Field Crop Production

Pl.Sci. 407

Lectures: M,W & F 11:30-12:20 Ag Sci 339

Evolution of Crop Species

Why did humans become farmers

and not remain hunter/foragers?

Crop Centers of Origin

maize, common

bean, squash,

sweet potato,

tomato, pepper

potato, common

bean, pepper ,

peanut, pineapple,

cassava, coca,

cotton

sorghum, African rice,

millet, cowpea,

coffee, melon,

watermelon

cucumber, eggplant, banana,

mango, apple, nutmeg,

coconut, mung bean, alfalfa

Wheat, barley, pea,

lentil, chickpea, flax,

safflower, olive, fig,

date palm, onion,

lettuce

Asian rice,

soybean, orange,

lime, grapefruit,

apricot, peach,

tea, cabbage

sunflower

Macadamia

nut

Oat, Sugar

beet, rapeseed

Environmental effects.

• Soil, Air, Water – pollution.

Remove unwanted plants and animals from a farm area.

• Plants and animals evolved into a symbiotic relationship.

Social organization.

• Structure.

• Affluence.

Population growth.

• More children means more workers and care of elderly.

What, Where

and How

0 5 10 15 20 25

Wheat

Rice

Corn

Soybean

Barley

Fiber crops

Sorghum

Millet

Canola

Dry beans

Potato

Peanut

Sunflower

Sugarcane

Oats

Rye

Pulses

Sugarbeet

Percentage of total

Cereals

Wheat Rice Barley Maize Sorghum

Country -------------------- Million Ha --------------------

China 91,952 180,523 3,222 130,434 2,341

USA 58,738 10,470 6,091 299,917 11,555

India 72,060 128,000 1,370 14,000 7,530

Russia 45,413 471 17,180 3,516 44

France 39,705 115 11,040 16,391 258

Indonesia 0 54,088 0 11,225 0

Brazil 5,726 13,277 387 41,806 2,131

Canada 25,860 0 13,186 8,836 0

Oilseeds

Soy Peanut Sunflower Rapeseed Cotton

Country ------------------ Million Ha ----------------

USA 85,013 1,945 930 613 7,477

China 17,600 14,410 1,750 13,182 12,640

Brazil 49,793 226 200 60 2,246

Argentina 31,500 419 3,100 20 190

India 7,500 7,000 1,300 6,200 5,130

Canada 3,048 0 54 7,728 0

Pakistan 10 77 404 401 4,853

Russia 555 0 4,801 276 0

Tubers

Potato Cassava

Country Million Ha

China 70,036 4,216

Nigeria 657 38,179

Russia 35,914 0

India 25,000 6,700

Brazil 2,931 23,778

Thailand 95 21,440

Ukraine 20,755 0

USA 20,686 0

New better adapted and higher

yielding cultivars.

Better management of crops and

pastures.

Farm mechanism.

Inorganic fertilizers.

Pesticides.

Plant Variety Protection – PVP

Plant Patent – PP Whole plants.

DNA sequences.

Plant germplasm.

Trait-specific genes.

Round-up ready.

Bt insect resistance.

Tolerance to: stress, disease, cold.

Quality traits: starch, oil, amino acids.

Transformation technologies.

Promoters to control genes.

Markers to identify the presence of a desirable trait.

Gene silencing or regulating technologies.

Genomics.

USA Agriculture

0.0

50.0

100.0

150.0

200.0

250.0

300.0

1790

1800

1810

1820

1830

1840

1850

1860

1870

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

Year

Population (million)

Population

Farmers

Corn Wheat Soybean

Country Th-Mt Country Th-Mt Country Th-Mt

Japan 15,491 Nigeria 3,381 China 24,343

Mexico 7,892 Japan 3,170 Mexico 3,587

S. Korea 7,005 Mexico 2,434 Japan 2,551

Egypt 3,615 Philip’nes 1,722 Indon’sia 1,850

Taiwan 2,938 Egypt 1,563 Taiwan 1,441

Canada 1,545 S. Korea 1,528 Germany 1,171

China 1,321 Taiwan 819 Egypt 983

Syria 1,321 Peru 799 Spain 788

Venezuela 1,055 Columbia 699 S. Korea 721

Others 8,419 Others 11,477 Others 4,890

Farm all their

farm land

50%

Don’t farm:

only rent to

others

44%

Percentage of US Crop Land and

Farms, 2009

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

350,000

Idaho Agriculture

Idaho Legislator created in 1919, to regulate the state’s agriculture industry.

To protect Idaho crops and livestock from the introduction of pests and diseases.

Help provide a system for marketing agricultural commodities.

Protect consumers from contaminated products or fraudulent marketing/

There are 25,349 farms in the state.

11,497,383 acres of total farm land.

Average farm size is 454 acres.

Market value of Idaho agricultural products sold is $5,688,765,000.

Idaho crop sales are $2,324,789,000 (41% of total).

Idaho livestock sales are $3,363,976,000 (59% of total).

832,796

1,091,772

626,694

292,297

58,752 54,094 25,124 28,959 7,120 2,987 4,071 0

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

US$

1/3 of Idaho Agricultural

products are exported

Genetic modification of crop plants

Increase productivity

Have better end-use quality

Can be produced with fewer input costs, with greater profit

Self-pollinator Out-pollinator

Identify or create genetic

variability

Select for desirable

recombinants

Stabilize and multiply planting

materials and release cultivars

Artificial Hybridization

Triticale

2n=6x=42

AABBDDRR

or AABBRR

Rye

2n=2x=14

RR

Wheat

2n=6x=42

AABBDD

or AABB

Induced Mutation

Climate

• Light

• Day length

• Temperature

• Rainfall

Solar Energy

Seed germination in light sensitive seeds.

De-etiolation, greening of young seedlings

Stem growth in plants that are competing for light with their neighboring plants.

Related to plant receptors called phytochrome.

Plants can be either: Long day plants (LDP), or short night plants.

Short day plants (SDP), or long night plants.

Day neutral plants (DNP), which are neutral to day (or

night) lengths.

Day lengths plants have a critical day

length (CDL) which must be satisfied in

order that the plant will flower.

Semiarid Steppe Humid Subtropical Marine Westcoast Humid Continental Humid Continental –warm summer

Humid Continental –cool summer Highland Desert

Subtropical - Wet

Climate Zones

Atmospheric gasses are composed

of 78% nitrogen (N2) = 780,000

ppm.

21% oxygen (O2) = 210,000 ppm.

0.035% carbon dioxide (CO2) = 350

ppm.

Gases

Water

Percolation

Uptake

Transpiration

Evaporation

Ground Water

Hydrologic Cycle

Hydroscopic

Gravitational Capillary

Surface irrigation.

Gravity flow

Flood, Furrow, Border

Sprinkler system

Central pivot, Mechanical move, Hand move, Solid set.

Low-flow (drip)

Subirrigation.

Soil

2010

What is Soil?

Unconsolidated mineral or organic matter

on the immediate surface of the earth, that

serves as a natural media for the growth of

land plants

Soil Profile

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) is a measure of the number of anionic sites available on soil clay and humus particles.

These are negatively charged sites which attract and hold cations (which are positively charged) in the soil.

Some nutrients found as cations will be held on the cation exchange sites until needed by the plant.

Mineral matter

45%

Air 25%

Water 25%

Nutrients

Nitrogen (N)

Phosphorous (P)

Potassium (K)

Calcium

Magnesium

Sulfur

Boron

Iron

Copper

Nickel

Chlorine

Zinc

Manganese

Macro Nutrients Micro Nutrients

Anhydrous has highest available nitrogen per unit (82%). Applied by specialist equipment to inject into soil. Seal immediately to avoid volatilization.

Urea also susceptible to volatilization, hence not suitable for surface application.

Ammonium nitrate is easy to apply but can cause fertilizer burn.

Ammonium sulfate is recommended where S is deficient.

UAN solutions are commonly used on winter wheat.

Fertilizer Formula % P/unit

Triple superphosphate P2O5 20 (+2%S)

Single superphosphate P2O5

8 (+11%S, 20%Ma)

Mono-ammonium phosphate

NH4H2PO4 22 (+11%N)

Di-ammonium phosphate (NH4)2HPO4 21 (+20%N)

Phosphate rock Ca3(PO4)2.CaX 8-18 (+30%Ca)

Fertilizer Formula % K/unit

Potassium chloride KCl 56

Potassium sulfate K2SO4 42

Potassium magnesium sulfate

K2SO4MgSO4

10 (+ 9% Mg, 18%S)

Potassium nitrate KNO3 37 (+11% N)

Cultivation

Conventional Tillage Systems

Reasons for tillage Manage Residue.

Aerate Soil. Aids organic matter decomposition to release

nitrogen and other nutrients.

Control Weeds. Prior to planting.

During fallow seasons.

Incorporate fertilizers, herbicides, and fumigants.

Prepare a seedbed.

Primary tillage.

Topsoil is plowed to a depth of 6 to 14 inches (15-36 cm).

Aim is to bury crop residue and control weeds.

Timing is dependent on soil type. Heavier clay soils are best plowed in fall, where inverted soils are exposed to freeze-thaw cycles.

Depth dependent on soil type, but also can be related to fuel costs.

Implements include moldboard plows, disk plows and chisel plows.

Conventional Tillage Systems

Secondary tillage

Follows primary tillage to produce a finer tilth for

seeding.

Aim is to maximize seed-soil contact at planting.

Often associated with application and incorporation

of granular fertilizers and pre-plant herbicides.

If possible, multiple tillage operations are

completed at right angles.

Equipment used includes discs, cultivators and

harrows.

Conventional Tillage Systems

Although tillage causes compaction, it is the most convenient methods used to manage surface compaction when it occurs.

Easier to apply fertilizer and perform other agronomic operations (i.e. seeding).

Good tilth result in good seed-soil contact.

Tilled soil (black) heats more quickly in fall and spring for seedling development.

Lack of residue on soil surface reduces overwintering of pests and diseases (green bridge).

Increased erosion, due to lack of surface

residue.

Soil compaction, caused by loss of soil

structure.

Costs more than other systems, more labor,

more fuel.

Soil organic matter decreases over time.

Moisture loss to tillage can cause drought

stress later in season.

What crop to grow?

• Species?

• End use quality?

What cultivar to grow?

Seed source?

• Public varieties.

• PVP Protected varieties.

• Intelectual property varieties (i.e. Roundup

Ready®)

Grown under strict

quality standards

Inspected and tagged

by state certification

authorities.

Genetically pure.

Free from weeds.

Free from seed borne diseases.

Better for agriculture, better end product.

Seed Drills

Weed

Management

Yield loss as they compete for:

• Interceptable light,

• Water,

• Nutrients.

Harbor Pests:

• Over winter insects, host to diseases and cause infection.

Increase production costs.

Reduce Crop quality

• Weed seed contamination.

Mechanical:

• Non-selective herbicidal cultivation.

• Inter-row cultivation.

• Hand weeding.

Cultural:

• Inter-cropping.

• Use narrower row spacing.

• Planting time.

• Don’t introduce them.

Biological:

• Grazing.

• Insects.

Chemical

By activity: Contact herbicides destroy only the plant tissue

in contact with the chemical. Generally, these are the fastest acting herbicides. They are less effective on perennial plants, which are able to regrow from rhizomes, roots or tubers.

Systemic herbicides are translocated through the plant, either from foliar application down to the roots, or from soil application up to the leaves. They are capable of controlling perennial plants and may be slower acting but ultimately more effective than contact herbicides.

Soil-applied herbicides are applied to the soil and are taken up by the roots and/or shoot of the target plant. Pre-plant incorporated herbicides are soil applied prior

to planting and mechanically incorporated into the soil. The objective for incorporation is to prevent dissipation through photodecomposition and/or volatility.

Pre-emergence herbicides are applied to the soil before the crop emerges and prevent germination or early growth of weed seeds.

Post-emergent herbicides are applied after the crop has emerged.

Herbicides are organized into groups based on their site of action.

Herbicides in the same group all kill plants the same way.

Over use or wrongful application can cause the development of herbicide resistant weeds.

Herbicide resistance should not be confused with natural tolerance of some weeds to specific herbicides.

Avoid year-after-year use of the same site of action herbicides.

Different chemical families may have the same site of action.

Suitable crop rotation – Crops have different weed problems, maturity, life cycle etc.

Use short-residual herbicides. i.e. ones that do not persist in the soil.

Genotype sensitivity.

Weather. Drift, Temperature, Rain

Residual in soil. Dependant on soil type, temperature and rainfall.

Pesticide formulation. Some formulations are safer than others.

Rate of application. Overlaps.

Pesticide interactions.

Tank clean up.

Pea

Canola

Winter

Wheat

Crop Rotation & Plant

Back Restrictions

Susceptible Host

Pathogen Favorable

environment

No

disease

No

disease

No

disease

No

disease

No

disease

No

disease

Disease

Bacteria

Air-borne fungi

Soil-borne fungi

Plant Parasitic

Nematodes (Eelworms)

Viruses

Insects

Mammals, etc

Minimize initial inoculation.

Disease resistant cultivars.

Crop rotation.

Seed treatments.

Foliar applied pesticides.

Green manure crops

Soil fumigants.

Toxins

Air. • Drift – dusts, spray droplets.

• Vapors – fumigants (ozone depletors).

Water. • Leaching, runoff

• Spills, leaks & back-siphoning.

• Improper disposal.

Other, incl. plants, animals & machinery. • Stick to work cloths, shoes, or machinery.

• Stick to harvested fruits etc.

Harvest

Physiological maturity: The stage of development at which maximum dry weight has been attained by the plant and consequently no gains in product yield can occur with increased production costs.

Harvest maturity: The stage of harvesting a product to obtain peak quality and quantity, as determined by the producer.

Storage maturity: When post harvest drying is not available, the stage when the crop can be directly stored. In grains with less than 14% moisture.

Defoliation: Usually application of herbicides, but can also be defoliated mechanically. Defoliation allows easier harvest (i.e. dry down weeds).

Swathing/wind-rows: Where the crop is cut and managed into rows (wind-rows). The crop remains in the wind-rows while the crop dries prior to harvest. Swathing can result in more uniform grain moisture and can speed the harvest operation.

Grazing animals: Animals may graze crop like grass, alfalfa, etc. Can also graze crops like winter canola and winter cereals in the fall or spring before reproductive.

Hand harvest: Crop of premium quality that can’t be mechanically harvested.

Mechanized harvest: Combine harvesters, cutters, strippers, and shakers. Can be a single operation or multiple operation.

Grain Storage

Hay is herbage of grass, alfalfa or fine stemmed plants that are harvested and cured for forage.

Stage of plants at harvest: Young immature plants have low yield but is high in nutritional value.

Delay is harvest can result in increased lignin and fiber content.

Best quality grass hay is cut between early and full bloom.

In alfalfa pre-bloom has 22% protein and 25% fiber, while seed is 14% protein and 37% fiber.

Silage is a forage crop that is preserved in succulent condition by a process of fermentation (i.e. under anaerobic condition).

Corn silage (102 million ton); Sorghum silage (4 million ton)

Also can use forage grasses (i.e. timothy) and legumes (alfalfa, clover and soybean).

Can be harvested under wet condition.

More expensive to make cw hay but has better nutritional value.

Marketing

Make a profit, and hence be long-term sustainable.

Input (growing) costs: Land rental, crop share, mortgage payment.

Seed, seed treatment.

Fertilizer, pesticide, application.

Storage, Fuel, Machinery replacement. Salary.

Crop outputs: Market price x volume.

Pure line (inbred) cultivars. Wheat, soy bean, pea, barley, oat, canola, etc.

Foundation, Registered, Certified Seed.

Hybrid cultivars. Corn, tomato, cabbage, rice, canola.

Most difficult and expensive seed.

Synthetic cultivar. Alfalfa, corn.

Multi-parent hybrid.

Clonal cultivar. Potato, strawberry, many tree fruits.

Slow increase, generation based schemes.

Quickly perishable crops. Lettuce, cabbage, spinach, etc.

Farm gate, farmers market

Local, regional and national retailer.

Longer-term perishable crops. Potato, carrot, sugar beet, onion, many fruits, etc.

On farm, or local storage, specialized storage, environmental control (temperature, CO2)

Local processing (freeze, dry) prior to sale.

Non-perishable crops. Wheat, barley, corn, etc.

Can be stored for long periods of time.

Cash crop.

Produced solely for sale off the farm.

Can usually command higher price cw food crops.

Commodities any economic goods that may be marketed by almost anyone.

Large volume crops: Wheat, corn, soybean.

Specialty crops: tomato, potato, onions.

Differentiated products are economic goods that have proprietary ownership.

Frequently covered by patent, copyright, trademark.

Owner can have more control of volume and price.

Branding. Produce identified by a brand name, trademark.

These are usually identified by ™ or ® (Roundup®)

Agribusiness: Produces value-added. Many farm crops are processed prior to sale by

agribusiness.

Many final products (i.e. frozen dinners) combine many farm products.

Often agribusiness controls product transportation, storage and processing.

Some may be farm owned, cooperative owned or have no obvious link to farming.

Forward or futures contracts. Agreements to deliver produce at a predetermined

price and place.

Prices are locked in but contracts are binding and growers often contract only a portion of their crop.

Hedging in the futures market. Elevators sell grain in what is called back-to-back cash

selling, or cover (hedge) the cash position in the futures market.

The producer trades price risk for basis risk (difference between current price and near-futures price).

Producer can sell futures contracts and buy them back if the market situation changes.

Pick-your own, usually fruits and vegetables. Pricing on weight or volume.

Layout of farm should facilitate ease of access, and parking.

Advertising, often a simple roadside sign.

Customers expect to pay less than grocery stores.

Roadside stand (gates). Best on busy highways, but can cause traffic congestion.

Need to be manned.

Farmer’s markets. Usually sell for a premium, unsold produce often waist.

Need to be prepared to travel.

Production Systems

A Production System is a mix of crops, natural resources and socioeconomic factors combined in the production of agricultural products.

Inputs include: land, depletion, planting materials, water, fertilizer, pesticides, labor and energy.

Biological processes. Photosynthesis is the most important plant physiological process in crop production. Others include, nutrient cycle, nitrogen fixation, biological pest control, mycorrhizae, plus genetic control of stress factors in cultivars.

Depletion of inputs. Require input of depleted products by plant uptake, leaching, erosion. These should be minimized when possible.

A farming system should include three basic technologies: mechanical, biological, and chemical.

For sustainability farming should consider social, economic and environmental consequence.

Unacceptable social and environmental costs of modern farming include:

soil erosion,

silting of rivers and lakes,

adverse effects and deteriation of wildlife habitats, and

loss of soil fertility.

Without farm profit, there will be no agriculture, no farming system, and no farms.

Modern agriculture has developed technologies based on monoculture.

Highly productive.

Diversity can be introduced through rotation

Easier to manage one species than two.

The production system is susceptible to disease and pests.

Can cause epidemics.

More impact of adverse weather.

Fewer natural pest enemies

Crop are less capable of compensation.

Advantages Disadvantages

Crop rotation is also called sequence cropping.

One entire field is planted to a monoculture crop in one season and a different monoculture crop the following.

The success of crop rotation depends on: The number and choice of rotation crops.

The order of crop rotation.

Advantages of crop rotation include: Break disease cycles caused by growing the same

crop year after year.

Diversify farm produce.

To reduce adverse environmental effects.

Follow a deep rooted crop with a shallow-rooted crop for improved soil structure.

Alternate crops with high and low root biomass. High biomass roots provides food for microorganisms.

Include green manure crops and catch crops to reduce soil erosion and nutrient loss.

Include nitrogen-fixing crops and alternate with crops of high nitrogen demand.

Alternate grass crops with broadleaf crops.

Mixtures. Include multilines, legume-cereal mixes, forages.

Intercropping. Where different crops are planted, one row of one, the next row of another. Complimentary association.

Strip cropping. Usually associated with erosion control in contour stripping.

Overlap planting. Where two or more species overlap for part of their life cycle. Can allow for double cropping.

Nursery crop. Grown to protect a slow establishment crop than later sprayed out.

What is Organic Farming?

“an ecological production management

system that promotes and enhances

biodiversity, biological cycles and soil

biological activity.”

“It is based on minimal use of off-farm

inputs and on management practices that

restore, maintain and enhance ecological

harmony.”

National Organic Standards Board, 2002

Prior to 2000, Organic Certification was governed by multiple organizations which indeed had differing standards and requirements set by third-party certifiers.

In 2000 (implemented in 2002) the USDA adopted the National Organic Standards.

State-run or accredited private agencies evaluate farmers and processors to make sure they conform to the standards.

Misconception that organic is pesticide residue free.

USDA Certified Organic official seal.

Crop Rotation

Cover crops are used to improve soil fertility and protect against erosion.

Usually legumes (e.g. alfalfa, pea, clover)

Green manures are plowed down into the soil while still green.

Often legumes but more recently attention has moved to Brassiacceae species like mustards which have allelo-chemicals to suppress pests.

Fallow is where no crop is grown.

Suppresses weeds and conserved moisture

Mechanical or chemical (organic?).

Cover crops control weeds, protect soil, improve soil organic matter.

Cultivation.

Mulching to suppress weeds.

Crop rotation – to break weed cycles.

Husbandry - increase seeding density, increased seedling density more competitive.

Transplant rather than seeding.

Biological weed control (Brassica seed meal).

Hand weeding.

Biodiversity: farms with greater diversity of crops have a better chance of supporting beneficial organisms.

Integration: Good organic systems integrate their various enterprises.

Sustainability: It’s not usually a hobby.

Natural plant nutrition: Avoid inorganic fertilizers and sewage slurry.

Natural pest management: IPM (without pesticides)

Integrity: to ensure that customers get what they pay for.