Finishing up APA & Ethics
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Finishing up APA &Ethics
Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology
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Announcements
Exam 1: Coming up soon (Monday, Sept 19; that’s 1 week from today!)
CITI ethics assignment is posted (see link on syllabus) Not due until week 7, but since ethics is covered on Exam 1, I
recommend checking it out sooner rather than later
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Writing resources
The ultimate resource for APA style is the APA Publication manual
Chapter 8 of your textbook is good too. Also websites to help too.
New 6th ed.
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Misconceptions about Scientific writing
Writing the paper is the routine part of the research process Forces you to commit to your evidence and conclusions
Just the facts The facts are just part of the argument that the author is
making What you say is all that is important, how you say it
isn’t important Good writing leads to higher chance of accomplishing your
goals
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Writing style
Psychological writing tends to differ from other academic writings
• Not a creative writing exercise• Presenting an argument based on data and logical
reasoning• Try to avoid using direct quotes, restate things
in your own words. • Avoid digression
• Footnotes are rare, they’re used to elaborate/clarify a point. Try to do so in the text.
• If long digressions, use the appendix
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Why a structured format?
To ease communication of what was done Forces a minimal amount of information Provides a logical framework (for argument) Provides consistent format within a discipline
• People know what to expect• Where to find the information in the article
Allows readers to cross-reference your sources easily
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Major goal: Clarity
Communicate with clarity
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Major goal: Clarity
Communicate with clarity
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Major goal: Clarity
Communicate with clarity Write for the reader
• Think about your audience, what do they already know, what don’t they know
Avoid overstatements• Be conservative in your claims
Emphasize the positive• Focus on how the data supports a theory not just on
how it refutes another theory
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Major goal: Clarity
Communicate with clarity Avoid
• Jargon when possible• Slang and colloquialisms• Sexist and biased language
Try to be concise • Don’t use a whole paragraph when two sentences will do• Longer papers don’t mean better papers• Eliminate unnecessary redundancy• Use simple words (sentences) rather than complicated
words (sentences)
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Major goal: Clarity
Use concrete words and examples Check your work!
• Read it over, make sure that you say what you mean to say
Use a consistent format (APA style)• It helps your reader understand your arguments and
the sources they’re built on. • It also helps you keep track of your sources as you
build arguments
Communicate with clarity
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APA style: Parts of a research report
• Title Page
Adolescent Depression 1
Running Head: ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION
Adolescent Depression and Attachment
Ima G. Student and Soyam Eye
Purdue University
• Abstract
Adolescent Depression 2
We explored attachment in a family context by applying family systems principles to the investigation of multiple attachment relationships within families. This study focused on maternal adult attachment with respect to family of origin experiences. We examined associations between maternal adult attachment and three levels of family functioning including individual maternal depression symptoms, dyadic marital satisfaction and family unit functioning. We found that attachment security with respect to particular relationships was differentially associated with different levels of family functioning.
• Body• References• Authors Notes• Footnotes• Tables• Figure Captions• Figures
Adolescent Depression 29
References
Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). Psychosocial functioning and depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 104. Beck, A. T. (1978). Beck Depression Inventory. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Benoit, D., Vidovic, D., & Roman, J. (1991, April). Transmission of attachment across three generations. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., & Barton, M. L. (1989). Maternal attachment disturbances in failure to thrive. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3, 185-202. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., Boucher, C., & Minde, K. (1989). Sleep disorders in early childhood: Association with insecure maternal attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 86-93.
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The anatomy of a research article
The basic parts of a research article: Title and authors - gives you a general idea of
the topic and specifically who did it Abstract - short summary of the article
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Title Page
Running Head: ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION 1
Adolescent Depression and Attachment
Ima G. Student and Soyam Eye
Topnotch University
Published title pages will look a bit different, but you’ll find these pieces of information. Typically the body of the article will begin as well.
Title should be maximally informative while short
(10 to 12 words recommended)
Running head – will go on each page of published article,
no more than 50 characters
Affiliation – where the bulk of the research was done
Order of Authorship sometimes carries meaning
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Abstract
Abstract: Short summary of entire paper• 150-250 words• The problem/issue• The method• The results• The major conclusions
Recommendation: write this after you’ve finished the rest of the paper
Good first contact, but remember that it is short on detail Shows up in PsycInfo Gets skimmed before reading the article
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Body
Hourglass shape
BackgroundLiterature Review
Start broad
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Body
Hourglass shape
Statement of purposeSpecific hypotheses (at least at conceptual level)
Narrow focus
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Body
Hourglass shape
- Methods- Results
Most focused
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Body
Hourglass shape
DiscussionConclusionsImplications
Broaden
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Body
Introduction - gives you the background that you need Issue and Background
• What is it? Why is it interesting/important? Literature Review
• What has been done? What theories are out there? Statement of purpose
• What are you going to do and why? Specific hypotheses (at least at conceptual level)
• What do you predict will happen in your research?
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Body
Introduction - gives you the background that you need
Writing checklist• Be cohesive
• Be relevant (why are the reviewed studies relevant?)• Work on the transitions (make the flow logical)
Reading checklist1) What is the author's goal?2) What are the hypotheses?3) If you had designed the study, how would YOU have done it?
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Method - tells the reader exactly what was done Enough detail that the reader could actually replicate the
study. Subsections:
Participants - who were the data collected from How many, where they were selected from, any special
selection requirements, details about those who didn’t complete the experiment
Apparatus/ Materials - what was used to conduct the study Design
Suggested if you have a complex experimental design, often combined with Materials section
Procedure What did each participant do? Other details, including the
operational levels of your IV(s) and DV(s), counterbalancing, etc.
The basic parts of a research article :
Body
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Method - tells the reader exactly what was done Reading checklist
1 a) Is your method better than theirs? b) Does the authors method actually test the hypotheses? c) What are the independent, dependent, and control
variables? 2) Based on what the authors did, what results do YOU expect?
• Writing checklist• Is it clear why the procedures were selected?• Are any assumptions explicit and defended?• Is the level of detail sufficient for replication?
The basic parts of a research article :
Body
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Body
Results (state the results but don’t interpret them here) Verbal statement of results Tables and figures
• These get referred to in the text, but actually get put into their own sections at the end of the manuscript
Statistical Outcomes• Means, standard deviations, t-tests, ANOVAs, correlations, etc.
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Body
Results (state the results but don’t interpret them here) Reading checklist
1) Did the author get unexpected results? 2 a) How does the author interpret the results? b) How would YOU interpret the results? c) What implications would YOU draw from these results?
• Writing checklist• Is it clear how the hypotheses are tested by the analyses?• Would a graph or table help clarify the results?• What questions might the reader still have, and how could
I answer them in this section?
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Body
Discussion (interpret the results) Relationship between purpose and results Theoretical (or methodological) contribution Implications Future directions (optional) Reading checklist
1 a) Does YOUR interpretation or the authors' interpretation best represent the data?
b) Do you or the author draw the most sensible implications and conclusions?
• Writing checklist• Have you stated your most convincing argument?• Do the conclusions follow straightforwardly from the results?
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The rest
References Author’s name Year Title of work Publication information
• Journal• Issue• Pages
Adolescent Depression 29 References
Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). Psychosocial functioning and depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 104. Beck, A. T. (1978). Beck Depression Inventory. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Benoit, D., Vidovic, D., & Roman, J. (1991, April). Transmission of attachment across three generations. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., & Barton, M. L. (1989). Maternal attachment disturbances in failure to thrive. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3, 185-202. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., Boucher, C., & Minde, K. (1989). Sleep disorders in early childhood: Association with insecure maternal attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 86-93. When something odd comes up, don’t
guess. Look it up!
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The rest
References Authors Notes (new guidelines put these on
title page) Footnotes Tables Figures and figure captions
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Figures and tables
These are used to supplement the text.
To make a point clearer for the reader.
Typically used for: The design Examples of stimuli Patterns of results
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Ethics
Ethics – people should be treated as ends not means
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Ethical Responsibilities in Research
Two basic categories of ethical concerns: Need to consider the rights of our participants in our
research Need to behave ethically as scientists and
practitioners
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Consider ethics at each step What measurement techniques will be used? How are participants selected? What methods may be used on the participant population? What design is appropriate? How are the data analyzed? How are the results reported?
Ethical Responsibilities in Research
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Using humans in research
For the most part the researcher has the power• You know what is going to be
done to the participants• Participants may feel like
they have to do it
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Institutional Review Board IRB Criteria
• Minimize risk• Benefits > Risks• Equal opportunity sampling• Informed consent• Documentation of consent• Data monitoring• Privacy & Confidentiality
Monitoring of ethics
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Respect for persons Basic courtesy Informed consent Debriefing Avoid deception
Beneficence Protection from harm Cost/Benefits analysis Confidentiality
Justice Freedom from coercion
APA’s code of ethicswww.apa.org/ethics/code2002.html
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Informed consent
Information to allow a person to decide if they want to participate Basic purpose of the study Participation is voluntary Risks involved Benefits involved Rights to refuse or terminate participation
Assent - guardians if participants are not competent• e.g., children, developmentally disabled people
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Using deception in research
Passive deception Withholding information about the study
Active deception Deliberately misleading participants
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Using deception in research
Avoid it when possible Alternatives to deception
• Role-playing
When not possible to avoid Make sure that you are up front with all possible risks Potential results must be worth it Must debrief participants as soon as possible (either
right after participation or as soon as project is over)
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Costs/Benefits analysis
Costs: all potential risks to the participants Physical harm Psychological harm Loss of confidentiality
Benefits: the “good” outcomes Direct benefits to participants Benefits to knowledge base Benefits to world at large
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Scientific Integrity
Fraud prevention Replication – repeat a research study to validate results Peer Review – critical analysis of research by peers in the
same area Plagiarism – taking credit for another’s work or ideas
• Avoided by citing the ideas or words of others
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Ethical responsibility to science
Dirty tricks (this will get you thrown out) Questionable tricks (these are a little
fuzzier, but be wary) Neat tricks (accepted as okay, and
sometimes necessary)
Ethics in Science Quiz
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Ethical responsibility to science
Fabrication of results Little or no attempt to minimize demand biases Reformulating your theory as you go Falsifying credentials Plagiarism Little or no attempt to minimize confounds Deliberately hiding (significant) errors in published work Little or no attempt to minimize demand characteristics
DT
DTDTQT
QT
DTQT
NT
Dirty tricks Questionable
tricks Neat tricks
Ethics in Science Quiz
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Ethical responsibility to science
Throwing out data
Reorganizing order of report of experiments Violations of underlying statistical assumptions Strategic graphing of the data Duplicate publications (presented as new) Selective reporting of the results Leaving out some bad experiments (not bad results)
QT or DT
QTQT
QTNT
NT
DT
Dirty tricks Questionable
tricks Neat tricks
depends reason for throwing out
Ethics in Science Quiz