FEDERAL MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL …€¦ · 5.12 Social Aspects ... o Provide useful...

SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL ASSESSMENT

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Federal Republic of Nigeria

FEDERAL MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

PROJECTS COORDINATION UNIT

ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF THE SECOND NATIONAL FADAMA DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (NFDP-II)

MAIN REPORT

JUNE 23, 2003

E776 Volume 1

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1. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................... 45

1.1 Background ................................................................................................................................................... 45 1.2 EIA Requirements.......................................................................................................................................... 45 1.3 Purpose and Objectives................................................................................................................................ 56 1.4 The Project Area ............................................................................................................................................ 67 1.5 General Approach ........................................................................................................................................ 89

2. POLICY, LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK............................... 910 2.1 General.......................................................................................................................................................... 910 2.2 Nigeria and Environmental Protection Practices................................................................................... 1011 2.3 International Directives ............................................................................................................................. 1112 2.4 Mechanism for Implementation ............................................................................................................... 1213 2.5 NFDP-II and EA/SA Policies ................................................................................................................... 1213 2.6 World Bank Requirements ....................................................................................................................... 1314

3. PROJECT DESCRIPTION.............................................................................................................. 1415 3.1 General Description................................................................................................................................... 1415 3.2 Project Components................................................................................................................................. 1415

4. METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................................. 1819 4.1 Approach..................................................................................................................................................... 1819 4.2 Data Collection ........................................................................................................................................... 1819 4.3 Data Analysis and Evaluation .................................................................................................................. 1920 4.4 Economic Analysis .................................................................................................................................... 2021 4.5 Project Team .............................................................................................................................................. 2122 4.6 Study Period ............................................................................................................................................... 2122 4.7 The ESIA Report........................................................................................................................................ 2122 4.8 Public Consultation and Disclosure of the Report ................................................................................ 2223

5. PROJECT ENVIRONMENT........................................................................................................ 2425 5.1 Location....................................................................................................................................................... 2425 5.2 Climate ........................................................................................................................................................ 2425 5.3 Ecological Zones........................................................................................................................................ 2526 5.4 Geology and Soils...................................................................................................................................... 2526 5.5 Hydrology .................................................................................................................................................... 2627 5.6 Fadama Ecosystems................................................................................................................................ 2728 5.7 Ecological Services of Wetlands ............................................................................................................ 2829 5.8 Demographic Features ............................................................................................................................. 2930 5.9 Land Management..................................................................................................................................... 3031 5.10 Fadama Resource Production ............................................................................................................... 3132 5.11 Production Infrastructure ....................................................................................................................... 3435 5.12 Social Aspects ........................................................................................................................................ 3536 5.13 Health Aspects ......................................................................................................................................... 3839

6. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS................................................................................................ 3940 6.1 World Bank Safeguard Policies ............................................................................................................... 3940 6.2 Impacts - General ...................................................................................................................................... 4142 6.3 Activities Most Likely to be Considered for Sub-Project Financing............................................... 4142 6.4 Impact Beneficiaries and Benefits......................................................................................................... 4344 6.5 Major Potential Impacts ............................................................................................................................ 4445 6.6 Environmental Awareness....................................................................................................................... 4849 6.7 Impacts, Consequences and Mitigation Measures by Individual Sub-Project Activities ................. 4849 6.8 Cumulative Impacts ....................................................................................................................................... 69 6.9 Residual Impacts ........................................................................................................................................... 69

7. ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES............................................................................................. 70 7.1 Scenario 1: Not implementing the NFDP II - Without Project Scenario ........................................... 70 7.2 Scenario 2: Fadama Irrigation - With Project Scenario ............................................................................ 72


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7.3 Scenario 3: Project Through River Basin Development Authorities....................................................... 73 7.4 Comparison of Two Alternatives for the Three Ecological Regions ....................................................... 73 7.5 NFDP-II Capital Investment in Fadama Development ............................................................................ 74 7.6 Cost Benefit Ratio.......................................................................................................................................... 75

8. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN (EMP)..................................................... 76 8.1 General............................................................................................................................................................ 76 8.2 Management................................................................................................................................................... 76 8.3 Mitigation......................................................................................................................................................... 78 8.4 Mitigation Summaries.................................................................................................................................... 96 8.5 Monitoring ..................................................................................................................................................... 100 8.6 Capacity Strengthening............................................................................................................................... 108


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1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background The Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria has embarked on the preparation of the National Fadama Development Project II, (NFDP-II). The project targets the development of small-scale irrigation, especially in the flood-prone, low-lying alluvial floodplains, or "fadama� in the Hausa language. The inland valley bottoms, about three million ha of fertile soil with residual moisture in the dry season, offer attractive opportunities for farmers to grow high-value crops in the off-season. The fadama also provides access to water and dry-season fodder, which is critical for the survival of animals. The completion of NFDP-I has enabled the dissemination of inexpensive irrigation technology (tubewells and washbores), in seven core northern states of Kano, Jigawa, Bauchi, Gombe, Sokoto, Kebbi and Zamfara, with limited activities in 26 other states of the country. Now under NFDP-II, it is expected that the achievements of NFDP-I will be augmented and extended to all States of Nigeria. NFDP-II is intended to increase the productivity, income, living standards and development capacity of the economically active rural poor while also increasing efficiency in delivering implementation services to an estimated four million rural beneficiary households.

This Environmental Impact and Social Assessment (EISA) is a synthesis of three separate EISAs that were conducted for the three eco-regions (northern, middle and southern) of the country. The EISAs were conducted as a requirement to meeting both Government of Nigeria and World Bank regulations and guidelines for new projects. 1.2 EIA Requirements 1.2.1 Government of Nigeria (GoN) The National Policy on the Environment reiterates both the importance of, and the federal mandate for, environmental assessments of all major projects in the country. While these policies provide a context for the NFDP-II to operate within, there is recognition that the current policy of vesting all responsibility for EIAs in the Federal Ministry of Environment (FME) is not feasible given the size of Nigeria and the decentralization that is explicit in the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The NFDP-II will seek to address some of the legislative shortcomings and work to devolve mandates for carrying out EIAs of certain types of projects to state and local governments. Simultaneously with assisting the FME in reforming the legislation, the NFDP-II will also strengthen the ability of state and local governments to implement environmental assessments for smaller projects funded by the program by building greater capacity at the state and local levels. The specific mandate for environmental assessment in Nigeria is the Environmental Impact Assessment Decree No. 86 of 1992. This Decree gives specific powers to the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (now absorbed into the FME) to facilitate environmental


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impact assessments (EIAs) on all new projects in Nigeria and to make an EIA mandatory for new major public or private sector projects, i.e. any proposed physical work or activity that is likely to significantly affect the environment. In effect, the decree deals with all EIA-related issues including: (a) timing and processing of EIA; (b) content of an EIA report including the factors to be considered in the EIA; (c) public involvement in the EIA process and public information disclosure; (d) transboundary impact of projects, whether state or international; (e) definition and requirement of environmental management plans for polluting development projects; (f) review of EIA and conflict resolution mechanisms; (g) powers of the Federal Environmental Protection Agency to further regulate the EIA process; and, (h) lists of activities subject to mandatory EIA. 1.2.2 World Bank The World Bank requires that any project that falls into its Category A or Category B classification complete an EA. The NFDP-II is a Category A project and by definition requires a comprehensive EIA before World Bank approval for the Project can be considered. 1.3 Purpose and Objectives 1.3.1 Environmental Impact Assessment The broad objectives of the environmental and social assessment study for fadama agriculture are intended to:

o Identify the environmental and social impacts that agricultural development projects would have on the fadamas;

o Assess the risks associated with such developments; o Formulate necessary mitigation measures and action plans for inclusion in the design and

execution of the project.

Specific Objectives of the Environmental Impact Assessment Study focus on the following issues:

o The effects of the proposed project on fish habitat and the potential of the project to destroy or to enhance fish habitat;

o The potential for contamination of surface and groundwater with fertilizers and/or other agro-chemicals used for intensive irrigated crop production on the fadama;

o The potential for the project to provide incentives to prevent the destruction of the habitat of waterfowl and other migratory and non-migratory birds that depend on the extensive fadama wetlands;

o Assessing the potential for the destruction of the habitat of other ground species that inhabit the fadama;

o Changes in the patterns of water-borne diseases; o Assessment of water management structures such as dams and diversion wells with

regard to determining inflow requirements, especially as they relate to impact on downstream communities, irrigation systems, fisheries resources, flood recession agriculture, ecosystems, and public health;

o Provide useful information on forest plants of timber or ethno-botanical importance in the fadama area;


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o Identifying pests associated with crops grown in the fadama area and monitor pesticide usage and their side effects on humans, livestock, wildlife and the environment.

1.3.2 Social Assessment The main objective of the social assessment is to establish an “appropriate framework for stakeholders’ participation in project selection, design, implementation and management in the expanded NFDP-I (NFDP-II)” To achieve this objective, the specific objectives and issues identified to guide the execution of this study include:

o Investigation of social issues and population characteristics related to resource use and quality of water, land and forest resources that are directly related to the livelihood activities of the rural population;

o Determination of the sustainability and economic viability of current income generating activities, both farm and non-farm, for the rural dwellers with or without fadama lands;

o Study of the attitudes of the local population to the concept of enhancing fadama farming in the locality;

o Consideration of the present state of infrastructure development and the facilities required for effective fadama development, as well as the past and potential management roles played by intended beneficiaries;

o Provision of an inventory of past and potential rural beneficiaries and development of a profile of possible marginalized groups, such as the poor, tenant farmers and women;

o Investigation of the land tenure practices and extent of access to or control over resources by different local stakeholders;

o Analysis of the potential effect of the project on existing social structures and organisations as well as the possible need for new groups and social institutions;

o Examination of the type of relationships between the local population and the various governmental and non-governmental development organisations, including extension contact;

o Identification of past or existing conflict situations and suggestion of conflict resolution mechanisms to address possible conditions of resource competition and social conflict;

o Evaluation of the potential social and economic benefits or other types of impact of fadama development to different local stakeholders and propose mitigation strategies to reduce harmful effects.

1.4 The Project Area 1.4.1 General Description Nigeria is situated in the wet-and-dry climatic zone, between latitudes 10o and 13o: 50�N. For the purpose of this study, Nigeria (refer to Figure 1.1) was divided into three major ecological zones. The division of the zones is based on ecological and social diversity. While these three zones show some measure of ecological similarity within each zone, there is significant socio-cultural diversity not only between, but also within the zones. These three study zones can also be described in terms of their ethnic composition. In the northern zone, the core of the Hausa-Fulani is found in the Northwest and the Northeast, with the Kanuri people prominent in the


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Northeast as well. Other ethnic groups are found to a lesser extent. The Middle Belt exhibits the greatest degree of ethnic diversity, particularly in Adamawa, Taraba and Plateau States. Though each ethnic group possesses its own language, Hausa language is generally understood and used for most transactions involving different groups in the Middle Belt. Yoruba and Igbo predominate in the Southwest and Southeast respectively, with other ethnic groups to a lesser extent. The South-South is culturally more heterogeneous. The scope of the study in the regions is briefly discussed in subsequent sub-sections.

1.4.2 Northern Region

o Rainfall of less than 500 mm o Growing season: 65-105 days o Main rain-fed crops: sorghum, millet, maize, cotton and GN o Irrigation: essential

The Northern part of Nigeria extends from the Sokoto Plains to the Chad Basin, the North Central Highlands and the Niger-Benue Trough. The Sokoto Plains are in the western end of the Northern Region, while in the Central Region, the High Plains of Hausaland, includes Jigawa, Kano, Katsina, and Kaduna States. The Chad Basin is situated in the extreme northeast of the Northern Region and covers much of Borno and Yobe States. The area covers eleven states including: Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto, Yobe and Zamfara, on an area of approximately 380,500sq km (or about 41% of the total surface area of Nigeria). Seven of these states (Bauchi, Gombe, Kano, Jigawa, Kebbi, Sokoto and Zamfara) participated in NFDP-I. Borno, Kaduna, Katsina and Yobe States were designated as Facility States under NFDP-I, where limited inputs were provided. 1.4.3 Middle Region

o Rainfall of 700-1500 mm o Growing season: 140-244 days o Main rain-fed crops: millet, maize, tubers o Irrigation: essential - supplementary

Geographically, the Middle Belt Region (MBR) lies between the rainforest region to the south and the northern Guinea Savanna to the north. Administratively, it is home to eight states and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The states include: Kwara, Niger, Kogi, Nasarawa, Benue, Plateau, Taraba,, Adamawa and Federal Capital Territory (FCT). The total area of the nine states comprising the Middle Belt is 343,000sq km or 37% of the total area of Nigeria. The major river basins in the Middle Belt of Nigeria include the Niger River and Benue River Basins and their major tributaries. These basins with their extensive floodplains are the focus of NFDP-II studies. According to available data, the total area of the nine states comprising the Middle Belt is 343,000sq km or 35% of the total area of Nigeria. About 0.5 million ha or 20% of the total fadama area of the country are found in the Middle Belt Region. Most of the fadama area is situated along the two main rivers of Nigeria � the Niger and the Benue Rivers.


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1.4.4 Southern Region

o Rainfall of more than 1500mm o Growing season: 140- 244 days o Main rain-fed crops: cocoa, rubber, oil palm tubers and swamp rice o Irrigation: supplementary - unessential

The project covers the southern states of Nigeria: Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Ondo, Ekiti, Edo, Delta, Rivers, Cross Rivers, Bayelsa, Akwa Igbom, Imo, Anambra, Enugu, Abia and Ebonyi � a total area of about 184,000 sq km or 30% of the total area of Nigeria. The total area of NFDP-Is is 0.46 million ha or 19% of the total fadama area of the country. Initially, NFDP-II is to be carried on throughout Nigeria, although, initially, only 18 states are being targeted, including: Northern States: Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Jigawa, Kaduna, Katsina and Kebbi. Middle Belt States: Adamawa, Taraba,FCT, Kogi, Niger, Kwara and Plateau. Southern States: Imo, Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, and Imo States. 1.5 General Approach NFDP-II was designed to be implemented during the first phase in the following states covering the ecological zones of Nigeria:

• Northern States of Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Jigawa, Kaduna, Katsina and Kebbi. • Middle Belt States of Adamawa, FCT, Kogi, Kwara and Plateau. • Southern States of Imo, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Oyo, and Rivers States.

Accordingly, the Environmental Impact and Social Assessment for the National Fadama Development Project-II is divided into the three regions namely: the Northern States, the Middle Belt, and the Southern States. Individual EISA reports were prepared for each region. This report presents the situation across the three ecological regions. This study was carried out across the three major ecological zones of the country viz: Northern, Middle Belt and Southern regions. The division of the zones is based on ecological and social diversity. While these three zones show some measure of ecological similarity within each zone, there is significant socio-cultural diversity not only between, but also within the zones.


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2. POLICY, LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK 2.1 General In the last few decades, environmental awareness regarding the adverse effects of development projects, including agricultural projects, has resulted in the definition of a national framework for environmental protection and national resources conservation. Decree No. 58 of 1958, as amended by Decree No. 59 of 1992, established the Federal Environmental Protection Agency as the senior organization for environmental matters in the country. FEPA metamorphosed into the Federal Ministry of Environment in June, 1999. The FEPA put in place the 1989 National Policy on the Environment, revised in 1995, with sustainable development as its goal. Accordingly, a number of guidelines and regulations on conducting Environmental Assessment Studies have been stipulated by various local organizations: the Department of Petroleum Resources, the Federal Environmental Protection Agency, the Federal Ministry of Environment, various state ministries of environment and international organisations such as the World Bank (IBRD).

National policies on safety and environmental protection require companies to conduct their business in a socially responsible and environmentally acceptable manner to protect and ensure the safety and health of the environment. The operations of the oil industry in Nigeria, for instance, are guided by the provisions of the Petroleum (drilling and production) Regulations Act (1969). Subsequent regulations empowered the Department of Petroleum Resources to make regulations for the conservation of ecosystems and prevention of the pollution of watercourses and the atmosphere. FEPA has also regulated the use of land for agricultural development, though the emphasis was placed on agricultural projects requiring 50 hectares or more. Thus, to date, there is no specific legislation addressing baseline studies concerning smallholder NFDP-Irrigation, nor regarding environmental impact assessment tailored to such small-scale cultivation. However, the need for such a study is evident in order to provide a record of impacted areas before any action is taken. Federal Ministry of Environment regulations do require in general that an EIA be conducted for development projects. This involves establishing baseline conditions. Therefore, accurate baseline information on the environment would provide necessary additional input in the early stages of decision-making to ensure a careful environmental planning and management of any new project, and specifically for NFDP-II.


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2.2 Nigeria and Environmental Protection Practices 2.2.1 Federal Ministry of Environment The defunct FEPA, now the Federal Ministry of Environment, developed in 1995 a set of procedural guidelines for various sectors of the economy. All new major development projects in Nigeria must be in compliance with Decree No.86 of 1992 which makes Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) mandatory. Certification from the Federal Government through the Federal Ministry of Environment is required. Other relevant guidelines to be consulted include:

o FEPA Guidelines and Standards for Environmental Pollution Control in Nigeria, 1991; o The FEPA Harmful Wastes (Criminal Provisions) Decree No. 42, 1988; o The FEPA National Policy on the Environment, 1989; o Import Prohibitions (Contained Food) Decree No. 36, 1989, jointly implemented with the

Ministry of Health; o FEPA National Effluent Limitation Regulations, sec. 18, 1991; o FEPA Pollution Abatement in Industries and Facilities Generating Waste Regulations;

sec.19, 1991. o Solid and Hazardous Wastes Management Regulations of 1991; o Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Decree No. 86, 1992; o National Guidelines and Standards of Waste Management in the Oil Industry;

These guidelines issued by FEPA stipulate standards for industrial effluent, gaseous emissions and hazardous wastes with which managers and operators must comply to improve the environment by limiting pollution and other environmental hazards. 2.2.2 State Governments The Nigerian Federal Constitution confers on the states the responsibility for the development of all renewable natural resources, including forestry. State forestry departments manage timber resources, minor forest produce and wildlife. The states are also responsible for the allocation of timber utilization contracts and for the collection of stumpage fees on lumber harvested from forest reserves. It should be noted that both the State and Federal environment agencies will be involved in the monitoring of the Environmental Management Plan.

2.2.3 Nigeria Conservation Policy The stated goal of Nigerian conservation policy is to promote the achievement of self-sufficiency in wood products and the conservation of wildlife through consolidation and expansion of the forest estate. Also an integral part of the conservation policy are forest harvest management, forest regeneration and the creation of plantations, protection of the forest estate in general and the preservation of biodiversity and ecosystems through the establishment and management of


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national parks and game reserves. The policy also encourages the integration of forest industries, agro-forestry and the development of alternative energy sources. 2.2.4 Other National Policies Other national policies have a direct bearing on conservation, including the 1989 population policy goal to control population growth. Water policy favours irrigation. The demand for wood as fuel is favourably affected by the pricing policy for petroleum products. The National Policy on Industry emphasizes industrial safety practices and environmental protection. 2.2.5 Land Use Decree The 1978 Land Use Decree states that all land is vested in the State Governor who holds it in trust for the people. All the land users are therefore tenants who have little interest in land improvement and conservation. This decree may well hinder the development of a progressive and modern land tenure arrangement. 2.2.6 International Conventions Nigeria is a signatory to the following relevant international conventions:

o The African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, The African Convention, 1968;

o The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, The World Heritage Convention, 1972;

o The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, CITES, 1973;

o Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, Bonn, 1979. o The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste

and Disposal, 1989; o The Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto Protocol, 1995; o The Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992; o The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Waste, MARPOL,

1972.

Nigeria has obligations to protect the environment through various commitments to the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the Commonwealth. It is also committed through relations with the European Community under the Lome IV Convention. 2.3 International Directives Relevant to the NFDP-II are the following World Bank�s Environmental and Social safeguard policies: OD/BP 4.01 (Environmental Assessment), OP/BP 4.12 (Involuntary Resettlement), OP 4.11 (Cultural Property), OP/BP 4.04 (Natural Habitats), OP 4.09 (Pest Management) and OP 4.37 (Safety of Dams).


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2.4 Mechanism for Implementation Today, the Federal Ministry of Environment is in the forefront of implementing Nigerian environment policy and laws. It works in conjunction with the various state environmental protection agencies, where they still exist, or with the state ministries of environment which adopt and implement federal laws in addition to making state bye-laws to deal with issues specific to a particular state. 2.5 NFDP-II and EA/SA Policies The history of the legal system does indicate that as early as the colonial era, there were concerns with preserving wildlife and plant species within the Sudan Sahel Savannah Belt. For example, the Forestry Regulations (Forestry Law) of 1945 attempted to protect the Savannah Belt from deforestation. The regulation gave each local Authority powers to issue notices in its domain regarding the cutting, burning or destroying of trees. This law was later supplemented by the Forestry Law of 1963, which gave power to the minister to designate any area as protected forest. Once it was so designated, the public was prohibited from cutting down trees in that area. Legislation was also introduced to regulate water resources utilization through the Water Sources Control Law of 1963. The law gave the government the power to eliminate certain destructive uses of water resources. The Wild Animals Law of 1963 also restricted the hunting of some wild animals. However, by the mid-1980s, the only Federal Legislation having an impact in the Savannah Belt was the Endangered Species Control of International Trade and Traffic Act, promulgated in 1985. This legislation provided for the conservation and management of the country’s wildlife and the protection of endangered species. The National Policy on the Environment instituted in 1989 by the FEPA (now the Ministry of Environment) outlined strategies for water resources management, along with the Water Resources Decree No.101 of the Federal Ministry of Water Resources. Together they were concerned with:

o Consideration of the environmental impact of water resources development at the planning stages;

o Specification of water quality criteria for different water users; o Establishment of adequate control and enforcement procedures; o Public health implications of water resources development projects.

Furthermore, the Federal Ministry of Environment has defined policies on agricultural chemicals and has outlined strategies to minimize the adverse impact of such chemicals on public health and ecosystems in general. The Federal Government is currently finalizing the Integrated Rural Development Policy to be based on the following principles:

o Non-intervention from the public sector; o Consistency over a long period of time; o Transparency and equity in implementation; and, o Sustainability


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2.6 World Bank Requirements 2.6.1 Safeguard Policies The World Bank�s environmental and social safeguard policies are a cornerstone of its policies in support of programmes to reduce poverty and sustain that reduction. The objective of these policies is to prevent or at least minimize social environmental risks while increasing socio-economic benefits of approved projects. The effectiveness and positive impact on development of projects and programmes supported by the Bank has substantially increased as a result of these policies. Safeguard policies have often provided a platform for the participation of stakeholders in project design, and have been an important instrument for promoting ownership among local populations. In the case of sub-projects that will result from the preparation of community development plans, the responsibility falls with the communities and the relevant agencies in local and state government to ensure that none of the Bank�s safeguard policies are contravened. The World Bank shares responsibility with local communities and state governments for ensuring that safeguards aren�t violated. The 10 safeguard policies of the World Bank are listed in Table 2.1 with a brief description of each. For a complete description, the reader should refer to the Bank�s website: www.worldbank.org/environment/op_policies.htm

Table 2.1: World Bank Safeguard Policies Safeguard Policy Brief Description Environmental assessment (EA)

World Bank financed projects must be environmentally sound and sustainable. The type and detail of the EA is dependent on the nature, scale and potential environmental risks. (see section 2.2)

Natural habitats The World Bank supports the protection, maintenance and rehabilitation of natural habitats and does not support projects that involve the significant conversion or degradation of critical natural habitats.

Forests The policy relates to tropical moist forests and the World Bank will not support any project that will involve harvesting of these forests. Nor will the Bank support the manufacture, distribution and sale of equipment that would be used for tropical moist forest harvesting.

Pest management The World Bank supports the use of biological or environmental control of pests and strategies that reduce the reliance on synthetic chemical pesticides. It supports integrated pest management and the safe use of pesticides.

Involuntary resettlement

People who have to be removed or who lose their livelihood as a result of the project must be resettled, compensated for all of their losses and they must be provided with a situation that is at least as good as the one from which they came.

Indigenous peoples

This policy covers local indigenous people or distinct groups who are marginalized in society and who could be adversely affected by the project. The Bank will not support projects that will negatively affect


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these peoples. Cultural property The World Bank supports the preservation of cultural properties, which

includes sites with archaeological, paleontological, historical, religious or unique natural values. It seeks to avoid impacts on such sites.

Safety of Dams World Bank financed new dams must be designed and built under the supervision of competent professionals. Dams over 15 metres in height are of concern, particularly if there is a large flood handling requirement or the dam is in a zone of high seismicity and/or where foundations and other design features are complex.

Projects on international waterways

If a project has the potential to negatively affect the quality or quantity of water of a waterway shared with other nations, the Bank will insist that a negotiated agreement be established between the nations involved.

Projects in disputed areas

Projects in disputed areas could affect relations between the country within which the project is being developed and neighbouring countries. Disputes would be dealt with at the earliest opportunity.

3. PROJECT DESCRIPTION 3.1 General Description The NFDP-II will utilize a demand-driven approach whereby all fadama resource users will be encouraged to undertake a participatory and socially inclusive planning process to evolve community development plans (CDPs). The CDPs will explicitly state the measures to manage future conflict that may arise from use of fadama resources. The CDPs will form the basis for the project to finance environmentally and socially sustainable infrastructure investments and advisory services to raise the incomes of all users of the natural resource base in the fadama areas. NFDP-II comprises the following components, the outputs of which will collectively contribute to the achievement of the Project development objective. 3.2 Project Components 3.2.1 Building the Capacity of Fadama Users The capacity of Fadama User Organizations and other participating economic interest groups (EIGs) will be strengthened to enable them to undertake participatory planning, conflict management, implementation, operation, and maintenance of their own priority infrastructure sub-projects. Facilitators will be employed to guide fadama resource users through an inclusive, transparent and participatory planning process. The output of this planning process will be a community development plan (CDP) that is agreed upon by all stakeholders who rely upon fadama resources for their livelihoods. The CDP will comprise (but not be restricted to) the following elements: (i) an agreed mechanism to manage and resolve any conflicts that may arise � especially concerning fadama usufruct rights; (ii) an agreed list of priority public infrastructure sub-projects that are technically and economically feasible, consistent with existing local government area (LGA) and


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state development plans, and that will contribute towards raising the productivity and incomes of all fadama users; (iii) a priority list of advisory inputs required by the fadama users in order to maximize the returns of their investments in fadama development; (iv) agreed mechanisms (including levying of user fees where appropriate) for the sustained operation and maintenance of sub-project investments; (v) a plan for training and building the capacity of representatives of the Fadama Community Association (FCA) in financial management, community-based procurement rules and procedures, social and environmental impact screening of sub-projects and other aspects concerning organization and management of the Association; and, (vi) identification of recipients for the targeted matching grants pilot for acquisition of small productive assets (e.g. pumps, grinding mills, etc.). In the first year of implementation, it is assumed that the facilitators will primarily be from the Rural Institutions Development (RID) unit of the State ADPs. These facilitators will receive extensive practical training in: participatory planning techniques; conflict mitigation and management approaches; environmental and social safeguards screening, and; assessing the economic and technical feasibility of subprojects. However, the project will also earmark funds under this component to competitively recruit NGOs and/or consultancy firms to act as facilitators. The criteria for selecting NGOs and/or consultancy firms with demonstrated experience and skills will be established in the Implementation Manual. This component will also finance continuous communications and awareness raising campaigns to promote transparency about the project objectives, implementation arrangements and mechanisms for discussing and resolving conflicts. This will also aid the participatory planning and implementation process, increase the likelihood of sub-project success and sustainability and strengthen accountability of project staff to the fadama resource users. 3.2.2 Demand-driven Infrastructure Investments The outputs of this component are intended to improve the productivity and incomes of fadama resource users through upgrading of public goods infrastructure in and around fadama areas. This component will finance the establishment and/or rehabilitation of infrastructure sub-projects that are prioritized by all fadama resource users and included in the CDPs (evolved through the participatory processes described in the previous component [above]). CDPs will be prepared within a pre-assigned budget envelope. The method and criteria for doing this will be prepared during appraisal and agreed upon with the Borrower prior to Negotiations. Once the CDP for a given fadama community is approved, the project will fund, on a grant basis, direct investments at the community level for implementation of infrastructure sub-projects. Beneficiaries of these sub-projects will be required to contribute an aggregate of 10% of the budget envelope; however, the contributions for each type of sub-project may vary. The CDAs will be required to open community bank accounts, form sub-project implementation groups and organize sub-project works. Once approved, project resources to implement the CDPs will be transferred from the SFDU, in tranches, directly to community bank accounts. CDAs will directly contract, and pay, for any technical assistance that they require for construction of the infrastructure. Examples of public infrastructure to be financed include the establishment and/or rehabilitation of: boreholes, water catchments, drainage systems, irrigation systems, agro-processing and


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marketing infrastructure (e.g. milk collection facilities), storage facilities, small rural roads, culverts, etc. 3.2.3 Demand Driven Advisory Services The output of this component is that fadama resource users will have increased their productivity and diversified their sources of income in an environmentally sustainable manner. Under this component the project will finance: (a) advisory and enterprise development services (know-how) that are responsive to the production, processing, marketing and supply chain management needs of fadama users; (b) establishment of linkages between fadama resource users, input suppliers, and markets, that can lead to value adding market chains; (c) training, learning events and other forms of knowledge sharing; and, (d) studies to identify and test the feasibility of new market opportunities (e.g. product-market chain assessments, market feasibility studies, proprietary brand development studies, access to specific food product distribution channels studies, etc.). The component will also provide some training to staff of the RIDs and other extension staff of the ADPs. If fadama users choose to contract private providers of advisory services (in addition to, or instead of ADPs advisory services), they will need to specify their requirements in the LDPs. The associated costs of these private advisory services would need to be accounted for within the budget envelop provided for the LDP. The CDA would be responsible for directly contracting the private provider. Under this component, the project will provide some financing for orientation workshops for private providers of advisory services to enable them to understand the project and its objectives. 3.2.4 Income Generation Support Pilot-Matching Grant (MG) The objective of this pilot is to enhance the incomes and productivity of fadama users by enabling eligible fadama group members to acquire productive assets. It will economically empower targeted poor among the fadama users to improve their income and livelihood by assisting them to acquire the assets they would need for income-generating activities. This pilot, � a matching grant (MG) mechanism � is designed both to respond to the poverty objectives of the project and to lay the basis for eventual improved access to financial services. In order to improve productivity and income, fadama users would need essential tools and equipment, such as petrol-driven motor pumps, watering cans, tubewells, planting, harvesting and other post-harvest technologies. The rationale for a subsidy is to: (i) provide an incentive for poor fadama users to mobilize their savings in financial form; (ii) enable them to acquire assets that would generate income sufficient to help lift them out of poverty; and (iii) compensate for the relatively high real interest rates prevailing in Nigeria, and for the high perceived risks and costs that limit financial services in rural areas. The initial � and one time-basis-only subsidy � which will be set at 30% to acquire assets is considered a cost-effective means of both achieving the overarching objective of increasing the incomes and reducing poverty among fadama users. The matching grant mechanism is considered preferable to distorting financial markets through subsidized interest rates, and it can enable fadama users to obtain commercial loans for part of project cost without directly involving the project. 3.2.5 Project Management


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This component will establish an effective and adequate management and monitoring of NFDP-Implementation performance at the federal, state and local government levels. This component has two distinct elements: i) management and coordination, and ii) monitoring and evaluation. 3.3 Potential Activities to be Financed Under Each Component It is difficult to determine which projects are likely to be proposed by individual fadama users and community groups. However, knowing generally the activities of fadama users, a list of 25 activities has been suggested as the most likely that will occur in the fadama areas but the resource users of these areas. These activities are listed in Table 3.1 (individual farmers) and Table 3.2 (communities) Table 3.1: List of Activities (sub-projects) for which Individual Fadama Users Are Most Likely to Request NFDP-II Funds

Seed Pedigree seed Fertilizer Pesticides Pedigree livestock Livestock for finishing Land purchase Tractors Farm implements Small equipment Irrigation equipment

Farm buildings for stock, machinery and chemicals

Primary processing Fuel, lubricants, etc. Veterinary services Fishing nets, boats, motors

Table 3.2: List of Activities (sub-projects) for which Fadama Communities are Most Likely to Request NFDP-II Funds

Land preparation Grazing reserve improvements Cooling facilities Rehabilitated irrigation systems

Access roads and tracks Marketing centres


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Stock routes Watering points

Rehabilitation of wells and new wells

4. METHODOLOGY 4.1 Approach Individual ESIA studies were separately conducted for each regional ecological grouping. The three studies were integrated in this report. The study employed an integrated and interdisciplinary approach incorporating all relevant disciplines for a thorough analysis of the physical, chemical, biological and socio-economic environment. In addition, there were desk studies, literature surveys, field samplings and laboratory analyses during and after the survey. During the course of the field survey all the selected state ADP headquarters were visited for first hand information gathering and analysis of the socio-economic situation as it affects the stakeholders. The detailed methodology, the surveys and the questionnaires used for the individual studies were described in detail in the Interim Report and the separate regional reports. In general, the methodology followed the format of sampling and categorizing locations, identifying areas of similar characteristics in the various ecological zones for in depth studies as described in the following. Focal representative areas were selected for in-depth investigations, in which environmental and socio-economic studies were conducted in selected villages. The sample villages included representative communities and enterprises, including farmers/ fisheries cooperatives, dealers, large farmers, large producers, Community Development Committees, Wards/Heads/traditional rulers, key informants and other interest groups � among them, women�s groups. 4.2 Data Collection Research instruments included semi-structured questionnaires, while topic guides and checklists were developed and administered to the different categories of respondents. Community mapping, and seasonal calendars were also incorporated into the assessment in some areas. Detailed structured questionnaires were designed and administered to collect relevant data


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including production, socio-economics and perception of the soil and environmental indices from the local populace in the selected study areas. These included a semi-structured questionnaire for the official interview of Agricultural Development Project (ADP) and Local Government Council (LGC) village officers; and a checklist for conducting Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) with the mixed groups, usually of Fadama Users Association (FUA) with occasional non-FUA members with gender differentiation. New information on processes affecting the various ecozones was collected, enabling the consultants to review previous assumptions, prepare revised plans for assessing the ecosystems, soil erosion, wildlife and competitive and conflicting land use issues. In each of the three regions, respondents, participants in discussions and key informants were selected and data were collected through individual interviews or group discussions. Some of these discussions were carried out with members of women�s groups, some with FUAs, while others were selected on the basis of fadama or non-fadama farmers. In each situation, care was taken to ensure representation by gender and by primary livelihood activity. 4.3 Data Analysis and Evaluation The socio-economic data were analysed using descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages to summarise and organise the data. Soil and water samples collected during the field studies were analysed using recommended standard methods for appropriate parameters. The ad hoc methodology was used in the Environmental Impact Assessment. It is based on the technical expertise of the team members. Three categories of likely impacts were identified on which to base assessment of probable magnitude and occurrence. Thus a primary consideration of likely impact refers to the magnitude and significance of the impacts and the likelihood of occurrence. The identification exercise therefore produced impact probability of the following descriptions: Significant Impact: Positive or negative significant probable impacts which are a direct consequence of the project and its characteristics affecting the environment and its characteristics. No significant Impact: Where the correlation of the Project�s characteristic components with those of the environment do not result in likely significant impacts. Impacts Not Immediately Foreseen: Probable impacts not likely to be significant and that may be indirectly caused through the relationship of the project components to the environment. (These may also include secondary and tertiary spin-offs from the project which may not be likely to occur within the immediate construction phase). After a period of time cumulative effects with probable impacts are possible and could be significant. Adherence to the defined principles would lead to a well-developed and synchronized sectoral development plan that eventually would alleviate much of the threat of the environmental hazards. Formulating the necessary plans, actions or controls to be taken (and by whom) was undertaken in order to prevent, protect, mitigate or eradicate the present or potential problems and risks identified. This included designs, technical details, implementation schedules, and the cost of implementation of the recommended plans and actions. Plans and actions for monitoring environmental changes,


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such as changes in disease patterns, groundwater monitoring, water quality sampling, soil surveys and social-economic-cultural surveys.) 4.4 Economic Analysis The rural people are engaged in farming, fishing, grazing livestock, or gathering fuel wood and other forest products. Irrigation development would increase agricultural productivity, rural welfare and equality. However, such intervention adversely affects the ecology, the natural habitat and the social and economic functions of the ecosystems. On average, 25% of household income derives from environmentally impacted resources, while in the poorest half of the population that percentage increases to about 50 percent. The richer households have five times or more income sources, while the poorest 40-60% of households derive their income from a single source, confirming the frequently cited assertion that environmental degradation will have a greater impact on the poor than on the rich. The ecosystems also contribute to: the purification of air and water; mitigation of floods and droughts; detoxification and decomposition of wastes; generation and preservation of soils; control of agricultural pests; pollination of crops and natural vegetation; dispersal of seeds; cycling of nutrients; maintenance of biodiversity; protection of coastal shores from erosion; and provision of aesthetic beauty and intellectual stimulation, solitude and spiritual fulfillment. 4.4.1 Economic Value of Ecosystem Services Various methods are available for the assessment of the monetary value of ecosystem services, including: • Cost/Benefit Analysis: The conventional cost/benefit analysis is used to measure liability for

damages from pollution and measures cost of prevention, restoration and replacement cost. This technique is not sufficient since many costs and benefits are difficult to quantify and if quantifiable, are not easy to measure in monetary terms.

• Contingent Valuation: Under the contingent valuation approach, individuals are interviewed

and "asked how much money they are willing to pay for an existing ecological service, or additional quantities of a collective extra-market good." Contingent valuation is used by government agencies and the World Bank to assess a variety of investments in many sectors, including transportation, sanitation, health, the arts, education and the environment.

• Participatory Rapid Appraisal Methods (PRA): PRA are used to assess human preferences

for varying environmental and ecosystem characteristics. These methods involve both expert estimates and public surveys. These surveys are not foolproof. The degree of success depends on the skill with which the survey is designed. This method was used by Barbier in 1998 to investigate the economic value of the ecological services deriving from the Hadejia-Nguru Flood Plains.

• Benefit Transfer Valuation Approach: Measures the cost of environmental consequences

attributable to fadama farming and productivity loss as determined in other studies and extrapolated and adjusted to local conditions. Economic value was calculated by using


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farmgate prices for crops produced. Also, market prices were used to calculate the economic value of goods such as water, fuel wood, medicinal plants, etc., consumed by fadama households.

• Possible Project Scenarios were defined:

o Not implementing the NFDP-II � without project Scenario o Fadama Irrigation � with project Scenario o Fadama, managed under an existing water authority

4.5 Project Team The field observations made by the team of experts combined their experience and knowledge of NFDP objectives. The resource persons undertook a field survey of socio-economics, livestock/forestry, soil and environmental components of the representative sites and states, to adequately make spot assessment of the relevance of response to the structured questions and undertake detailed qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the gathered data on human habitation, farming systems, land use patterns and selected environmental parameters, including protected areas. 4.6 Study Period The field investigations were undertaken between January and March 2002 and included the Audit of NFDP-I

4.7 The ESIA Report The report is a synthesis of three Environmental Impact and Social Assessment (ESIA) studies undertaken in three different ecological regions. The main findings and recommendations are found in this report and examine the positive and negative aspects of fadama development options while pointing to the necessity of protecting the ecosystems and encouraging of social equity in the whole of Nigeria. In the ESIA report, mitigating measures are suggested to arrest adverse processes associated with: land deterioration/erosion; water resources depletion; groundwater and surface water deterioration due to agricultural and other activities; and agro-forestry practices, with particular attention to deforestation. Suggested is involvement of the major participating stakeholders in consensus building on land use management and other related key issues, including:

o Outlining deficits or gaps based on the existing situation and defining baseline, compared to development standards.

o An environmental policy framework, providing a range of technical options. o Develop scenarios, addressing identified deficits o Effective services delivery structures and sustainable management o Areas for capability building in public institutions


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In considering delivery options, the Consultant considered realistic measures that can be implemented within the constraints of the financial and technical capacity of the NFDP-II and acceptance by the communities involved. The Plan would serve as a document on government policies related to the protection and regulation of environmental resources within the anticipated development, under NFDP-II. It should be added that environmental concerns should not be considered separate to or competitive with the Project, but rather as an integral part of the NFDP-II, ensuring that the Project is comprehensive and sustainable. It should be noted, that a full environmental management component of the NFDP-II management plan could not be prepared at this stage since both the scope of the physical intervention and the exact location of this intervention is not yet known. Conditions are likely to differ from site to site and state to state. Thus, in addition to important underlying principles as part of the envisaged interventions, in the absence of information on local conditions, only general guidance on appropriate design and 'best practice' policy options, were provided. 4.8 Public Consultation and Disclosure of the Report The study was conducted under the close supervision of the PCU, the World Bank and an external Steering Committee. Several meetings and workshops were held during the preparation of the report, including: 1. Workshop with Stakeholders at Katsina, on the Terms of Reference for the EISA study � Oct. 20-22, 2001. 2. Meeting of consultants and the NFDP-II Technical Committee at PCU, Sheda, Abuja � Jan.10, 2002. 3. Meeting with the PCU at Sheda Abuja on Draft Final Report � July 10, 2002. 4. Meeting with World Bank official at Abuja on Consultant�s Draft Final Report. 5. Stakeholders� workshop on Environmental Component of National Fadama Development Project-II held at Abuja � Sept. 6, 2002. Some of the main issues raised by the public during the day-long meeting included:

General Editorial: addressed and reflected in the current draft of the report. Social Issues Involuntary resettlement: addressed insofar as it will be avoided where at all possible but where it is unavoidable, full resettlement planning and implementation of the plan will occur. Participation and empowerment of women’s and other vulnerable groups: addressed in that the fadama activities will be based on comprehensive CDPs and these will be the product of full participation by all within the community. Farmers/fishermen conflicts: recognized as a serious issue from NFDP-I and will be addressed at the CDP level. Involvement of NGOs in the proposed plan: Addressed, indication that all CDP activity will be fully participatory and monitoring of the EMP as well will include the involvement of government agencies, NGOs and academic and research institutions.


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Environment The damage done by the oil sector to soil and water: Not relevant to this project although the seriousness of chemical damage to soils is recognized. Concern with cumulative effects will cover this situation in areas where oil sector poses a threat to soil quality. Introduction of adapted technology, new crops and diversification adjusted to the various ecological zones: Recognized, and the bottom line being described is that any activity being supported under NFDP-II will require an EA and any new interventions into the fadama landscape will be assessed for their environmental impacts and will be addressed appropriately. Integrated management (watershed, agroforestry and livestock): Not formally addressed in the EIA but should be a principle of CDPs and the PCU will ensure that this principle provides a foundation for local community planning. Consideration and preference of the traditional uses of fadama: This indeed is considered and is reflected throughout the EIA. Traditional uses of fisheries, grazing and forest activities are given attention as well as the effect that any development may have on any cultural values that fadama lands may hold. Provision for ecological corridors: Maintaining the integrity of fadama ecosystems which includes both the protection of flora and fauna is of prime concern. Corridors would be examined as one of several approaches to the protection of fragile or threatened animal populations. Agriculture and environment as complementary: The EIA reflects this principle. The very purpose of the EIA is to ensure that agricultural activities are in concert with the environment. Economic Evaluation Cost/Benefit analysis: A C/B analysis will be conducted on sub-project activities where it is deemed necessary. Cost and funding of the Mitigation Plan: The EMP has been costed. Beneficiaries Pasture requirements should not be ignored in irrigation development: The EIA team agrees fully and the CDP which will involve all stakeholders, will ensure that these requirements are not ignored. Investment and financial aid should be directed at the grass root: The basis of all fadama activities will be the communities through the CDP and its process. Issues and comments raised during the disclosure were incorporated into the final document. The Integrated Report (first draft) was reviewed jointly by the PCU senior management and subsequently made available to the stakeholders and the general public November 19, 2002, and the Draft Report was presented.

Nigeria has formally notified the Riparian States on NFDP-II by sending the report of the Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) to the diplomatic mission of the neighboring states.


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5. PROJECT ENVIRONMENT 5.1 Location NFDP-II is related to the development of the low lying areas � Figure 5.1 indicates major fadama areas � along the rivers and their tributaries throughout Nigeria and is found in each of the country�s major ecological zones. The main characteristics of the physical environment, which also reflect the basic conditions of the lowland areas, are summarized in the following and described in Annex A. Nigeria is situated in the western portion of Africa, and lies between latitudes 4° 00' N and 14 ° 00' N, and longitudes 2 ° 50' E and 14° 45' E. It shares its northern boundary with the Niger Republic. It borders the Gulf of Guinea to the south, the Benin Republic to the west and the Republic of Cameroon to the east. The total area is 923,768 sq km, of which 910,768 sq km is land and 13,000 sq km is water. The southern lowlands terrain merge into central hills and plateaus; mountains in southeast and plains in north. The country rises from sea level to a high elevation of 2,419 metres. The Northern Ecological Region is comprised of the Sokoto Plains on the western end, the High Plains of Hausa territory in the centre and the Chad Basin in the extreme northeast covering much of Borno and Yobe States. The southern part of the Northern Region covers Bauchi, Gombe, Kaduna and Kebbi States. Geographically, the Middle Belt Region (MBR) lies between the rainforest region to the south and the Guinea Savanna to the north. Administratively, it is the home to eight states and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The region is dominated by the two main rivers of Nigeria, the Niger and the Benue. The Niger River flows from Jebba to Lokoja, a distance of about 300km, and the Benue River runs from Makurdi to Lokoja, a distance of 200 km, forming extensive flood plains up to 10-15 km wide on both banks of the rivers. The landscape of southern Nigeria is basically divided into uplands and lowlands, with undulating topography covered by hills, while in the coastal part around Okitipupa, a rolling topography is punctuated by deep gorges. The lowland basins with their extensive floodplains and valley bottoms, which are the focus of this study, amount to about 25,000 sq. km or about 3% of the total land area of Nigeria. Most fadama lands are situated along the main rivers, of which about 0.3 million ha (12 %) are found in the Northern Region and about 0.4 million ha or 14% are found in the Middle Belt Region. Most of the fadama, � 1.8 million ha or 74% � is found in the Southern zone. 5.2 Climate The climate varies from arid in the north, tropical in the center and equatorial in the south. Rainfall throughout Nigeria depends primarily on the interaction of the tropical maritime air mass and the tropical continental air mass which meet along the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ). The annual average rainfall around the country is between 2000mm and 3000mm, while the temperature is between 20○C and 32○C. Rainfall is usually highest near the coast and decreases inland. The mean rainfall in Port Harcourt (Southern Nigeria) is over 4000mm; in Jos on the Plateau (Central Nigeria) it is between 1000-1250mm, and in Maiduguri (in the far north), it is between 250-500mm. The relative humidity near the coast at dawn is about 95-100%, and


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70- 80% in early afternoon, at maximum temperature. Seasonal variation is slight, but periods of a few days of very low humidity may occur in January-February when the �harmattan� reaches the coast. A mean temperature of 27○C is obtained in most areas. The minimum temperatures are recorded around the coast around February, March, and April. In the north, maximum obtainable temperature is 40○C; while the minimum could be as low as 13○C, normal temperatures range between 22○C and 32○C. Representative climatic data for the three Ecological regions are given in ANNEX A. 5.3 Ecological Zones Nigeria' s ecosystem can be classified into seven distinct ecological zones, namely, the Sahel and Sudan Savanna in the Northern part; Guinea Savanna and Derived Savanna in the Middle Belt and Lowland Forest; Freshwater Swamp and Coastal/Mangrove in the South of the Country . 5.3.1 Sudan Savanna The northern part of the Northern Region is situated in the Sudan Savanna belt where the natural vegetation is largely scattered trees and short grasses in between the Sahel Savanna and Guinea Savanna zones. The Sahel Savannah, which occupied only a small corner of the northern fringes of Sokoto and Borno States, is now spreading at the expense of the Sudan Savanna, which in turn is expanding southward, at the expense of the Guinea Savanna. 5.3.2 Guinea Savanna The vegetation within the Middle Belt Region can be best described as typical Guinea Savanna, characterized by woodland vegetation with tall grasses lying between the rainforest region to the south and the Sudan Savanna to the north. The Guinea Savanna is broadly divided into: savanna woodland, the park savanna and shrub savanna. 5.3.3 Rain Forest The Southern Ecological zone belongs to the high rainforest areas characterized by tall trees and various climbers and shrub undergrowth, with a relative replacement of timber trees by tall grasses northwards in parts of Ondo State. 5.4 Geology and Soils Geologically, Nigeria lies on the Southeast portion of the West Africa Craton. The geological setting comprises broadly sedimentary formations and the crystalline rocks of the basement complex. They occur more or less in equal proportions around the country. The soils of Nigeria vary in color, texture, structure and physico-chemical properties. The soils have low pH values 2.7- 6, low organic matter, low potassium levels and variable phosphorus levels. They can broadly be grouped into main categories based primarily on their parent materials, including Basement Complex Soils, Acid Sand Soils, Juvenile Soils on recent deposits and Ferralitic Soils. Further detail is provided in Annex A.


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5.5 Hydrology 5.5.1 Surface Water Resources Nigeria has a vast surface water system including two major rivers, the Niger and the Benue, which traverse the northwest and northeast portion of the country, then merge at Lokoja before draining down to the Atlantic. There are several other rivers and quite a number of minor streams and rivulets that crisscross the entire Nigerian land mass. These include in the south, the Cross River, the Osse, the Nun, the Anambra rivers and to the north, the Kaduna, the Gongola, the Hadejia. (See Annex A) The rivers and their extensive floodplains are the focus of NFDP-II project. In general the water quality in the rivers of Nigeria is very high. Representative water quality data is presented in Table A.5, Annex A. The average electrical conductivity in the main rivers is 57 Umhos/cm2, ranging between 48-65 Umhos/cm2 and the total dissolved solids (TDS) is about 100 mg/l. The pH is less than 6.5 Higher values were reported in swamps and floodplains with levels of 100-150 Umhos/cm2. These rivers are also low in nutrients, with an average nitrogen content of 0.32 mg/l and total phosphorus 0.1 mg/l. The data indicate water of high quality, suitable for irrigation farming according to FEPA limits for irrigation water. 5.5.2 Groundwater Resources A typical fadama lithological profile consists of a dry clay top layer 4m thick, a moist sandy clay layer between 4-8m in depth, and underneath a saturated sandy clay. Normally, a fadama should have a dry season water table within 1-2m below ground level, so that the drawdown due to pumping could reach the limit value of 5-6m for a centrifugal pump. Studies carried out by the ADPs show that in most areas groundwater is available within five meters of the surface. Groundwater potential in various regions is presented in Annex A. The available data indicate that groundwater quality is generally of high quality. Electrical conductivity of water is low, ranging between 0.18 � 2.2 m mhos/cm, suggesting very low risk of salinity. The pH values are 6.2-6.4 and the total dissolved solids are low. Generally, the contents of Zn, Mn, Fe, Ni and B are also low and may not pose any problem to crops or humans. The quality of groundwater in various regions is presented in Annex A. Generally, hand-dug wells are located within the shallow aquifer area and suffer from delayed or intermittent yield. Most hand-dug wells dry up partially or completely by the end of the dry season due to drastic decline in their aquifer levels, unless they are located near perennial streams or near very sparsely populated settlements. The average depth of tubewells range from 8-15m and for washbores from 6-7m. The average discharge for both tubewells and washbores vary from state to state and within a state. Most of the successful wells give discharge of one to five litres per second. These yields are sufficient to irrigate one or two ha of vegetables or cereal crops, such as wheat. The general complaints of low well yields and drying up of wells are, however, attributable mainly to poorly chosen drilling locations, inadequate well depth and poor development of wells or improper maintenance by farmers. Children have also been known to throw debris into wells and block water discharge.


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5.6 Fadama Ecosystems 5.6.1 General The fadama are subjected to seasonal flooding and are naturally rich in nutrients deposited in the plains as the floodwaters recede. Large volumes of sediment are seasonally discharged into the floodplains and help to renew the fertility of the soils. The abundance of water and the seasonal supply of renewed alluvium make these soils fertile and suitable for rice and other crops, such as maize and sugarcane. The continuous cultivation of these soils, rainfall and unregulated application of irrigation water may have depleted or leached out basic cations, resulting in severe soil acidity. Most of the fadama lands are relatively poor in organic matter, cation exchange capacities and essential macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphates and potassium, despite the fact that the fadamas receive annual silt deposits from floodwaters. The fadama soils are, however, more fertile when compared with the sandy upland soils being used by farmers in those areas. Typical characteristics of the prevailing soils are given in Annex A. 5.6.1 Natural Vegetation and Wildlife The undisturbed natural ecosystem of the fadama is known to support varying degrees of natural vegetation complexities ranging from the treeless grassland/shrub thicket of thorny Acacia to the mixed tree/shrub/grass communities comprising browse (woody) plants and forage grasses. Lowland fadama also carry vegetation complexes of varied floristic associations, such as Daniella oliveri and dominant tree savannas with one or more other emergent/co-ordinant tree species such as Terminalia macroptera, Burkea africana, Butyrospermum paradoxium, Parinari curatellifolia, among others. The rich vegetation of the fadama provides natural refuge and nesting materials for waterfowl, other birds and animals. Fadama is the host to hundreds of species, of which more than 70% were observed to co-exist within the Fadama areas, about 15% of which are pure Fadama habitats. Of the bird species commonly sighted in the Middle Belt, about 60% are Fadama dependent waterfowls, while the remaining are occasional visitors to the Fadama. About 20 species are palearctic migrants, of which four species breed in Nigeria. Most aquatic and terrestrial wildlife species are exploited by the Fadama dwellers through hunting. Past records of natural habitats are given in Annex A. 5.6.2 Major Wetlands The Hadejia-Jama'are Floodplain The Wetlands span the ecological zones of Guinea Savanna, Sudan Savanna and the Sahel. They were formed by the waters of the Hadejia and Jama'are rivers which converge to form the Komaduga Yobe river, flowing northeast into Lake Chad. This area receives about 600-700 mm of rainfall per year, lasting from June to September. The wetlands are formed by the regular flooding of the rivers during the rainy season. Due to droughts and construction of dams upstream, the inundated area has been reduced from about 3200 km2 in 1950 to an area of about 1200 km2 today. The Hadejia-Nguru Wetlands are an important site for wildlife conservation and waterfowl in particular, and are deemed of international importance as breeding grounds for migratory birds contributing to global biodiversity. As such, they are the focus of the Hadejia


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Nguru Wetlands Conservation Project, under taken by the Nigerian Conservation Foundation and International Agencies to conserve migratory birds and natural habitat for the benefit of local communities and the waterfowl population. The wetlands provide a range of natural resources and economic activities supporting the various livelihoods of the local communities. These include wet and dry season farming, fishing, fuel wood collection, livestock rearing, gathering of wild-food resources and forestry. The Hadejia-Nguru Wetlands have long been recognized as an important centre for fish production in the region, with an estimated market value of Naira 480 million, for an estimated annual catch of 6,000 metric tonnes of fish (Barbier et al., 1993). The productive and consumer activities associated with the wetlands are believed to support a population of over 1.5 million people. • The Niger and Benue Rivers Floodplains In the Middle Belt, most of the fadama areas are situated along the two main rivers of Nigeria, the Niger and the Benue. From Jebba to Lokoja, a distance of about 300km, the Niger River frequently overflows forming extensive floodplains on either side extending in width to about 15km upstream and 10km along the lower 80km. Also, along the 200km from Makurdi to the Lokoja confluence are extensive floodplains about 10km wide, mostly along the south bank. About 50,000 ha (15 %) of the lowlands are situated in the western part of the region (Kwara and Niger States), 30% in the central part (Kogi, FCT, Nassarawa and Benue States) and about 55% in the eastern area (Plateau, Taraba and Adamawa States). • The Niger Delta The Niger Delta cuts across several ecosystems, namely: coastal/mangrove, freshwater swamp forests, lowland rainforests and derived savanna with small areas of intact natural forest. It is a vast flood plain formed by the accumulation of sedimentary deposits washed down the Niger and Benue rivers. The high rainfall and river discharge during the rainy season, combined with the low, flat terrain and poorly drained soils, cause widespread flooding and erosion. A dynamic equilibrium between flooding, erosion and sediment deposition is the characteristic of the Niger Delta (World Bank, 1995). The Delta has a high population density, with a current population estimated at about 27 million (National Population Commission, 2002), of which about 70 percent is rural. The Delta is an important oil producing region, yet the Niger Delta region remains poor, lacking in infrastructure and basic services. Household energy is still dependent on other natural resources. Furthermore, pollution from oil drilling and leakage from pipes has adversely affected the environment of parts of the Delta. 5.7 Ecological Services of Wetlands

The wetlands are typical of much of rural Nigeria, with a mainly agricultural base, including the agro-pastoral community in the north. The environment maintains Nigerian rural life and the local economy through the protection and maintenance of soil productivity, the recycling of nutrients, the cleansing of air and water, and the maintenance of climatic cycles. Also, the wetlands are a source of medicine, as well as other non-timber forest products (NTFP) critical to local communities. Among the ecological benefits, the wetlands play an important role by maintaining groundwater recharge in the floodplain.


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The dominant economic activities include fishing, extraction of forest products and subsistence agriculture. Main contributions include: collection of medicinal plants, block/brick making, potash, sand, pottery, grazing; gravel and irrigation. The local population also supplements its diet and income with a wide variety of forest products. In the Hadejia-Nguru wetlands, Baton and Sarch (1997) estimated that over 250,000 heads of cattle may be reared, supporting a cattle trade with an annual turnover of over Naira 400 million (1995 prices, N80=l US$). The wetlands represent fragile ecosystems that are globally and locally important. These ecosystems support a significant rural population, providing production and consumption activities that are dependent on the healthy functioning of the ecosystems. The wetlands are, however, under threat as a large portion of the wetlands has already been lost to drought and upstream dams. To assure continued traditional use, maintaining water supply to the wetlands would be a preferable to the indiscriminate diversion of water to upstream areas. 5.8 Demographic Features According to the 1991 census, the population of Nigeria was 88.5 million, with an average population density of 96 persons per sq km. The current population is estimated to be about 120 million. The Northern Region has a population of about 42 million, the Middle Belt has about 22 million and the Southern Region has a population of about 46 million (Annex A). The population is projected to grow to about 178.5 million by the year 2015. Population distribution and other indices are given in Annex A. The figures indicate a rapid growth in population and population density, creating extremely high pressure on the natural resource base. 5.8.1 Ethnic Groups and Religion Nigeria is composed of more than 250 ethnic groups, of which the Hausa, the Fulani, Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo are the most populous and politically influential. In the Northern Region, the core of the Hausa-Fulani is found in the Northwest and the Northeast, with the Kanuri people prominent in the Northeast as well. The Middle Belt shows the greatest degree of ethnic diversity, particularly in Adamawa, Taraba and Plateau States, although the Hausa language is most common to all. Yoruba and Igbo predominate in the Southwest and Southeast regions respectively. The religions include: Muslim, 50%; Christian, 40%; indigenous beliefs, 10 percent. The languages are: English (official), Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo (Ibo) and Fulani. The literacy level of the total population is 57.1% (male: 67.3%, female: 47.3%). 5.8.2 Household Composition The proportion of male and female household heads varied across the three zones. In the northern zone, there are relatively few female-headed households, while in the southern states, although males do predominate in fadama farming, in some areas, women formed a relatively significant proportion of heads of households. The average age of the household heads and other features are illustrated in Annex B. In the southern part of the South and Southeast areas, most households are monogamous, while polygamy is more common in the Southwest states and in the Northern and Middle Belt zones. The mean household size is eight persons in the north, nine in the Middle Belt and seven in the South. Forty-two percent of the population are children (less than 15 years).


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5.8.2 Education and Employment Overall, the educational status of residents in the southern states of Nigeria is generally higher than in other zones. Only about 20 percent of the households in the North had completed at least primary education, compared to 60 percent of the South. A literate population can be reached easily with information that can include written forms of communication such as posters and brochures. Generally, farmers engage in multiple income-generating and productive activities to �make a living�. In the northern and the Middle Belt states, farming is the primary occupation of 80% of respondents, with cattle rearing, hunting, gathering and fishing, as the secondary occupation. Cattle herders roam about the North and Middle Belt states, while fishing is common in large water bodies such as Lake Chad, large dams and the Niger and Benue rivers. In the South, secondary activities include sales of palm and cocoa by-products and medicinal herbs, along with hunting and trading. In Hadejia-Nguru, 28 % of households indicated fishing was the second most important occupation, while 13 % of households in the Niger Delta identify trading as their second occupation. 5.9 Land Management 5.9.1 Land Ownership and Tenancy Land can be inherited, rented, purchased or leased. Categories of land ownership include: owner/occupant, usufructary right, communal ownership, free land and land tenancy by migrant farmers. Nomadic pastoralists have no land use rights and depend largely on the hospitality/generosity of their hosts, but they may have access to routes, corridors/passageways for wildlife and domestic animals. Farmers can lease plots of land from the owners on a short-term lease. A major factor discouraging tenant farmers is the short-term lease, while conversely, having legal ownership rights on the land boosts farmers interest in long term investments in land development and improvements. 5.9.2 Land Survey and Mapping Generally, no detailed soil surveys have been carried out in most of the fadama. The issue of land tenure is also not fully analyzed, including the effect of the land tenure situation on revenue sharing, particularly with women. Fadama land is not uniform and not all community members have access. (See also Annex B.). 5.9.3 Land Use and Competitive Use Across the fadama, various land uses are distinguishable, including: crop production, grazing of livestock, fisheries, forestry, wildlife sanctuaries, conservation management areas and housing and cottage industry � blocks and burnt-brick production. Brick-making is a fast growing industry along the floodplains of rivers. Such demand for land use in fadama can no longer be ignored and should be given due consideration. However, the situation where fadama is randomly excavated for brick-making, dumping of waste, or other questionable uses (Plates 1 & 2, Annex B) damages the natural environment and exposes the fadama to land erosion and


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flooding. Due to the high demand for the fadama land and the rapidly expanding population requiring additional land, pressure on the fadama is fast increasing. The expansion of demand for land for housing, industry and even the anticipated recreational demands, together with demand from other traditional sectors and environmental conservation can no longer be ignored. The value of land is fast increasing and with it the frequency of disputes about ownership titles and boundary definitions. 5.10 Fadama Resource Production 5.10.1 General Fadama farming has a long history in Nigeria. For generations, fadama lands have been cultivated in the dry season, utilizing the residual moisture after wet-season flooding, enhancing overall productivity. The recent interest in fadama farming is the result of the positive effects of the efforts by the National Fadama Development Programme (NFDP) through the state ADPs to intensify fadama farming in most States, especially in the North where environmental conditions are most suitable for the production of high-value, dry-season crops. The first phase, NFDP-I, which began in 1992 and ended in 1998, was devoted to the propagation of inexpensive pump technology, and resulted in positive economic returns to farmers. However, a series of serious environmental impacts, at least in some areas of the country, were identified under NFDP-I. A detailed audit of NFDP-I and the associated social and environmental impacts are discussed in Annex B and summarised in the following, highlighting their implications for NFDP-II. 5.10.2 Cropping System • Farm Size The average farm size is about 0.6 ha and is highly fragmented into 5.4 plots. (Plates 3 & 4, Annex B). Of the total land holdings only 65% of land is cultivated and about 0.3 ha (50%) are irrigated (Annex B). The corresponding land holding size of non-fadama farmers indicate a larger farm size of an average of 1.1 ha of which 0.7 ha (65 %) are cultivated during the rainy season. • Land Preparation Farming practices are dominated by bush fallow followed by shifting cultivation. Compound/homestead farming is characterized by intercropping. Farmers do not practice crop rotation, rather, they shift from an exhausted soil to a fallowed soil. Farmers use the hoe and cutlass as the basic tools. Tractors or other machinery needed for full farm mechanization are rarely used. Thus, except for the practice of bush fire to clear land, the adverse impact of land cultivation on the environment is minimal. Still, proper land leveling of soil is lacking, risking water saturation conditions and potential increases in soil salinity. • Irrigation Irrigation is practiced using rivers or streams and underground water sources, except in Delta state where nearly half of the farmers reported residual moisture as the source of water. Most of the farmers rely upon carrying of water by hand, although a significant number use motorized pumps. Other simple small-scale irrigation operations include using a pump installed on the


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banks of a stream, river or lake to lift the water (Plates 5 and 6, Annex B) or using petrol-powered pumps-sets and hose-pipes. Shallow ground water aquifers with good potential are being exploited, yielding two litres/sec is sufficient to irrigate one ha of vegetables. Currently, irrigation scheduling is not based on best practices of crop water use, irrigation depth, soil water holding capacity and a water availability and release schedule, all aimed at ensuring maximum water-use efficiency. Thus, symptoms of saline stress on crops and soils are apparent, even though the quality of water used for irrigation is high (Annex B.) Delivery losses from all forms of conduits are also apparent, caused by leakage, seepage, evaporation and transpiration. Erosion, silting and heavy vegetative growth are very common in canals of all dimensions and in the balancing reservoirs (Plates 7, 8, 9 and 10, in Annex B). Drainage canals are mostly subjected to the deterioration of their cross-section and longitudinal profiles and vegetation growth which reduces the capacity of the drainage canals. Current on-farm irrigation techniques are traditional. Water is diverted to the fields by cutting the slopes instead of using plastic pipe siphons. The cut and fill irrigation technique of field canals results in inefficient water management. Farmers are unaware of farm technology that maximizes irrigation efficiency or it is simply beyond their reach. • Crops Yam, cassava, cocoyam, and maize, oil palm and traditional tree crops dominate the farming system. Farmers grow vegetables during the dry season and cereals plus grain legumes during the rainy season in areas that are not excessively flooded. The major rain-fed crops grown in the fadama include: rice in poorly drained areas; maize, cassava, yam, sugarcane, sorghum, millet, sweet potatoes; as well as grain legumes, like groundnuts, and cowpea in the upper non-flooded areas and in well- to moderately-drained areas. The most common vegetables grown during the dry season are tomatoes, onions, pepper, okra, garden eggs, carrots, sweet potatoes, lettuce, cabbage, spinach and sorrel, Amaranthus hybridus, watermelon and garlic. Most commonly harvested tree crops include plantain, banana, palm, coconut, kolanut, mango, oranges, pear and papaw. Sugarcane and bananas are promising long-term crops that can tolerate occasional excesses and shortages of water. Crops produced mostly for household consumption, such as cassava and maize, are grown with some surplus for sale to supplement household income. Farmers tend to grow the same crops repeatedly on the same piece of land, a practice that could result in the build-up of nematodes and plant diseases. Inappropriate soil and crop management and poor nutrition are reflected in poor yields, production volume and revenues. • Agricultural Inputs Seeds used by farmers are partly procured from the open market. Most use their own seeds. Most farmers do not dress their seeds with chemicals before planting. The use of high-quality, high-yield varieties is not yet common. Most farmers use very little fertilizer due its scarcity and high costs (Annex B). Where fertilizers are used, farmers apply whatever is available irrespective of crops specific needs. Farmed fields are infested by weeds including broadleaves, hedges and grasses. Noteworthy are the two witchweed species: Striga hermonthica and S. gesnerioides, hard-to-control parasites of both cereals and grain legumes. Due to difficulties in obtaining agrochemicals, most fields remain unsprayed and weed control is carried out manually either by hoeing or hand pulling. Where used, there is an indiscriminate use of all kinds of


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chemicals, and in the wrong quantities. Some farmers are still using forbidden chemicals such as Gamalin 20 and DDT. 5.10.3 Forestry The undisturbed (uncultivated) natural ecosystem of the Fadama supports varying degrees of natural vegetation complexes ranging from the treeless grasslands/shrub thicket of thorny Acacia on recent levees to the mixed tree-shrub-grass varieties of relatively large trees, woody browse and forage grasses. Currently, although fuel wood constitutes the major source of domestic energy, its exploitation is inefficient, while the growing dependence on the diminishing woodlands places extreme pressure on those woodlands, reducing their recovery capacity. Excessive deforestation and denuding land has resulted. Moreover, the use of the fadama for crop production is accompanied by uncontrolled clearing of natural vegetation and extreme reduction in biodiversity, while causing increased erosion and more flooding downstream. 5.10.4 Fisheries Natural wetlands and swamps form natural ponds and the vegetative cover provide a natural shelter for fish, while the water system brings in nutrients which stimulate the rapid growth of microorganisms and invertebrates which serve as food chain for fish. Fishing activity is extensively practiced along the major rivers and their floodplains by full-time fishermen, and by part-time fishermen during the dry season where dry-season farming is not yet an established practice. (Plate 14, Annex B). Inland fish farming in practiced in fish ponds or, more recently, in flooded burrow pits. It seems that fishing input prices for engines, nets, hooks, ropes etc., are highly inflated on the open market and beyond the reach of many fishermen. Fadama irrigation development, and thus its impact on fisheries, is not pronounced. Massive fish mortality has not been reported, although limited eutrophication of surface water bodies can be observed as a result of surface runoff and inflow of nutrients from rain-fed and irrigated farmlands. Irrigation using washbores and tubewells has no immediate impact on fisheries. However, extensive use of chemicals and the misuse of hazardous chemicals could lead to large-scale fish mortality. Elevated concentrations of toxic chemicals in edible fish tissue could also adversely affect the health of humans consuming fish. 5.10.5 Livestock Nomadic Fulani constitute 90% of the total number of herdsmen and own about 85% of the country’s 14 million livestock. Nomadic (migratory) livestock management involves seasonal transhumance movements from one grazing area to another. Herders are dependent upon scavenging natural resources where and when available and are subject to the hospitality and granting of access to the land by the indigenous land owners, as well as government provision of grazing reserves, including the vegetated floodplains and the adjacent fallowed fields or graze on post-harvest crop residues. The expansion of fadama farmlands into virgin uncultivated areas is gradually excluding livestock practices from the


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traditional dry-season grazing grounds, causing clashes and conflicts between farmers and pastoralists. Generally speaking, only a small proportion of the fadama is currently being farmed and any adverse impacts on any other water users are negligible. This situation is likely to change with the implementation of NFDP-II and the possible reduction in the fadama pasture which will exacerbate existing conflicts between farmers and herders. 5.11 Production Infrastructure 5.11.1 Credit Facilities Thanks to NFDP-I, FUA groups have had access to some credit facilities with ADP assistance to acquire farm inputs, tools and implements, including work bulls, ox-carts, ox-ploughs, pumps and wells. However, self-funding potential is minimal and targeted credit availability is required to facilitate investment in the establishment and/or rehabilitation of micro-projects in compliance with environmental and social safeguards. 5.11.2 Harvesting and Agro-processing Harvesting is carried out manually and the produce is sold immediately in the case of perishable crops or, for the traditional food crops, as needs arise. Individual households may have small processing (grinding, milling) machines with granaries, silos and/or maize cribs. The products are normally gathered, processed (husked, threshed, etc.) and bulked before being marketed. There are a variety of intermediaries along the marketing chain, such as local traders, local transporters and retailers who dominate rural markets, serving villages and local consumers. Farmers are subject to low prices mostly because of inadequate storage facilities and marketing infrastructure which could serve to help stabilize and regulate food prices. Access to commercial services such as banks, post office, input supply, markets and processing plants is also minimal. 5.11.3 Farmers Participation and Associations Farmers generally show a strong and active commitment towards the community as reflected in membership in social clubs and economic societies. The majority of these groups are used as a venue for raising money for members and enhancing their activities. Organisations include youth groups, town development unions and savings and credit societies, all of which perform important functions as channels for development interventions. • Fadama Users’ Associations (FUAs) NFDP-I supported the creation of more than 9,000 Fadama Users Associations (FUAs). Formation of FUAs, has been an effective strategy for fadama development and helped to secure the provision of irrigation infrastructure (wells, pumps or washbores), inputs and information. However, in some cases, farmers encountered problems associated with the operation of irrigation schemes and inefficiency.

• Farmers Relations With Government Officials Generally, farmers seems to expect more of the government and are disappointed by the low level of infrastructure development, indicating that they had been neglected. This, perhaps, is an indication of the communication gap and a lack of trust between government and farmers.


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5.12 Social Aspects 5.12.1 General Fadama cultivation could be taken up at the expense of other uses, namely, fisheries, grazing and watering, and the natural habitat and wildlife. The possible adverse impact on society, as observed under NFDP-I, necessitates the evaluation of the social impacts, including conflicts among users, incidents of water borne disease, women�s participation, public health, socio-economic conditions/background, poverty and ethnic groups. Especially important are issues of involuntary resettlement and border claims, such as transhuman internal and international movement from Chad, Benin, and Niger affecting grazing reserves, pastoral routes, watering points, road rehabilitation and marketing facilities. 5.12.2 Farmers Attitudes Despite the relative improvements achieved under NFDP-I, farmers still complain about their farming conditions. Constraints most cited by farmers include: insufficient land, poor quality land, lack of inputs, lack of capital, lack of labour, poor marketing channels, lack of storage, low processing capacity, and inadequate extension services. Many farmers mentioned the problem of lack of extension services as a problem, although reluctantly admitting that they had received extension messages specifically related to fadama farming. However, despite the complaints, farmers and local agencies see the introduction of irrigation and the development of fadama as a whole as the most successful of all Government Programmes currently provided to farmers. Respondents expressed their view that fadama development is rewarding, resulting in higher incomes, allowing for better health and access to farm inputs, while having a net positive social and environmental impact (Annex B). There is a general agreement on the economic benefits of fadama farming, in terms of increased income, opportunities for hired labour and other multiplier effects, and in providing goods and services to the farmers. Farmers believe the Fadama project would bring positive development to their communities, while others see the Fadama project as a way for them to get inputs such as fertilizers. Reasons highlighted by farmers as operating against their adoption of fadama farming include: lack of capital for tubewells or washbores, or the means to maintain irrigation pumps; lack of spare parts and lack of knowledge and experience in proper handling of pumps and wells. Other farmers, such as those in the Bida area, consider the dry season as time best spent on land preparation, farm harvest processing and a rest period. Under such circumstances, introduction of mechanization and animal traction would increase the attractiveness of irrigation, by decreasing the burden on the farmers while labour could be more effectively utilized throughout the year. 5.12.3 Role of Women Generally, the opportunities for women to engage in dry season vegetable production is significantly higher in the southern states than in the northern states. Women�s participation in the north is influenced by cultural and religious traditions that in some places forbid women to take a direct role in farming. Where allowed, women form groups and engage in wheat and


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vegetables cultivation and animal rearing on their own land, or in the village within and around their compounds. However, no credit facilities are available to them and their involvement is in its infancy. There are only a few women FUAs throughout the zone. In the Middle Belt, women�s involvement in irrigated agriculture is higher in Benue, while there is relatively little participation by women in Kogi and Niger States. In Benue State, almost all the women involved produce vegetables which they load on lorries and transport to other towns. Land tenure systems in most places do not recognize the right of women to own land. Women are rarely able to purchase land outright in their own names, but they are able to lay claim to or have a direct share in family and/or communal land. In the Middle Belt, women in Kogi State can get land from the community and those who have the money can purchase land. Among the Tiv people in Benue State, women do not own the land, but they can get land through the household and have access to land for production. Within the same state, Idoma women can own and procure land, but they are mainly involved in processing and marketing. 5.12.4 Social Conflicts Social unrest is generally fuelled by scarcity of natural resources and the high dependence of the rural population on natural resources, leading to poaching of animals, destruction of habitat or pollution of waterways. In the northern wetlands, social conflicts have been exacerbated by uneven development and changes in use and access rights to natural resources utilized by agriculturalists and pastoralists in the region. In the South, conflicts arise out of degradation of environmental resources upon which rural poor are most dependent, inadequate sharing of benefits from oil resource exploitation, few income generation opportunities among youth and inadequate reinvestment in the economic and social development of local communities. Within this context, clashes both within and between communities over the use of fadama has also increased as the fadama exploitation intensifies and the economic benefits of its use are more readily seen. Generally, there are three broad types of conflict related to fadama development programmes: 1) farmer � farmer; 2) farmer � pastoralist; and, 3) other competing resource users. Pastoralist/Farmer Conflicts The increased demand for farmland has limited the free access of herders to the fadama. As a result, unregulated grazing activities have led to loss of valuable crops and economic loss. Pastoralists may also suffer from the encroachment of farmers onto traditional grazing lands, while cattle theft has become an increasing problem for pastoralists. Excessive grazing activities could lead also to destruction of protective vegetation and expose land to erosion.. Farmers have resorted to burning grasses in an attempt to discourage cattle grazing on their land. As a consequence, conflicts which often develop into clashes arise between the herders and the farmers. In specific areas, conflicts between crop farmers and cattle herders were found to be a particularly serious problem with NFDP-I. New cultivation was seen to attract herders to areas that are not on normal cattle routes, resulting in damage to irrigation systems, especially where there was no provision for watering animals and camping grounds as there is along cattle migration routes. The intensification of fadama farming will no doubt lead to escalation of conflicts over water and land resources. International Migratory Corridors


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Livestock from the Republics of Niger, Chad and Benin migrate into Nigeria during the dry season through various international migratory corridors along Sokoto, Kebbi, Jigawa, Katsina and Borno States. Incidentally, most of these corridors criss-cross Fadama lands located at the northernmost parts of these states. In Kano State, interstate and international routes pass through Challawa, Tiga, and Hadejia Jamare, including the areas of Babeji, Rano, Birnin Kudu and Kura LGAs, leading through to Falgore Grazing Reserve and beyond. Similarly, a large number of animals enter the Sokoto Rima Valley during the dry season, moving towards Yelwa/Kontagora route to the Bobi Grazing Reserve Regions and Nature of Conflicts The scope and nature of conflicts differ substantially between zones. In the semi-arid and arid regions of the north, pastoral systems predominate with their traditional grazing rights and pastoralists have a stronger position in any resource conflict situation. The areas where competition is rampant are: Hadejia Basin, Kafin Hausa, Wudil, Kura and Gwarzo LGAs. Conflicts were found to be more common in Kano and Sokoto as compared with Katsina and Bauchi. The conflicts are serious between nomads and farmers, but less so when resident pastoralists and fadama farmers are involved. Records of conflicts in Gombe and Bauchi show as many as 20 incidents in any one year. In the Guinea Savanna, where farmers are predominant on arable land, the pressure on land is less severe than in the north and conflicts are about access to dry season grazing and not on access to water, as in the north. In the South, where the need for quality fodder is minimal, only a few conflicts were recorded. However, conflicts may be on the increase as more cattle herders have been constrained to bring their cattle further south, away from traditional grazing areas. 5.12.5 Involuntary Resettlement Fadama development is not associated with ethnic discrimination or any other issues related to indigenous populations, although, some of the irrigation on fadama land may be taken on at the direct expense of other farmers, leading to displacement of some farmers and the blocking of access to pasture for livestock and watering points. Irrigation development close to peri-urban areas may also increase land pressure and competition with other urban and industrial uses. . 5.12.6 Cultural Property Largely, Fadama areas were not reported to be contentious both in terms of material and cultural property and this is unlikely to be a factor in the expansion of fadama farming. Nevertheless, sites of historical or cultural significance such as sacred groves or animals should be preserved and respected. 5.12.7 Conflict Resolution Mechanisms Not all the conflicts end in police intervention. Social linkages and obligations influence decisions on the form of redress sought by the aggrieved. Conflicts between crop farmers and cattle herders are usually handled within the community with the local leaders supervising. The involvement of traditional leaders as well as representatives of �Myetti Allah,� a traditional


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social organization for Fulani cattle herders, has led to more acceptable forms of settlement. Surveys carried out in Kano, Sokoto and Bauchi have indicated that 30% of grievances are settled in police/court, another 29% by the village elders, 19% through private negotiations, 17% by the traditional rulers, and two percent by LGA officials. Conflict resolutions preferred by farmers in the Middle Belt Region are illustrated in Annex B. 5.13 Health Aspects 5.13.1 General Fadama irrigation provides favorable sites for vector breeding and habitation, especially in open wells, surface irrigation canals and water ponds. Invasive vegetation, inadequate drainage, slow flowing waterways and silt deposition in canals create suitable breeding conditions for the snail and mosquito, making possible year-round transmission of diseases which prior to the provision of irrigated water were only transmitted during the rainy season. Irrigation systems are used both for irrigation and for other activities � bathing, washing, etc.� providing ample opportunities for the transmission of both urinary and intestinal schistosomiasis. Irrigation systems could also be breeding grounds for transmitters of several diseases threatening humans, such as enteric bacterial infections, diarrhea, dermatitis, guinea worm and poliomyelitis. 5.13.2 Potable Water The absence of safe drinking water, as reflected in the prevalence of diseases such as diarrhoea and other stomach ailments is apparent. Safe drinking water is available to approximately 10-20 percent of the population. Unprotected hand-dug wells and tube wells and ponds are the primary source of water for households in the north during both dry and wet seasons, while in the south, most of the households depend mainly on rainwater during the rainy season and rely much less on rivers during the dry season. 5.13.3 Sanitation Malaria, diarrhea and schistosomiasis are also the results of the living and the environmental conditions. Poor sanitation, poor drainage, proximity of thick vegetation growth and water contact activities such as swimming, laundry, fishing and brick-making constitute factors likely to enhance transmission of infections. 5.13.4 Health Conditions In many areas, malaria, diarrhea and dysentery are the most common diseases, followed by typhus, filariasis schistosomiasis and dracunculiasis and Ascariasis A wide range of intestinal helminthes also occur along with H. nana and hookworm. Tsetse fly, the vector of trypanosomiasis and potential vectors of guinea worm are present. Anopheles and Culex mosquitoes, which transmit malaria bancroftian filariasis and yellow fever, are abundant, widely distributed and actively breeding. In the northern fadama, a previous survey revealed that approximately one-third of the household family members had fallen ill in the previous month, while access to hospitals was mostly unavailable.


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6. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS 6.1 World Bank Safeguard Policies The World Bank safeguard policies are listed and briefly described in chapter three. It is important that the sub-project activities likely to occur through the NFDP-II do not trigger any of these policies. If a policy is triggered then the policy will have to be addressed and the sub-project reconsidered either through design or operational modifications to ensure that the policy or policies are not contravened. The mechanism in place for this assurance will be the community development plan and the framework document, which is a separate document (�Environmental and Social Framework for NFPD-II), but which is in fact an integral part of the environmental management plan. Each of the impact assessment tables (Table 6.3 � 6.30) indicate activities that could possibly trigger one or more safeguard policies and thus, forewarn the user that extra care and effort will be required to ensure that the policies are addressed and that contraventions to these policies are avoided. Table 6.1 provides a brief analysis of each safeguard policy as it relates to probable sub-projects, and general guidance for avoiding contravention with the policies.

Table 6.1: Safeguard Policies – Triggering and Actions Required Safeguard Policy

Situation to Trigger Policy

Action Required to Avoid Contravention

Environmental assessment

Any sub-project that may have a significant effect on aspects of the environment including the social and cultural environment.

Most sub-projects will be small and impacts will be relatively insignificant. However, it is expected that many will fall into Category B, which will require EAs. Possibly the occcasional activity may require a full EIA due to its Category A status. It will not be possible to avoid Category B sub-projects and EAs will be required.

Natural habitats Expanding cultivation of fadama lands will require removal of vegetation, possibly forested areas, drainage of wetland areas and other possibly significant natural habitats.

In such cases, the EA for various sub-projects that will include fadama cultivation expansion will address natural habitat values. Significant habitats must be avoided or sub-projects may not receive funding if such habitats cannot be avoided. NFDP-II activities would be integrated into national and regional conservation programs for natural habitats and the maintenance of ecological functions. Where possible, the rehabilitation of degraded natural habitats will be undertaken to ensure opportunities for environmentally sustainable development.

Forestry Expanding cultivation of fadama lands may require the removal of areas of significant forest resources, or sub-projects could involve the management of local fadama forest areas for the community.

If the sub-project, or even the CDP, includes the removal of such forested areas, NFDP-II funding could be denied, or funding of any sub-projects in the community could be denied if the CDP includes a significant development objective of removing such forests. Sub-projects will be supported if forest management is to be conducted on a sustainable basis for the benefit of the community as a whole and any harvesting recommended is light and relatively non-intrusive to the forest


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ecosystem. Pest management It is very probable that a

number of sub-project proposals will include the use of chemical inputs for insect, disease and competition control.

Before a sub-project is accepted for funding the proponent will be required to provide a pest management plan (refer to Annex C). The plan will include various control mechanisms that will include non-chemical approaches. Chemical inputs will be included only as a last measure and only with safe and acceptable amounts of chemicals in accordance with internationally acceptable standards.

Involuntary resettlement

It is possible that some CDPs and sub-projects will propose fadama areas to be developed that will involve the removal of households, the loss of land resources to individual and group farmers and herders, and the general loss of livelihood for some of the community. To an extent, irrigation farmers are gaining access to fadama lands at the direct expense of other farmers (tenant rain-fed farmers) and this can lead to resource loss by one group at the expense of another, displacing other farmers. As well, access to watering points by grazing livestock could be denied. Exclusion of poorer farmers and the displacement of grazing livestock would diminish the incomes of people dependent on fadama for their livelihood.

In general, sub-projects involving loss of livelihood and/or resettlement will not be funded. In exceptional circumstances these may be approved in cases where disruption is minimal and where a comprehensive resettlement action plan (RAP) has been prepared and there is the commitment and resources clearly available to implement such a plan. It will be important that the CDP process takes into account the different resource users, their patterns of land use and their particular issues in order to avoid livelihood losses and conflict.

Indigenous peoples

This policy is not likely to be triggered. To date, NFDP-II has not encountered indigenous peoples as defined under this policy.

To ensure that the policy is not triggered, the CDP process will have a strong and comprehensive public involvement component that would identify such groups, if they exist, and which could potentially be affected by any sub-project.

Cultural property Cultural or religious prescriptions have not generally been found to be a limiting factor to the

Sites of historical or cultural significance will be identified in the CDP process and, with certainty, in any EA exercise that would be conducted for Category A or B sub-projects. If such property can�t be avoided, then the activity would not be


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expansion of fadama farming.

funded. Generally, if the CDP included development that would conflict with cultural property resources, then consideration would be given to whether or not the NFDP-II would provide any funding for the community. If new areas for agricultural development are opened up the areas will require a rapid archaeoligical survey.

Dam safety If water requirements for any sub-projects are to be met by upstream dams.

In this case, any upstream dams providing water for sub-projects will need to be in compliance with international dam safety requirements.

International waterways

The implementation of NFDP-II involves extensive use of water resources. Fadama users along the Niger River, an international waterway, may be candidates for NFDP-II financing.

Where these users wish to apply for NFDP-II funding, water use and modifications of the Niger, and any other international waterways, changes to water quality and quantity will be considered. Notification to riparian users in bordering nations has already been given.

Disputed areas N/A 6.2 Impacts - General The NFDP-II will consist of a number of sub-projects proposed as a result of community development planning. In fact, without the necessary framework of the CDP to clearly indicate how the fadama areas will be developed, sub-project proposals for financing through the NFDP-II will not be considered. At this stage, in the absence of CDPs, it is not possible to ascertain the types or nature of sub-projects that will be put forth for funding consideration. However, experience from NFDP-I, general knowledge of the fadama lands, the communities within the fadama areas and their activities as these relate to fadama resources, provides the EISA process with a profile of sub-projects that will most likely be put forth for funding. In this assessment there are two broad categories of sub-projects that will be considered: (i) those that will be proposed on a community basis and for which large sectors of the individual community will benefit (e.g. access road improvement, rehabilitation of irrigation systems; and, (ii) individual sub-projects that will be proposed for funding and which will assist individual farmers and other users of the fadama resource base. These two broad categories of sub-projects would be funded under the Demand Driven Infrastructure Component and the Income Generating Support Pilot Component. However, the Demand Driven Advisory Services Component also has to be considered re: environmental impact. Advisory services must be of a nature that does not lead to unsustainable development and development activities that can result in impacts on the biophysical and social environment. 6.3 Activities Most Likely to be Considered for Sub-Project Financing 6.3.1 Individual and Community Development Sub-Project Activities Activities (sub-projects) for which individual and community Fadama users are most likely to request NFDP-II Funds are listed in Tables 3.1 and 3.2.


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6.3.2 Advisory and Extension Services – Policy Areas to be Considered An important component of the NFDP-II is the demand driven advisory service component., described in Section 3.2.3. Advice and direction provided must be environmentally sound and not lead to unsustainable resource management. Table 6.2 provides a list of potential advisory areas and the general approach that should be taken in order to minimize environmental impacts and to avoid contravention of World Bank safeguard policies.

Table 6.2: Advisory/Extension Areas and Suggestions of Approach Resource Management Concern

Approach Suggestions

Cultivation Ensure cultivation techniques that minimize soil erosion; consider minimal or zero tillage where possible; discourage crop residue burning.

Cropping patterns

Promote cropping patterns that use green manure and legumes to build up soil fertility.

Selection of crops to use

Select crop combinations that work well together and take into account integrated pest management when doing so; consider crops that are traditional and that succeed in the prevailing conditions.

Fertilizers use Promote natural fertilization and minimize reliance on chemical inputs; provide advice on timely application and optimum dosage.

Pesticide use Assist farms and communities in developing integrated pest management plans and schedules and rely on chemical pesticides only as �control of last resort,� and only those pesticides that are internationally accepted; ensure that farmers receive knowledge of proper handling and storage as well as levels and time of application.

Irrigation Ensure that water resources are not wasted, that effective drainage is provided to prevent water logging and salinization; assist communities in selecting water resources that are not going to be contested by other current and potential users and that water resources will not deprive natural ecosystems of water needed for maintenance.

Groundwater extraction

Ensure that water supply is adequate and that there are not, or will not be, user conflicts.

Fadama expansion

Assist communities in identifying new areas and methods of development, but keep in mind potential conflicts with other users.

Fishery management

Advice on fishery management must be based on sustainable resource management and this would include information on net mesh size, different methods of harvesting, optimal seasons for harvesting and limits to harvest size.

Livestock management

Provide advice on livestock management including best areas for grazing, particularly from the point of view of both nutrition and minimizing conflicts with other users; promote superior genetic strains that promote quality over quantity.


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Forestry Any forest harvesting will be promoted on a sustainable basis and only light extraction will be allowed; help communities pursue new markets for new and unique products under sustainable forest management.

Market Centres Assist with the location, design and development of market centres but consider impacts that such facilities can have on both the biophysical and social components of the environment.

The above table is not intended to be inclusive. It will also be important that advisors are familiar with all relevant government policy as it relates to environmental protection, natural habitat management, water management and the general improvement of rural socio-economic conditions within a framework of sustainable resource management. 6.4 Impact Beneficiaries and Benefits The main beneficiaries of the Project will be fadama users who will have the financial resources through the NFDP-II to develop and manage fadama areas for agricultural production. Integrated planning at the community level will benefit all the fadama users including fishers and cattle herders. The serious issue of the fadama resource use conflicts will also be considered and addressed as part of the Project and the community planning process. Specific benefits derived from the Project include:

o Land availability for agricultural expansion; o Improved crop yields; o Improved livestock health and yields; o Improved marketing facilities and opportunities; o Sustainable fishery and improved yields; o Improved incomes and social conditions; o Food security for the communities and the region; o Increased employment opportunities; o Improved resource management; and, o Protection of significant natural habitats

NFDP-I was found to contribute to the alleviation of poverty among the rural poor. This was due to increased production which in turn led to additional income and an increase in standards of living and higher capital formation. Beneficiaries were reported to be able to acquire farm inputs, tools and implements, pumps and wells. Increased fadama farming activities also provided employment opportunities to the rural dwellers and therefore reduced the incidence of seasonal migration. Farmers were able to purchase household items such as radios and televisions, bicycles, donkeys, motorcycles. Many of the beneficiaries have improved their housing conditions as well as food intake. The irrigation of fadama offers attractive opportunities for the cropping of off season high value crops. However, there are environmental and social costs associated with intensification or extensification of irrigation which need to be considered. Despite the environmental costs, the incremental return derivable from fadama farming is positive. NFDP-II will Foster self-sufficiency providing food crops or wage labour, while reducing pressures away from


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environmental resources. Also the diversification of income from additional sources other than natura1 resources will also be an additional benefit. 6.5 Major Potential Impacts An impact matrix was prepared to address the environmental and social impacts (what and where), severity/significance of impacts.(how serious); impacts beneficiaries (who will get the benefits or costs), and impacts mitigation. The details of these impacts are given in Annex B and the major potential impacts are summarized in the following. 6.5.1 Fadama Land Management and Competitive Uses Fadama lands are extensively used for rain-fed and irrigated farming, fishing and fish farming, grazing, urban development, recreation, and cottage industry (brick making), leading to competitive use and conflicts. Urbanisation has already encroached on fadama land. Such activity constitutes an additional demand on Fadama through the expansion of housing into the flood plains. The ecological implication of this development, if not controlled, lies in degradation of utilized sites. The undisturbed (uncultivated) natural ecosystem of the Fadama supports varying degrees of natural vegetation, of which firewood, timber and other non-wood forest products are an important contribution of the woodlands to the local economy. Natural wetlands and swamps form natural ponds and the vegetative cover provide a natural shelter for fish, while the water regime brings in nutrients, which stimulate the rapid growth of microorganisms and invertebrates, which serve in the food chain for fish. Nomadic herders of livestock also depend on scavenging natural resources where and when available subject to the grant of hospitality and access to fadama granted by the indigenous land owners and government provision of grazing reserves. The use of the fadama for crop production should therefore be accompanied by controlled land clearance of vegetation, avoiding extinction of the natural biodiversity. NFDP-II should follow a deliberate policy of non-deforestation of forest, avoiding total removal of vegetation during land clearing and controlling the draining of the fadama sites to avoid serious threats to species diversity in flood plains. 6.5.2 Soil, Water and Air Environment

• Soil Conservation Fadama soils are extremely acidic with low fertility and organic matter content. Fadama soils tend to deteriorate under continuous cultivation and irrigation. Some of the problems include: loss of nutrients through leaching; moisture stress; restricted drainage; and a high water table leading to the building up of salinity. Considerable fertilizer input and organic manure is necessary to achieve optimum crop yield and farmers are encouraged to incorporate crop residues into the soil as well as integrate legumes into the cropping systems. In general, no evidence of large scale salinity or sodicity symptoms of fadama soils was documented, taking into consideration the high quality of water used for irrigation. Salinity problems that are apparent in localized patches are the result of poor soil and water management. Salinity hazard may be pronounced in low lying areas and fields with inadequate drainage. Flooding and occasional flooding was confined to depression spots.


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Perched water tables may also occur due to over irrigating and to high percolation and seepage losses in irrigation canals and field channels, leading to secondary salinity of soil. In unleveled plots, which are wrongly cultivated against the contour lines, water cuts through the soil and relatively deep ditches can be seen which can develop into soil erosion This is now limited to steep plots or to improperly designed irrigation canals or river banks. Generally, land cultivation is done manually, using hand tools, without the use of heavy machinery. Thus, no significant negative impact on soils is apparent. Assuming that the same level of technology will be applied under NFDP-II, no serious negative impact on soil is to be anticipated. However, introduction of heavy machinery for land clearing may adversely affect the soil structure on a local scale. Anti-soil degradation measures must be adopted to include crop rotation; manure, maintaining a vegetative cover, cultivation on contour lines and proper irrigation practices. • Surface Water Pollution Water quality is relatively high and the possibility of extreme river water contamination is remote or unlikely due to the high flow of most of the rivers and streams, favouring dispersion and attenuation. However, there is a localized potential risk of river bed and bank contamination due to the build up of pesticides posing a threat to life through bioaccumulation. Similarly, eutrophication of the lower courses of the streams and rivers is possible due to erosion and release of fertilizer into water courses, thus disrupting the flora and fauna populations including fish. In much smaller water bodies � in lakes, ponds, and reservoirs � water quality degradation is more common due to biological activity and the concentration effect of high evaporation. In several cases, water pollution was attributed to the discharge of domestic and industrial waste, diesel oil spillage from pumps placed on the banks of streams/rivers and, in the South, to the oil industry. • Groundwater Pollution The quality of groundwater resources is generally high and is suitable for irrigation and human consumption. There is little indication of any contamination which can be attributed to fertilizer and other agro-chemical use, although, rich in nutrients, flood waters emanating from upland cultivated areas recharge the fadama shallow aquifers. Due to the exploitation regime that was adopted in NFDP-I, limiting extraction to shallow aquifers, the impact on aquifers was negligible. The spacing and extraction rates of groundwater, using washbores and shallow tubewells have had very little impact on groundwater levels, although the soil moisture available to vegetation, particularly crops and trees, could be declining. Also, in localized places, such as in Dutse, Jigawa State, uncontrolled extraction of groundwater led to the lowering of the water table and a depletion of the underlying aquifers, and caused some of the existing wells to dry off. With the expansion of groundwater utilization under NFDP-II, the exploitation of aquifers should be based on hydrological safe limits, taking into consideration the capacity and the geo-hydrological characteristics of the local aquifers. Hydrological impacts should be part of the production function controlling expansion of irrigation and adoption of water charges, licensing and effective monitoring.


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• Air Pollution Air pollution deriving from agriculture in general, and fadama in particular, is minimal compared to industry, power generation and traffic. Current farm land preparation methods include the clearance and annual burning of crop residues, while pastoralists are also engaged in bush burning to induce fresh grass growth. Odours and gases released by burning of bush pollute the air with toxic gases, but the adverse impacts on air quality are generally localized and have no broad significant impact. Still, the practice of bush burning has other negative impacts and should be avoided. More alarming is the practice of drying crops along the highways where the crops are exposed to direct hazardous exhaust fumes.

6.5.2 Natural Habitats Normally, the Fadama vegetation provides shelter, and grazing sites for rodents and other smaller animals, thus, fadama development results in loss of vegetative cover which manatee and other wildlife species depend on as a food source. The draining of polders and the use of pond-water for surface irrigation also results in the loss of desirable aquatic plants,disrupting the aquatic plants which are likely to disappear as a result of drainage. Plants that may be affected include: Ceratophylum demersum, Pistia straotes floating plants, and macrophytes Echinochloa stagnina, Eichornia crassipes and Ludwegia ducurens. Fadama development will result in increased availability of food and extensive puddles development where wild animals can wallow. Some species of rodents; Nile rat (Aruicanthis niloticus), Mutimamate rat (Mastomys roamys) and the Gerbilline spp will definitely increase in population as a result. Species such as the grass cutters and warthogs, unlike various snakes such as cobra, python and viper, are likely to be positively affected as a result of Fadama farming. On the other hand, the increased Fadama development will further expose the natural refuge of some species, thus endangering near-extinct species with actual extinction. Arid-adapted species are much less likely to be adversely impacted by Fadama development compared to water ecosystem dependent species. Drainage of polders and excessive pumping may also lead to disruption in the population of crabs, aquatic insects, bivalves etc. With the introduction of farm machinery, most waterfowl and other birds, which cannot tolerate such disturbance, are bound to migrate from such areas. • Wildlife The terrestrial wildlife identified at the fadama account for a percentage of total meat consumed by local communities, while also used in a wide variety of ways in witchcraft and traditional medicine. The livelihood and culture of the people are therefore intricately tied to wildlife. Farmers reported that the numbers and varieties of most bird species have declined remarkably in recent times. The reasons include, among others: indiscriminate killing to supply bush meat, birds eating fish poisoned with Gamalin-20 and birds eating poisoned seeds coated with Aldrex-T. NFDP�II could have a negative impact on the waterfowl population as a result of draining the wetlands, reduction of tree canopy for nesting and increasing the number of species of grain-eating birds, which would constitute a menace to farm crops. The hunting of birds is certainly bound to increase as a direct consequence of Fadama development, either as a measure to protect


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the crops or because under reduced ground and canopy cover the birds are more easily seen and vulnerable to predation. Also, the palearctic migratory birds are likely to stop wintering on the Fadamas as soon as the habitat is disturbed. On the other hand, some other birds, such as quelea and weavers, would increase in number as a result of increased food availability and they could constitute a pest problem. 6.5.3 Pest Management Currently, very little of pre- or post-emergent herbicides are used, although generally, fadama farmers use more pesticides than rainfed farms because of imminent concentration of pest in irrigated farmlands. However, due to difficulties in obtaining agrochemicals, most fields remain unsprayed and weed control is carried out manually, either by hoeing or hand pulling. When applied, there is an indiscriminate use of all kinds of chemicals, and in wrong quantities. Some farmers are still using forbidden chemicals such as Gamalin 20 and DDT for preserving their farm produce, despite the known dangers to human health. NFDP-II will support all year-round agricultural activity, thus, it is anticipated that the use of chemicals and potent pesticides will increase due to the increase in:

o Area and intensity of off-season crops, encouraging pest activity and consequently leading to a heavy reliance on pesticides.

o Increase in area under high yield varieties, requiring high inputs o Sales promotion by dealers of chemicals, motivating farmers to use pesticides

indiscriminately, ignoring the adverse effects on non-target species and the environment. As a result, more pesticides will be utilized and the environmental issues of pesticides (application, transport, safety and storage) will be magnified.

6.5.4 Health Impacts Irrigation systems are used both for irrigation and for other activities � drinking, bathing, washing, etc. The lack of alternative water sources results in extensive water contact activities and ample opportunities for the transmission of both urinary and intestinal schistosomiasis. In many areas, malaria, diarrhea and dysentery are the predominant diseases, followed by typhoid, filariasis schistosomiasis and dracunculiasis. Ascariasis and hookworm infections are also quite common. It is to be stressed, however, that in many countries, for example, the USA and India, where engineers have placed great emphasis on water and land management, bilharziasis and other irrigation related diseases have never been a serious problem. NFDP-II irrigation facilities should be constructed following a design that would reduce the spread of water borne diseases. Field canals, drainage canals, seepage, rice plots and flooded areas should be treated using natural enemies and other mosquito control measures, (such as, Gambusia fish, oils, etc.). Natural plants and other agents which inhibit snail proliferation (Schistosomiasis) should be introduced. The provision of alternative sources for bathing, washing and drinking will reduce contact with snail-occupied water and will eliminate Guinea worm infections. In those areas where as a consequence of the project malaria and bilharzia dramatically increase (indicated through monitoring) the project will finance safe drinking water facilities and latrines, and promote impregnated bednets against malaria. Health education will also be used to promote the use and maintenance of these facilities.


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• HIV The remoteness of the rural areas to the Federal Specialist Hospitals, equipped for diagnosing HIV, makes it impossible to establish the relationship between reported cases of the disease and the actual infection of the rural population. Interview opinions showed that HIV/AIDS might be on the increase, and especially along with irrigation development and the associated higher income, arising from careless spending or loose lifestyle, which may increase the incidence of HIV/AIDS. On the other hand, strong faith and religion may curtail the incidence of HIV/AIDS. The implication of Fadama development on the incidence of HIV/AIDS would need further systematic analysis. • Agricultural chemicals The improper storage and handling of agricultural chemicals, particularly pesticides, which may be accessed through the project, can lead to serious injury and illness. An implemented pest management plan will ensure minimal inputs of pesticides and effective storage and handling of these chemicals. 6.5.6 Social Impacts • Social Conflict NFDP-1 experienced serious conflicts between pastoralists and cultivators. Potential for similar conflict exists in NFDP-II, with such conflict leading potentially to the loss of resources essential to maintaining livelihoods. The preparation of comprehensive CDPs that focus on the avoidance of this type of conflict will ensure that this impact is not repeated. 6.6 Environmental Awareness Generally, despite the low levels of formal education, farmers do have the requisite knowledge for sound environmental management and are sufficiently aware and knowledgeable about local environmental issues. Generally, the leading environmental concerns of the people are soil and water degradation, water resources depletion and weather/climatic hazards, affecting the crops, pests and diseases. Respondents acknowledged that they do not think forests help to protect soil, although many agreed that floods occur less frequently with forest cover. Similarly, farmers in the Hadejia-Nguru wetlands pointed to social conflicts and hydrological variation (siltation, too much water, too little water) as the major constraints to natural resource management in the area, while in the Niger Delta, the respondents indicated that population pressure, deforestation and oil pollution are the major factors. Currently there is little evidence of environmental management plans at the village or community level and, therefore, of the need for greater community management of natural resources inducing the communities to take greater responsibility for the maintenance of their immediate natural resources. 6.7 Impacts, Consequences and Mitigation Measures by Individual Sub-Project Activities


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Tables 6.3 � 6.26 provide an environmental analysis of each of the potential sub-project activities as indicated in Section 3.3.


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Table 6.3 Seed Overall Potential Impact: MODERATE Potential Direct Impacts

Potential Indirect Impacts

Consequences Mitigation Required Remarks

Positive impact; increased yields and food security for the small holding farmer.

Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

Same consequences as described for chemical fertilizers and pesticides (see tables 6.5 and 6.6).

Determination and application of optimum quantities and scheduling for fertilizers and other inputs; introduction of an integrated pest management program (IPM). Mitigation will be moderately difficult without support of an active extension service.

Ministry of Agriculture extension services and the extension services component of NFDP-II should work with farmers to provide input management advice

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: LOW – MODERATE Risk: LOW Table 6.4 Pedigree seed Overall Potential Impact: MODERATE – HIGH Potential Direct Impacts



Positive impact through increased yields and improved farm

Risk of introduction of genetically modified organisms.

Genetic drift into non-modified populations of same plant species;

Only a total ban on GMOs will be effective.


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economy. continual dependence on pesticides; health side effects unknown.

Long term dependence on high yielding varieties (HYV) requiring continual high level inputs; could be costly to the farmer.

Adoption of organic farming techniques.

Increased use of high

levels of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and perhaps other chemicals.

Same consequences as described for chemical fertilizers and pesticides (see tables6.5 and 6.6).

Determination and application of optimum quantities and scheduling for fertilizers and other inputs; introduction of an integrated pest management program (IPM) . Mitigation will be moderately difficult.

In general terms, high yielding varieties (HYV) require large inputs to achieve expected results � plant species and varieties would have to be examined on a case by case basis; close liaison with Min. of Agr. needed .

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: LOW – MODERATE Risk: MODERATE Table 6.5 Fertilizer Overall Potential Impact: MODERATE TO HIGH Potential Direct Impacts



Reduction in soil organic content.

Modified soil structure and reduction in soil moisture holding capacity.

In the long run, possible loss of productivity as a result of insufficient soil moisture; loss of soil�s natural fertility.

Fertilizer application in conjunction with crop rotation practices. Further reduce chemical fertilizer use through

Extension workers should work closely with farmers to develop application rates and best land husbandry and


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incorporation of various organic cultivation practices. Mitigation not easy since farmers will be swayed by productivity results (will be dependent on fertilizer costs).

crop rotation plans.

Emission of greenhouse gases from chemical fertilizers.

Contribution to global warming.

Climate change. Optimum fertilizer quantities and application schedules should be planned and implemented. Mitigation moderately easy since fertilizer costs are high.

Nutrient enrichment of water bodies.

Eutrophication of water bodies. Contaminated potable water sources.

Modified aquatic ecosystems. Loss of household water supply; must search for new source.

Optimum fertilizer quantities and application schedules should be planned and implemented. Mitigation not easy since farmers will be swayed by productivity results (will be dependent on fertilizer costs).

Work closely with extension workers to develop best land and crop management plans. Potential impact on international waters.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: LOW – MODERATE RISK: MODERATE Table 6.6 Pesticides Significance of Overall Potential Impact: HIGH Potential Direct Impacts




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Impaired health of handlers including those who store, sell, transport and apply.

Increased health costs; lost work time; lost family income; insurance costs.

Training in the proper handling and use of pesticides; Introduce an IPM (integrated pest management program). Mitigation will likely be difficult.

MoA and MoE should develop application certification programs. It should be determined if MoA is developing an IPM program.

Impaired health of food consumers.

Increased health costs; lost work time; lost family income.

Health warnings to wash foods; Use of appropriate chemicals that minimize residue and are least harmful to consumers;IPM program. Mitigation will be relatively difficult.

Public education is required and this could be done through MofAgr and the NGO community. It should be determined if MoA is developing a IPM program. Difficult because agrochemical companies promote their products amongst farmers and farmers will generally adopt the immediate least cost chemical that does the job.

Soil contamination. Loss of productive land. Use of appropriate pesticides that do not have residuals or in which residuals do no harm to soil. Mitigation will be relatively difficult

Difficult because agrochemical companies promote their products among farmers and farmers will generally adopt the immediate least- cost chemical that does the job.

Ground and surface Impaired health of local Increased health costs; Use of least harmful Potential impact on


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water contamination. and downstream water consumers Aquatic ecosystems damaged.

lost work time; lost family income. Biodiversity losses.

pesticides; Consider IPM. Mitigation relatively difficult

international waters.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: MODERATE RISK: MODERATE Table 6.7 Pedigree livestock Significance of Overall Potential Impact: NONE Potential Direct Impacts



Positive Impact Leading to better quality meat and other animal products; increased yields and increased farm incomes.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: N/A RISK: N/A Table 6.8 Livestock for finishing Significance of Overall Potential Impacts: MODERATE TO HIGH Potential Direct Impacts



Carrying capacity of pasture is exceeded.

Loss of ground cover; Soil erosion; Loss of water holding capacity.

Reduced productivity; Loss of soil ; Sedimentation; Hydrological regime modified resulting in flooding and drought conditions.

Ensure that pasture carrying capacities are not exceeded. Mitigation is difficult.

Work closely with agricultural extension services.


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Stock may threaten forested or other protected areas.

Reduced vegetation cover Soil erosion. Loss of water holding capacity.

Loss of soil; Sedimentation; Hydrological regime modified resulting in flooding and drought conditions. Reduced biodiversity.

Ensure that grazing does not occur in protected or other important areas. Mitigation moderately easy.

Work closely with agricultural extension services. Regular monitoring.

Livestock in a confined area Concentration of manure.

High nutrient loading in runoff waters leading to poor water quality.

Management of manure; alternative to confined quarters. Mitigation easy.

Close confinement can result in animal diseases.

Loss of stock and income.

Alternative to confined quarters. Mitigation moderately difficult.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: NONE RISK: MODERATE Table 6.9 Land purchase Significance of Overall Potential Impact: HIGH Potential Direct Impacts



Current non-agricultural land may have biodiversity or watershed protection values which would be lost.

Reduced biodiversity; loss of forest cover; soil erosion.

Stream sedimentation leading to aquatic ecosystem changes.

Land not already being used for agriculture and which has watershed or biodiversity values should not be converted to agriculture. Mitigation should be easy through regulation.

Loans could be rejected if land purchase and agriculture will lead to purchase of ecologically sensitive areas or to non-sustainable practices.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: NONE RISK: MODERATE


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Table 6.10 Tractors Significance of Overall Potential Impact: MODERATE TO HIGH Potential Direct Impacts



Soil and water contamination from machine fuels and lubricants.

Loss of soil productivity. Loss of potable water.

Loss of crop productivity. Must find alternative source of potable water.

Good practices to be carried out by equipment operators. Agricultural machinery should be kept in good repair and fuels and lubricants stored and handled in appropriately designed areas. Mitigation will be moderately difficult.

This is a minor impact and awareness of operators to refuel under safe conditions is all that would be required. Agriculture extension service can educate farmers.

Air contamination, CO2 releases.

Contribution to greenhouse effect.

Contribution to global warming.

Ensure all fossil fuel engines are efficient and well maintained. Mitigation will be difficult.

Soil compaction. Runoff. Erosion and sedimentation.

Ensure equipment of a size that suitable for soil conditions. Mitigation will be difficult.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: LOW RISK: HIGH Table 6.11 Land Preparation Significance of Overall Potential Impact: MODERATE TO HIGH


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Potential Direct Impacts



Soil erosion.

Stream sedimentation. Modified hydrological regime.

Loss of productivity. Loss of soil moisture. Aquatic ecosystem modified. Flooding and drought conditions increased.

Contour ploughing required. Optimal ploughing schedules to ensure minimal time for exposed soil. Organic agricultural practices adopted (e.g. shallow tilling). Mitigation will be difficult.

Should be conducted in conjunction with other good husbandry practices, including maintenance of cropping residues (i.e. no burning). Coordinate with agricultural extension field services.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: LOW RISK: HIGH Table 6.12 Farm implements Potential Overall Impact: LOW – MODERATE Potential Direct Impacts



Deep cultivation contributes to soil erosion.

Loss of soil productivity and stream sedimentation.

Water regulation losses; modified aquatic ecosystems.

Practices other than deep ploughing (e.g. direct seed drilling without disturbing the soil or shallow tilling). Mitigation will be difficult .

Difficult to change old ways. Agriculture extension service will be required to provide advice and demonstrate advantages.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: LOW – MODERATE Risk: HIGH (traditional farming techniques are likely not to change)


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Table 6.13 Small equipment Potential Overall Impact: NONE Potential Direct Impacts



NOT APPLICABLE

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: NONE Risk: NONE Table 6.14 Irrigation equipment and irrigation maintenance Potential Overall Impact: HIGH Potential Direct Impacts



Reduction of groundwater; extraction of surface water.

Loss of water to other current and potential users.

Water sharing plan to ensure equitable distribution. Mitigation very difficult.

Water sharing plan will be challenging to prepare and implement.

Salinization; waterlogging.

Loss of productive land. Appropriate drainage system. Mitigation relatively easy.

Health; malaria, water-borne and other diseases including bilharzia.

Illnesses, lost productivity and incomes.

Education, spraying, promotion of the use of bednets and other control methods; provision of safe drinking water facilities where increase of bilharzia and malaria are as a result of project supported activities.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: LOW – MODERATE Risk: MODERATE


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Table 6.15 Farm buildings for stock, machinery and chemicals Potential Overall Impact: LOW Potential Direct Impacts



Reduction in the amount of land available for food production.

Reduced income from lower total crop production.

Efficient design to minimize space require. Mitigation easy.

This is not likely to be a major consideration.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: LOW Risk: LOW Table 6.16 Primary processing Significance of Overall Potential Impacts: MODERATE – HIGH Potential Direct Impacts


Potential Consequences

Mitigation Required Remarks

Surface water contamination from effluent discharge (e.g. whey from dairy processing, residues from oil processing, or any processing using chemicals).

Impaired health of downstream users; loss of potable water supply; damaged aquatic ecosystems.

Increased health costs, lost work days and family income; alternative source of potable water must be found; reduced biodiversity.

Assurance that effluents are treated before discharge; alternative ways of handling effluents (e.g. recycling). Mitigation will be easy.

Each processing operation will differ and for a number there will be no impacts; Project design must be submitted and reviewed; monitoring of operations required.

Injury and illness as a result of poor working conditions.

Injuries and illness; lost work time; lost family incomes.

Provision of appropriate safety features and protective clothing; training on the use of equipment; awareness of dangers. Mitigation relatively

May come under regulations relating to occupational safety.


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difficult. Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: NONE Risk: HIGH Table 6.17 Fuel, lubricants, etc. Significance of Overall Potential Impacts: HIGH Potential Direct Impacts




Soil contamination. Loss of soil productivity; lost revenue.

Proper storage and handling of fuel; containment of fuel containers within concrete bounded area.

Ground and surface water contamination.

Loss of domestic and irrigation water supply; illness to humans and livestock; lost revenue; altered and damaged aquatic ecosystems.

Proper storage and handling of fuel; containment of fuel containers within concrete bounded area.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: NONE Risk: LOW - MODERATE Table 6.18 Veterinary Services Significance of Overall Potential Impacts: HIGH Potential Direct Impacts




Meat and animal products containing hormones and other chemicals.

Human illness. Proper awareness and training of farmers and animal health workers; Organic methods of livestock husbandry

Only approved drugs and hormones should be used but even these could have some long term, and yet unknown,


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should be applied; minimal application of only necessary drugs.

effects on humans.

Soil and water contamination with insecticides used in dip tanks.

Contaminated soil and water not useable for cultivation or potable water; or water for irrigation; Affected downstream aquatic ecosystems.

Proper disposal of diptank liquids to avoid soil and water contamination. Mitigation will be easy.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: NONE Risk: LOW Table 6.19 Fishing Nets, boats and motors Significance of Overall Potential Impacts: HIGH Potential Direct Impacts




Possible increase in number of fisher.

Conflicts with cultivators could increase.

Only current fishers would be eligible to apply for nets

Fishers and annual catches should be monitored to ensure that fishery is managed on a sustainable basis and the resource is not depleted.

Increased pressure on fishery.

Reduced fishery. Strict catch limits and net mesh sizes.

Community may have to introduce fish catch by-laws and enforce same.

Water quality deterioration with motor oil and motor fuel entering into surface water system.

Reduced economic fishery and generally, damaged aquatic ecosystem.

Training in the handling, storage and use of fuels and lubricants.

Only on the largest of rivers is it likely that boats and motors would be required.


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Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: LOW Risk: HIGH Table 6.20 Rehabilitated Irrigation Systems Significance of Overall Potential Impacts: HIGH Potential Direct Impacts




Surface water losses to other users.

Modification of downstream aquatic ecosystems; loss of fishery.

Downstream users lose water for agriculture and domestic uses.

Ensure that other users will not be disadvantaged.

Salinization. Loss of productive land. Ensure effective drainage conditions and program.

Lowered water tables. Loss of water for other uses.

Ensure that ground water for irrigation is not being used by other users; introduce water sharing agreements where relevant and possible.

Health; malaria, water-borne and other diseases including bilharzia.

Illnesses, lost productivity and incomes.

Education, spraying, promotion of the use of bednets and other control methods; provision of safe drinking water facilities where increase of bilharzia and malaria are as a result of project supported activities.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: LOW Risk: MODERATE Table 6.21 Access Roads and tracks


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Significance of Overall Potential Impacts: HIGH Potential Direct Impacts




Soil erosion. Water quality deterioration; modification of aquatic habitats.

Best practices for access road construction and maintenance; road alignment avoiding steep slopes.

Loss of natural habitat. Biodiversity losses. Loss of important economic species.

Locate roads and tracks through areas of low biodiversity value.

Water quality deterioration as result of improper handling of fuels and lubricants for machinery.

Modification and loss of aquatic habitats.

Loss of an economic fishery.

Best practices during construction; training of workers re: handling of fuels and lubricants.

Loss of biodiversity as a result of opening formerly inaccessible areas.

Loss of important and potentially economically important species.

Locate roads and tracks through areas of low biodiversity value.

Loss of cultural values and features such as places of ceremony, worship, traditional rites.

Deterioration of local cultures.

Locate roads and tracks through areas void of important cultural features or values.

Loss of property. Loss of livelihood. Poverty increases. Ensure roads and tracks do lead to resettlement or do not remove areas of productive land.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: LOW Risk: MODERATE


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Table 6.22 Marketing Centres Significance of Overall Potential Impacts: HIGH Potential Direct Impacts




Loss of productive land. Loss of food production. Loss of livelihood leading to poverty.

Do not locate market centres on highly productive agricultural land or land that is important to various users; provide full compensation and resettlement where necessary.

Loss of areas of cultural or social importance.

Erosion of culture. Avoid areas with important cultural values which could be lost as a result of the location of the centre and the activities of the centre.

Loss of natural habitat. Loss of biodiversity. Important and potentially important economic species lost.

Erosion during construction and during operation.

Water quality deterioration downstream.

Loss of fishery and economic opportunities.

Best practices during construction. Choose site so that that during operation heavy traffic areas are not located on slopes.

Water quality deterioration as a result of concentration of people and lack of public toilets.

Illness as a result of contaminated water ingested by downstream users; eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems.

Sickness and loss of work days � economic hardship; changed ecosystem could result in lost resource economy (e.g. fishery).

Ensure market centre includes proper toilet facilities for public use.

CDA should meet with local health officials to ensure proper sanitation design.

Illness as a result of poor Sickness and loss of Ensure that toilet CDA should meet with


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hygiene (food and people).

work days � economic hardship.

locations are accompanied by washing facilities.

local health officials to ensure proper sanitation design.

Health � STDs could be introduced as a major centre could attract various traders, small entrepreneurs and, inevitably, in any centre of size, sex trade workers.

Illness leading to loss of life (HIV/AIDS).

Education programs to teach market visitors of the dangers of HIV/AIDS and other STDs.

Government programs probably already exist for promoting safe sex and warnings about the dangers of unprotected sex; CDA should link up with LGA health officer.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: LOW Risk: Low to MODERATE Table 6.23 Stock routes Significance of Overall Potential Impacts: HIGH Potential Direct Impacts




Erosion as a result of heavy livestock traffic.

Sedimentation and modification of aquatic ecosystem.

Economic losses (fishery).

Locate stock routes away from slopes wherever possible.

Natural habitat loss as a result of opening biologically significant areas and making them accessible to herd boys and others.

Biodiversity loss. Important and potentially important economic losses.

Locate stock routes away from important areas of biodiversity and natural habitat.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: NONE Risk: MODERATE Table 6.24 Watering Points


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Significance of Overall Potential Impacts: HIGH Potential Direct Impacts




Erosion. Stream sedimentation. Deterioration of aquatic ecosystems and loss of economic resources (fishery).

Avoid watering points on anything but flat terrain; and introduce controls to prevent stock from staying at any one point for long periods of time.

If water is in short supply stock herders may tend to linger for long periods of time at watering points, thus placing heavy pressure on forage in the area, leading to heavy denudation of the area and resulting in soil erosion

Loss of natural habitat as a result of concentration of livestock in one area.

Loss of biodiversity. Important and potentially important economic species lost (through grazing).

Ensure that watering points are not located in areas of important biodiversity.

If water is in short supply stock herders may tend to linger for long periods of time at watering points, thus placing heavy pressure on forages in the area.

Water losses as a result of heavy demand.

Loss of water to other users.

Shortage of irrigation water and water for domestic use.

Ensure that the location of the watering point is such that water drawn for livestock will be in excess of other current and potential demands.

Livestock health as a result of concentration of stock.

Livestock disease resulting in loss of weight gain or death resulting in economic losses.

Strengthen veterinary services and education through extension services.

Water quality deterioration with a

Illness for downstream users and others who

Ensure deep wells that are encased; control

Difficult to control livestock numbers at


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concentration of animals around source of water and contamination from manure concentrations.

use same groundwater source.

animal concentrations at watering points.

watering points.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: LOW Risk: MODERATE Table 6.25 Rehabilitation of Wells and New Wells Significance of Overall Potential Impacts: HIGH Potential Direct Impacts




Water quantity losses. Other water use opportunities are lost; current uses of same groundwater source may lose water.

Ensure rehabilitated wells and new wells are not financed in locations where withdrawal of water will disadvantage other users in the area; water sharing agreements; water pricing.

New fadama areas developed based on water availability; this could lead to additional natural habitat losses.

Comprehensive planning will determine whether or not this situation would occur; if it does, avoid financing wells and rehabilitation of wells in these areas.

Consideration during community planning exercises.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: LOW Risk: Moderate to HIGH Table 6.26 Grazing Reserve Improvement Significance of Overall Potential Impacts: LOW Potential Direct Impacts




Additional livestock numbers into the area co ld promote soil

Loss of productive land; stream sedimentation res lting in modified

Ensure that rehabilitated areas are managed on a carrying capacity basis in order that

It will be very difficult to enforce any carrying capacit n mbers


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could promote soil erosion.

resulting in modified aquatic ecosystems; loss of economic resource opportunities (e.g. fishery).

the grazing reserve is sustainable.

capacity numbers, particularly when forage is in short supply.

Additional livestock numbers into the area could promote loss of natural habitat.

Loss of biodiversity. Do not support improvements in areas where there is significant natural habitat.

Comprehensive community planning will ensure that all resource values will be considered. This will hopefully avoid resource conflicts (e.g. grazing areas in lieu of significant natural habitats.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: NONE Risk: MODERATE Table 6.27 Cooling Facilities Significance of Overall Potential Impacts: HIGH Potential Direct Impacts




Ozone depletion. Illness (global). Ensure that only cooling facilities that don�t utilize CFCs are financed.

Financing of cooling facilities relying on CFCs will not be allowed.

Residual Impact Assuming Full Mitigation: NONE Risk: LOW


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6.8 Cumulative Impacts In a project such as NFDP-II, many of the sub-projects are very small, particularly those that focus on modest lending to individual farmers. Even sub-projects at the community level may be small in size, but significant in terms of the socio-economic benefits to be gained by the people of the community. However, some of the sub-activities can result in significant potential adverse impacts if not addressed adequately. Although the majority of impacts will be insignificant, the overall cumulative effect of all small impacts could be significant. For instance, one farmer borrowing for a small quantity of chemical fertilizer will have very little effect on the environment. But, if a number of farmers within the same small watershed wish to borrow for the same reason (purchase of a small quantity of chemical fertilizer), the effects on the receiving water body could be significant, particularly if there are important aquatic communities to protect or if there are downstream water users. Similarly, if one community wishes to de-vegetate and drain a very small portion of a fadama area, the negative effect on the overall natural ecosystem of the fadama will probably be insignificant. However, if several communities surrounding the fadama all wish to use NFPD-II for the same purpose, but each only wishing to develop a very small portion, the cumulative effect of all of the small developments could have a significant effect on the fadama ecosystem (e.g. reducing its area below critical mass level for habitat for a particular rare/endangered species). In addition to the cumulative effect that the small activities financed through NFDP-II could have, consideration also has to be given to other developments and activities that take place external to NFDP-II. Perhaps the cumulative effect of all NFDP-II activities is insignificant, but when considered with the effect of other activities (e.g. another donor financed agricultural project) in the area, the cumulative effect could be serious. As well as examining the cumulative effect spatially, it has to be examined temporally. That is, the effect may not manifest itself immediately, but only over a long period of time. Cumulative effects are difficult to determine and certainly the contribution that one project or sub-project may have towards the cumulative effect is equally difficult to determine. The only practical and reasonable approach to avoid significant cumulative effects or significant contributions to the cumulative effect is to ensure that effective monitoring is established. The environment can be monitored over time as development expands. Certain indicators would be established that could provide the necessary warning signs (e.g. water quality parameters approaching the limits of national standards) to indicate that the increasing level of activities is heading towards unacceptable environmental conditions. 6.9 Residual Impacts Residual impacts are those that will remain as a result of NFDP-II implementation after mitigation has been carried out. If mitigation is fully implemented, the residual impacts will be minimal. However it is unlikely that this will occur and therefore the residual impact will be greater than th minimum. Effective environmental monitoring will help to ensure that mitigation is carried out. There is likely to be some water contamination, some additional erosion and lost natural habitat. Periodic monitoring will indicate the nature of the various impacts and the level of occurrence.


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7. ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES Irrigation development would raise agricultural productivity, rural welfare and equality. However, such intervention adversely affects the ecology, the natural habitat and the social and economic functions of the ecosystems. The ecosystems provide various ecological services, including, among others, the purification of air and water; flood control; detoxification and decomposition of wastes; generation and preservation of soils; control of agricultural pests; pollination of crops and natural vegetation; dispersal of seeds; cycling of nutrients; maintenance of biodiversity; protection of coastal shores from erosion; and provision of aesthetic beauty, intellectual stimulation, solitude and spiritual fulfillment. Some of these benefits can be quantified and their value compared to the economic return of irrigation development. Accordingly, three Project Scenarios were defined and analysed. 7.1 Scenario 1: Not implementing the NFDP II - Without Project Scenario The economic value of services which derive from a natural fadama land (fisheries, forest products, grazing, medicinal plants, etc.) � the �Without Project Scenario� was assessed based on literature data, adjusted to the local conditions. The quantified benefits include:

o Food and medicine. Direct resource commodities such as fish production, medicines, agricultural products, etc.

o Nature/outdoor recreational services: e.g., observation of wildlife in a natural environment or fishing on a secluded lake.

o Aesthetic services, cultural, symbolic, moral and historic services. The beauty of natural systems and individual species and the role played by plants and animal species in particular societies.

o Other benefits include: o Natural habitat, o Nutrient recycling and genetic diversity, and o Scientific services; the potential of species and systems to increase human knowledge

about the natural world.

The monetary value of global ecosystem services were estimated by Constanza et al, 1997, at about US$33 trillion per year, compared with a global GNP of about US$18 trillion per year. These estimates would probably increase as ecosystem services become more stressed and scarce in the future. This is not to ignore the collective choices for the rights to resource use by future generations or within the present generation the issues of sustainability and ecosystem values. The global estimates for relevant fadama ecosystems services were adjusted to local conditions as shown in Table 7.1.


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Table 7.1: Global Values of Fadama Relevant Ecosystem Services US$/ha/year

Global Value of Ecological Services

Value of Ecological Services relevant to the Fadama

Relevant Ecosystem Total Of Which Food and Raw Material

Total Of Which Food and Raw Material

Temperate Forest 302 75 Grassland/rangeland 232 67 Lakes/Rivers 8498 41 Crop Land 92 54

Wetlands/Fadama

Gas Regulation 133 15 Disturbance regulation 4539 45 Water regulation 15 15 Water supply 3800 40 Waste treatment 4177 45 Habitat refugia 304 Food production 256 256 25 25 Raw materials 106 106 10 10 Recreation 574 5 Cultural 881 10 Total Wetlands 14785 362 210 40 Source : Constanza et al.1997 & Consultant’s Estimates

Accordingly, the value of the ecosystem services provided by the fadama both as watershed, carbon sinks and food is estimated at an equivalent of $210 per hectare, of which food and raw material contribute an equivalent of US$40. Other ecological services, such as social benefits and the preservation of open space are not quantified. The present value of these services is indefinite. • Conservation and Monitoring Cost Preserving the economic value of the natural ecosystems will require an investment in conservation and monitoring. Open land not cultivated is also subjected to hazardous fires, dumping of wastes and environmental nuisance. The cost of conservation is estimated at about 10% of the estimated value of services, or about an equivalent of US$20. Thus, the net value of the ecosystem services is reduced to about an equivalent of US$190. Generally, wetland in different regions will have different use and the alternative uses will vary with location, and the estimated value of services, as was observed in this study and Barbier et al, 1997 who indicated that the Hadejia � Nguru wetlands provide in ecological services an equivalent of US$ 167 per hectare.


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7.2 Scenario 2: Fadama Irrigation - With Project Scenario 7.2.1 Production Costs • Crop Budgets Common crops grown in the fadama areas were identified and crop budgets, indicating production cost, total revenue and gross return were calculated for non-irrigated and irrigated crops, including irrigation water cost. • Irrigation Costs Development of irrigation requires capital investment in the irrigation systems and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs of the irrigation, drainage systems and other related infrastructure. A simple irrigation system based on a 2�3� petrol engine and a low-lift centrifugal pump will require an investment of about N 50,000. The annual cost of using the portable pump-set to pump water from a stream or shallow tube well will amount to about a total of N5,850�10,800 per ha/season (PCU, 2002). Drilling of a standard borehole to a depth of 100 m, with a discharge capacity of 25 cum/hr (50,000 cum/season) will require a capital cost of N 2.7 million. Accordingly, the annual costs will amount to a total of N311,000. The cost per cum will amount to about N6/cum. Assuming an irrigation requirements of 6000 cum/ha, the cost of irrigation will amount to N36,000 per ha. Introduction of on-farm irrigation systems, such as central pivot or drip irrigation will increase the capital investment by US$ 1000/ha for a central pivot system and US$625/ha for a low cost drip irrigation system. Full-scale irrigation development based on a surface water source will increase the cost to about US$ 4000�5000/ha. The higher costs are justified for much improved production systems than anticipated under NFDP-II. Therefore, the low cost systems are more appropriate. 7.2.2 Gross Revenues For a typical holding size of 1 ha of land, the weighted cropping intensity is 110 percent, of which 0.6 ha is cultivated during the rainy season and 0.5 ha is irrigated during the dry season. Based on the assumed crop mix and cropping intensities, in the current early stages of irrigation development, the volume of traditionally cultivated farm units would yield a revenue of about N165,000 and a Gross Return of about N 71,100 (US$ 600). The incremental gross return, as the result of irrigation amounts to about N35,000 (US$ 315) per ha. The difference between traditional rain-fed cropping and irrigated cropping seems to be sufficiently large to encourage the expansion of irrigation on a much larger area. Estimates of the same range of 36,308 Naira (US$ 413) per hectare were made for the Hadejia-Nguru floodplains, (by Acharya, 2000, Acharya and Barbier, 2002) for irrigated agriculture using water from the shallow groundwater aquifer. 7.2.3 Value of Environmental Degradation due to Agriculture Intensification of production at the expense of other ecological services may damage the environment. The potential damage to the environment due to agricultural production was estimated for UK agriculture at about US$314/ha (Table 7.2).


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Table 7.2: Damage to Environment due to Agriculture (US$/ha)

UK Estimates for the Middle Belt, Nigeria

Water Degradation 30 5 Air pollution 150 5 Soil degradation 13 15 Ecosystems 17 5 Human 103 5 Total 314 35

Source: Perry et al 2000 and Consultant Estimates and Consultant’s estimates

The potential damage to the environment due to farming activity on the fadama in the Middle Belt is estimated at an equivalent of about US$35/ha. Thus, of the gross return from crop production of N 71,100/ha (US$600/ha), the sum of N4,200/ha has to be deducted. The damage to the environment might be greatly increased in due course when agricultural production is intensified, consuming larger amounts of inputs and discharging vast quantities of pollutants.

7.3 Scenario 3: Project Through River Basin Development Authorities At the project level, the Project Concept Document (PCD) identified alternatives to NFDP-II to include large-scale irrigation typified by the River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs).

The use of existing large water reservoirs and sprinkler irrigation systems, most of which were constructed by the RBDAs or state governments and managed by government parastatals for the provision of potable and/or irrigation water was considered. This project alternative is rejected because it represents very high investment costs, has been poorly managed in the past and is not amenable to management by the smallholder farmers� organisations that are the focus of this project. It is proposed to discuss with the government, within the context of the Rural Development Strategy, the possible privatisation of some of the large irrigation schemes considering the initial investments in them as sunk cost.

7.4 Comparison of Two Alternatives for the Three Ecological Regions A comparison of two of the three scenarios of fadama development in the three ecological regions, showing the economic benefits of Fadama irrigation against the benefits of conservation of the Fadama the �without Project Scenario� is given in Table 7.3. Fadama irrigation results in a significant increase in the economic return of the fadama land, especially in the North and the Middle Belt in which the ecological conditions favor the production of high valued crops. The estimated increment is likely to increase further under NFDP-II, assuming that advanced production technology will be introduced.


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Table 7.3: Cost – Benefit Analysis of Fadama Farming (N/Ha)

Item North Middle Belt South Irrigation farming – With Project Scenario Total Revenue Cost of Production

225,000.00 74,000.00

106,100.00 36,100.00

69,940.00 29,515.00

Gross Return 151,000.00 71,000.00 40,425.00 Damage to the Environment due to Cultivation (6%)

9,060.00 4,200.00 2,425.50

Adjusted Gross return 141,940.00 66,800.00 37,995.50 Fadama Ecosystem Services – Without Project Scenario Fishing 6,000.00 6,400.00 5,000.00 Livestock 60,000.00 8,000.00 3,000.00 Gathering of NTFP 3,000.00 3,850.00 5,000.00 Water consumption 8,000.00 3,500.00 855.00 Fuel wood 12,000.00 3,000.00 500.00 Total Revenue (Without Project) 91,500.00 27,050.00 15,855.00 Environment Conservation Cost (10%) (9,150.00) (2,705.00) (1,586.00) Adjusted Gross return 82,350.00 24,345.00 14,270.00 Incremental Benefits- With Project Naira 59,590.00 42,455.00 23,725.50 US $ Equiv. (1/125) 475 340 190

Source: Field Survey (2002) and Perry et al (2000). 7.5 NFDP-II Capital Investment in Fadama Development Based on available data, a budget of about US$ 127 million will be allocated for the various project components and in addition a sum of US$ 20 million will be devoted for environmental and social safeguards and conservation activities (Table 7.4).

Table 7.4: NFDP II Components and Budget Allocation (in US $ million)

NFDP-II Components Total

Building the Capacity of Fadama Users 36 Demand Driven Infrastructure Investment 48 Demand Responsive Advisory Services 24 Pilot Project for Income Generating Activities 12 Project Management 7 Sub-total 127


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Total 127

Area Development @ US$1000/ha 60,000 ha Area Development @ US$2000/ha 30,000 ha

Source: WB PAD 2001 and Consultant Estimates

Of the available budget, a sum of about US$60 million will be devoted to the development of physical infrastructure. At this stage of NFDP II preparation, the exact area to be developed and the related capital and operational costs are yet to be defined. However, assuming a capital investment of US1000-2000/ha, an area of about 60,000-30,000 ha (1-2.0 %) of the potential area classified as wetlands will benefit. 7.6 Cost Benefit Ratio The location and the areas to be developed are not yet known and so the costs and the estimated revenues will significantly vary between and within the various ecological zones. Therefore, a cash flow analysis and the resulting NPV or Cost/Benefit ratio followed by sensitivity analysis were not conducted. Based on a previous study, related to NFDP-I in Niger State, the Economic Rate of Return (ERR) for the overall Project was estimated at 17% while that for the Small Scale Irrigation component amounted to 49%. Irrespective of the estimated ERR figure, it can be concluded that the preservation of natural fadama does not yield economic return of similar magnitude as agricultural production, even if quantifiable and non- quantifiable social and cultural values are added to the equation, including long term effects on water resources, vegetation cover, wildlife and biodiversity. Accordingly, NFDP-II is justified, provided that the environmental aspects are not neglected.


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8. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN (EMP) 8.1 General The Environmental Management Plan (EMP) is designed to provide guidance to the implementing agency of the NFDP-II to ensure that impacts on the environment, as identified in the EIA, are mitigated. The EMP consists of four main parts: i) management; ii) detailed mitigation activities of impacts; iii) institutional capacity strengthening program; and, iv) budgets, schedules and responsibilities.

An environmental and social management framework (ESMF) detailing the implementation of the EMP is provided as a stand alone document.1 For mitigation measures in Section 8.3 below, each broad category of impacts is addressed in general terms re: actions required to ensure that the impact does not occur or at the least, is minimized. The tables presented in Section 6. (Impact Assessment) provide mitigation solutions for each of the likely sub-projects (refer to Table 8.2 - 8.26) to be financed through the Project. 8.2 Management 8.2.1 Management System for NFDP-II Figure 8.1 shows the system that will be used for managing the NFDP-II, particularly reporting responsibilities and the flow of information.

1 Environmental and Social Assessment Framework for NFDP-II. February 2003.


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Figure 8.1: NFDP-II Management System

[Technical problems to be inserted later]

8.2.2 Community Development Planning and Environmental Assessment Planning at the community level will be integrally linked with environmental analysis and the conducting of EAs. While the facilitator group will be conducting surveys to determine areas of sensitivity, this will be done within the context of knowing that EAs may be required, depending on the category of the various sub-projects that may be proposed. The communities will realize this responsibility and during planning will identify and design sub-projects that are environmentally benign, environmentally enhancing, or at the least have impacts that can be readily mitigated. Training, checklists, and matrices (refer to Annex B) will assist both the facilitator group and the communities in identifying and designing sub-projects. In the unavoidable situation of a sub-project being selected that will fall into Category A or B, the facilitator group and the community involved will have advanced knowledge of the consequences to expect. Not the least of these will be the financial costs involved in conducting an EA and implementing the resulting EMP, and the delays for sub-project approval and financial disbursement. The procedure that will be followed, leading up to the preparation of the EIA, the approval of the EIA and the preparation of the EMP are illustrated in Figure 8.2.


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Figure 8.2: Procedures Leading to EA, EMP and Follow-up Monitoring

[Technical problems to be inserted later] 8.3 Mitigation 8.3.1 Best Practices Much of the mitigation for addressing the impacts will be conducted through the application of best practices and these are indicated in Table .8.1.

Table 8.1: Best Practices to be Adopted for Sub-project Activities

Sub-project Activity General Impact Best Practice Land clearing Natural habitat loss

Wildlife losses Soil erosion

Follow CDP Follow CDP Don�t clear in wet season

Drainage Natural habitat loss Follow CDP Irrigation Salinization

Water-logging Water-borne diseases Malaria carrying mosquitoes Reduction of groundwater and / or surface water

Planning to include proper drainage Follow CDP re: areas to be irrigated (partially based on health threats) Follow CDP

Wells Reduction of groundwater Follow CDP Fishing equipment Overfishing Follow CDP Chemical fertilizer application

Surface water nutrient loading Loss of soil moisture holding capacity

Follow application advice of extension officers Follow CDP and place more reliance on organic fertilizers

Pesticide application Surface water contamination Worker illness

Applied only within the framework of an IPM; apply only internationally approved chemicals and recommended doses

Cultivation Soil erosion Contour ploughing


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Air pollution

Crop rotations Maintenance of crop residue Ban on burning residue

Livestock rearing Surface water contamination

Reduce concentrations of livestock

Tractors, vehicles and small machinery

Soil and surface water contamination from spilled fuels and lubricants, and discarded lubricants

Proper handling and storage of fuels, lubricants and wastes

Construction (e.g. market centres)

Soil erosion Gastro-illnesses, Surface water contamination

Follow construction guidelines to be developed Proper personal hygiene to be followed

Best practices will be passed on to the community groups and individuals that will be financed through the NFDP-II. This role will be carried out by the GoN agricultural extension officers and/or the extension officers that will be contracted through the extension component of the Project. 8.3.2 Mitigation by Identified Sub-Projects Tables 8.2 to 8.26 provide analysis of each of the likely sub-project activities that have been identified. Practical mitigation is described for each potential impact with indicative costing and responsibilities. It must be remembered that these are sub-activities that are thought to be most likely to be those for which communities and individual farmers will request financial support. In most cases in the following tables the indicative costs are indicated as none. This means that there would be no additional costs to those that are inherent with conducting the extension program which is a component of the NFDP-II and such costs would be borne within that component.


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Table 8.2: Seed Potential Direct Impacts


Consequences Mitigation Required Costs and Responsibility

Positive impact; increased yields and food security for the small holding farmer

Use of chemical fertilizers, and pesticides

Same consequences as described for chemical fertilizers and pesticides (see tables 6.5 and 6.6)

Determination and application of optimum quantities and scheduling for fertilizers and other inputs; introduction of an integrated pest management program (IPM). Mitigation will be moderately difficult without support of an active extension service.

Community and individual farmers with extension officers. Cost: None

Table 8.3: Pedigree Seed Potential Direct Impacts


Consequences Mitigation Required Cost and Responsibility

Positive impact through increased yields and improved farm economy

Risk of introduction of genetically modified organisms

Genetic drift into non-modified populations of same plant species; continual dependence on pesticides; health side effects unknown

Only a total ban on GMOs will be effective

Ministry of Agriculture through enforcement of policy. Cost: Enforcement cost borne by MoA

Long term dependence on high yielding

Adoption of organic farming techniques

Communication between communities (or


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varieties (HYV) requiring continual high level inputs; could be costly to the farmer

individual farmer) and extension officers. Cost: None

Increased use of high levels of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and perhaps other chemicals

Same consequences as described for chemical fertilizers and pesticides (see tables6.5 and 6.6)

Determination and application of optimum quantities and scheduling for fertilizers and other inputs; introduction of an integrated pest management program (IPM). Mitigation will be moderately difficult

Extension component of the Project will be responsible. Cost: None, however, if an IPM is to be designed and implemented this would involve additional expenditures to be determined.

Table 8.4: Fertilizer Potential Direct Impacts



Reduction in soil organic content

Modified soil structure and reduction in soil moisture holding capacity

In the long run, possible loss of productivity as a result of insufficient soil moisture; loss of soil�s natural fertility

Fertilizer application in conjunction with crop rotation practices. Further reduce chemical fertilizer use through incorporation of various organic cultivation practices. Mitigation not easy since farmers will be swayed by productivity results (will be dependent on fertilizer costs)

Extension component of the Project will provide guidance. Cost: None

Emission of greenhouse Contribution to global Climate change Optimum fertilizer Extension component of


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gases from chemical fertilizers

warming quantities and application schedules should be planned and implemented Mitigation moderately easy since fertilizer costs are high

the Project will provide guidance. Cost: None

Nutrient enrichment of water bodies

Eutrophication of water bodies Contaminated potable water sources

Modified aquatic ecosystems Loss of household water supply; must search for new source

Optimum fertilizer quantities and application schedules should be planned and implemented Mitigation not easy since farmers will be swayed by productivity results (will be dependent on fertilizer costs)

Extension component of the Project will provide guidance. Cost: None

Table 8.5: Pesticides Potential Direct Impacts



Impaired health of handlers including those who store, sell, transport and apply

Increased health costs; lost work time; lost family income; insurance costs

Training in handling and use of pesticides; Introduce an IPM (integrated pest management program). Mitigation will likely be difficult.

Extension component but also consultants for training. Cost: If an IPM is to be designed and implemented this would involve some additional expenditures to be determined. $1500.00 for one day training course per community.


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Impaired health of food consumers

Increased health costs; lost work time; lost family income

Health warnings to wash foods; Use of appropriate chemicals that minimize residue and are least harmful to consumers; IPM program. Mitigation will be relatively difficult.

Ministry of Health on a country-wide scale if foods grown are to be sold widely; Extension component to advice on best pesticides to use. Cost: Local advertising re: health warnings: $500 / community; If an IPM is to be designed and implemented this would involve some additional expenditure to be determined.

Soil contamination Loss of productive land Use of appropriate pesticides that do not have residuals or in which residuals do no harm to soil. Mitigation will be relatively difficult.

Extension component provides advice. Cost: None. If an IPM is to be designed and implemented this would involve some additional expenditures to be determined.

Ground and surface water contamination

. impaired health of local and downstream water consumers . aquatic ecosystems damaged

Increased health costs; lost work time; lost family income Biodiversity losses

Use of least harmful pesticides; Consider IPM Mitigation relatively difficult.

Extension component provides advice. Cost: None. If an IPM is to be designed and implemented this would involve some additional expenditures to be determined.

Table 8.6: Pedigree livestock Potential Direct Impacts



Positive Impact Leading to better quality meat and other animal products; increased yields and increased

N/A


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farm incomes Table 8.7: Livestock for finishing Potential Direct Impacts



Carrying capacity of pasture is exceeded

Loss of ground cover Soil erosion Loss of water holding capacity

Reduced productivity Loss of soil Sedimentation Hydrological regime modified resulting in flooding and drought conditions

Ensure that pasture carrying capacities are not exceeded. Mitigation is difficult.

Extension component of the Project. Enforcement through Project monitoring and MoA extension monitoring. Cost: a monitoring cost of $500 / community / year

Stock may threaten forested or other protected areas

Reduced vegetation cover Soil erosion Loss of water holding capacity

Loss of soil Sedimentation Hydrological regime modified resulting in flooding and drought conditions Reduced biodiversity

Ensure that grazing does not occur in protected or other important areas. Mitigation moderately easy.

Enforcement through project monitoring and MoA extension monitoring. Cost: included in the above costs for monitoring.

Livestock in a confined area � concentration of manure

High nutrient loading in runoff waters leading to poor water quality

Management of manure; alternative to confined quarters. Mitigation easy.

Extension component of the Project; community enforcement of a local by-law. Cost: included in the above costs for monitoring

Close confinement can result in animal diseases

Loss of stock and income

Alternative to confined quarters. Mitigation moderately difficult.

Extension component of the Project along with the community. Cost: none

Table 8.8: Land purchase Potential Direct Potential Indirect Consequences Mitigation Required Cost and Responsibility


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Impacts Impacts Current non-agricultural land may have biodiversity or watershed protection values which would be lost

Reduced biodiversity; loss of forest cover; soil erosion

Stream sedimentation leading to aquatic ecosystem changes

Land not already being used for agriculture and which has watershed or biodiversity values should not be converted to agriculture. Mitigation should be easy through regulation.

Community. Cost: none

Table 8.9: Tractors Potential Direct Impacts



Soil and water contamination from machine fuels and lubricants

Loss of soil productivity Loss of potable water

Loss of crop productivity Must find alternative source of potable water

Good practices to be carried out by equipment operators. Agricultural machinery should be kept in good repair and fuels and lubricants stored and handled in appropriately designed areas. Mitigation will be moderately difficult.

Community and individual farmers. Cost: $1000 for training per community; Storage facility costs will be part of the sub-project cost

Air contamination, CO2 releases

Contribution to greenhouse effect

Contribution to global warming

Ensure all fossil fuel engines are efficient and well maintained. Mitigation will be difficult.

Community and individual farmers. Cost: none; tractor maintenance costs borne by the farmer through the sub-project


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Soil compaction Runoff Erosion and sedimentation

Ensure equipment of a size that suitable for soil conditions. Mitigation will be difficult.

Extension component of the Project. Cost: none

Table 8.10: Land preparation Potential Direct Impacts



Soil erosion

Stream sedimentation Modified hydrological regime

Loss of productivity Loss of soil moisture Aquatic ecosystem modified Aquatic ecosystem modified Flooding and drought conditions increased

Contour ploughing required Optimal ploughing schedules to ensure minimal time for exposed soil. Organic agricultural practices adopted (e.g. shallow tilling) Mitigation will be difficult.


Table 8.11: Farm implements Potential Direct Impacts



Deep cultivation contributes to soil erosion

Loss of soil productivity and stream sedimentation

Water regulation losses; modified aquatic ecosystems

Zero or shallow tilling). Mitigation will be difficult


Table 8.12: Small equipment Potential Direct Potential Indirect Consequences Mitigation Required Cost and Responsibility


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Impacts Impacts NOT APPLICABLE

Table 8.13: Irrigation equipment and irrigation maintenance Potential Direct Impacts



Reduction of groundwater; extraction of surface water

Loss of water to other current and potential users

Water sharing plan to ensure equitable distribution. Mitigation very difficult.

Community Cost: possible need for consultancy to organize and water sharing plan; $5000 / community

Salinization; water logging

Loss of productive land Appropriate drainage system. Mitigation relatively easy.

Community and extension component of project Cost: None; effective drainage covered in overall cost of sub-project.

Health; malaria, water-borne diseases

Illnesses, lost productivity and incomes

Education, spraying and other control methods

Community and Ministry of Health to include spraying and education Cost: $1000 per community for duration of Project

Table 8.14: Farm buildings for stock, machinery and chemicals Potential Direct Impacts



Reduction in the amount of land available for food production

Reduced income from lower total crop production

Efficient design to minimize space required. Mitigation easy.

Individual farmer and community. Cost: None


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Table 8.15: Primary Processing Potential Direct Impacts



Mitigation Required Cost and Responsibility

Surface water contamination from effluent discharge (e.g. whey from dairy processing, residues from oil processing, or any processing using chemicals)

Impaired health of downstream users; loss of potable water supply; damaged aquatic ecosystems

Increased health costs, lost work days and family income; alternative source of potable water must be found; reduced biodiversity

Assurance that effluents are treated before discharge; alternative ways of handling effluents (e.g. recycling). Mitigation will be easy.

Community and extension component of Project. Cost: None; design and treatment facilities will be part of sub-project overall loan

Injury and illness as a result of poor working conditions

Injuries and illness; lost work time; lost family incomes

Provision of appropriate safety features and protective clothing; training, awareness of dangers. Mitigation relatively difficult.

Extension component of the Project. Cost: additional training required: $2000 but this will be part of sub-project loan.

Table 8.16: Fuel, Lubricants, etc. Potential Direct Impacts




Soil contamination Loss of soil productivity; lost revenue

Proper storage and handling of fuel; containment of fuel containers within concrete bounded area

Community and individual farmer. Cost: $1000 for training per community; Storage facility costs will be part of the sub-project cost

Ground and surface water contamination

Loss of domestic and irrigation water supply; illness to humans and livestock; lost revenue; altered and damaged

Proper storage and handling of fuel; containment of fuel containers within concrete bounded area

Community and individual farmers. Cost: Included in the above


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aquatic ecosystems Table 8.17: Veterinary Services Potential Direct Impacts




Meat and animal products containing hormones and other chemicals

Human illness Proper awareness and training of farmers and animal health workers; Organic methods of livestock husbandry should be applied; minimal application of only necessary drugs

Community and extension component of the Project. Cost: None as any training would be informal and through the extension component of the Project.

Soil and water contamination with insecticides used in dip tanks

Contaminated soil and water not useable for cultivation or potable water; or water for irrigation; Affected downstream aquatic ecosystems

Proper disposal of diptank liquids to avoid soil and water contamination Mitigation will be easy.

Community Cost: Unknown but should be built into the overall cost of the sub-project.

Table 8.18: Fishing Nets, Boats and Motors Potential Direct Impacts




Possible increase in number of fishers

Conflicts with cultivators could increase

Only current fishers would be eligible to apply for nets

Community and Project Unit. Cost: None

Increased pressure on fishery

Reduced fishery Strict catch limits and net mesh sizes. Mitigation may very difficult

Community and local GoN fishery / natural resource officer. Cost: $10,000 to prepare by-laws

d d t i t h li it


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and determine catch limits, season and mesh sizes; cost would be for all of NFDP-II areas

Water quality deterioration with motor oil and motor fuel entering into surface water system

Reduced economic fishery and generally, damaged aquatic ecosystem

Training in the handling, storage and use of fuels and lubricants.

Community and individual fishers. Cost: None; this will be covered in training costs for fuel handling and storage for farmers (see Table 8.16)

Table 8.19: Rehabilitated Irrigation Systems Potential Direct Impacts




Surface water losses to other users

Modification of downstream aquatic ecosystems; loss of fishery

Downstream users lose water for agriculture and domestic uses

Ensure that other users will not be disadvantaged

Community and PMU. Cost: None; will be built into overall CDP

Salinization Loss of productive land Ensure effective drainage conditions and program

Community and extension component of the Project. Cost: None; costs will be part of the cost of designing and implementing a properly functioning system

Lowered water tables Loss of water for other uses

Ensure that ground water for irrigation is not being used by other users; introduce water sharing agreements where relevant and possible

Community and extension component of the Project. Cost: possible need for consultancy to organize and water sharing plan; $5000 / community but this cost would be covered by similar need for new irrigation systems (refer Table 8.13)


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Table 8.20: Access Roads and Tracks Potential Direct Impacts




Soil erosion Water quality deterioration; modification of aquatic habitats

Best practices for access road construction and maintenance; road alignment avoiding steep slopes

Community and extension component of the Project. Cost: None

Loss of natural habitat Biodiversity losses Loss of important economic species

Locate roads and tracks through areas of low biodiversity value

Community and extension component of the Project. Cost: None

Water quality deterioration as result of improper handling of fuels and lubricants for machinery

Modification and loss of aquatic habitats

Loss of an economic fishery

Best practices during construction; training of workers re: handling of fuels and lubricants

Same

Loss of biodiversity as a result of opening formerly inaccessible areas

Loss of important and potentially economically important species

Locate roads and tracks through areas of low biodiversity value

Same

Loss of cultural values and features such as places of ceremony, worship, traditional rites

Deterioration of local cultures

Locate roads and tracks through areas void of important cultural features or values

Same

Loss of property Loss of livelihood Poverty increases Ensure roads and tracks do lead to resettlement or do not remove areas of productive land

Same

Table 8.21: Marketing Centres Potential Direct Potential Indirect Potential Mitigation Required Remarks


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Impacts Impacts Consequences Loss of productive land Loss of food production Loss of livelihood

leading to poverty Do not locate market centres on highly productive agricultural land or land that is important to various users; provide full compensation and resettlement where necessary

Community Cost: None; covered through the CDP

Loss of areas of cultural or social importance

Erosion of culture Avoid areas with important cultural values which could be lost as a result of the location of the centre and the activities of the centre

Same

Loss of natural habitat Loss of biodiversity Important and potentially important economic species lost

Avoid areas of important natural habitat

Same

Erosion during construction and during operation

Water quality deterioration downstream

Loss of fishery and economic opportunities

Best practices during construction; choose a site ensuring that operation of heavy traffic areas is not located on slopes.

Community and extension services. Cost: $2000 per community for training contractors in best practices to employ

Water quality deterioration as a result of concentration of people and lack of public toilets

Illness as a result of contaminated water ingested by downstream users; eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems

Sickness and loss of work days � economic hardship; changed ecosystem could result in lost resource economy (e.g. fishery)

Ensure market centre includes proper toilet facilities for public use

Community and GoN health officials. Cost: None; facilities and their costs will be part of the sub-project

Illness as a result of poor hygiene (food and people)

Sickness and loss of work days � economic hardship

Ensure that toilet locations are accompanied by washing facilities; public

Community and GoN health officials. Cost: $1000 for education program


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education including signage Health � STDs could be introduced as a major centre could attract various traders, small entrepreneurs and, inevitably, in any centre of size, sex trade workers

Illness leading to loss of life (HIV/AIDS)

Education programs to teach market visitors of the dangers of HIV/AIDS and other STDs

Community and GoN health officials. Cost: $1000 contribution to GoN health (HIV/AIDS) awareness program

Table 8.22: Stock Routes Potential Direct Impacts




Erosion as a result of heavy livestock traffic

Sedimentation and modification of aquatic ecosystem

Economic losses (fishery)

Locate stock routes away from slopes wherever possible

Community Cost: None; part of CDP

Natural habitat loss as a result of opening biologically significant areas and making them accessible to herd boys and others

Biodiversity loss Important and potentially important economic losses

Locate stock routes away from important areas of biodiversity and natural habitat

Same

Table 8.23: Water points Potential Direct Impacts




Erosion Stream sedimentation Deterioration of aquatic ecosystems and loss of economic resources (fishery)

Avoid watering points on anything but flat terrain; and introduce controls to prevent stock from staying at any one point for long periods of time

Community Cost: $1000 per year for community to hire a control officer

Loss of natural habitat Loss of biodiversity Important and Ensure that watering Community


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as a result of concentration of livestock in one area

potentially important economic species lost (through grazing)

points are not located in areas of important biodiversity

Cost: None, done through the CDP process

Water losses as a result of heavy demand

Loss of water to other users

Shortage of irrigation water and water for domestic use

Ensure that the location of the watering point is such that water drawn for livestock will be in excess of other current and potential demands

Community Cost: None, done through the CDP process

Livestock health as a result of concentration of stock

Livestock disease resulting in loss of weight gain or death resulting in economic losses

Strengthen veterinary services and education through extension.

Community, and individual livestock owners and extension component of the Project Cost: None, accomplished through extension component

Water quality deterioration with a concentration of animals around source of water and contamination from manure concentrations

Illness for downstream users and others who use same groundwater source

Ensure deep wells that are encased; control animal concentrations at watering points

Community Cost: $1000 per year for community to hire a control officer but this is covered in the above (re: erosion)

Table 8.24: Rehabilitation of wells and new wells Potential Direct Impacts




Water quantity losses Other water use opportunities are lost; current uses of same groundwater source may lose water

Ensure rehabilitated wells and new wells are not financed in locations where withdrawal of water will disadvantage other users in the area; water sharing agreements; water pricing

Community Cost: possible need for consultancy to organize a water sharing plan; $5000 / community but this cost would be covered by similar need for an agreement re:


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irrigation water (refer Table 8.13) New fadama areas

developed based on water availability; this could lead to additional natural habitat losses

Comprehensive planning will determine whether or not this situation would occur; if it does, avoid financing wells and rehabilitation of wells in these areas

Community Cost: None; one through CPD

Table 8.25: Grazing reserve improvement Potential Direct Impacts




Additional livestock numbers into the area could promote soil erosion

Loss of productive land; stream sedimentation resulting in modified aquatic ecosystems; loss of economic resource opportunities (e.g. fishery)

Ensure that rehabilitated areas are managed on a carrying capacity basis in order that the grazing reserve is sustainable

Community along with the extension component of the Project. Cost: $1000 per year for community to hire a control officer but this will be shared with watering point sub-project (refer to Table 8.23)

Additional livestock numbers into the area could promote loss of natural habitat

Loss of biodiversity Do not support improvements in areas where there is significant natural habitat

Community through the CPD process. Cost: None

Table 8.26: Cooling Facilities Potential Direct Impacts




Ozone depletion Illness (global)

Ensure that only cooling facilities that don�t utilize CFCs are financed

GoN and community Cost: None


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8.4 Mitigation Summaries A detailed description of the plan and its components is given in Annex D and summarized below: 8.4.1 Selection of Sites Expansion to new fadama areas should be limited, focusing as much as possible on the intensification and proper cultivation of already developed fadama, used for irrigated and rain � fed farming. The targeting of development into sites already converted to farmland would avoid unnecessary encroachment onto natural habitats and forest reserves. Areas already developed should be optimized regarding the use of soil and water for irrigation, employing water resources management principles, on a river basin or sub-catchment�s level. New Fadama area should be subjected to a screening process, as follows: • Delineation and demarcation of the area, using where available up-to-date land survey, satellite maps and or aerial photographs and definition of property rights of all land users, including those of pastoralists. • Land tenure should be addressed as early as possible, since land disputes could delay the

project execution. The nature and extent of potential conflict between different users of wetland resources [farmers, irrigators, pastoralists, and fishermen] and potentially affected people and their location should be determined and shown on maps of the project area.

• Land disputes should be dealt with to ensure that the project is not harmful to the interests of others, to ensure that conflicting claims have not won recognition or been actively pursued, and that other claimants to disputed area have no objection to the project.

Identified areas, should first be first screened for environment and socia1 impacts, likely to cause significant impacts. A localized ecosystem approach should be adopted, analyzing the cumulative impacts, as follows: • Delineation of up-to-date maps of the area and the areas possessed by the communities. • Definition of rights of all land users, including those of pastoralists and possible conflict between different users of wetland resources [farmers, irrigators, pastoralists, and fishermen]. • Inventory of suitable lands for irrigation, to include soil analysis and water availability • Survey of land, hydrology, hydro-geology and ecological impacts. 8.4.2 Protection of Natural Habitat and Critical Wetlands • General Significant conversion of natural habitats into fadama farm land should be avoided, while known and declared wetlands critical for the survival of any threatened species or otherwise of known high conservation value, such that they could qualify as Critical Natural Habitat (OP 4.04) should be preserved and protected. Where possible, as part of the development process, areas of fadama land should be protected and used as enclaves and corridors for livestock and wildlife. These areas, could also serve as places of refuge into which animals likely to be displaced from the fadama areas can migrate.


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• Forests The following, regarding the management of forests, should be followed:

. Management involving clearing in some areas and replanting in others to provide tree lanes and wind-breaks along drains, roads and canals. . Conservation of genetic resources, avoiding the extinction of the general gene pool and biodiversity. . Protection of current and potential commercial forested areas and plants of botanical importance, avoiding over exposure of cultivated fadama lands, while securing habitat for any existing wildlife. . Demarcation of biological corridors and specific protection areas including fragile ecosystems.

• Wildlife Where necessary, animals could be trapped and removed to stock conservation areas in where populations are low, while endemic species on farmers� fallowed areas or in community natural reserves area. should be protected.

• Protection of Critical Ecosystems Critical natural habitat within the project areas or any natural habitat areas which could be affected by the project within existing or proposed protected areas will be identified and efforts will be made to avoid significant damage (conversion and degradation). • Cultural Property Sites of historical or cultural significance such as sacred groves or animals should be preserved and respected to avoid confrontation from the local population.

o Planning of Preservation Areas Wetland areas for protection will be identifed and mapped, indicating their approximate size, the natural habitat, the type of the ecosystem(s), protected area category, location name, protection status, use, national and international importance, important species/endangered or endemic species etc. The approximate size (hectares), ecosystem type (s), and location/name of each natural habitat area to be lost or degraded as a result of the project will be identified. Also, the responsible management entity, method of protection and management capacity strengthening required will be identified, including budget estimates and measurable indicators for monitoring. NFDP II beneficiaries should be sensitized to recognize the limits between natural resource degradation and their social well being, and therefore the need for sensible human intervention and sound management of natural resources. NFDP II should involve the participating communities in conservation of natural habitat and flora and fauna. Appropriate information, guidance and economic incentives to protect the natural habitats should be provided, while Local Conservation Committees comprising of community leaders, NFDP II and Conservation Agencies and other representatives should be established. These would educate the local communities on the values of conservation of wildlife and its habitat;


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promoting good cultivation practices and the proper use of pesticides; and discouraging bush burning. The Committees would support any other function that may enhance the sustainability of fadama development and its compatibility with other land uses. 8.4.3 Air, Soil and Water Resources Management • Air Pollution The main source of air pollution is bush and crop residue burning and the practices should be discouraged through an educational programme. • Soil Conservation Soil erosion is a continuous threat and appropriate land cultivation techniques including zero tillage, crop rotation, crop diversity, bank protection, grassed waterways, and grazing management should be encouraged. Also, a rational use of irrigation water (accompanied by effective drainage), fertilizers and other agro-chemicals should be promoted to prevent / minimize nutrient leaching, water logging, salinization and soil pollution. As well, proper maintenance of irrigation canals and field drains to avoid blockage or silting will prevent a number of irrigation related problems. Saline patches can be treated with lime and organic materials (crop residue or farm yard manure) to improve both the physical and chemical properties of the soil. • Water and Irrigation Management Surface and groundwater quality is generally good. Electrical conductivity of water used for irrigation is low, ranging between 0.18 � 2.2mhos/cm. Trace element concentrations are also low and may not pose any problems to crops and humans. Water for irrigation under NFDP-II will be based mostly on localized water abstraction methods, using portable small pumps, wash bores and motorized boreholes drilled to shallow aquifers. Normally, such installations do not affect upstream or downstream users and should have no immediate impact on fisheries or biodiversity but may increase water table depth and promote groundwater depletion. Water extraction should be planned to avoid depletion and irreversible aquifer damage. Low cost sprinkler and drip irrigation systems should be introduced to conserve water resources. Proper field and plot drainage, collector drains to lower the water table to a safe depth and the lining of irrigation canals are all essential to avoid water logging. NFDP-II will not include rehabilitation or new construction, operation and maintenance of dams and associated works. The possibility of extreme river water contamination is remote or unlikely due to the high flow of most rivers and streams. However, there is a localized potential risk of river bed and bank contamination due to pesticide accumulation. Pesticides must be used in accordance to the pest management plan. Crop residues should be incorporated into the soil and organic manure applied to improve the water holding capacity and the soil fertility status.

o Fish production Fisheries activity should be controlled to avoid over-exploitation, capture of non-target species and habitat damage through use of the inappropriate equipment and poor fishing practices. Introduction of exotic species should be avoided.


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• Forestry NFDP-II should avoid unecessary forest removal to protect habitat and biodiversity values as well as other forest functions including soil and water conservation, carbon sequestration and provision of goods and services to the local communities. In collaboration with the Forestry Department the project should promote farmstead and community woodlots. • Pest Management The environmental issues based on the use of pesticides (application, transport, safety, and storage) will be magnified through the project. An integrated pest management plan (IPM) has been prepared as part of this EISA. This plan focuses on the minimal use of pesticides and those that approved by WHO, as well as cultivation techniques that discourage pests and utilize other biological control measures. The plan also addresses the proper handling, storage and application of pesticides that are required and includes training requirements and approaches for those who will be in contact with pesticides. 8.4.4 Mitigation of Social Impacts • General Many of the social conflicts and other social impacts can be overcome through effective and comprehensive community involvement in the preparation of community development plans (i.e. participatory planning) and the decision making and design of individual activities that are to be funded through the project. Local preferences should be determined through direct consultation, incorporation of indigenous knowledge, social organization and religious beliefs. Minority tribes, ethnic minorities and women who should benefit from development activities must have the opportunity to assert their interests and rights in land and other natural and economic resources. Existing functional social groupings and agricultural services should be built upon to form Fadama Users Groups (FUGs) and Fadama Community Associations (FCAs). Particular attention should be payed to the empowerment of women. The opportunities for women to engage in fadama production are good as already exhibited in some parts of the country, including the formation of FUGs comprised exclusively of women • Conflicts Poor grazing conditions, lack of pasture, water and veterinary medicines have all contributed to pastorialist - farmer conflicts. NFDP-II should make the necessary provision for grazing reserves, watering points and stock route management. Fodder crop production for pastoralists could enhance the development of comprehensive mixed farming systems for the benefit of both farmers and herdsmen. The formation of local level conflict resolution committees with a wide range of representation could provide the means for conflict resolution. Close monitoring of stocking numbers as these relate to stocking capacity will need to be conducted and herdsman will need to be informed of existing national and state laws related to grazing reserves and these instruements will need to be enforced. As well, ECOWAS International Transhumance Certificate , 1998, regulating livestock movement within the region should be endorsed. • Health . water borne diseases: Fadama activities could lead to the development of breeding sites, providing year-round transmission of diseases which, prior to the provision of irrigated water were only transmitted during the rainy season. NFDP-II irrigation facilities should be


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designed to reduce water borne diseases. The provision of alternative sources for bathing, washing and drinking will reduce contact with snail-containing water and will eliminate Guinea worm infections.Field canals, drainage canals, seepages, rice plots and flooded areas should be managed through the pest management using natural controls where possible. These are discussed in Appendix C. . health and hygiene promotion: Community education on the transmission of water related diseases should be implemented. Co-operation between the health authorities and NFDP-II should be reached, stressing the need for environmental control, irrigation and health. 8.5 Monitoring 8.5.1 General In accordance with Nigerian regulations, monitoring and periodic environmental auditing will take place at every institutional level of the NFDP-II. A comprehensive monitoring program will be required to ensure that all sub-projects are in compliance with environmental requirements, and for those sub-projects that have been subjected to an EIA, to ensure that they are in compliance with mitigation recommendations. Monitoring will also ensure that there have been no unforeseen environmental and social impacts. The responsibility falls with the communities and the relevant agencies in local and state government, while the mechanism in place for this assurance will be the individual community development plans and the Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) which is an integral part of this Environmental Management Plan (EMP). The World Bank also requires that monitoring be conducted to ensure that mitigation is conducted as indicated and that no unforeseen impacts occur. The PCU is the implementing agency of NFDP-II and as such will be responsible to the Bank to ensure that effective monitoring is conducted. 8.5.2 Requirements for Effective Monitoring A monitoring program requires a number of components to ensure effective results. These include: • Relevant baseline data against which to monitor project results; • Verifiably objective indicators for each project and project component for which

monitoring will be conducted; • An independent body responsible for monitoring; • Those responsible for monitoring must have the capacity for such; • Monitoring on a regular basis; • An effective monitoring reporting mechanism including feedback and committment to

action on monitoring results and recommendations. The last component is particularly important. If management is not willing to make the modifications to project design and implementation strategies required according to monitoring results, the effectiveness of such monitoring, and the expenditures made, will be questionable. A monitoring feedback mechanism is illustrated in Figure 8.3.


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Figure 8.3: Monitoring Feedback Mechanism [Technical problem with diagram, will show when printed. Problem is being fixed] The above diagram relates to monitoring of sub-projects that require EIAs. For sub-projects that do not require EIAs, the SFDU will periodically select a certain number of projects from some of the participating communities within the state, for monitoring. 8.5.3 Monitoring Unit (MU) A semi�autonomous unit, operating within the PCU headquarters, will be established to conduct monitoring activities. The unit will link with other relevant specialized agencies both within and outside of government, to ensure full monitoring coverage. The MU would be staffed by experienced professionals, trained and provided with appropriate field and laboratory equipment.


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��The Unit will be responsible for:

Preparation of a monitoring plan to include identification and collection of baseline data, identification and description of verifiably objective indicators, preparation of budgets, scheduling and specific responsibilities, conducting of monitoring, preparation and submission of monitoring reports, and, follow-up to ensure that monitoring recommendations are acted upon. Inter-agency coordination;

��Coordination amongst the different levels of Government, including local community organizations.

The World Bank will also conduct its own overall monitoring of the project. A componenet of the project monitoring will be environmental monitoring on a selective basis to ensure that the EMP is being implemented accordingly and to ensure that unexpected impacts do not occur and, if they do, that that they are addressed effectively. Within Nigeria, the SFDU will monitor the EIA process for individual sub-projects to ensure that milestones are reached, and budgets and schedules are met. It will also ensure that the cumulative effects at the state level do not become significant. The Federal Program Support Unit of NFDP-II will conduct an annual state audit to track SFDU audits of sub-projects and EA checklists in order to verify that all EA steps are being followed at the state and local level. 8.5.4 Monitoring Procedure Initially, the MU will prepare a long term monitoring strategy and this will encompass clear and definitive criteria and parameters to be monitored for each specific site and in each region. The MU will prepare a long term monitoring plan and will take into consideration the scope of development, environmental and social sensitivity and the financial and technical means available for the monitoring plan. The plan will identify and describe the indicators to be used, the frequency of monitoring and the standard (baseline) against which the indicators will be measured for compliance with the EMP. Annual monitoring plans will be prepared by the MU and approved by PCU. These plans will define the specific issues to be monitored including, the natural habitat, land use, soil/water, fadama production systems and social impacts. Annual monitoring will take place throughout the life of the project. Table 8.1 provides an indication of the variables that will be monitored (as these relate to the EMP, not to the overall project), possible indicators to consider, baseline data to consider, and linkages with other variables. This is only a selection of possibilities and the MU will be responsible for reviewing and modifying this list as well as supplementing it with additional information where required. Particular attention should be paid to cost effective monitoring approaches, particularly for water quality and quantity. On the subject of baseline data, at this point in time no baseline data has been collected. As soon as the project has been approved one of the first expenditures and actions will be to establish the MU and identify and collect the baseline data required for effective monitoring. The baseline survey should be conducted prior to the beginning of the project, and indicators should be identified and described soon thereafter, and prior to the initial monitoring.


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The frequency of monitoring for the various parameters will differ, depending on the scale and magnitude of the anticipated impact. Ideally, essential criteria should be monitored twice a year, at the beginning and the end of season. For endangered ecosystems and systems under threat, more frequent monitoring will be required. It is important that monitoring be conducted for cumulative impacts. This is a more challenging task than that of monitoring individual sub-project activities since the MU will also have to prepare a program whereby monitoring will include activities external to those of NFDP-II. Table 8.28 provides a preliminary set of monitoring indicators to be considered for cumulative effects monitoring. These will require modification and additions once the project has been initiated and the MU has the opportunity to determine to the full extent the various external contributions to the impacts resulting from sub-project (NFDP-II) activities.


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Table 8.27: Monitoring Variables, Linkages, Indicators to be Considered, and Baseline Data to be Considered Variable to be Monitored Linkages Indicators to be Considered Baseline Data to be

Considered Natural Habitat: Habitat Rare and endangered species

needs Area and quality of habitat

Flora Populations of important flora Current species list and numbers Fauna Populations of important fauna Current species list and numbers Wetlands Importance for flora and fauna and

for flood control and provision of goods and services to local communities

Area of wetlands and numbers; integrity of wetlands re: providing goods and services

Inventory of wetlands � number and size; hydrological cylces and downstream effects

Fishery Resource: Populations Community economic needs;

water quality and quantity Population size and offtake Current population and offtake

Species composition Ecosystem health; water quality and water quantity

Species mix Current species mix

Cultural Resources: Cultural sites Cultural and social systems and

community needs Sites remaining Inventory of sites

Social systems General community and individual member satisfaction

Community social structure Current social structure and important aspects of structure

Water Resources: Groundwater quality Health, crop production,

desertification Quality of water (chemical composition)

Current chemical composition

Groundwater quantity Health, irrigation Depth and yield Current depth and yield Surface water quality Health, natural habitats, flora and

fauna, irrigation Quality of water (chemical analysis / indicator species of water quality)

Current chemical composition / fauna and flora inventory (e.g. macroinvertebrates, microinvertebrates, microflora)

Surface water quantity Health, crop production Yields and flows (seasonal) Current yields and flows (in


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different seasons) Soil Resources: Soil erosion Crop productivity, cultivation

techniques, watering points, livestock management

Sediment loading Sediment loads

Soil quality � chemicals Pesticide use Chemical analysis soil Chemical analysis of soil Soil quality � waterlogging Irrigation, drainage Soil analysis, crop production Soil analysis, crop production on

controlled plots where possible Air quality: Bush burning Crop production, forest harvesting Number of fires and area burned Current level of frequency of

fires and area burned Health: HIV/AIDS General increased activity through

the project Incidence of HIV?AIDS through clinic records

Existing levels of HIV/AIDS

Water borne diseases Drainage, irrigation Health statistics at local clinics Status of health re: water borne diseases

Other social: Economic need from other natural resources (forestry, fishery)

Irrigation, drainage, conflicts Harvest results, population size, area under forest cover, forest stand condition

Fishery population by species, forest stand volumes and areas

Conflicts Land and resource use Number and nature of conflicts Current conflict levels and number and nature of conflicts from NFDP-I

Livestock Resource: Water access Livestock numbers, conflicts Complaints re: lack of access Level of complaints re:lack of

access Erosion Livestock numbers, watering

points, stock routes Sediment loading, ground cover condition on routes and at water access points

Sediment loads, areas bare of vegetation

Stock routes Water access, erosion, conflicts Complaints re: adequacy of numbers and location of routes

Existing complaints re: stock routes


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Table 8.28: Cumulative Impacts – Monitoring Indicators and Possible External Factors Impact Indicator Contributing External Activities Loss of habitat Total area and number of imporant habitats Urbanization; road development; other

development Loss of wetlands Area and number of important wetlands Other irrigation and drainage projects Groundwater quality Chemical composition Industrial pollution (effluent discharge); other

agricultural activities Groundwater quantity Extraction rates and depth of water table Industrial and other municipal extractions Surface water quality Chemical composition; biotic community Effluent discharge from municipalities and

industrial complexes Surface water quantity Flow rates Extraction for power, industrial and domestic

uses Air quality Chemical composition Industrial air emissions; high volume and high

concentration of vehicular traffic Health: HIV/AIDS Reported cases at clinics Infrastructure activities attracting outside

workers; other new development; expanding urban areas

Health: Water borne diseases Reported cases at clinics Other irrigation activities Conflicts Number of documented conflicts and nature

and seriousness of conflicts Any other development activity planned and implemented in absence of full participatory planning


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8.5.5 Human Resource Requirements A strong mix of skills and interdisciplinary staff will be required for monitoring the planning, management and protection of the environment, complex resource management programs and assessment of related impacts. Staff should be experienced, trained and provided with appropriate field and laboratory equipment for assessments. A monitoring team may require the following composition: • Environmental assessment and environmental monitoring specialist (lead officer) • Wildlife management specialist • Soil and water conservation specialist • Sociology and anthropology, economics, gender issues, community participation and extension specialists Although one or two permanent staff may be required, others could be part time and could be seconded on a temporary basis from within other government agencies, on an as-required basis. 8.5.6 Budget and Responsibilities Based on available data, a sum of US$127 million will be allocated to the project plus a sum of US$ 20 by GEF. Implementation of the EMP will be part of the various project components, as to be derived from the individual and inter community plans. Of the total budget, it is assumed that 5% of the total budget will be allocated for environmental and social monitoring. Table 8.29: Budget and Responsibilities Item Budget Responsibility Mitigation No separate budget required.

Effective planning (CDPs), sub-project design and application of best practices will ensure minimal impacts. Costs of design and implementation to avoid impacts will be part of the cost of overall sub-project.

CDC

Management Included as part of overall project budget

PCU / SFDU

Pest management

$376,000 PCU / SFDU

Capacity Strengthening

$750,000 (estimate) World Bank

Monitoring $6,350,000 PCU / SFDU Total $7,476,000 (incl. Estimates)


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8.6 Capacity Strengthening 8.6.1 Human Resources and Capacity Building In order for state and local government agencies to carry out the environmental assessment responsibilities required by both Nigerian law and the World Bank safeguards for NFDP-II sub-projects, institutional strengthening will be required at several levels. Capacity building will encompass PCU and the other federal and state agencies involved in the implementation of the Project. NFDP II should therefore ensure that the following concerns and needs are addressed: • Institutional structuring within the relevant departments to ensure that required

professional and other technical staff are available; • Establishment of consultancy groups to ensure cross departmental discussions and

information exchanges. 8.6.2 Institutional Capacity Strengthening Program An institutional capacity strengthening program is detailed in Table 8.2.


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Table 8.2: Institutional Capacity Strengthening Program for Environmental Management of NFDP-II Target Audience

Description Application Duration Resources Required*

SFDU staff General environmental awareness seminar that will include ecological and social science principles, legal responsibilities, consequences of non-sustainable development, costs of poor environmental decisions, and introduction to the EIA process.

The Unit staff requires an appreciation for the Bank and GoN environmental requirements, as well as, an appreciation for the need to support environmentally sustainable development.

One day per seminar with a maximum of 16 participants per seminar.

Four person days: Cost: $800.00 Materials and miscellaneous: $500.00 Total: $1300.00/seminar

State seconded environmental and social specialists

An in-depth comprehensive course on environmental management including legal requirements, EIA methodology, Impact determination (methods) and mitigation analysis, public involvement methods, EMP preparation, monitoring techniques, preparation of EIAs, TORs, and other. Course will include field visits and classroom exercises.

The target audience will be responsible for EA review at the State level and for preparing TORs for EIA consultants as well as monitoring consultants� work and final approval of EIAs. Target audience will also be responsible for conducting environmental audits on selected sub-projects and for periodic monitoring of sub-project implementation to ensure compliance.

10 days per workshop which will have a maximum of 16 participants per workshop?

Two consultants, 20 days each: Cost: $8000.00 Materials, travel, hotel, subsistence and miscellaneous: $2200.00 Total: $10,200.00/ workshop

Facilitator / consultant groups� staff

In-depth course on aspects of environmental management appropriate to the tasks for which they will be responsible. Course will include identification of important ecosystems, identification of projects of different Bank and GoN categories, and identification of projects triggering Bank safeguard policies. In addition they will learn how to conduct public involvement programs particularly as these relate to participatory community development planning. The course will also include in-depth training on planning processes and methodologies as these relate to community development planning.

Although these individuals will be drawn from the consultant and NGO ranks for their skills, they will still require intensive training in environmental management, particularly as it relates to identifying potential impacts, GoN and Bank requirements. As well, they will need training in determining Category of sub-project and in recognizing the triggering of Bank safeguard policies. This target audience will have a significant role to play in the community planning process and developing the community plan.

12-day workshop with fieldwork and classroom exercises. Maximum of 16 participants per workshop.

Two consultants, 20 days each: 40 days: Cost: $8000.00 Materials, travel, hotel, subsistence and miscellaneous: $2500.00 Total: $10,500.00/ workshop

Facilitator Groups There are serious resource user conflicts Facilitator groups will be the closest non- 5-day workshop with 10 person days of an


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in the fadama areas, particularly amongst stockmen, cultivators and fishermen. The facilitator groups need an intensive training course in conflict resolution and management.

community group in contact with the communities and they will be responsible for working with the CDA on a continuous basis. They are the logical groups to receive such training and are in a good position to put this training to good use to help resolve these serious conflict issues.

a maximum of 12 per workshop.

international consultant @ $1000 Travel, accommodation etc: $10,000 Total cost per workshop: $20,000

LGFCC General environmental awareness seminar that will include ecological and social science principles, legal responsibilities, consequences of non-sustainable development, costs of poor environmental decisions, and introduction to the EIA process.

The Unit staff requires an appreciation for the Bank and GoN environmental requirements, as well as, an appreciation for the need to support environmentally sustainable development.

One day per seminar with a maximum of 16 participants per seminar.

Four person days: Cost: $800.00 Travel, accommodation, materials and miscellaneous: $500.00 Total: $1300.00/ seminar

LGFCC seconded staff

These workshops will focus on environmental management processes but will include background in sustainable resource management, and specific discussions on the various probable sub-projects and the impacts that they are likely to have on the environment. Discussions will also focus on mitigation, cumulative effects and the components of the EMP, with particular emphasis on monitoring. Relationship between planning and the environmental analysis process will also be discussed.

These staff have an important environmental review function and must have a suitable background in order to review projects and EAs, in a professional manner.

10 day workshop with field work and class room exercises. Maximum of 16 participants per workshop.

Two consultants, 20 days each: 40 days total: $8,000.00 Travel, accommodation, subsistence, materials and miscellaneous: $2500.00 Total: $10,500.00 /workshop

FCAs A workshop that will focus on sustainable resource management and the need to heed to environmental requirements. A focus will be placed on the economic and social importance of aspects of the community environment. Planning processes will be discussed in detail.

The FCAs will have ultimate responsibility for the identification of the sub-projects to be financed. They must have knowledge of the consequences of any sub-project for which they will be requesting funds, as well as the costs involved for conducting EIAs and implementing mitigation measures.

Four day workshop with field work. Maximum of 24 participants per workshop.

Two consultants, six days each: 12 person days: $2400.00. Travel, accommodation, subsistence, materials and miscellaneous: $1000.00 Total: $3,400.00 / workshop


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SFDU, LGFCC, Facilitator groups

An Environmental Assessment Procedures Handbook will be prepared to provide SFDU, LGFCC and the facilitator groups with all of the material needed for the training workshops, and specific processes and responsibilities for carrying out EAs in the sub-project cycle, including checklists and forms.

Each of these three groups has various responsibilities re: identification of important environmental parameters, categorization of sub-projects, identification of likely impacts and practical mitigative solutions, and, in the case of the SFDU, a full understanding of the EIA process and the EMP. All groups are required to conduct monitoring at various stages throughout the program implementation schedule.

The handbook will require 3 months of input from an international consultant.

$30,000, but some of this cost could be shared with the LEEMP project which is also requiring the same handbook.

All Review of environment legislation in Nigeria.

Before any capacity building activities of the NFDP-II are initiated, it will be necessary to clearly specify state and local government agency roles and mandates for each step of the EA process. This review will provide any recommendations necessary for revisions or additions to current Nigerian regulations.

This review will be a part of the LEEMP project and NFDP-II will take advantage of this output.

*Consultant costs based on Nigerian Consultants: assume US $200/day for senior consultant wb189158 P:\!UNITS\AFTR2\Evelyn\Fadama.doc June 24, 2003 00:46


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