
2. More technical/vocational training institutes, which have direct links and
relevance to the local economy should be established to train those J . S. S and S. S. S
graduates who are unable to advance further to tertiary institutions so that they can
acquire skills to either be on their own or get employed by local industries.
3. Adult literacy programmes require more emphasis on quality functional
education, hence the reliance on mostly volunteers who are usually not professionals
as instructors should change. Well-trained teachers and experts should be used.
There is also the need to intensify post-literacy programmes to monitor and further
enhance the capacities of learners.
4. All categories of teachers should be well motivated by provision of decent
accommodation to accept postings to the rural areas.
5. There should be vertical and horizontal integration of formal rural educational
structures and others educational programmes run by various ministries,
departments and agencies. Accordingly, Ministry of Education Programmes and
those being run by Ministry of Agriculture, Cooperatives, Community Development
etc, should be co-ordinated in such a way that they would be more beneficial to the
rural people.
6. There should be greater investment and co-operation in the coming years
between governmental agencies, NGOs, universities and other research institutions 40
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
to eliminate illiteracy and enhance rural development.
7. Finally, there is the need to inculcate the philosophy of service to the
community and local people who made it possible for us to be educated right from the
primary schools. This will go a long way to debunk the wrong notion that the place
for the educated is the city, so that the youth could be psyched to stay back in the
rural areas to help in development.
X . Conclusion
It is an undeniable fact that rural development depends on several influencing
factors. However, the role of rural education, both formal and non-formal, as a
major factor in rural development cannot be denied.
It is therefore necessary that developing countries which have a greater
percentage of their populations in the rural areas should pay more attention to rural
education if they are to transform their social and economic structures into more
urbanized industrial structures which are the hallmark of development.
NOTES: 1. Ghana ’ s Vision 2020 Document, PP. 56 - 58
2. An Introduction to Rural education, Feb. 1999, edited by Chen Jingpu, P. 6
3. Education and Rural Development : Issues for Planning and Research edited by
Dr. Berstecher , PP. 46 - 47
4. Presidential Address to Parliament of Ghana, Daily Graphic of January 15,
1999, P.ll
5. An Introduction to Rural Education, Feb . 1999, PP. 9 - 10
41
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
KENYA
Strategies on Fund Raising and Management for Schools
By Patrick Kaaria Kiugu
I* Background
The text below on raising funds for schools is dedicated to Headteachers/
Principles, Parents, Teacher Unions, and all Stakeholders in Learning Institutions.
Many institutions have a lot of problems because of poor management and inability of
managers, who fail to implement the strategies, poor accountability of finances and
lack of funds for developments. i
1.1 What Problems are to be Solved? The theme is to formulate ways and means of raising and managing funds for
rural education because if rural education is to succeed, hundreds and thousands of
shillings is involved and good managers must run the school and with a good vision.
1.2 Why I Write the Thesis? On many occasions, school finances have been used on dubious projects that
they were not intended for, On the other hand, as the Government undertake major
national projects, there is need for the local community to help raise funds and speed
up Education for All. Everyday in the world new science technology is coming
through Internet, hence great need to build and equip our schools adequately with
modem facilities.
1.3 Reasons Which Made me Forward These Problems ; Cl The UNESCO policy on Education for All is that everyone must know how
to read and write and learn basic life skills for improvement of living standards;
Cl To provide basic education opportunities to the disadvantaged; 42
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FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL, EDUCATION
Cl The need to equip our learning institutions with modem facilities.
1.4 Basic Conditions Which Made me Forward the Problems: Countries like USA, Japan, UK, have become industrialized countries and
computerized and about 98 % of the rural population use modem technology in their
everyday life. In the developing countries, very little population is exposed to the
world of science. Africa is one example where majority of the rural community,
70% are not exposed to such technology because of lack of electricity, computer
services through Internet. So there is a lot to be done to the rural setting.
Cl Policy.
The policy of every government is to see to it that its rural community learn to
read and write and learn the basic skills for life, but since the government
commitment are many, there is need for other suppliers to equip learning institutions
with modem facilities.
0 Past experience.
When Kenya became independent in 1963, there were very few schools. The
government was capable of building and supplying books. By then the aim was to
educate so many children to take over the running of the country and this was so for
a long time.
1.5 Where Money from? The government allocates a big percentage of its budget towards education, but
to quicken development in rural education on modern science and technology, the
rural community must be educated on their right of ownership and decision making
and future vision for their schools so that they can help equip them;
NGOs when approached by the relevant authorities donate generously and
willingly in material form like building materials, computers, etc ;
Local governments, banking institutions should be contributing a certain
percentage of their yearly income towards equipping learning institutions.
1.6 How to Use the Money Effectively? Proper planning is always the key to total quality management. By keeping
proper records, regular auditing and going by the plan, any project would be 43
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FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
completed in time. This is the case in China where projects are completed, equipped
and used within the stipulated time. 0
II. Factors Affecting the Raising and Management of Funds
2.1 Economic Factors Geographically some parts of our country are not favorable for agriculture,
hence the income per capita is very low to the local community. Therefore equipping
institutions in such areas which have semi-permanent classrooms is a big burden.
People have very little income from modern agriculture. Many areas in the rural
setting are not industrialized because there is no electricity which is the major source
of energy to industrialization. Electricity is used in farming to pump water for
irrigation during times of draught. In many countries the gap between the rich and
the poor is great. Most of the poor live in the rural areas and there is great need to
educate them on modern agricultural technology and the need of starting rural
industries in the rural areas. With better resources, education in the formal and non-
formal sectors will be improved, which will mean better life and modern schools for
the rural community and with better resources, contributions will be more and the
big gap between the rich and the poor will be small.
2.2 Social and Cultural Factors In the African context in the past, it was true that many children in a family
were a great wealth because they could do a lot of work per day and a huge dowry
for girls marriages. Many children today should be difficult to care for. It was also
cultural belief that after independent, the government would take full responsibilities
of building and equipping education institutions and up to today some people have
the same ideas.
2.3 Community Management It’ s true that available finances for educational revenue and expenditure is
declining. The older people who have no children in school are unwilling to pay for
the development. The well off people within the community ignore the plight of the 44
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
people and keep away from any contributions.
2.4 Political Factors
Most countries in the world have multi-party system these days. Opposition
parties are always at logger heads with the government of the day and the
headteachers/principals and the management fear to be associated with the
opposition parties and therefore refuse donations from the opposition politicians as
many politicians, during campaign seasons, give out a lot of money to voters and
schools to influence stakeholders to vote for them. .
To the rich, few who would like to be identified give out a lot of money to
schools so as to have more influence in decision making. We have seen Headteachers
who accepted building materials from opposition MPS and were interdicted or
transferred far from their former schools. But when our beloved President
intervened, they were posted back to their former institutions and the same positions
of headteachers/ principals.
IL Main Principals for Solving the Problems
3.1 Right Obligations of Doing Things
After schools get donations from the governmental donors and wellwishers, it is
their right obligation to see that the money is used for the right purpose it was
intended for. It’ s also the right of the beneficiaries to get the most for their lives
from the donated money. Students should learn its their responsibilities to have
interest in their school, their studies and to love their neighbours and their
environment. And so then will become responsible citizens of their country.
3.2 Equity and Efficiency of Utilization of Funds
It happens that in many countries, schools in developed areas like the urban
areas get more attention from industries and NGOs, and those in disadvantaged
areas get less attention because there are no industries and poor infrastructure and
poor living conditions. It’ s the right that every student should get the same
attention. The disadvantaged areas should got more donations so that they can catch 45
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
up with more developed areas.
3.3 Giving Priorities to Equity In giving priorities, many students should graduate from the institutions by
using the available finances, which means more should be done by students and
administrators using the low cost output. The community should also benefit from
the available resources.
I.V. Summary of Past Experiences in Kenya
From Looking back in 1963 when Kenya gained independence, the
communities havd contributed millions of shillings for schools, but most of the
money ended up in the wrong projects. In many schools these projects ended up half
completed, which lowered the contributors and beneficiaries moral. A few
Headteachers/Principals embezzled the funds and were interdicted or forced to pay
back. In 1995, inspectors and Headteachers course on PRISM (Primary School
Management) was launched countrywide, and most of the Headteachers/Principals
were trained that year. From the new course on Total Quality Management of
Schools, the standards of education have improved and the public relationship is very
good though most of the schools are running on very little resources. @
v. Strategies to be Adopted Raise and Manage Funds
5.1 Past Experiences Past experiences had proved that many did not take Education For All
seriously, especially girls who, when they became expectant went home for good or
were married very early. Today after girls give birth they are allowed back to schools
to which give them a better chance to better their education and become useful
members of the community. That the girls going back to schools, gives the rural
community more interest to contribute and bring more girls to schools. o
Before knowing the right of ownership and right of decision-making for their
institutions, many people always thought it was the governments right. to educate its 46
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
people and provide for all facilities and make final decisions.
5.2 SWOT Analysis (Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats) By educating the rural community on their right of opinion and ownership and
analyzing the future vision of the institution, all will be willing to donate. This will
be possible if SWOT analysis are understood by all. These are the Strength,
Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats the school has.
The management and rural community should know what strength the school
has in form of trained teachers, pupil, parents etc.
Weaknesses like low enrolment of pupils is a great weakness of a school, poor
community which can do very little in terms of finances.
Opportunities-management must find ways of improving the weaknesses, eg,
sending children to school, more seminars for teachers on new approaches to
Education.
Threats, poor economy, low education standards, poor public relationship are
not good to any community.
VI. Case Study of Mariene and Nyweri Primary Schools
6.1 Mariene Primary For many years, Mariene Pry School had built good permanent classrooms for
lower and upper grades and equipped them, but had ignored the pre-primary
classrooms. The two classrooms were built of iron sheets which had long worn out.
There were long tables and forms for children to sit on which made them very
uncomfortable. Children were always cold and shivering. One day the local MP
visited the school. On his tour round the school, he was shown the conditions of the
pre-primary class. He promised to help raise the funds to build modern
classrooms. @ On the material day, four dignitaries arrived to help raise the funds.
The President personally sent about 1, 500 US dollars. Today new modern pre-
school classrooms are built.
47
FIRST INTERNATIONAL, WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
6.2 Study Case of Nyweri Primary School : The rural community of Nyweri Primary School had managed to build a library
together with a modern administration block, but could not manage to buy a single
text book for the library. After several years, the management organized a public
collection day where they raised over one hundred and fifteen thousand dollars ( 115,
000 dollars). With this money they were able to buy most of the book for their
library and reference books for the teaching staff. ’
References : 1. Total Quality Management and the Schools by Stephen Murgatroyd and Colin
Morgan
2. Introduction to Rural Education
3. Country Reports
4. Primary School Management Modules-Kenya
5. Ministry of Education Policy on Girls Education-Kenya
6. Mariene Pry School File
7. Nyweri Pry School File
48
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FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
ETHIOPIA
Selecting Contents and Teaching Methodology for the Rural Adult Class
By Kebede Sima
I. Introduction and Background
Whenever national planning is thought there always arises the agendum of
priority. Questions like what, to which area, what amount, when. . . , etc. become
indispensable. Genuine planning process always takes the human element into
account first, as the source and implementing agent. Today, in most developing
countries the question of manpower has come to be the order of the day. The reality
in these countries is very disastrous and shocking. The majority of the population,
who lives in the rural areas of these countries are illiterate and as a result becomes the
victims of poverty and ignorance. Therefore, development efforts face a lot of
challenge. Among these, provision of literacy education to the illiterate and poor
population and empowering these literate people to lead productive lives are the ones
that most countries are trying to overcome. Most of the illiterate population in these
countries live in rural areas, where there is no access to transportation, health
facilities, etc. Thus the provision of literacy education in these countries should deal
with selected learning contents in order to empower the rural population and enable
him to fight against his enemies (ignorance, poverty, etc. > . In this paper I try to
discuss precisely three issues related to contents of non-formal education. These are:
1. Needed assessment to select and decide the contents of learning
2. Quality of contents
3. Source of contents
In addition to the issues of contents, the nature of the teaching methodology in
the adults’ classroom is briefly discussed.
49
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
II. Methods
In writing this paper, I have used materials from the following sources:
1. The observations in the field visits in different areas of Hebei, Gansu , and
Jiangsu provinces of China;
2. Interviews and discussions with scholars working in different institutions in
the above mentioned areas;
3. Classroom lectures;
4. Reviewing academic papers and books written by different scholars;
5. Personal experiences.
III. What is Non-formal Education
A participant in the International Training Workshop on Rural Education for
Development which held on September 15 - 16, Boading , Hebei Province , China,
defines non-formal education as
“That form of education which consists of mostly assortments of organized,
semi-educational activities operating outside the regular structure and routines of
formed system, and it aims at meeting a great variety of learning needs of different
sub-groups. ”
From the definition given above, one can conclude that non-formal education is
flexible in its organization and programs. In addition to this, it is operating outside
of the regular educational system and meeting a great variety of learning needs of
different individuals or groups. It is also clear that non-formal education has no hard
and fast rules that restrict the procedures or regulations from being flexible and
smooth. This fact is clearly indicated in the following.
“The chief feature of non-formal education is that the education is conducted
flexibly in different places and to different learners. The teacher conducts the lessons
according to individual students’ level, age and capability, and does not make the
same requirement on every student. The teacher goes to each student ’ s home
irregularly to teach lessons. When the learner is busy with farming work, they can
spend less time on study. And they can make up for it when there is less farmimg 50
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work. The schedule can also be adjusted in the case of urgency. The teacher is
always ready to teach when the learner comes. ”
Thus, when I am talking of adults in this paper, I am having in mind the rural
adult, especially in the Ethiopian, where adults go for a three years of literacy and
post literacy education and join the regular program afterwards.
IV. Selecting Contents for Non-formal Education
4.1 Need Assessment The provision of any type of education always needs earlier assessment,
planning and preparation. Before preparing a certain package, one has to do a deep
assessment of the needs and interests of the target group. To carry out this task, a
certain mechanism should be devised. A group of researchers or an institute
responsible for such purposes could come up with feasible results. In the places I
traveled in China, I was able to see responsible and effective institutions doing
researches to identify the needs of adult learners. Gansu Institute of Educational
Research and Agricultural University of Hebei are two of the many institutions with
such type of specialization.
These institutions make researches on the problems of the rural people and
disseminate the results to the respective development agents ( Ministries of
Education, Agriculture, etc. ) in China. And these development agents in turn use
the research results to prepare pertinent educational materials that help to teach the
rural population. The contents in these materials will be very familiar to the adult
learner. Therefore, the adult not only enjoys learning these contents but also
internalizes and applies them in his farming, business and related activities.
The case in Uganda is another example that indicates the need for assessment of
learnersp needs. First, there is a needs assessment survey. Then Using results of the
needs assessment, a functional adult literacy curriculum was developed. And by
using the curriculum, learning and teaching materials addressing key concerns in
different regions of the country have been developed in local languages.
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FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
4.2 Quality of content Contents should not be selected for the sake of filling a textbook. While
selecting contents, questions such as why, for whom ( the target group), where
(the facilities , the ethnic situation >, when (the duration a certain course takes),
etc. should be considered. Thus, these questions lead us to select contents relevant
to the life situation of the target group in our mind. For example, in Gansu Province
of China farmers are learning variety of lessons that reflect their needs and interests.
Besides basic knowledge ( writing, reading, calculation ), they are taught
agricultural and business subjects such as how to use fertilizers, family planning,
sanitation and hygiene, sewing, repairing and driving a tractor, etc. The following
Indonesian practice also illustrates similar efforts.
Contents of the curriculum is based on felt-needs of a given community and
aimed at making literacy relevant to daily life needs and activities. Using reading
materials from daily life based on learners’ interests.
4.3 Sources of Contents 4.3.1 The Learners
The adults’ classroom is one of the places to conduct needs assessment. The
learners may come to the teaching class with their own topics or questions that need
solutions. Therefore in such situations, the teacher can use the students as the
sources of their learning. The Bangladesh experience as it is reported by its delegate
in the International Workshop on Rural Education for Development held on
September 15 - 26,1997, in Boading, China, illustrates this fact as follows:
Learning groups themselves decide what kinds of skills they want to learn;
Learners are considered as esources in terms of knowledge and experience ;
Learners create their own materials in their own languages.
4.3.2 The Textbook
The textbook in most cases helps the teacher to select contents for his adult
learners.
4.3.3 Authentic Materials
There are materials apart from the textbook, such as newspapers, radio, 52
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
television, information from Internet, magazines, etc. They could give the learners
more interest than the textbooks. The contents in these materials help the adult
learner to broaden his outlook and try to explore the world hidden from him because
of his ignorance and backwardness.
4.3.4 The Community
The problems and achievements, the successes and failures of a community
could be interesting contents in the adult classroom. The community to be referred
can be that of the adult learners or others.
4.3.5 The Teacher
The teacher could serve as the best source of contents provided that he is
committed to help and liberate his students from backwardness and ignorance. The
authentic materials mentioned above, could be mainly collected and organized by
him. For him, to be a source of his adult learners and to bring practical change on
their entire life, he should do a continues effort, such as reading different materials
and collecting whatever he thinks familiar to their lives, information from different
types of medias and using inter-net, etc.
V. Teaching Methodology in the Adult Class
Richard and Rogers define methodology as design ( specifying objectives,
learning teaching activities, learner and teacher’s roles, and the role of instructional
materials) and procedure (dealing with classroom techniques and procedures ) . The
teaching methodology that should be applied in the adult classroom may vary
according to the subject, learning and teaching facilities, level and age of students,
training of the teacher or trainer, etc. But it is unquestionable that the dedication,
the training and strength of the teacher or trainer determines the effectiveness of the
methodology applied. The adult, especially the rural one, always looks for solutions
of his immediate problems. He is inclined to accept things if they have some
attachment to the solutions of his problems, and presented to him in an interesting
way. He doesn ’ t need to worry himself with unsystematized learning since he has 53
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got enough from his life situation. As a result, the lessons that a teacher present to
the adults should be carefully prepared and well designed so as to create interest in
the learners. The teacher can use different approaches (problem solving, discussion
method, independent work method, discovery method. . . , etc. > . The main thing
in applying the above methods is to make sure that learning is effectively conducted.
The teacher in the adult class should consider himself as a participant, not as a
provider of knowledge or correction. Moreover, the adult classroom will be very
attractive if the students are made to learn from each other. The teacher should
facilitate their learning by forming groups and pairs and letting them learn from each
other ’ s experience. Problems that couldn’ t get solutions in the group discussions
might be dealt with the whole class and could come up with solutions. If the class is
given outdoors in the field (f armers’ farms) or handicrafts producing centers , the
farmers, handicraftsmen, etc. should demonstrate the needed skills that they should
acquire. Th ere ore, f the training becomes a trainee-centred rather than a trainer-
centred The case I have seen in Taihang mountain ( Hebei Province, China >
farmers’ village is a good example of this type of learning. Demonstrations are held
in farmer’ s farms and they are carried out by farmers themselves with close
inspection of the professors from Agricultural University of Hebei. The case in
Papua New Guinea is another example worth mentioning.
“The method of conducting the course is farmer or trainee-centred. Most of the
applied skills will be done in the farmers’ farm. All skills are demonstrated and
trainee farmers all take part in the demonstrations. . . “( Unesco, Country Reports,
vol. 2, 1997, Boading, China)
The following statement given by the Indonesian representative in the
International Training Workshop on Rural Education for Development held in
Boading, China, from September 15 - 26, 1997, indicates that the country is
following the same approach of teaching.
“All teaching is learner-centred intended to benefit the learner to improve the
quality of life. ”
Therefore learner-centred approach could be the best way in adult learning.
Moreover, winning the love of the adult learners or trainees , living with them
(eating with them , sleeping in their house, etc. > would contribute a lot in a
teachers’ teaching. In Taihang mountain, I mentioned above , the professors from 54
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
Agricultural University of Hebei spend days and nights with farmers teaching to and
learning from the farmers. In addition to this, professors from the same university
sell seeds for farmers in markets, with the intention to give directions in sowing and
at the same time to answer any question that the farmers might ask on their farming
activities.
References : 1. Reference ( material supplied in the Advanced Training Programme on Theory
and Practices in Rural Education. > , INRULED( Nanjing) UNESCO
2. Hengxi, X ( 1999 ), U niversity and Rural Development, the Successful
Achievement’ s of Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding, China
3. Jingpu, C ( 1999 >, A n introduction to Rural Education, INRULED
( Nanjing) , UNESCO
55
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TANZANIA
Provision of Basic Education for Disadvantaged Rural Children in Tanzania
by Ms Julia Thadeus Hoza
I. Introduction The 1967 Arusha Declaration and the Policy of Education for Self-Reliance
(1967) states that Education for Self-Reliance should be a type of education that
should increase man’s physical and mental freedom to have control over themselves,
over their own lives and over the environment in which they live. Following this
Declaration curricula were reformed to enable primary school education to be village-
life oriented instead of being oriented towards white-collared jobs as was the case in
the colonial era.
1.1 Universal Primary Education The 1974 Musoma Resolution underscored the need to Universalize Primary
Education ( UPE) . F o 11 owing this resolution there was need to train more teachers,
to build more classrooms and teachers quarters and to provide more school materials.
Though Universal Primary Education w& supposed to expand opportunities for basic
education, until now the goal of equal access to basic education has not been
realized .
1.2 Compulsory Education After independence there was a growing awareness among the people that
education is a necessary tool for equitable socioeconomic development. They
considered investment in basic education to be better than in other levels of schooling
because it is central to any other long term development strategy. It is quite obvious
that without basic education, a development process centred on human beings can
not initiated or sustained and opportunities for future education can not be ensured.
Basic education is also considered to have significant effects in people’ s welfare, 56
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
nutrition, health and enables people to face problems at home and work places and to
cope with rapid so&economic development. For these reasons the government
declared the seven years of primary school to be a compulsory education.
1.3 The State of Literacy in Tanzania At independence in 1961 literacy rate was 15% . Therefore the new
government put special emphasis on literacy and post-literacy programmes. This
meant mobilization of human, financial and materials resources for literacy and post-
literacy activities. Following successful implementation of the programmes, literacy
rate rose to 90% in 1986 with enrolment rate of 1. 8 million adults. However ,
between 1986 and 1993 the enrolment in literacy classes dropped to about 1. 4
million.
Despite the government is commitment to make basic education compulsory to
all the goal of equal access to education has not been realized. A recent study by
UNICEF indicated that more than 2 million children of primary school age are out of
school and most of them are from disadvantaged rural areas. The study also showed
that the average drop out rate by the end of primary school is 30% . A high
proportion of children drop out before Grade Iv which is the minimum stage
necessary for literacy of the illiteracy population which is estimated to be about
25%.
IL Poverty The majority of Tanzanian ( about 85%) live in rural areas and some
communities live in extremely difficult circumstances. Their per capita income is
estimated to be US $ 90 , a low figure compared to the Sub-Sahara1 average of US
$ 640. 75% of th is income is spent on food. Due to economic hardships, poor
parents are unable to support their childrens ’ education, because in such families
education is not a priority. Parents in such these families rely on children’s labour
for their survival and therefore decided to keep them out of school.
Poverty in rural population can be attributed to the following factors: climatic
conditions, poor farming methods, poor soils, poor economic base, customs and
traditions.
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2.1 Climate Conditions Tanzania is divided into three major climatic zones namely: the Coastal Belt,
the Northern and Southern Highlands and the Central Plateau. The most productive
areas are the Highlands where cash crops such as coffee, tea, pyrethrum and food
crops like maize, beans, potatoes, vegetables etc are grown. Along the coast the
climate is suitable for cashewnuts and coconut palms as cash crops, rice and cassava
as food crops. Rainfall in these zones is more reliable and with improved agriculture
practice farmers are better off. However, the Central Plateau experiences one rainy
season and rainfall is sparce and very unreliable. The cash crops are tobacco and
cotton and food crops are millet, maize and other drought resistant cereals. The zone
experiences frequent a froughts leading to poor yields and hence low income. The
majority of farmers are relatively poor and hence unable to send their children to
school because they cannot pay for the costs.
2.2 Poor Farming Methods The majority of rural farmers are still using traditional methods of farming.
They use the hand hoe and traditional varieties of seeds. There is a lot of labor work
involved in using traditional agriculture but yields are normally poor. Most of them
get just enough for food and there is no excess yield to be sold to cater for other
recessities such as school, medicine, good housing and the like.
2.3 Poor Soils In some areas of Tanzania, arable land is very scarce leading to over-
cultivation. Over-cultivation is a practice which depletes the soil of its essential
minerals rendering it poor and hence resulting in poor yields. In other areas pastoral
communities keep large herds of cattle, usually larger than the carrying capacity of
the land, which will leading to overgrazing. Overgrazing leaves the land bare and
prone to wind and water erosion. This phenomenon renders the soil unfit for
agriculture unless scientific methods are employed.
2.4 Poor Economic Base Because of poor economic base subsistence, farmers can not afford to buy
fertilizers, pesticides and ploughs. Using of these modem farming methods would 58
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have greatly increased their yields and consequently their income.
2.5 Customs and Traditions Poverty can also be a result of sticking to outdated customs and traditions. In
some rural areas, farmers are unwilling to accept changes and advice from
agricultural extension officers. Their sense of conservativeness in agricultural
practices is a factor which sometimes contributes to their poverty.
For example, some years ago a research institute discovered a new variety of
millet, which matures within a short period of time, was more drought resistant,
resistant to pests and produce more yields compared to the traditional variety. The
institute wanted to try the new variety among millet growing farmers in central
Tanzania. First of all it was very difficult for the researchers to convince the farmers
to accept the new variety. Eventually they accepted. But after getting very good
yields, they complained that the new variety was tasteless and they did not want to
grow it again. However after a series of droughts and a lot of sensitization the
farmers agreed to grow new variety which increased their income.
2.6 Illiteracy
If farmers are functionally illiterate, it is difficult for them to do away with
outdated customs and traditions. It is also difficult for them to accept new farming
methods such as contour farming, mixed farming, use of manure, fertilizers, new
varieties of seeds, pesticides, etc. On the other hand accepting new farming
methods would improve their yields and hence their income from agriculture.
From the above discussion it is imperative that factors which contribute to
poverty are inter-related and a starting point for sowing could be by conducting
functional literacy programs.
III. Disadvantaged Rural Children
Disadvantaged children are school-going age children (5 to 15 years ) who for
one reason or another find themselves excluded from basic education. Compared to
boys, girls are in more disadvantaged state. 59
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In Tanzania, rural children become excluded from basic education due to the
following factors : Poverty, customs and traditions, pastoral and mobile way of life,
and geographical isolation.
3.1 Customs and Traditions In some rural communities basic education opportunities for girls are hampered
by various factors which include cultural practices and negative attitudes towards
education and in particular girls’ education.
Girls drop out of school due to many reasons including domestic workload and
early marriages. Research has also revealed that girls drop from school due to gender
biased teacher-pupil interaction whereby teachers tend to encourage boys to be more
expressive and creative while fostering inferiority complex in girls a reflection of
gender steriotyped roles which have been internalized from society. Other factors
include gender-biased-learning materials.
The customs and traditions that affect delivery of basic education include:
initiation ceremonies, status of women in society and the dowry (bride price) .
3.1.1 Initiation Ceremonies
In some ethnic groups in Tanzania initiation ceremonies are important
components of their culture. In these ceremonies girls are prepared for their role as
future house-wives and boys as future husbands. Where such ceremonies are
practiced, the girls’ education is greatly at stake. The ceremonies usually take place
at the age of 9 - 13, just before or at puberty.
This is the period when they are in grade IV-VI. The initiation may take a few
weeks to several months. In many cases girls drop out school after initiation. The
incidence of dropping out of school is more if the parents are illiterate because usually
they will find a suitor and marry the girl off. In this case it is not only a question of
customs and traditions, but also the value the parent attaches to education. This will
depend on whether the parents are literate or not. If the parents are literate, they
will make the initiation period shorter so that children can return to school in good
time. If the parents are illiterate the ceremonies are a sure way of getting their
children out of school.
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3.1.2 Status of Women in the Society
There are ethnic groups in rural areas who still believe that the woman’s place
is in the kitchen. In these cultures girls are expected to assit their mothers with
household chores, takeing care of their sisters and brothers, or married and raise
children. If parents are to send any children to school, priority would be for boys
and not girls.
3.1.3 Dowry
In some ethnic groups the suitor is expected to pay dowry (bride price) before
marrying a girl. The bride price varies in value from one ethic group to another and
may range from few cows to hundreds of cows. In such ethnic groups cattle are a
symbol of wealth and the larger the number of cattle, the higher the status.
Therefore having girls in the family means more wealth when they marry and
increase in status for the family. Given such a situation if the parents are illiterate, it
is very unlikely for them to send their girls to school.
3.2 Mobile Communities. There are ethnic groups which move from one place to another in search of
pastures in case of nomads and pastoralists and in search of animals in case of
hunters. These communities are characterized by their negative attitudes towards
schooling. Girls are the most disadvantaged because they are expected to marry and
bring to their parents bride wealth. In these communities schools are very few and
scattered and children have to walk long distances between home and school.
Enrolment in primary schools is very low and drop out rate very high. Because of
harsh environmental conditions and lack of social services, teachers are not willing to
work in these communities.
3.3 Geographical Isolation In isolated remote and hard-to-reach areas, there are no reliable transport ation
and communication facilities. Teachers in these areas work in difficult conditions
characterized by lack of teaching materials and poor social services. Such schools are
staffed with few less qualified teachers with heavy teaching loads to the disadvantage
of pupils. Due to geographical isolation qualified teachers are unwilling to take up 61
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assignment in such hard to reach areas, so that it is common to find a whole primary
school being run by only four teachers.
Iv. Intervention Strategies
4.1 Government Intervention After independent in 1961, the Government of Tanzania embarked on its major
priority of providing its citizens with education. It has since then been financing
education by putting in place the infrastructure of schools, training of teachers and
providing teaching materials. However due to financial constraints, the governments
commitment to expand basic education for all has not been realized, because what I
mentioned earlier. There are about 2 million children of school-going age who are
out of school. The majority of these out-of-school children are the disadvantaged
rural children.
The education and training policy of 1993 emphasized the need to promote and
facilitate access to basic education for all children and to pay more attention to
disadvantaged rural children. Promotion of basic education calls for concernted
efforts from governments, community, inter-governmental and non-governmental
organizations and bilateral organizations .
4.2 Parents Intervention Few year ago the government introduced the Cost-sharing Program which
parents are required to contribute to their children education. Under this program
the parents buy textbooks, exercise books and stationery for their children and
contribute financially to build new classrooms, repair and maintent of existing
classrooms. Many parents have accepted this program and helped to improve the
running of schools.
4.3 Community Interventions Since 1967, rural communities, through self-help schemes are contributing to
the development of education by building new schools. They also participate in
running the community school by being members of Education Committee. 62
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However participation of communities on development of education depends on
their level of literacy and their income. In communities where level of literacy is
high, participation in educational activities is also high and projects are more
sustainable. Whereas in communities which majority of its members are illiterate,
participation in educational activities is very low and projects do not take off well. In
such areas it is common to find half-finished classrooms. In communities with better
incomes, contribution to education is better than in communities where incomes are
low.
4.4 Intervention by Inter-governmental, Non-governmental and Bilateral Organizations
Many organizations have been involved in promotion of basic education in
Tanzania for a long time. Assistance has been in terms of in-service training for
teacher, provision of books and other teaching materials, capacity building, human
resource development, infrastracture development constancy and research . Some of
the organizations involved in promotion of basic education in Tanzania are:
UNESCO, UNICEF, UND, DANIDA, SIDA, EU, USAID, FINNIDA, and
NORAD.
Examples of donor intervention in education include the Complementary Basic
Education Program in Tanzania (COBET) which UNICEF is funding. This is a
pilot program which is aimed at providing basic education outside the formal
schooling system. The program caters for out-of-school youths, drop-outs and those
who have never enrolled in normal primary schools.
UNESCO is doing a study on mobile populations in Tanzania with aim of
developing appropriate basic education programs for them. UNESCO is also
conducting a pilot project titled “Inclusive School Project” , whose objective is to
train teachers to accommodate disabled children in mainstream primary schools.
These are just a few examples, there are many more donor funded programs in
Tanzania. However , as we enter the twenty-first century, the aim is to generate
education resources from within the country rather than continue to depend on
external donors to initiate and support education projects.
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL, EDUCATION
V. Problems and Constraints
Delivery of basic education for disadvantaged rural children is faced with a
number of problems and constraints, which include:
shortage of schools;
shortage of teaching materials;
shortage of books and other publications for reading purpose;
Lack of properly trained and well motivated teachers ;
Curricula which are irrelevant to the social needs of certain groups such as
nomads mobile populations, fisherman, etc;
Increase in the number of illiterates;
Customs and traditions which discriminate against girls in the provision of
education.
VI. Possible Solutions
We have found that the provision of basic education to rural children is a
complex matters in which many factors : social, cultural, economic, political and
natural are involved . This means that to solve the proplers the government needs to
come up with an array of possible solutions . The following are possible solutions to
the problems mentioned above.
Communities must be mobilized to construct new school buildings where they
don’ t exist. They should also be given the mandate to oversee the management of
the schools.
Communities should be sensitized to ensure the availability of teaching and
learning materials in their schools by way of collecting fees and other donations.
Shortage of books in the schools can be alleviated by sensitizing parents to buy
relevant books for their children and also encouraging teachers to write books on the
subjects they teach.
Government should ensure that pre-service teachers are properly trained , in-
serviced teachers are given refreshing courses and opportunities for advancing their
profession. Teachers teaching in remote and hard-to-reach areas should be given 64
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special incentive packages, such as special allowances on top of their monthly pay,
free housing and medical care.
Curricula should be modified to suit the needs of children depending on their
way of life e. g. Children from rural communities should learn skills which will help
them become good farmers, whereas children from pastoral or fishermen
communities should learn skills which will help them become good cattle keepers and
good fisherman respectively.
To deal with the increase of the number of illiterates and literates who relapse
into illiteracy, government, communities and grassroot NGOs should develop
complimentary basic education programs to deal with this group of children.
Parents and communities should be sensitized to do away with customs and
traditions that discriminate against girls and to have positive attitudes towards
education of their children and especially girls. This can be done through launching
special advocacy campaigns by grassroot organizations, communities development
officers, political parties and even religious groups.
VII. Conclusion
Despite Tanzania ’ s commitment of providing basic education to all children
there is still the cohort of rural children whose education needs have not been met.
The challenge therefore is to develop new strategies which will fully address the
situation. This calls for new visions, new cost-effective policy measures and
commitment on the part of the government and the people . There is also need to
explore and learn from other developing countries strategies on to providing basic
education for rural communities.
References : 1. Government of Tanzania and UNICEF, Programme and Plan of Operations:
Country Programme of Cooperation 1997 - 2002 , UNICEF , Project 8:
Complimentary Basic Education in Tanzania , COBET , Dar es Salaam ,1997.
2. Mhaila, P. J. Education on the Move ; Self-reliance in Education in the
United Republic of Tanzania, UNESCO, 1979. 65
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3. UNICEF , COBET Initiatives in Tanzania A Brain Child of Basic Education
Master Plan and Sector Development Programme, Ministry of Education and
Culture ,1999
4. United Republic of Tanzania ( URT) , Basic Education Statistic in Tanzania
(BET), Dar es Salaam, Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994.
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CHINA
New Perspective of Literacy Education Corresponding Strategies
By Liu Yibing
Literacy education seems to have a history as long as that of the existence of
written languages, nevertheless, what’ s regrettable is that literacy education has
long been out of profound and systematical study. Since 196Os, UNESCO has
devoted itself to promoting literacy education all over the world, with it as the
important goal of realizing basic human rights and developing economy. However,
the achievement is still a great far away from our expectation. No matter in
developing or developed countries, illiteracy has been a common social and cultural
phenomenon. At present, there are near 1,000 million illiterates, among whom at
least 70 % are in developing countries. In Canada and America, about 20% adults
are still regarded as functional illiterates. Although the statistics by UNESCO show
that the number of illiterate population is falling, more and more people began to
question how many problems on earth can be explained through these figures. At the
World Conference on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand in 1990, the
government of each country put forward encouraging goals of literacy education.
Whereas, at the Mid-term Evaluation Conference in Amman, Jordan in 1996, the
achievements of literacy education were just frustrating, which forced UNESCO to
again call on more attention should be given, by each country, to the adults’ basic
education with literacy education as the core. Viewing the practice of eliminating
illiteracy on a whole level, we find it far from being sufficient to comprehend
eliminating illiteracy from the angle of technical operation or experience. In order to
raise the efficiency of literacy education we should understand literacy education from
theoretical level and multi-angle perspectives. The following is just what the author
has learned from the study and class discussions in international Workshop on Rural
Education held in Nanjing, on the basis of which the author’s personal point of view 67
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL, EDUCATION
is put forward.
I. The Essence of Literacy Education
Since the time is always making progress, our interpretation of “illiterates” or
“literacy education” should keep up with the progress. In China, the “illiterates”
refer to those who can not read or write. It is defined in China Encyclopaedia that
illiterates refer to those who can neither read nor participate in social activities by
literal means. It has been a common practice in other countries to define “illiterates”
as people without comprehension ability to read and write short paragraphs in daily
life. The comprehension of “illiterates” in China is generally derogative, and always
connected with being ignorant, slow-witted, superstitious, short-sighted, extreme
in mind. It is under the influence of traditional and popular ideas that the literacy
education is simply comprehended as education of learning words, neglecting its
deeper connotation. It is rather inaccurate to classify those who cannot read certain
language or cannot think, express, or communicate in certain language as
“illiterates” or “ignorant persons” . In fact, the relatively insufficient ability shown
when using certain language doesn’ t mean that the person or the group is sure to be
ignorant. Therefore, the distinction between “illiterates” and “literates” should not
only based on the single angle of language. In modern society, those that may be
included in “illiterates” should be those who are lack of the basic education and
ability required by modern life.
Based upon the above comprehension, the essence of literacy education should
be represented in the following aspects.
1.1 Eliminating Illiteracy Is the Process of Promoting the National Stability and the Progress of Democratic Politics.
It is a long history in every country to regard the literacy education as basic
means to realize the national political goals. Take Sweden for example, to popularize
the Bible, its national religious book, the national literacy campaign had been carried
out among its population of lower class since 16th century. It is a doubtless fact that
the learning of official language in the movement promoted the national stability and 68
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reinforced the people ’ s common consensuses. Successful literacy education can
greatly rouse the subject consciousness of the disadvantaged, and enable more people
to realize their rights, obligations and responsibilities for national and social
development. Just as the famous educationist of literacy education, Paul Freire said,
transliteration and understanding of language is the starting point to develop self-
consciousness and to understand and reform the world. Lind and Johnston also
pointed out that the movement of eliminating illiteracy is often utilized as the means
of achieving political goals. In the most general sense, literacy education is
considered as the necessary means for the social members of the low-class to develop
the critical thinking, creativity and civilian ’ s good responsibility consciousness
needed by the development of democratic society.
1.2 The Process of Literacy Education Is That of Promoting Economic Development.
The main target group of literacy education is adults, the practical labor forces
that have entered the laboring market and that can directly create wealth for
individuals or the society. Therefore, literacy education is regarded as the new
starting-point of the economic development in backward areas. The aim of literacy
education has long been oriented to promoting working efficiency. Now, all the
literacy education programs in every country stress that the contents should focus on
improving the economic ability of its trainees. A number of developing countries
connect literacy education closely with the program of poverty elimination or
alleviation, emphasizing on the relation between learning contents and economic life.
In a world with severe competition, the precondition for a country to achieve
sustainable development is its minimum educational level or the rate of adults ’
literacy. It is estimated the direct economic loss in America caused by current adult
illiterates amounts to about $40,000 million per year.
1.3 Literacy Education Is the Process of Cultural Acquisition. During the process of literacy education, the study of language plays a critical
role. Language is a special culture. The study and grasp of certain language
simultaneously enables the illiterates to profoundly understand the cultural spirit
embodied in the language. Especially in the minority areas where the non-mother 69
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tongue used as the language in literacy education, the study and grasp of non-
homogeneous language is actually the process of cultural acquisition or cultural
selection. In the process of literacy education, the most important thing is to input
advanced ideas and spiritual culture into the illiterates’ minds. Just as Prof. Lu Jie’
s view: in rural areas, economic poverty usually resulted from cultural poverty.
Thus, the process of literacy education in poor areas essentially is that of helping the
poor reform their cultural concepts, which in turn enable them to gain the intrinsic
power of eliminating poverty.
1.4 The Process of Literacy Education is That for the Individual to Achieve Self- perfection and Improve Self-help Ability.
It seems to be a deep-rooted concept of the people that literacy education is only
a sort of language learning or the tool skill to master written language. Considering
the worldwide trend of literacy education and the requirement of social development,
it has become the requirement of the times to realize the transition from tool-centred
paradigm to culture-intellectual centred paradigm, and divert the emphasis of
literacy education from tool skills to developing intelligence and capacity, so as to
improve the learners’ comprehensive quality on a whole level. During the process of
literacy education, the learners ’ living skills, creative thinking capacity, the
enterprising ability, self-confidence, self-realization should all get continuous
development.
II. The Strategies of Literacy Education
Under the premise of correct understanding the essence of literacy education, a
series of strategies of literacy education must be implemented. Seen from the history
and present condition of literacy education and the successful cases of literacy
education home and abroad, the following strategies must be carried out:
2.1 The Strategy of Centring on Government’s Responsibility Literacy education is a socially systematic engineering that demands widely
mobilization of social forces to participate. Therefore, the government should 70
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recognize its role as the main body of implementing literacy education. Literacy
education usually takes place in the areas with a low social development rate, a
fragile economic basis and relatively backward education and culture. As a result, it
goes without saying that it’s a rather complicated and long-term task to implement
literacy education in such a background. “Without national intention and political
will, it is impossible to realize education for all. ” To carry out the strategy of
literacy education with the government as the subject, it is essential to change the
traditional ideas and ways of developing economy before eliminating illiteracy. In
poor areas, it is not practical to give attention to literacy education only after the
economic development. To get rid of the mal-circulation of poverty and backward
economy profoundly, we must take the strategy of dealing with ignorance before
dealing with poverty, and the input should be made in advance of the economy
instead of at the same speed.
2.2 The Strategy of Fully Utilizing the Systematic Resources of Formal Education For a long time, literacy education is considered belonging to non-formal
education system, and implemented with informal education methods. As the basic
education for adults, it hasn ’ t acquired its proper status in the government ’ s
education system. Being conducted in non-formal ways, the implementation of
literacy education lacks serious study and careful organization in its goals,
programmes, teaching contents, implementation and even in evaluation. As a
matter of fact, non-formal education should be a sort of formal education.
Concerning the quality and effectiveness, there is no profound or essential difference
between literacy education in the system of non-formal education and general
education in the system of formal education. In implementing literacy education, the
flexibility of courses, teaching arrangement as well as teaching method doesn’ t mean
arbitrariness.
To guarantee the quality and effectiveness of literacy education while the non-
formal educational resources are relatively insufficient, the easily workable and
efficient strategy is to make full use of formal educational resources for the service of
literacy education. In Chinese remote areas and minority areas, it has been proved
successful to make full use of teachers, classrooms, equipment, book references of 71
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the regular or general schools for the service of literacy education. For example, in
Gansu Province, China, 90 % of the teaching task of literacy education is assumed
by the teachers and students in rural primary and secondary schools, and about 80,
000 teachers, with more than 1,300,OOO students of universities ard secordary and
primary schools, take part in the activities of eliminating illiteracy and scientific and
technological activities in rural areas.
2.3 The Strategy of Constructing Learners’ Capacity It seems a very popular idea that the illiterates are ignorant and mentally
retarded. The outstanding late Brazilian educationist Paul Freire wrote a book
entitled Pedagogy of the Opressed, based on the long-term and practical study on
the oppressed illiterates of the lower class in Latin-American countries. He revealed
that social public or the upper class had some traditional prejudice towards the
illiterates. Furthermore, the disadvantaged illiterates’ culture and the values of their
life have been neglected and been looked down upon in general. Freire pointed out
the disadvantaged illiterates have low self-esteem and lack of healthy self-
consciousness. They evaluated their capacity of self-help negatively. Consequently,
the most important task of education is to rouse their self-respect and self-
confidence. Joel S. Migdal pointed out “the society of farmers does not simply
accept the world-wide strong impact caused by the global economic reform and the
state policy in a passive way. ” We should fully recognize the potential power of the
learners. One of the conclusions by the Asia-Pacific Development Centre( APDC) in
their carrying out the program of poverty alleviation and the research of its operating
system is, “the poor people have an extremely strong power to help themselves, ”
however, they “need market, information and training, and the organizations that
support their activities as well. . . and need the necessary social services such as
education, medical service, clean water, health service, etc. ” Therefore, those
working on literacy education should regard the illiterates as the subject of learning,
and lead them to a proper recognition and evaluation of themselves, inspire their self-
esteem, self-confidence and motives to make efforts to reform current conditions; at
the same time, cultivate their self-independence, and creativity and other good
qualities, and directing them to divert their learning from passive learning to
initiative and creative learning, and eventually enable them to acquire the capacity of 72
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
self- help and development.
2.4 The Strategy of Creating Learning Environment More and more evidences show that, in a society stressing the creation of new
knowledge, those who don’ t know how to learn and are not good at creative
learning should be included in the group of “illiterates”. To guarantee the making of
achievements and to prevent them relapsing into illiterates, we should pay attention
to the construction of learning environment. The family is often neglected but it is
actually the most important learning place. In addition, libraries, stadiums, zoos,
and parks are the places where various education experiences are available. Recently,
UNESCO has made preliminary success in its Program of Community Learning
Centre implemented in some countries. Community Learning Centre is a village-
based centre that provides learning resources and activities, and also a multi-
functional one capable of doing economic, social and cultural activities. Those of
different sex, with different interests, and different requirement all can find their
respective place in the Center. So long as it is well organized, the Centre can become
a low-cost and efficient learning place for all the people.
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CHINA
Unbalanced Development of Rural Education in China and its Countermeasures
By Wangqiang
Along with the implementation of the policy of Innovation and Openning
world, productive forces of China are being liberated and people’ s enthusiasm in
production is enhanced greatly. As the progress increases, the gap between the East
and the West in terms of economy, social development and education is widening.
The most conspicuous phenomena of the gap in education are the unbalanced
development of rural education between the East and the West.
I. Social and Economic Background
,According to the statistics in 1990, about 45. 7 % of poverty-stricken
population live in the west areas. The frequency at which the poverty occurs in the
East is 5 % , 7.8 % in the central area and 16.8 % in the west area. Among the
poverty-stricken counties at the national level listed in the State-“87” Poverty Relief
Programme, 307 poverty-stricken counties are in the west area, which account for
52% of the total poverty-stricken counties in China. In west areas most of the
counties receive financial subsides from the Central Government, 90% of the
counties in Ningxia receive financial subside, 81% in Yunnan, 51% in Sichuan,
76 % in Shanxi, 69 % in Gansu. In 1993, among the top ten provinces with high
net income per capita, nine provinces and municipalities are in the East, and the
annual net income per capita in the East was twice as much as that in the west
areas.
The ethnic minorities with a large area of land and abundant natural resources
settle the west area. But the west area is characterized by poor natural conditions,
poor agricultural and industrial foundation, inconvenient transportation, low level of
social development, fast population growth, poor educational conditions. 74
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL, EDUCATION
Many people in the west areas tend to have poor capacity in knowledge, science
and technology, and people are inclined to persist in preserved and out-of-dated
ideas.
In the market economy system the west area can’ t get rid of the vicious circle:
in poverty-stricken areas, low level of productive forces, weak aspiration for modem
science and technology, professional personnel hardly play their roles, so less
attention is paid to the enhancement of people’s competence.
The limited funds are only used for living instead of investment in education for
facilitating personal development. In return, the low level of education result in low
level of people’ s capacity, backwardness in science and technology, low level of
productive forces and poverty. The elimination of the vicious circle will pose impact
on the social and economic development not only in the west rural area but also the
entire country.
The development of education in the west areas, especially provision of basic
education to all the disadvantaged groups, would be the essential factor for
enhancement of living quality of local people and the development of local
communities.
II. Current Conditions and Problems in Unbalanced Development of Rural Education
The ultimate goal of rural education is to have rural population acquire
knowledge, skills, sense of civics and enterprising capacity.
The core of the rural education is to universalize basic education so as to help
adult illiterates, semi-illiterates receive at least the minimum education. Mr.
Hallak, Director of the Institute of Educational Planning said that basic education is
the type of educational at the starting period of the whole educational process and it
is the basis of the entire education system. From the viewpoint of learners, the basic
education refers to minimum education needed by learners; from the viewpoint of
provider of education, it refers to the maximum education that government could
provide with its citizens.
The comprehensive system set by the World Conference on Education for All 75
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSIyICJP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
include pre-school education, primary education, literacy education and short-term
training for living skills. The goal of the basic education is to meet the primary needs
of learners. Accordingly, basic education is the people’ s primary human right and
all the citizens should have equal opportunities to recieve education.
The object of EFA pays special attention to the education of poor disadvantaged
children, adult literacy education, gender gap in literacy education. These are the
problems exist mainly in rural areas in developing countries. The highlights cited
here would also indicate the unbalanced development of rural education in China.
2.1 Slow Development of Basic Education Resulted from Limited Input, Which Lead to the Low Capacity of Labor Forces.
According to the National Census in 1990, among the population at the age of 6
and above in the 9 west provinces, only 1. 23 % population received higher
education, 0.36 % lower than the national average.
The population with higher education in Guizhou, Yunnan and Tibet accounted
for no more than 1% . The percentage of illiterates and semi-illiterates on average in
China was 20. 66 % , and the percentages in Tibet, Qinhai, Gansu, Yunnan and
Ningxia were over 30 % . In 1990 the total educational expenditure in 29 provinces,
municipalities and autonomous regions were 37. 8 billion RMB yuan, but the
expenditure in 8 west provinces and autonomous regions was 6.7 billion, accounting
for 17.7 % of the total educational expenditure.
In the west areas the financial input in education is far from the actual needs, as
a result many school-aged children are kept out of school.
2.2 Education of Ethnic Minorities Leaves Behind. In 9 west provinces where ethnic minorities live in compacted communities, 44
ethnic minorities mainly live in the areas. According to the National Census in 1990,
among all the ethnic minorities and the mainstream Han, on national average the
population with primary education and above each thousand population was 698. But
that of the ethnic minorities in west China was low, the number of Hui ethnic
minority was 584 and Tibetan 264.
The backwardness in the education of the ethnic minorities results in the lack of
ethnic minority intellectuals. In the west provinces and autonomous regions of 76
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Gansu, Ningxia, Qinghai and Xinjiang, ethnic minorities accounted for more than
30 % of the total population, but technicians and professionals from ethnic minorities
accounted for only 10 % of the total technicians and professionals, no more than one
third of the national average.
2.3 Literacy Education Is a Vulnerable Point. In the 1950 ‘s and 1960 ’ s the distribution of illiterates was balanced nationwide
because of the large number of illiterates in China. As the gap between different
regions in social and economic development increases, the distribution of illiterates
becomes unbalanced.
From 1950 to 1970 the target groups for literacy education were composed of
cardres in urban and rural areas, staff members and workers in factories and
enterprises, youths and middle-aged farmers, urban residents. After decades of
literacy education endeavor, the illiteracy rate among cardres, workers and urban
residents are almost eradicated, with not more than 5 % . From the ‘geographic
viewpoint, the illiterates are mainly concentrated in rural areas. In 1990 the total
illiteracy population in rural areas was 15, 408, accounting for 85 % of the total
illiteracy population in China.
The indicators show the educational gap between rural and urban areas. At the
same time it tells us the core for literacy work lies in rural areas, the main objective
is to eliminate youths and middle-aged illiterates in rural areas.
The rural education also shows the geographic difference. In the areas with
better social, economic and educational foundation, the literacy education develops
faster, the number of the illiterates decreases. On the contrary in the poverty-
stricken areas, especially in the mountainous isolated ethnic minority areas,
illiterates are concentrated. According to the Fourth National Census in 1990 the
illiteracy rates in Tibet, Gansu, Qinghai, Yunnan, Anhui, Guizou, are above
24 % . The female illiterates account for 69.5 % of the total illiterate population.
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III* Main Causes for Unbalanced Development of Rural Education
China has a large area with the highest population in the world. The natural
conditions and social and economic development in different regions are quite
different. In townships, developed rural areas and urban areas with better social and
economic foundation, people have experienced the benefit of education. The
enrollment rate of school-aged children keeps above 99 Oh, which stop the pouring of
new illiterates into society. The original illiterates are decreasing. So most of people
in the region could receive basic education. But in the west area school-aged children
and adults have great difficulty in access to basic education. The main obstacles are
as follows :
3.1 Poor Natural Conditions and Limited Available Educational Resources In the underdeveloped areas with poor economic foundation, great gap exists
between the increase in educational need and resources available. In some areas there
are not enough schools or quality educational facilities. In addition, the inconvenient
communication and other factors keep the children out of school and new illiterates
come into society continuously.
3.2 In Some Regions with Slow Economic Development and Low Level of Productive Forces, Poverty Frequently Haunts the Local People.
Along with the development of market economy and township enterprises, the
economic, cultural and educational causes are upgraded. But in the west areas the
economy develops slowly. The local people live and work in a simple and backward
way. Most of the illiterates become poor backward laborers. The local people
obediently accept the current conditions and have no desire for education.
3.3 Out-of-dated Ideas
Because of the backward productive way, many local farmers can’ t experience
and see the benefit of education. Influenced by the traditional ideas that Learn to be
Officials, many farmers stick to the idea that the objective of schooling is to leave 78
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
rural areas to work as cardres. When many secondary graduates return to work on
farm, many people think that the graduates’ schooling is in failure. Dominated by
the traditional idea of preference for boys over girls, and the idea that girls without
knowledge have great virtue so many girls don’ t go to school. The dropout rate of
girls is high.
IV. Countermeasures
4.1 Reform the Education Management System to Play the Role of Government
Since the foundation of the People’s Republicsf China, China adopted a high
centrally controlled management system. The system contributed much to the
development of education in rural areas, especially in the poverty-stricken areas. But
the management system lacks the flexibility, so it was difficult to cater for the
varieties of social and economic and educational conditions of different regions.
Unitary standards obstacle the enthusiasm of schools and local communities in school
operation.
Since 1985 China undertook the reform of education management system to
stimulate the enthusiasm on local governments, schools and local communities, a
decentralized education management system is adopted. But the decentralized
management system results in the unbalanced development of rural education because
of the difference in social and economic development in different regions.
Provision of education is firstly a governmental behavior, so the educational
resources in poverty-stricken areas should be allocated by government. Such
governmental function is not replaceable. So the government should adopt the
strategy of unbalanced educational input so as to guarantee the balanced development
of basic education.
4.2 Education Management by Category in Accordance with Different Conditions According to the different conditions of different regions, different strategies
should be adopted. According to different target groups, different instructional
methodology should be taken. Choose educational contents in accordance with local
needs so as to have the basic education including literacy education respond to local 79
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
needs. Basic education develops in content with enhancement of people’s quality and
development of local communities.
4. 3 Formulate Favored Policy to Undertake Charge-free and Compulsory Education and Literacy Education
In the process of universalization of compulsory education, gaps between
different regions often occur. It is essential to formulate responsive policies to help
the under-developed areas to universalize basic education.
To reach the goal of universalization of basic education in China, the decisive
factor is to universalize basic education in rural areas, especially in the remote,
isolated, poverty-stricken ethnic areas. The counties with low enrollment rate are
usually the absolute poverty-stricken counties with the overage income per capita no
more than 300 RMB yuan. In these areas people are short of food and clothes.
Children confront surviving problems, so it is hard for them to go to school. Such
problems could not be solved in a short period of time. So the government should
take practical measures to have the children receive complete charge-free education,
including charge-free textbooks. Government and communities should remove their
survival problems and help the children and adults enjoy educational opportunities.
80
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CHINA
A Survey On Rural Non-Formal Education Promoting Local Economic Development
- A Case Study of the Extension of Mushroom Production
Techniques in Huangzhuang Village, Nanxi Town, Jingzhai
County
By Zhang Jiayong
I. Objective and Approach of the Survey
With a relatively loose structure, non-formal education has a more direct
objective and a decentralized organization, and it has flexibility of time, so it may be
conveniently employed according to local features. With a flexible approach, it is
learner-centred and stresses on concrete experiences rather than abstract theories.
Anyone can participate only if they have interests and opportunities, regardless of
their age. The teachers are employed with more consideration of their opportunities,
tendency and experience than of their official certificates. Based on practical or
immediate profit as well as the local areas ’ special contents and regulations, non-
formal education makes its thinking with regards to the development of agriculture,
hygiene, service, nutrition, labor, etc. Since it keeps touch with many common
people’s life and more applicable to technical extension, it has a rapid and immense
potentiality in doing contribution to people and the nation. Therefore, specialists all
over the world have given more and more attention to non-formal education, which
developed since 1960s. In order to make clear what function it performs in the
development of the poverty-stricken rural areas, and find out the ways to promote
local economic development and social progress through non-formal education, the
author chooses Huangzhuang Village, Nanxi Town, Jingzhai County for the case
study. 81
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Mainly with the approach of interview, supplemented with that of observation,
this survey collects materials by means of on-the-spot investigation, spot visit, and
spot recording etc.
II. Introduction to the Target Group and Place
2.1 Introduction to Huangzhuang Village
Lying in the southwest of Jingzai County, with its western side surrounded by
Dabie Mountain and the other three sides by waters of Shi River (one of the three
branches of Huai River) , Huangzhuang Village is only connected with the outer
world through a narrow hilly road, less than 0. 5m in width. Otherwise, people
have to go by waters across Shi River, so the traffic there is rather inconvenient. It
is rather dangerous to sail across Shi River. The village has a population of 779
persons. At the founding of New China only several people there could read and
write, while its education level has greatly improved since then. Nevertheless, it is
still far behind when compared with the county’ s average level ( the county’ s
illiteracy rate being 2.9 % ) . Among the young and robust, aging from 20 to 45,
5 % of them are illiterate, 12 % are graduates from primary schools, 23 % are from
junior middle schools without qualification, 60% are graduates from junior middle
schools. The illiteracy rate among those over 45 years old is about 78 % . (The above
is adopted from a report of Huangzhuang Village and it is estimated that the actual
figures are higher). The village has an arable land of 585.5 mu, less than 0.8 mu
per capita; moreover, most of the land has a low yield in the shady sunless place.
Since 1978, most of the young and robust have gone out of the village to make a
living, those who left with farming are those over 45 years old. 59 poverty-stricken
households in all, which accounts for 60 % of the total population, the local people
live a hard life with a per capita income less than 700 yuan, depending on farming,
selling firewood and using charcoal. Being the noted poverty-stricken village, the
team collecting taxes, which had come with great zeal, has to leave it empty-
handedly and much disappointedly every year. With a low education level and weak
understanding of legal system, those working outside usu,ally fail to make much
money but commit many crimes, and more than ten of them have been arrested 82
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
subsequently. However, Huangzhang has its advantages as a typical “ rich
mountain, poor people” village: rich in wood resource, with wide areas of over 10,
000 mu. The villagers there used to live only by selling fireworks and charcoals,
which is a waste of labor and resource. Since 1992, led by Zeng Qingyu, they began
to cultivate eatable mushrooms and work well on the way to becoming rich.
2.2 An Introduction to Zeng Qingyu
Zeng Qingyu, male, 38, a farmer of Huangzhuang Village, graduate of senior
middle school, once a member of the Youth League. His father is the famous scholar
in a old-style private school there; his old brother Zeng Qinghe and young brother
Zeng Qingqun work as teachers, and Zeng Qingfu, another younger brother, is the
leader of Huangzhuang Village. As a child, Zeng Qingyu studied after his father and
was a clever and outstanding student, especially good at math. He graduated from
junior middle school just at the late period of “Cultural Revolution”, a time when
entrance to senior middle school required recommendation. He had to return home
since the recommendation quota was taken away by the son of one of the leaders.
Half a year later, he was sent to a so-called senior middle school to study, 40 miles
away from the village. After graduation, he again returned and did farming work.
Early in 8Os, he, as a peddler, began to buy and sell Chinese medicines but failed to
become rich. In the spring of 1992, under the advice of Zeng Qingqun, he began
the extension of mushroom production techniques. At first, with 4000 yuan
borrowed from others, he produced 7000 bags of mushroom seed and sold them to
the farmers all on credit, which eventually brought him success. Presently, his
station built for the extension of mushroom production techniques sells 500,000 -
80,000 bags of mushroom seeds per year, whose output reached over 3,000,OOO
yuan .
III. Process of the Survey
(January 27, after walking 5 km across the mount and rowing across Shi
River, we arrived at Huangzhuang Village. Along the road, we saw many
mushroom production bases built with waste wood. Hardly had we entered his room 83
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when we found some are peeling among the waste wood, each of, which is 4 cun in
length lying in front of the door. The main room is separated into two, one as the
inoculation room, the other as breeding room. More surprisingly, a balance together
with some beakers and testing tubes is put on a trivet, and on the table lay various
tablets. The TV set in bedroom is TCL color TV, which is rarely seen in the
village. It is said that Zeng Qingyu never misses the program broadcast by CCTV
economic station every evening. Unfortunately, suffering from late cancer in
addition to his indifference to fame, he didn’ t agree to have an interview, so we had
to conduct it among his brother Zeng Qingqun who is 32 years old male teacher and
some of the villagers. >
The following are dilogues between the interviewer and Zang Qingqun. The
interviewer raised questions and Zeng answered .
Q: How have you come to get engaged in the extension of mushroom production
techniques?
A: For many years, using the traditional farming means and being backward in
productivity, our villagers had been living a very difficult life. Every time when I
came back at Spring Festival, I found my fellow villagers couldn’t pay the taxes or
the tuition for their children, I would be very sad. As a university graduate of the
village, I wanted to do something for them, but without money and power, I could
only rely on my major -biology. I calculated in this way: using the waste wood
as firework is a waste of resource, 100 jin firework can just turn into 10 jin charcoal,
worthy 5 - 6 yuan. Whereas, 100 jin wasted wood can be used to cultivate 3 jin
black eatable fungus, with a considerable profit of 120 yuan. The development of
mushroom is a short-term high efficient project that needs little investment and has
low risk and low requirement of technique; which can save the Huangzhang people
out of their difficult situation right away. During the holiday, I did spot
investigation in the production bases of Gutian in Fujian, Luming in Henan and
Qingyuan in Zhejiang, besides, I went to Shanghai, Canton, and Hangzhou to
survey and analyse the market. After that, I made strict selection and introduced
the improved breeds, and then carried out improvement tests in the lab of the
school. Since I was too busy to go home, the concrete work was all done by my 4th
elder brother, Zeng Qingyu. He is very clever and grasped the whole set of
technique quickly and could do the study work independently. 84
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL, EDUCATION
Q: Everything is hard in th e b eginning. How did you open up a new prospect?
A: In the spring of 1992, with the support of the village leaders, we called a
motivation meeting in the primary schoolyard and distributed “ A Letter to
Huangzhuang Villagers” . We talked with them and asked them to think about the
question: why we are poor? After the meeting, we went to visit each household to
persuade them. Eventually, eight households, including my own, became the first
batch of households of cultivation. That year, my 4th elder brother, with the help
of relatives and friends, collected 4000 yuan and sold all the 7000 bags of seeds on
credit to the villagers, despite that his own children couldn’t hand in the tuition on
time and the whole family had no meat to eat. After the distribution of the seed, my
4th elder brother began to provide the technique service from door to door and I
occasionally went home to teach as well. The residents in mountain areas don’t live
so closely that we had to walk more than ten miles hilly road to get to a household,
with another one is also over ten miles away. To be responsible to those households,
we managed to avoid the man-made loss by setting off early and returning late,
drinking spring water, and eating cold steaming-cakes. It proved to be fruitful that
the first batch of cultivation households achieved success: Wang Deren made a profit
of over 8000 yuan with an input of 400 yuan; Cai Liang 12000 yuan with an input
of 600 yuan; Wand Dexi 20000 yuan with an input of 800 yuan.
Q: What approaches did you take in the extension?
A: We can’ t be very strict in farmers’ theory, and it’s all right if they can operate.
First, we gathered all the cultivation households to the cultivating scene. We taught
them hand by hand, and explained the key points again and again, directed them to
operate. When doing that, we tried not to use technical terms and didn’ t stop
explaining each step in local accent until they grasped it. Secondly, we provided
door- to-door guidance. We helped them buy materials, disinfecting, pack,
inoculate, and breed. Thirdly, we provided all-angled and 24-hour service. My 4th
elder brother would answer questions as long as he was at home. Fourthly, to train
technically skilled persons. With the rapid increase of the cultivation households, we
selectively chose someone from the households to train technically skilled persons,
and these skilled persons would pass technique to other households around them.
Fifthly, we printed technical references. There are a lot of illiterates among the
cultivation households, but usually there is a student in each household, so we 85
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printed 7 kinds of referential materials over 5000 copies.
Q: Would you please talk about the first batch of cultivation households?
A: The first batch of cultivation households are those who have a better economic
condition and relatively flexible in mind and relatively high in educational level.
They have the courage to try. Even if they failed, their normal life would not be
affected. They are very attire in trying new things. What ’ s worth mentioning is
that farmers have immense creativity. Many of them became technically skilled
persons from knowing nothing, and even put forward more advanced method in
some operating procedures. With their experience, we revised the former materials
and reedited and reprinted them, which led to the joint improvement of production
technique level.
Q: Apart from economic profits, have the farmers got improvement in other
aspects?
A: First of all, there are changes of the farmers’ ideas. In the past, they were
accustomed to waiting, depending on others and asking for what they need and they
believed in fate and fortune, but now they just believe that only science, only
courage can make them rich. Secondly, they have developed a preliminary
realization of the market. They used to have a superficial understanding of goods and
fail to know the market law, but now many of them have understood the idea that
“larger scale, less risk” and developed the production bravely. Furthermore, they
have a different attitude to literacy. They used to regard literacy as a way out of
farming house, but now they know that literacy is the root of becoming rich.
Q: What have you done regarding products’ sales?
A: The peddlers will come to purchase as soon as it is the season. Then the agents
will gather the goods and send them to medicine market in other places. It is not
necessary to worry about its sales at all. We contact the foreign traders as well,
trying to get higher price to export. This year, we signed a 15-ton contract with the
clients from Japan and South Korea. The market is raised by our purchase at the
price 45 yuan / jin higher than the market price.
Q: Have you thought about cooperating with the government?
A: The government staff are so self-fish that the people don’ t trust them. They are
not willing to endure hardship and their working attitude is not serious, which
results in their low efficiency, no practical gains. The government of Nanxi Town 86
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once invited my 4th brother to work in the agricultural technique station, but we
refused.
Q: Have you ever planned to propagandize through the mass media, so as to enlarge
its influence or to do the extension of techniques?
A: It’s not necessary. We don ’ t worry about the sales. They will come to buy as
long as we have the goods. Moreover, it’s too expensive. We can’t afford that.
Q: How do the farmers spend their money after they become rich?
A: 100% households of Huangzhang Village have built brick houses, l/3 of them
plan to build houses of several stories. A few of them have enlarged the production
scale and replaced equipment, but for me, I haven’t got quite ready in doing this.
Wang Deqiu, Male Farmer 78 in Age
(The old farmer lives in a 2-story building, in which we saw color TV, fridge and
other electric equipments . On the first floor , a shop selling all kinds commodities
has been opened for half a year. >
Q: Could you tell us how you become so rich?
A: Owing greatly to Mr. Zeng Qingyu and Zeng Qingqun , who help us produce
mushroom, our lives are bettered recently. He is just like a shoulder pole that
anyone can use it to carry heavy burden. Hey! Kind person lives short life. His son,
11 years old, died of illness last year. Now he is suffering f;om cancer. The God has
no eyes.
Q: Are you afraid that there are so many mushroom producers nowadays?
A: The more producers are, the more famous our village will be and the more
peddlers will come. We are glad about it.
Q: Will you dare to plant Chinese-traditional medicine if some one asks you to?
A: surely will.
Q: Now you’ve got money. Which do you prefer, building new houses or sending
children to school?
A: Both of them are important. If I could choose only one, I would send children to
school. Because without knowledge, nothing could be done. Zeng Qingyu has more
knowledge, thus he has the ability to help us. In the past, we believed in fate, now
we all understand that it’s science and knowledge that can help us.
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IV. Analysis and Conclusion
Popularizing the mushroom productive techniques, Zeng Qingyu achieved a
great success in rural areas, where education and economic level are relatively low.
His experiences can be summed up as follows:
4.1 The Advantage of Technology
Being a biology teacher, Zeng Qingqun has done research work on mushroom
techniques for a long time . He made strict selection and introduced improved breeds
so that the local people have trust in him.
4.2 Omnibearing service “Our objectives are highly identical. Only you got rich, can my station be
prosperous. ” (Adopted from references printed by Zeng Qingyu) Since objectives
and benefits are consistent, the services can be ensured. Only combined his own
services with households’ benefits, can he provide excellent services. Only excellent
services can determine the efficiency of the extension.
4.3 The Spirit of Bearing Hardship
In order to help the households, Zeng Qingyu endured lots of hardships,
climbing high mountains, crossing icy water and eating cold food etc. The spirits of
bearing hardships can rarely be found among government staff.
4.4 Making Change Flexibly According to the Market Zeng Qingyu did spot investigations on markets in different places that have
been mentioned above. He knew what kind of mushroom was popular on the market
and made strict selection for introduction. Thus all the products meet the need of the
market.
4.5 Efficient Forms of Extension. Cl Demonstration on the spot;
0 Gotting people together to train; 88
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0 Printing references ;
0 Compulsory consulting services;
Cl Individual guides.
In a word, employing non-formal education, taking full advantages of local
resources, Zeng Qingyu achieved a great success, showing the enormous potentiality
and tremendous power of non-formal education in promoting local economic
development. From it we can see:
a. Economy can be improved by bringing science and technology into rural
poverty-stricken areas. However, bringing science and technology into rural areas
depends on intellectuals. Non-formal education has great vitality and a vast worldin
these areas. Zeng Qingqun, an intellectual, is the direct resource of Zeng Qingyu’s
skills. Under his guides, a few farmers was awaken, who are sparks started a prairie
fire in rural village.
b. Men like Zeng Qingyu, who is familiar with farmers and willing to bear
hardships, are indispensable factor of the success.
Only combined with the development of rural economy and requirement of daily
life, can non-formal education produces good result. Literacy education, vocational
education, extension of agricultural technology and farmers ’ evening schools have
not produced satisfactory results for a long time, mainly becluse they are isolated
from practice, from farmers’ life, therefore can’ t stimulate farmers’ zeal.
During the process of receiving non-formal education, farmers are not always
passive. They use their intelligence to create new fruit of knowledge which will
promote the development of culture and technology, after collected by intellectuals.
The knowledge learned in academic schools can’ t be used directly in productive
labor. To acquire wealth, we must employ practical techniques as a bridge.
Although a number of junior middle schools graduates came out in Huang Zhuang
village the situation of the village wasn ’ t improved directly. Whereas, it ’ s
necessary to combine academic school, vocational schools and adults schools
together.
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V. Problems and suggestions
5.1 The Forms of Extension The forms of mushroom techniques extension in HuangZhuang village are varied
and efficiency. These forms are suitable for a small scope, but not for a county or
larger. To meet the enlargement of the extension, forms combined with government
as follows can be employed:
5.1.1 Make radio or TV programs on practical technology
In rural areas, nearly every family has radio or TV. Whereas, programs on
technique of each key link can be broadcasted at slack season. It’ s audio-visual and
fit for long distance teaching, saving time and efforts.
5.1.2 Farmers ’ Association
Headed by authoritative farmer, on a voluntary basis of mutual benefit, an
association can be organized. The orientation of the association is regional joint-stock
company, which will promote the specialization and intension of agriculture.
5.1.3 Specialized Class
Specialized classes on mushroom technology should be opened in vocational
schools, where students can learn the basic knowledge, theory and skills. Thus,
Practical technology extension and development will be ensured.
5.1.4 Farmers ’ Night school
Most of the farmers’ night schools in rural areas have been run out of work for
a long time. After hanging out the shingle, it’s common that everything is over .
The extension of agricultural technology can take advantage of night schools to set
up short classes in slack season.
5.1.5 Lectures on Special Topics.
Experts and experienced technical personnel can be invited to give speeches on
mushroom produce, who will enhance the productivity and bring new messages of
the market.
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5.1.6 Explain the Main Points while Selling the Raw Materials to Farmers
The men who supply the raw materials should explain the usage of them to local
people.
5.1.7 Curry Out Training Activities, Combined With Literacy Education .
Literacy education is hard to get actual effect. Farmers who were taught to
read and write become illiterates again before long. However, combined with the
extension of practical technology and the development of the local economy, not only
can the literacy education be improved but also the farmers’ lifee be bettered.
5.2 About the Market The role of market is essential in developing commodity economy. But the
market of Huangzhuang village is an elementary market, in which the acts of
swindling are common. It’s indispensable to develop a mature market.
Take full advantage of media to extend influences.
Encourage enterprise purchasing stations, state-owned or private, to take part
in the circulation of mushroom. A circulation network should be established, at the
bottom of which are thousands of peddlers, in the middle of which are hundreds of
specialized households, at the top of which are big companies.
Government at regular intervals hold trade fairs. As it says that government put
up stage while economy and trade perform on it.
5.3 Institutional Framework The mushroom technical advice station in Hungzhuang Village is an entity that
integrates private science research and manufacture. Zeng Qingyu is not only a
technician, but also an administrator. When it’s busy, he employs a few temporary
workers to help him. The management of it is the same as that of a workshop,
which isn’ t suitable for the future development of the extension. In pace with steady
growth of production, non-governmental scientific research should combined with
government so that random, blindness, disorders can be avoided.
5.4 Social Influence While engaged in producing mushroom, the farrners in Huangzhuang Village
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changed their ways of thinking from believing in fate /God to believing in knowledge
and science and got a deeper understanding on market. It ’ s a great progress,
however all these changes were taken place unconsciously and naturally. Still it’ s
common that farmers in Huangzhuang Village spend money in building new houses,
buying luxurious electrical equipment instead of enlarging the production scale and
replacing equipment. The government should grasp opportunities to guide the
farmers, promote the development of the whole rural community, and raise the
farmers’ cultural level.
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CHINA
The Impact of Rural Women Non-formal Education on Women ’ s Living Quality
By Zhuang Xizheng
I. Non-formal Education and Its Characteristics
The concept of non-formal education first came into use in 1960s. In early
years, the weaknesses of traditional school education system were too obvious, so
people became interested in non-formal education, an outside-school education which
acts as a substitute for or a complement to formal school system. It benefited the
development of social economy and culture. Since the early 1970s it began to be
thought highly of and has developed rapidly.
As to the concept of non-formal education, as well as contents and its effects,
there are great divergences. Some appraise it as an effective complement to formal
education whereas others depreciate it as a second-class education. In fact in some
countries and regions, non-formal education did and does play an important role in
fields such as illiteracy elimination and labor’s vocational technology education. Also
it contributed or contributes greatly to economic and social development. It is
unnecessary and meaningless to set a concrete universal concept of non-formal
education. It never confines itself to a singular form or a concrete content. It is
dynamic in either contents, forms or medias, namely, in terms of different needs of
an individual or a group it can adopt any form in any area. Coins together with his
collaborator put forward the definition that non-formal education is any organized
educational activity except formal education with its aim to serve specific objects and
specific study item. It indicates that comparing to traditional education, non-formal
education hasno universal teaching contents, teaching process and length of
schooling; that classes such as literacy classes, anti-illiteracy classes and technique 93
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training classes can be held for drop-outs; and that non-formal education is a mixed
education to those who have no chance to receive formal education or those who
want further education. Non-formal education is fit for the development of Chinese
rural areas, especially fit to educate rural women. As China is a developing country,
there are great differences between urban areas and rural areas. Even among rural
areas, some are developed whereas others are undeveloped. Delving into this
phenomena, the main reason is not because of different natural environments,
different customs and inheritances, but because of people’ competence. With low
competence people certainly cannot take advantages of modern scientific techniques
to fully exploit natural resources. People’ s low competence is due to the less
development of education.
n . Rural Women Are in Need of Help and Are Labour Resources With Great Potentialites
As the population of Chinese rural areas occupies 80% that of the whole
country, half of it are femals. At present women’s roles in society are consented by
more and more people. Usually Chinese rural women have to do much more work
than men. For instance, besides the same hard work in fields as men do, women
have to do housework and to breed children. However, their social status is still too
low. Guided by traditional beliefs that men’s superior to women and that women
without intelligence are virtuous, most rural women are excluded from being
educated. Girls born of a poor family have no chance to go to school. Even they
have got the chance to study in school, they have to quit school early to return home
to help the family. As a result, the number of illiterate women in rural areas is much
larger than that of rural illiterate men. Since women have no equal chance to be
educated as men, their intelligence cannot be fully exploited.
To what extent women are educated correlates with the improvement of human
health and the birth rate. Women of different cultural levels show great differences
in the quantity of children and the way of breeding children. In 1994, Programme
of Action of the 4th World Women ’ s Congress claimed clearly that since women
formal and non-formal education could result in good social and economic effects, it 94
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is one of the best measures to sustainable development.
Chinese government also agreed to this claim. In the latest 50m years,
enormous labour force and material resources have been invested on education
(including women education), endeavoring to eliminate rural illiterate women. At
present nine-year compulsory education has been popularized so as to completely
change the phenomenon of inequality of men and women in education, to offer
women elementary education, life education and preliminary health protection, thus
promoting the sustainable development centred to human beings (including incessant
growth of economy). To some extent, great achievements are made only when rural
women take part in the process of developing rural economy through education. It is
only when rural women become independent from men and when the reformation of
economic structure is undertaken can rural woman become the necessary labors in
rural construction.
m . Non-formal Education Strongly Supports Rural Women in Rural Economic Construction. In rural areas, no high-quality formal education is offered to rural women.
Influenced by traditional education policy, formal education only imparts knowledge
to formal students to further study in universities. To those who don’ t go on further
study, the knowledge they have learned is useless to daily life. They have no
knowledge of various fertilizers and agricultural chemicals. As days pass by, they
may become illiterate. All this weakens the development of rural society, so it is 1 obviously urgent and important to implement rural women’s non-formal education in
terms of local situations. This education consists of two parts: one is to complement
to formal teaching contents some practical technique trainnings and other scientific
activities correlated with local production, and the other is to run mixed classes for
female drop-outs, lecturing practical techniques which are easy to learn and which
can bring immediate economic results. They enable women to take part in local
economic construction.
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Iv. A Case Study: Ways Employed in Dingshui Town, Linyi City Shandong Province
4.1 Introduction to Dingshui Town Dingshui Town, located in the south of Yimeng mountains with the 206 th
national road across it, has a population of about 25,000. As its main land is plain,
the local people live on rice and peanuts growing. The yearly income is 1,500 yuan
RMB per capita, which simply solves the problem of enough food and clothing. In
order to lead a relatively comfortable life, most men in this town do manual work
outside the hometown, leaving women as main labour force in the fields and at
home. Thus in order to fully exploit these women’s potentialities, Dingshui Adult
Education Center unites agricultural technology stations, veterinary stations,
Dingshuyi women ’ s Federation, the Family-planning Association and hospitals to
organize various women non-formal education, making great efforts to lead women
to take part in the course of developing the local society.
4.2 Spreading out Agricultural Techniques Through Broadcasting
As local people mainly live on rice and peanuts growing, a famous market for
peanuts picking, perchasing and selling has been formed there. Each year large
quantity of peanuts are sold outside the town. Growing peanuts needs special
techniques, yet traditional ways of growing could only result in low production,
which explains the reason why for so many years farmers ’ production had always
been 200 to 300 jin per mu. However, as to modern scientific techniques, they were
not easy to be grasped because of labours’ low educational levels. So the Adult
Education Center united agricultural technology spreading stations to run Sunday-
training-classes in rooms of elementary schools. Women were trained to grasp
advanced and simple techniques such as plastic film covering farm chemical, applying
chemical fertilizer and planting improved variety of crops, promoting the
productivity. In order to make techniques more simple by women to grasp, the way
of broadcasting was employed for agricultural technicians to explain them explicitly.
In addition to that, demonstrations were given to solve problems raised in the
process of growing. At present peanut production has reac.hed 500 to 600 jin per 96
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mu. The cases such as crops were burnt up because of the improper usage of farm
chemical have never happened again.
In recent years with the expanding of techniques of vegetables or strawberry
planting in plastic sheds and those of growing mushroom, the proper income can
reach 5000 yuan RMI3 per mu, thus raising women’s status in their families.
4.3 Populizing Knowledge of Maternity and Child Care Through Women Night Schools
Comparing to the past, the number of children in a family is not large, and
people’ s life is much better. However due to lack of hygienic knowledge and
knowledge of health care, unhealthy hygienic habits and the belief that men are
superior to women were once still prevailing. So the Adult Education Center united
the Family-planning Association and village hospitals to organize women night
schools in all villages. Teachers are rural women selected from each village who have
received formal education for five to eleven years. They are trained before they begin
to give lectures at night schools. They compile materials explaining physiological
hygienic knowledge such as the significance of eating iodized salt, common diseases
protection and cure, contraception, child breeding and cultivation, women health
protection, and equality of men and women. Together with other factors, women
night schools produce good results: Many families are one-child families, the health
of women and children has been improved greatly, and the incidence of infectious
diseases and epidemic diseases has dropped considerably.
4.4 Developing Material Processing and Animal Raising in Line with Local Conditions
With the 206th national road across the town, transportation there is quite
convenient. It takes only five to six hours to go to the harbour city Qingdao. For a
long time, each year after the busy season women just stayed at home breeding
children, thus causing great waste of time and manpower, so the Adult Education
Center sent men to Qingdao to look for business for women to do at home, such as
embroidery, weaving and knitting, which could increase women’s income. As the
requirement of quality of products is high, women need to be trained. Since the
techniques are simple, it usually takes women about 10 days to study. Followings 97
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are the concrete process: First, the Adult Education Center sends men to find
business, to get raw materials, to make a contract on price and date of delivery, and
to invite technicians to give lectures on techniques as well as to strictly examine the
quality of products. Second, training classes are held for women to attend on their
will, and in turn, to train others in their own villages. Third, assignments are given
differently according to women’ s different requirements. Women are required to
regularly deliver products and to get raw materials. Last, the Adult Education
Center sends those qualified products to foreign trade departments and then pays
women according to their work. This kind of business has no set time, and each
year there may be several for women to do with. Actually it is warmly welcomed by
women for they not only have grasped techniques but also have increased their family
income.
Long ago the fuel villagers used were stems of crops, but at present with the
improvement of living conditions and increase in crops output, some stems of the
crops can be saved from being fuelled. After being processed these stems become
feed suitable for women to raise animals such as pigs and rabbits. Rabbit fur is one of
Chinese important exports with the price at 50 to 100 yuan per jin. Raising rabbits
is profitable, yet corresponding techniques such as how to use feed and how to
protect and cure diseases are required. So the Adult Education Center unites
veterinary stations to hold training classes expanding technology. Corresponding
booklets are also compiled for women. One woman in each village is trained to be a
message between peasants and veterinary stations. Besides rabbits, pigs raising
techniques are also trained in the same way. Women become independent in
economy, for they can earn 2000 to 5000 yuan RMB a year larger than their
husbands’ income. They become more confident in themselves.
4.5 Lessons and Suggestions Rural women non-formal education in this town has made great achievements.
The main reasons are as following.
a. Management
It is the Adult Education Center who unites others to implement non-formal
education, thus the management will never be thrown into confusion.
b. Funds 98
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Funds come from the government allocation as well as funds raised by education
itself. The former is offered by executive departments whereas the latter is from
some subsidies and the service fees collected from women after they really have their
own economic income.
c . Teachers
Teachers are appointed to the position either on their free will or being invited.
The former are the cardres in executive departments and experts in agriculture,
while the latter are technicians outside the town.
d. Contents
Contents are set in line with local conditions. They are usually knowledge of
daily life and practical techniques which can fully exploit local natural resources and
labour resources. Corresponding books compiled for women are Knowledge of
Agriculture, Technology on Rabbit Raising, Embroidery, Weaving and
Knitting, Common Sense of Women Health Protection and Cure, 100 Problems on
Animal Raising, and so forth.
e. Time and form
Women can be assembled in spare time as at night or the time going to
markets. Ways employed can be broadcasting or village news boards. All these are
employed depending on the rural women’ s ways of living.
Meanwhile, there exists some weaknesses. Followings are the weaknesses
together with suggestions.
a. Non-formal education only takes into consideration the women outside schools.
Because of the traditional way of teaching ( i. e. the school only spreads out
knowledge enabling students to go on further study), females who have graduated or
will graduate from secondary schools still have no competence to work in farms. So
to speak, formal education should be linked with non-formal education and
becomplemented to each other. Students of pupils need have chances to learn
practical technology related to local production and life, and to attend various
training classes.
b. Funds are far beyond enough and equipments for teaching are too simple and
crude. As there still exists tendency to think little of non-formal education, the funds
from those for whole education are less than expected. Besides, the Adult Education
Center is in charge of non-formal education, yet itself has no places to hold training 99
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classes. All this weakens the implementation. Though non-formal education is
secondary to formal education, it should have its basic equipment treated fairly, and
so the Equipment for formal education can be fully exploited.
c. Teaching contents and form are lack of creativeness. At present Chinese rural
women are still confined to traditional ideas. In order to emanicipate them
completely, taking part in economic construction is not enough. They need to take
part in politics as well as culture. Non-formal education needs to populizes the ideas
that women and men are equal in the society, sharing the same responsibility and
duty, and that promising future can be realized only through the collaborationof men
and women.
v. Conclusions
The education of women marks the degree of nation’ s civilization. Only when
women have the equal chance to be educated well could the whole society advance.
Non-formal education is one of the efficient measures. As its contents are practical
and profitable, it has great significance in rural women’s taking part in social and
economic constructions. It enhances rural women ’ s ability to live, and improves
their skills in farming and living.
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CHINA
An Investigation of Rural Non-formal Education in Rugao County and Its Implication
By Sun Dejun
In January 1999, an on-the-spot investigation was conducted on the current
situation of rural non-formal education in Rugao County. Departments such as
Rugao Rural Operations Department, Rugao Agricultural Bureau and Rugao
Education Commission were visited. So were some rural adult education centers and
agricultural technology spreading stations. In the process some local farmers were
also interviewed. The purpose is to find some universal phenomena by the
illustration of this investigation. It’s hoped to help find the basic principles of rural
non-formal education, and to throw some light on how to perform the rural
education reformation.
I. Targets
The targets of Rugao ’ s rural non-formal education are: 1. to eliminate
illiteracy; 2. to improve farmers ’ education levels ( eg. , At present technique-
qualification diplomas are set for farmers. > ; 3. to help farmers master practical
techniques so as to make their lives better; 4. to help construct socialist spiritual
civilization and maintain rural community’s stability.
II. Contents
Contents of rural non-formal education nearly touch upon all areas of rural life
and production. To be specific, the contents of Rugao’s rural non-formal education
are grouped into the following parts.
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3.1 Rural practical techniques training. It is contemporarily one of the most important contents in non-formal education
and it occupies nearly 70% of all the contents. The purpose of it is to let farmers
master techniques of production to live better off, namely to make education serve
rural economic development.
3.2 Literacy education.
After several years’ endeavor, this county’s rate of literacy reaches 99 % . At
present efforts are made to consolidate this rate of literacy, and meanwhile to
promote these people’ education level.
3.3 Education in legality. It has nowadays become more and more important in rural non-formal education
nowadays, for it helps construct rural spiritual civilization and maintain rural
community’s stability.
3.4 Education in family planning and population.
Many adult education centers regularly hold lectures to inform people of the
knowledge of family planning, how to cultivate children and so forth.
3.5 Education in protecting environment.
Rural areas are no longer paradises out of the question of pollution. In 1998 this
county undertook an experimental education on environmental protection in two
villages. It is planned to popularize this education in 1999.
m . Measures
Ways to carry out rural non-formal education are various. Traditional ones such
as short- term training, night school, on-the-spot teaching and teaching through
broadcasting are still playing important roles. In the first half year of 1998, adult
education centers in this county ran altogether 581 training classes and trained 58,
453 persons. Adult schools run by villages held 5, 682 training classes. Besides, 102
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with the wide-spread usage of TV sets and computer networks, some modern
teaching methods have been employed. In the first half year of 1998, adult schools
run by villages held 749 lectures by the way of TV broadcasting, and 221 classes
with the help of electrical audio-visual aids. Addition to that, some agricultural
technology commpetition were held to stimulate farmers to study and apply
techniques. It was welcomed warmly by farmers and it produced good results. In
1998, the First Scientific Rice-growing Competition attracted totally 38 villages, 1,
451 farmers to take part in. In the process of competition, agricultural technicians
spread out newly advanced techniques, making this competition an efficient way of
education.
Iv. Teachers and teaching materials
The full-time teachers in adult education centers in Rugao are mostly from
common education system. Their duty is to organize rural non-formal education and
to see it through. Instructors are appointed to the position according to different
teaching contents. They may be cadres of different levels, agricultural technicians as
well as experts. They get no pay and usually give instructions on holidays or at
night. Some instructors themselves may become experts in certain areas of practical
techniques. For instance, Tian Wenhai, once a teacher in an elementary school, was
engaged to be an instructor. Then he made great efforts to study ways of raising
chickens, and spread out them to the farmers. In order to protect and cure chicken
diseases, he invented an effective medicine named Sanhuangtang. By attending the
chickengrowing technique training class with instructions given by Tian Wenhai,
many farmers grasped the techniques and set up chicken farms.
As one target of rural non-formal education is to promote rural community’s
speed of development, it should take into consideration the local situation. As a
result there are no universal materials. All materials are compiled by education
centers themselves. Once Rugao Agricultural Bureau compiled a series of materials to
promote “Green Diploma Project”, namely, peasant technique-qualification diploma
project. It is characterized by the followings: 1. having close contact with local
nature, society and economy; 2. employing simple words convenient for farmers to 103
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understand; 3. being practical. All the contents in the materials can be applied to
production so long as they are grasped. And usually they will produce good results.
V. Funds
At present funds of rural non-formal education are from the government.
Obviously they can never meet the needs of the rapid development of education.
According to the government of Jiangsu province, the cost of adult education must
be averagely 0. 2 - 0. 5 yuan RMB per capita. But because of the present local
economy, cost of adult education in Rugao can only reach 0. 15 yuan RMB per
capita. Namely, one year only 1,500 yuan RMB is spent on non-formal education in
towns with a population of 10, 000. Comparing to the work of rural non-formal
education such funds are far below enough.
In order to solve the fund problem, Rugao County is undertaking a project
named Item Project. Adult schools are required to unite agricultural stations to
develop new items which can result better economy. In turn , these schools have the
ability to solve fund problems.
VI. Results
6.1 Social effects
Just in 1998, 170 anti-illiteracy classes and further education classes were run,
training over 7,600 persons. More than 800 lectures and training classes in aspect of
population education were held, training over 57,400 persons. And 1, 134 short-
term training classes in aspect of practical techniques were run, training 104, 724
persons. More and more farmers are ready to receive non-formal education. They
view it as a part of life and also expect to grasp techniques to live better just with the
help of such education.
6.2 Economic effects.
As is estimated by Rugao Education Department, over 10, 000, 000 yuan RMB
can be gained only though the practical technique training. Item Project undertaken 104
FIRST INTERNATIONAL, WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
in towns or villages enlarges farmers’ income. For instance, in 1998, with the
wide-spread technique of raising chicken and rabbits in Chemahu, farmers ’ income
was increased over 700 yuan RMB per capita. In Changqin, with the development
of Sugarcane Growing Item, farmers’ yearly income reached over 2,500 yuan RMB
per capita, over 500 yuan more than that of the year before.
W . Inspiration
Rugao rural non-formal education has made great achievement. Following are
inspiration and lessons drawn from it.
7. 1 It gave prominence to the characteristics of rural non-formal education,
namely, being practical and efficient. Rural non-formal education has to serve
agriculture, villages and farmers in town and village administrative areas. It
developes in the course of contact with practice and economy of local areas. Thus
there is not a set model in rural non-formal education*development. Each area has to
analyse its own situation to find a suitable way to develop itself.
7.2 The advocation of Item Project offers a good example of thinking to the
development of rural non-formal education. Item Project means to choose practical
technology as training contents of a separate unity to train farmers so as to lead them
to make wealth. This technology usually has a promising future in the market, that
can result better economy, and that can be widely spread out. Item Project consists
of two parts: Item Entity and Item Education. The formal is the basis while the
latter is the measure to make a profit. So to speak, Item Project helps non-formal
education relieve government ’ s financial burden and acts as Model Project and
Leading Project attracting farmers to receive non-formal education.
7.3 The implementing of Green Diploma Project is an important guarantee of
farmers’ competence improvement. Item Project aims to enlarge farmers’ income,
yet Green Diploma Project emphasizes on farmers ’ competence improvement.
Though this project needs enormous labour force and material resources, it has a
great impact on the improvement of rural labours ’ competence and that of labour 105
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
productivity.
7.4 Education in environmental protection is the content that needs more attention
to in rural non-formal education. The advocation of it meets the social need to
protect environment and to enhance farmers’ sense of environmental protection. As
people become to realize the harm caused by air pollution, water pollution and noises
in the urban areas, few people think of the pollution in rural areas such as too much
land exploitation and arbitrarily lumbering. It is really an urgent task to enhance
farmers’ sense of environmental protection through non-formal education.
VIII . Conclusion
In the process of developing rural non-formal education, Rugao County has
insisted on the policy of serving farmers, the rural society and economy. Based on
the local situation, it has made effective exploration to implement certain measures,
resulting in good economic effects as well as social effects. However, there are some
weaknesses.
8.1 First, the relationship between the operation units (ie. adult education
centers and agricultural stations) is not so harmonious. This causes great waste of
labor, funds and material resources, thus weakening the global effects of rural non-
formal education.
8.2 Second, the corresponding policy to rural non-formal education is not
perfect. Besides, the guidance, regulation and supervision of the government is not
so efficient.
8.3 Third, some items are undertaken without thorough consideration. Most
of them are abandoned in the midway.
8.4 In addition to that, some short-term classes are for show. The teaching
quality is too bad, which dampens the enthusiasm of the farmers.
So long as the above problems are solved, much more achievements will be
made by Rugao’s rural non-formal education.
106
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
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Education Program, 1990
2. Berstecher, D. ed, Education and Rural Development : Issues for Planning
and Research . UNESCO: International Institutes for Educational Planning
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Februray 1999
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March 1999
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ACTIONAID UK. 1998
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to Literacy Across Languages and Cultures, Albany: Suny Press. 1994
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Y
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FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
NAMELIST OF TRAINEES
Ms. Gertrude Kauna Ekandjo Community Development Officer
Ministry of Regional Local Government and Housing
Namibia
Permanent address: 2730 Hanover, Ongwediva, Oshana Region
Tel: 65 - 230836(H) 65 - 220432(O)
Fax: 65 - 220432
Ms. Julia Thadeu Hoza Programme Officer
UNESCO National Commision in Tanzania
Tanzania
Permanent address: P. 0. Box 70564, DAR ES Salaam Tanzania
Tel:255 - 51-410138(H) 255 - 51- 152635/152410(O)
Fax:255 - 51- 152635
Mr. Oppong Manu Principal Co - operative Officer
Department of Co - operatives -
Ghana
Permanent address: A2, Low Cost, Goaso, BAR. Ghana
Tel: 061- 379, Sunyani - Ghana
Mr. Kebede Sima Head of Curriculum Development
and Education Research
Ministry of Education
Ethiopia
Permanent address
Tel: 20 - 13 - 59 108
__-_ --- .._. -.-- ~.. . _.. _ .- --.. _-. .__.. ..~___ -.
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
Fax: 20-13-58
Mr. Ndawambi Daka Head of Research Department
Cooperative College
Ministry of Agriculture
Zambia
Permanent address: Cooperative College, P. 0. Box 50208, Leopards Hill Road,
Lusaka. House No. 48 Zambia
Tel : 260 - 1 - 264374 ( 0)
Fax: 260 - 1 - 264374
Mr. Patrick Kaaria Kiugu Inspector of Primary Schools
Teachers Service Commision
Kenya
Permanent address: Box 51, Githongo MERU-Kenya
Tel: 229053 -4(O)
Fax: 254 - 2 - 213025
Ms. Yu Niya Deputy Director of Basic Education Division
Guangxi Education Commision
Guangxi Province
China
Mr. Wang Li Director of UNESCO INRULED
Baoding, China
Mr. Zhao Zhiqiang Programme Officer of UNESCO INRULED
China
FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION
Mr. Wang Qiang Expert for Rural Education
Science and Education Institute
Ningxia,
China
Mr. Liu Yibing Associate Professor of
Research and Training Centre for Literacy Education
Southwest Nomal University
Chongqing,
China
Mr. Qi Zhiyong
Chief of International Cooperation and Exchange Office
Science and Education Institute
Gansu Province
China
Mr. He Jun Director of Education Commission in
Cangxi County
Sichun Province
China
110
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+. 5. Pleasant participants and a shy kindergarten child.
6. Mr. Kiugu from Kenya is sharing ideas with participants in lecture. Next is Ms. J. T. Hoza. 8
7. Participants are visiting the experiment farm of Dayu Primary School. 8
8. Participants in snow-white honorable Hada are sharing experiences with local pupils’ parents. $
9. Participants and experts are having a group discussion. $
. Basic education for all: the passport to equality
. Basic education: basic human rights
Priority Groups:
Unreached a
* Disadvantaged
Females i?
Basic education: meet the challenges of the present and of the future
in creating a harmonious and productive world society; which respects
human values and the concept of sustainable development