Ch4 Ethics in Research and Ch16 APA Report

7/29/2019 Ch4 Ethics in Research and Ch16 APA Report

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Questions:

How is the convergent validity different from

concurrent validity? (criterion vs no criterion)

Is it possible to say that one form of validity is

better than others or does it depend on the kindof research that you are doing?

How is it possible to do observational studies

completely absent of subjective or

experimenter/observer bias? Is it possible to be

completely objective? Rating scales could be

objective?


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More Questions:

Are constructs with less operational definitionslooked at as less reliable?

Is the bell picture supposed to signify something

on your power points? Does divergent variability need the same chart

as convergent variability?

If your test has face validity should you not use it

or trust the results because the results could notbe accurate?

Is it easier to work with direct or indirectvariables? Is there one better than the other?


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More Questions:

How accurate are results when measuringconstructs such as the example you used likecomparing active and aggressive children whenthey might overlap or be defined differently?

Are there constructs that are not measurable inany operational definitions? If so how would yougo about the research in obtaining a solution?

Do we need to use these terms in our research(e.g. constructs, operational definition) anddefine our variables as direct or indirectmeasurements?


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Ethics in Research

Chapter 4

Dusana RybarovaPsyc 290B

May 18 2006


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Outline:

1. Introduction to ethics in research

2. Ethical issues and human participants in

research3. Ethical issues and nonhuman subjects in

research

4. Ethical issues and scientific integrity5. Step 4 of your research outline


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1. Introduction to ethics in research

you must accept the responsibility to behaveethically toward those who will be affectedby your research

ethics is the study of proper action

research ethics concerns the responsibilityof researchers to be honest and respectful

to all individuals who may be affected bytheir research studies or their reports of thestudies results


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ethical issues must be considered at each step inthe research process

what measurement techniques may be used for certainindividuals

how researchers select individuals to participate instudies

which research strategies and designs may be usedwith certain populations and behaviors

how studies may be carried out with individuals

how results are reported

The basic categories of ethical responsibility responsibility to the human and nonhuman individualswho participate in the research study

responsibility to the discipline of science

\


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2. Ethical issues and human

participants in research Historical highlights of treatment of human

participants World War II brutal experiments performed on

prisoners in Nazi concentration camps

1947 Nuremberg trial with experimenters whoconducted those experiments

as a result of that trial Nuremberg Code has beenestablished

10 guidelines for the ethical treatment of human participantsin research

Nuremberg Code laid the groundwork for the ethicalstandards that are in place today for both psychological andmedical research


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participants in research

Historical highlights of treatment of human

participants (cont.)

additional examples of maltreatment of human

participants

in 1963 unsuspecting patients have been injected

with live cancer cells

in 1972 400 men had been left to suffer with syphilislong after a cure was available


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Historical highlights of treatment of humanparticipants (cont.)

Milgram obedience study (Milgram, 1963)

subjects instructed to use electric shock to punishother individuals when they made errors in a learningtask

participants were administering what appeared to bedangerously strong and painful shocks

no real shocks were used in the study

although the participants in this study sustained nophysical harm, they suffered shame andembarrassment for having behaved inhumanely

toward their fellow human beings


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American psychological association (APA)

Guidelines

www.apa.org/ethics/code.html

APA Ethics Code contains ten ethical

standards, and you should be completely

familiar with all of them before beginning any

research with human participants


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Guidelines (major ethical issues)

No harm

the researcher is obligated to protect participants

from physical or psychological harm

Psychological harm participants may feel increased

anxiety, anger, lower self-esteem especially in situations

where they feel that they have been cheated or insulted

any risk of harm must be justified

participants must be informed of any potential risks


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participants in research American psychological association (APA)

Guidelines (major ethical issues) Informed consent

human participants should be given complete information

about the research and their role in it they should understand the information and then voluntarily

decide whether or not to participate

information if not possible to provide the subject withinformation about the purpose of the study we can explain tohim at least exactly what will be done

understanding some participants may not be competent tounderstand the research (e.g. children), therefore, it isnecessary to provide the information to a parent or a guardian

voluntary participation participants decide to participate oftheir own free will (no obligation because of a teacher or aprofessor asked them to do so)


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American psychological association (APA)Guidelines (major ethical issues) deception informed consent can not be obtain before

the study to obtain unbiased results researchers must sometimes use

deception because participants may adjust their own levels ofperformance in an attempt to satisfy the experimenter

Passive deception (or omission) is the withholding or omitting ofinformation (researcher intentionally does not tell participants

some information about the study) Active deception (or commission) is the presenting of

misinformation about the study to participants (misleadingparticipants about the specific purpose of the study)


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Guidelines (major ethical issues)

guidelines for a study involving deception:

the deception must be justified in terms of some benefit thatoutweighs the risk to the participants

the researcher can not conceal from the participants any

significant aspects of the study that is expected to cause

physical pain or severe emotional stress

the researcher must provide the participant with debriefing thatexplains the true nature of the experiment, including the use

and purpose of deception after the study is completed


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American psychological association (APA)Guidelines (major ethical issues)

Confidentiality is the practice of keeping strictly secret and private

the information or measurements obtained from anindividual during a research study

Anonymity

is the practice of ensuring that an individuals nameis not directly associated with the information ormeasurements obtained from that individuals (e.g.using codes)


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The Institutional Review board (IRB)

most human-participant research must be reviewed andapproved by a group of individuals (scientists and non-

scientists) not directly affiliated with the specificresearch study

the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services(HHS) requires review of all human-participant researchconducted by government agencies and institutionsreceiving government funds

IRB typically requires that researchers submit a writtenresearch proposal that addresses each of the sevencriteria of IRB (minimization of risk to participants,reasonable risk in relation to benefits, equitableselection, informed consent, documentation of informed

consent, data monitoring, privacy and confidentiality) Category I (exempt review) anonymous survey on innocuous

topic

Category II (expedited review) minimal risk to participants

Category III (full review) special populations, deception,intervention, invasive measurement


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3. Ethical issues and nonhuman

subjects in research the first ethical question is whether nonhuman subjects

should be used at all in behavioral research

APA guidelines for the use and treatment of nonhumansubjects in research

www.apa.org/science/anguide.html animals must be treated humanely, qualified individuals must

conduct research, the research must be justified and theresearcher has a responsibility to minimize discomfort or harm

institutions that conduct research with animals have an

animal research review board called the InstitutionalAnimal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) Committee consists of a veterinarian, at least one scientist

experience in animal research and a one member of public withno affiliation with the institution


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4. Ethical issues and scientific

integrity

two ethical issues relevant to the writtenreports of the research study

fraud

is an explicit effort of a researcher to deceive andmisrepresent the data

fraud needs to be distinguished from an error error is an honest mistake that occurs in the research

process

safeguards against fraud replication of studies by different scientists

peer review when a researcher submits a research article forpublication (editor of the journal and a few experts in the fieldcritically review the paper in extreme detail)


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4. Ethical issues and scientific

integrity

two ethical issues relevant to the written reports of

the research study (cont.)

plagiarism

is the representation of someone elses ideas or words as onesown, it is unethical!!!

reference citations must be included in your paper whenever

someone elses ideas or work has influenced your thinking and

writing

whenever you use direct quotations or even paraphrasesomeone elses work, you need to give them credit

include a complete list of references at the end of the paper

if in doubt about whether a citation is necessary, cite the source

anyway


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Writing an APA-Style Research

Report

Chapter 16

Dusana RybarovaPsyc 290B

May 18 2006


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Outline:

1. The goal of a research report

2. General APA guidelines for writing style

and format3. The elements of an APA-style research

report

4. Submitting a manuscript for publication5. Writing a research proposal


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basic purpose of a good research report is

to provide three kinds of information about

the research study:

what was done (detailed description of your

research project)

what was found (objective description of the

outcome) how your research study is related to other

knowledge in the area


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a research report is a very structured

document subdivided into separate, well-

defined segments, and each segment has

a specified content

formal style and structure is determined by

the guidelines presented in the Publication

Manual of the American PsychologicalAssociation (5th edition, 2001)


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2. General APA guidelines for writing

style and format

the goal is to provide simple, straightforwarddescription and explanation of your researchstudy

impersonal style (dont say I believe.., I think) verb tense (past for the description of the

research and results, present tense indiscussion section)

avoid biased language (age, gender, ethnicity)

citations (e.g. Jones, 1998)


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2. General APA guidelines for writing

style and format

guidelines for typing and word-processing

double spaced

no more than 27 lines of text per page

at least 1 margin on all sides

typeface 12-point Times Roman or 12-pointCourier

each page of the manuscript, except for thefigures, is numbered and identified with a pageheader


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3. The elements of an APA-style

research report

title page title page is the first page of a research report

manuscript and contains the title of the paper, theauthor names and affiliations, and the running head

a running head is an abbreviated title for a researchreport, containing a maximum of 50 characters, itappears on the title page of the manuscript and at thetop of the pages in a published article

abstract abstract is a brief summary of the research study,

totaling no more than 120 words, the abstract focuseson what was done and what was found in the study


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research report

Introduction is the first major section of text in a research report, it

presents a logical development of the researchquestion, including a review of the relevant background

literature, a statement of the research question andhypothesis, and a brief description of the methods usedto answer the question or test the hypothesis

method the method section of a research report describes how

the study was conducted, including the subjects orparticipants, the apparatus or materials, and theprocedures used


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research report

results results section of a research report presents a summary

of the data and the statistical analysis

discussion

restates the hypothesis, summarizes the results, andthen presents a discussion of the interpretations,implications, and possible applications of the results

references

the reference section is a listing of complete referencesfor all sources of information cited in the report,organized alphabetically by the last name of the firstauthor


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research report

appendix an appendix may be included as a means of presenting

detailed information about the research (e.g. thequestionnaire that you developed and used in the

research or list of items used in the research)

author note details about the author (university, grant support,

acknowledgment, contact person)

tables and figures tables and figures supplement the text, they should not

duplicate information in the text


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4. Submitting a manuscript for

publication

three steps to follow:

select a journal that is appropriate for the topic

of your research report

consult the journals instructions to authors for

specific submission requirements

enclose a cover letter along with the manuscript

to the journal editor


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5. Writing a research proposal

a research proposal is a written report presentingthe plan and underlying rationale of a futureresearch study

a proposal includes a review of the relevant

background literature, an explanation of how theproposed study is related to other knowledge inthe area, a description of how the plannedresearch will be conducted, and a description ofthe possible results

writing a research proposal is very much likewriting a research report (you have to follow thegeneral APA style guidelines discussed earlier)

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