Fats and Oils - Formulating and Processing for Applications 3rd ed_R.D.O’Brien_2009

Fatsand

OilsFormulating and Processing for Applications

Th i rd Ed i t i on

http://avibert.blogspot.com

Fatsand

OilsFormulating and Processing for Applications

Richard D. OBrien

Th i rd Ed i t i on


CRC PressTaylor & Francis Group6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

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International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-6166-6 (Hardcover)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

OBrien, Richard D.Fat and oils : formulating and processing for applications / Richard D. OBrien.

-- 3rd ed.p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN-13: 978-1-4200-6166-6ISBN-10: 1-4200-6166-61. Oils and fats, Edible. I. Title.

TP670.O27 2009664.3--dc22 2008020476

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site athttp://www.taylorandfrancis.comand the CRC Press Web site athttp://www.crcpress.com

vContents

Third Edition Preface ..............................................................................................xix

Chapter 1Raw Materials ............................................................................................................1

1.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................11.2 Sources of Fats and Oils..................................................................................21.3 Vegetable Oil Yields .......................................................................................21.4 Availability of Fats and Oils ...........................................................................41.5 United States Utilization of Edible Fats and Oils ...........................................41.6 Characterization of Fats and Oils ...................................................................71.7 Nonglyceride Components of Fats and Oils....................................................8

1.7.1 Phospholipids .....................................................................................81.7.2 Tocopherols and Tocotrienols ............................................................91.7.3 Sequalene ......................................................................................... 101.7.4 Sterols .............................................................................................. 101.7.5 Pigments ........................................................................................... 121.7.6 Pesticides .......................................................................................... 131.7.7 Trace Metals. .................................................................................... 13

1.8 Genetically Modified Vegetable Oils ............................................................ 131.9 Soybean Oil ................................................................................................... 15

1.9.1 Soybean Oil Composition and Physical Properties ......................... 171.9.2 Genetically Modified Soybean Oil .................................................. 18

1.10 Cottonseed Oil .............................................................................................. 191.10.1 Cottonseed Oil Composition and Physical Properties .....................201.10.2 Genetically Modified Cottonseed Oil ..............................................22

1.11 Peanut Oil ......................................................................................................221.11.1 Peanut Oil Composition and Physical Properties ............................231.11.2 Genetically Modified Peanut Oil .....................................................25

1.12 Corn Oil ........................................................................................................251.12.1 Corn Oil Composition and Physical Properties ...............................261.12.2 Genetically Modified Corn Oil ........................................................28

1.13 Sunflower Oil ................................................................................................281.13.1 Sunflower Oil Composition and Physical Properties .......................29

1.14 NuSun Sunflower Oil ....................................................................................301.14.1 NuSun Composition and Physical Properties .................................. 31

1.15 High-Oleic Sunflower Oil ............................................................................. 321.15.1 High-Oleic Sunflower Oil Physical Properties

and Composition .............................................................................. 321.16 Safflower Oil ................................................................................................. 33

1.16.1 Safflower Oil Composition and Physical Properties ........................ 33


vi Contents

1.17 High-Oleic Safflower Oil .............................................................................. 351.17.1 High-Oleic Safflower Oil Composition and Physical

Characteristics ................................................................................. 351.18 Canola Oil ..................................................................................................... 37

1.18.1 Canola Oil Composition and Physical Properties ............................ 371.18.2 Genetically Modified Canola Oil ..................................................... 39

1.19 Olive Oil ........................................................................................................401.19.1 Olive Oil Composition and Physical Properties .............................. 41

1.20 Palm Oil ........................................................................................................ 431.20.1 Palm Oil Composition and Physical Properties ............................... 431.20.2 Genetically Modified Palm Oil ........................................................ 47

1.21 Coconut Oil ...................................................................................................481.21.1 Coconut Oil Composition and Physical Properties ..........................48

1.22 Palm Kernel Oil ............................................................................................501.22.1 Palm Kernel Oil Composition and Physical Properties ................... 51

1.23 Lard ............................................................................................................... 521.23.1 Lard Physical Properties and Composition ...................................... 53

1.24 Tallow ............................................................................................................ 551.24.1 Tallow Physical Properties and Composition .................................. 56

1.25 Milk Fat ......................................................................................................... 581.25.1 Milk Fat Physical Properties and Composition ............................... 58

1.26 Menhaden Oil ................................................................................................601.27 Single Cell Oils .............................................................................................64

1.27.1 Microalgae Oils ...............................................................................641.27.2 Fungal Oil ........................................................................................65

References ...........................................................................................................66

2Chapter Fats and Oils Processing .......................................................................................... 73

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 732.2 Fats and Oils Recovery ................................................................................. 74

2.2.1 Oilseed Extraction ........................................................................... 742.2.1.1 Expeller or Screw Press Extraction .................................. 762.2.1.2 Prepress Solvent Extraction ..............................................772.2.1.3 Direct Solvent Extraction .................................................77

2.2.2 Oil-Bearing Fruit Extraction ............................................................ 782.2.2.1 Olive Oil Extraction ......................................................... 782.2.2.2 Palm Oil Extraction .......................................................... 78

2.2.3 Animal Fat Recovery ....................................................................... 792.2.3.1 Wet Rendering .................................................................. 792.2.3.2 Dry Rendering .................................................................. 79

2.3 Refining Systems ...........................................................................................802.4 Physical Refining ..........................................................................................80

Contents vii

2.5 Refining Pretreatment ................................................................................... 832.5.1 Water Degumming ...........................................................................842.5.2 Acid Degumming.............................................................................852.5.3 Dry Degumming ..............................................................................862.5.4 Enzymatic Degumming ...................................................................862.5.5 Modified Acid Degumming .............................................................872.5.6 Membrane Filter Degumming .........................................................87

2.6 Chemical Refining ........................................................................................882.6.1 Short-Mix Caustic Refining .............................................................922.6.2 Miscella Refining .............................................................................922.6.3 Batch Caustic Refining ....................................................................95

2.6.3.1 Dry-Method Batch Refining .............................................952.6.3.2 Wet-Method Batch Refining .............................................96

2.6.4 Silica Refining ..................................................................................962.6.5 Refining Efficiency ..........................................................................972.6.6 Refining Byproducts ........................................................................98

2.6.6.1 Soapstock Processing .......................................................982.6.6.2 Hydrated Gums Processing ............................................ 100

2.7 Prebleaching ................................................................................................ 1002.7.1 Procedure ....................................................................................... 101

2.7.1.1 Batch Atmospheric ......................................................... 1012.7.1.2 Batch Vacuum ................................................................ 1012.7.1.3 Continuous Vacuum ....................................................... 101

2.7.2 Bleaching Agents ........................................................................... 1032.7.2.1 Natural Bleaching Earth ................................................. 1032.7.2.2 Activated Bleaching Earth ............................................. 1032.7.2.3 Reuse Spent Bleaching Earth ......................................... 1042.7.2.4 Activated Carbon ............................................................ 1042.7.2.5 Silica Adsorbent ............................................................. 105

2.7.3 Bleaching Earth Dosage ................................................................ 1052.7.4 Temperature ................................................................................... 1062.7.5 Time ............................................................................................... 1072.7.6 Moisture ......................................................................................... 1072.7.7 Filtration ......................................................................................... 1082.7.8 Bleaching Byproduct...................................................................... 109

2.8 Hydrogenation ............................................................................................. 1102.8.1 Operating Variables ....................................................................... 113

2.8.1.1 Temperature .................................................................... 1132.8.1.2 Pressure .......................................................................... 1132.8.1.3 Agitation ......................................................................... 1142.8.1.4 Catalyst Level ................................................................. 1142.8.1.5 Catalyst Type .................................................................. 1142.8.1.6 Catalyst Poisons.............................................................. 115

viii Contents

2.8.1.7 Catalyst Reuse ................................................................ 1162.8.1.8 Source Oils ..................................................................... 116

2.8.2 Hydrogenation Systems .................................................................. 1162.8.3 Hydrogenation Control ................................................................... 1182.8.4 Hydrogenated Basestock System ................................................... 119

2.9 Interesterification ........................................................................................ 1222.9.1 Chemical Rearrangement Catalyst ................................................1242.9.2 Endpoint Control ............................................................................ 126

2.9.2.1 Melting Point .................................................................. 1262.9.2.2 Fiber Optic Spectrometer Monitoring ............................ 1262.9.2.3 Solids Fat Index .............................................................. 1272.9.2.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry ................................ 1272.9.2.5 Glyceride Compositional Analysis ................................. 128

2.9.3 Random Chemical Interesterification Processes ........................... 1282.9.4 Directed Chemical Interesterification Process .............................. 1302.9.5 Enzymatic Interesterification ......................................................... 1312.9.6 Interesterified Fats and Oils Applications ..................................... 132

2.10 Winterization ............................................................................................... 1332.10.1 Classical Winterization Process..................................................... 1332.10.2 Winterization Principle .................................................................. 134

2.10.2.1 Source Oil Composition ................................................. 1352.10.2.2 Cooling Rate ................................................................... 1352.10.2.3 Crystallization Temperature ........................................... 1352.10.2.4 Agitation Rate ................................................................ 1352.10.2.5 Crystallization Time ....................................................... 136

2.10.3 Solvent Winterization .................................................................... 1362.10.4 Winterization Process Control Procedures .................................... 1372.10.5 Winterization Applications ............................................................ 138

2.11 Dewaxing .................................................................................................... 1392.11.1 Dewaxing Process Control ............................................................ 1402.11.2 Dewaxing Applications .................................................................. 140

2.12 Fractionation ............................................................................................... 1402.12.1 Dry Crystal Fractionation .............................................................. 1422.12.2 Detergent Fractionation.................................................................. 1422.12.3 Solvent Fractionation ..................................................................... 143

2.13 Postbleaching .............................................................................................. 1442.14 Cholesterol Stripping Process ..................................................................... 1452.15 Esterification or Alcoholysis ....................................................................... 146

2.15.1 Mono- and Diglycerides ................................................................ 1462.15.1.1 Monoglyceride Derivatives ............................................ 148

2.15.2 Polyglycerol Ester .......................................................................... 1502.15.3 Propylene Glycol Monoester .......................................................... 152

2.16 Blending ...................................................................................................... 1522.17 Deodorization .............................................................................................. 153

2.17.1 Operating Variables ....................................................................... 154

Contents ix

2.17.1.1 Vacuum ........................................................................... 1542.17.1.2 Temperature .................................................................... 1542.17.1.3 Stripping Steam .............................................................. 1552.17.1.4 Retention Time ............................................................... 156

2.17.2 Deodorization Systems .................................................................. 1562.17.2.1 Batch ............................................................................... 1562.17.2.2 Semicontinuous Deodorization ...................................... 1572.17.2.3 Continuous Deodorization ............................................. 158

2.17.3 Deodorizer Heating Systems ......................................................... 1592.17.4 Deodorization Process Control ...................................................... 1602.17.5 Deodorizer Distillated ................................................................... 161

2.18 Finished Fats and Oils Handling................................................................. 1642.18.1 Protection against Oxidative Deterioration ................................... 164

2.18.1.1 Nitrogen Blanketing ....................................................... 1642.18.1.2 Temperature Control ...................................................... 1652.18.1.3 Light Control .................................................................. 1662.18.1.4 Storage Time .................................................................. 1662.18.1.5 Antioxidant Addition ...................................................... 1662.18.1.6 Synergistic Antioxidant Mixtures .................................. 168

2.18.2 Protection against Contamination.................................................. 1692.19 Plasticization ............................................................................................... 170

2.19.1 Plasticity of Edible Fats and Oils ................................................... 1702.19.1.1 Product Composition ...................................................... 1702.19.1.2 Crystal Size .................................................................... 1712.19.1.3 Supercooling ................................................................... 1712.19.1.4 Mechanical Working ...................................................... 1722.19.1.5 Gas Incorporation ........................................................... 172

2.19.2 Solidification Apparatus Evolutions .............................................. 1722.19.3 Shortening Plasticization Process .................................................. 1742.19.4 Liquid Shortening Crystallization ................................................. 1762.19.5 Margarine Plasticization Process ................................................... 177

2.19.5.1 Stick Margarine .............................................................. 1802.19.5.2 Soft-Tub Margarine ........................................................ 1802.19.5.3 Whipped-Tub Margarine ................................................ 1812.19.5.4 Liquid Margarine ........................................................... 1812.19.5.5 Industrial Margarines ..................................................... 182

2.19.6 Tempering ...................................................................................... 1822.19.6.1 Quick Tempering ............................................................ 183

2.20 Flaking ........................................................................................................ 1852.20.1 Chill Rolls ...................................................................................... 1862.20.2 Flake Crystallization ...................................................................... 1862.20.3 Flaking Conditions ........................................................................ 186

2.21 Powdered and Beaded Fats ......................................................................... 1872.21.1 Spray Cooling ................................................................................ 188

x Contents

2.21.2 Flake Grinding ............................................................................... 1882.21.3 Spray Flaking and Grinding .......................................................... 188

2.22 Salad and Cooking Oils Packaging ............................................................. 1892.23 Bulk Oil Shipments ..................................................................................... 189

2.23.1 Contamination................................................................................ 1902.23.2 Overheating .................................................................................... 1902.23.3 Air Exposure .................................................................................. 190

References ......................................................................................................... 191

3Chapter Fats and Oils Analysis ........................................................................................... 197

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 1973.2 Nonfatty Impurities ..................................................................................... 198

3.2.1 Moisture Analysis .......................................................................... 1983.2.1.1 Hot Plate Method ........................................................... 1983.2.1.2 Air Oven Method ........................................................... 1993.2.1.3 Vacuum Oven Method .................................................... 1993.2.1.4 Karl Fisher Method ........................................................ 1993.2.1.5 Skillet Moisture .............................................................. 199

3.2.2 Impurities Analysis ........................................................................2003.2.2.1 Insoluble Impurities ........................................................2003.2.2.2 Filterable Impurities (Standard Disk Method) ...............2003.2.2.3 Turbidimeter Impurities .................................................200

3.2.3 Trace Metals Analysis .................................................................... 2013.2.4 Soap Analysis ................................................................................. 201

3.3 Melting, Solidification, and Consistency .................................................... 2013.3.1 Melting Point Analysis ...................................................................202

3.3.1.1 Capillary Melting Point ..................................................2023.3.1.2 Softening Point ...............................................................2023.3.1.3 Slipping Point .................................................................2023.3.1.4 Wiley Melting Point .......................................................2033.3.1.5 Mettler Dropping Point ..................................................203

3.3.2 SolidLiquid Relationships ............................................................2033.3.2.1 Solids Fat Index ..............................................................2043.3.2.2 Solids Fat Content ..........................................................2043.3.2.3 Differential Scanning Calorimetry Fat Solids

Content ...........................................................................2063.3.3 Solidification Analysis ...................................................................207

3.3.3.1 Titer ................................................................................2073.3.3.2 Quick Titer .....................................................................2073.3.3.3 Congeal Point .................................................................2073.3.3.4 Cloud Point .....................................................................2083.3.3.5 Cold Test .........................................................................2083.3.3.6 Chill Test ........................................................................208

Contents xi

3.3.4 Consistency Analysis .....................................................................2083.3.4.1 Consistency Ratings .......................................................2093.3.4.2 Penetrations ....................................................................209

3.4 Composition Analysis ................................................................................. 2103.4.1 Saponification Value ...................................................................... 2113.4.2 Iodine Value ................................................................................... 2113.4.3 Refractive Index ............................................................................. 2123.4.4 Fatty Acid Composition ................................................................. 2133.4.5 Calculated Iodine Value ................................................................. 2143.4.6 Glyceride Structure ........................................................................ 2153.4.7 Emulsifier Analysis ........................................................................ 2153.4.8 Antioxidant Analysis ..................................................................... 2163.4.9 Tocopherol Analysis ...................................................................... 216

3.5 Flavor, Rancidity, and Stability ................................................................... 2173.5.1 Flavor Analysis .............................................................................. 217

3.5.1.1 Sensory Evaluations ....................................................... 2183.5.1.2 Volatile Flavor Analysis ................................................. 219

3.5.2 Rancidity Analysis ......................................................................... 2193.5.2.1 Peroxide Value ................................................................ 2193.5.2.2 Anisidine Value ..............................................................2203.5.2.3 Free Fatty Acid and Acid Value .....................................2203.5.2.4 Smoke Point .................................................................... 221

3.5.3 Stability Analysis ........................................................................... 2213.5.3.1 Active Oxygen Method................................................... 2223.5.3.2 Oil Stability Index .......................................................... 2233.5.3.3 Schaal Oven Test ............................................................ 2233.5.3.4 Pastry Flavor Test ...........................................................224

3.6 Color and Appearance.................................................................................2243.6.1 Color ...............................................................................................225

3.6.1.1 Wesson Color Method ....................................................2253.6.1.2 Lovibond (British Standard) ..........................................2253.6.1.3 Spectrophotometric Color Method for Oils ...................2263.6.1.4 Automatic Tintometers ...................................................2263.6.1.5 FAC (Fatty Acid Committee) Method ............................2263.6.1.6 Gardner Color ................................................................. 2273.6.1.7 Chlorophyll ..................................................................... 2273.6.1.8 Coloring Agents Determination ..................................... 227

3.6.2 Appearance .................................................................................... 2273.6.2.1 Product Appearance Ratings .......................................... 227

3.7 Refining and Bleaching ...............................................................................2283.7.1 Refining Loss .................................................................................2283.7.2 Neutral Oil and Loss ...................................................................... 2293.7.3 Bleaching Analysis ........................................................................ 229

3.8 Performance Testing ................................................................................... 2293.8.1 Creaming Volume ..........................................................................230

xii Contents

3.8.2 Pound Cake Test ............................................................................ 2313.8.3 Icing Volume .................................................................................. 2313.8.4 White Layer Cakes ......................................................................... 2323.8.5 Crme Filling Test.......................................................................... 2323.8.6 Cake Mix Evaluation ..................................................................... 2333.8.7 Puff Pastry Testing ......................................................................... 2333.8.8 Restaurant Deep-Fat Frying Evaluation ........................................ 2333.8.9 Ice Cream Bar Coating Evaluation ................................................234

3.9 Nonstandardized Methods ..........................................................................234References .........................................................................................................260

4Chapter Fats and Oils Formulation...................................................................................... 263

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 2634.2 Oils and Fats Characteristics ......................................................................265

4.2.1 Saturated Fatty Acids .....................................................................2654.2.1.1 Short-Chain Fatty Acids ................................................. 2674.2.1.2 Medium-Chain Fatty Acids ............................................ 2674.2.1.3 Long-Chain Fatty Acids .................................................268

4.2.2 Unsaturated Fatty Acids.................................................................2694.2.2.1 Monounsaturated Fatty Acids ........................................2694.2.2.2 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids .......................................... 270

4.2.3 Isomerized Fatty Acids .................................................................. 2734.2.3.1 Positional Isomers .......................................................... 2734.2.3.2 Trans Fatty Acids ........................................................... 2734.2.3.3 Conjugated Linoleic Fatty Acid (CLA) .......................... 274

4.3 Palatability .................................................................................................. 2754.3.1 Oxidation ....................................................................................... 276

4.3.1.1 Flavor Reversion .............................................................2804.3.1.2 Antioxidants ................................................................... 281

4.3.2 Hydrolysis ...................................................................................... 2834.3.3 Mouth Feel ..................................................................................... 283

4.4 Physical Characteristics ..............................................................................2854.4.1 Fat Crystal Habit ............................................................................2854.4.2 Fat Plasticity ...................................................................................2884.4.3 SolidLiquid Relationships ............................................................ 289

4.4.3.1 Hydrogenation ................................................................ 2894.4.3.2 Random Interesterification ............................................. 2914.4.3.3 Directed Interesterification............................................. 2954.4.3.4 Fractionation ................................................................... 295

4.5 Nutritional Considerations ..........................................................................2974.5.1 Nutritional Facts Panel ................................................................... 2984.5.2 Health Claims ................................................................................2994.5.3 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans ........................................300

Contents xiii

4.5.4 Package Ingredient Statement ........................................................3004.6 Basestock System ........................................................................................ 3014.7 SolidsLiquids Characteristics ...................................................................302

4.7.1 Wide Plastic-Range Fats and Oils Products ..................................3054.7.2 Steep Solid Fat Index Slopes ..........................................................3084.7.3 Liquid Opaque or Pumpable Products ........................................... 311

4.8 Emulsification ............................................................................................. 3124.8.1 Mono- and Diglycerides ................................................................ 3144.8.2 Propylene Glycol Esters ................................................................. 3164.8.3 Sorbitan Esters ............................................................................... 3174.8.4 Polysorbate Fatty Acid Esters ........................................................ 3174.8.5 Polyglycerol Esters ......................................................................... 3184.8.6 Lactated Esters ............................................................................... 3184.8.7 Lecithin .......................................................................................... 3194.8.8 Emulsifier Selection Methods ........................................................ 320

4.8.8.1 Hydrophilic/Lipophilic Balance System ........................ 3204.8.8.2 Emulsifier Functionality Traits ....................................... 3234.8.8.3 Emulsifier Selection Procedure ...................................... 324

4.9 Product Development .................................................................................. 3254.9.1 Application Product Development ................................................. 3254.9.2 Analytical Development ................................................................ 327

4.9.2.1 Solids Fat Index Calculations ......................................... 3274.9.3 Triglyceride Replication ................................................................. 328

4.10 Source Oils and Fats Interchangeability ..................................................... 3334.11 Reduced Trans Fatty Acid Formulation ...................................................... 3344.12 Essential Fatty Acid Fortification ............................................................... 337

4.12.1 Essential Fatty Acid Sources ......................................................... 3374.12.2 Omega-3 Fortified Products ........................................................... 338

References ......................................................................................................... 339

5Chapter Shortening Types ................................................................................................... 347

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 3475.1.1 Historical Background ................................................................... 3475.1.2 Source Oils ..................................................................................... 3515.1.3 Shortening Product Forms ............................................................. 355

5.2 Plasticized Shortening Applications ........................................................... 3555.3 Liquid Shortening Applications .................................................................. 3575.4 Flakes, Chips, and Powdered Shortening Applications .............................. 358

References ......................................................................................................... 359

6Chapter Baking Shortenings ................................................................................................ 361

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 361

xiv Contents

6.2 All-Purpose Shortenings ............................................................................. 3636.3 Emulsified All-Purpose Shortening ............................................................ 3686.4 Retail Cake Mix Shortenings ...................................................................... 3706.5 Specialty Bakery Cake Shortenings............................................................ 3736.6 Liquid Cake Shortening .............................................................................. 3746.7 Icing and Filling Shortenings ...................................................................... 3766.8 Icing Stabilizers .......................................................................................... 3786.9 Bread Shortening ........................................................................................ 3796.10 Liquid Bread Shortenings ........................................................................... 3816.11 Sweet Yeast-Raised Dough Shortenings ..................................................... 3836.12 Cookie Shortenings .....................................................................................3846.13 Cookie Filler Shortenings ...........................................................................3846.14 Pie Crust Shortenings .................................................................................. 3866.15 Biscuit Shortenings ..................................................................................... 3876.16 Danish Pastry Roll-In Shortenings ............................................................. 3896.17 Puff Paste Roll-In Shortening ..................................................................... 3926.18 Shortening Chips ......................................................................................... 3946.19 Cracker Shortenings .................................................................................... 395

References ......................................................................................................... 396

7Chapter Frying Shortenings ................................................................................................ 399

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 3997.2 Frying Shortening Additives .......................................................................4027.3 Selection of Frying Shortening ...................................................................404

7.3.1 Product Characteristics ..................................................................4057.3.2 Frying Life .....................................................................................4057.3.3 Shelf Life........................................................................................406

7.4 Foodservice Deep-Fat Frying Shortening Applications .............................4077.4.1 Foodservice All-Purpose Shortening ............................................4097.4.2 AnimalVegetable Blended Frying Shortening ............................. 4107.4.3 Heavy-Duty Vegetable Frying Shortenings ................................... 4107.4.4 Liquid Frying Shortenings ............................................................. 4117.4.5 Trait-Enhanced Vegetable Oils ...................................................... 412

7.5 Foodservice Pan and Grill Shortenings ...................................................... 4147.6 Bakery Frying Shortening Applications ..................................................... 416

7.6.1 Cake Donut Shortenings ................................................................ 4177.6.2 Yeast-Raised Fried Products .......................................................... 4197.6.3 Fried-Pie Shortenings .................................................................... 419

7.7 Snack Frying Shortening Applications ....................................................... 4207.7.1 Nut Meats Oil Roasting ................................................................. 422

References ......................................................................................................... 422

Contents xv

8Chapter Dairy Analog Shortenings ..................................................................................... 425

8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 4258.2 Nondairy Creamer ...................................................................................... 4268.3 Whipped Topping ........................................................................................ 4298.4 Cheese Analog ............................................................................................ 4318.5 Frozen Dessert or Mellorine ....................................................................... 4328.6 Sour Cream Analog and Dip Bases ............................................................ 4338.7 Fluid Milk Analogs ..................................................................................... 4348.8 Sweetened Condensed Milk Analogs ......................................................... 434

References ......................................................................................................... 436

9Chapter Household Shortenings .......................................................................................... 437

9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 4379.2 Household Shortening Development ........................................................... 4379.3 Household Shortening Product Requirements ............................................ 4399.4 Household Shortening Formulation ............................................................4409.5 Household Shortening Plasticization ..........................................................4449.6 Household Shortening Packaging ...............................................................444

References .........................................................................................................445

1Chapter 0Margarine ...............................................................................................................447

10.1 Introduction .................................................................................................44710.2 Margarine Development ..............................................................................44710.3 Margarine Formulation ............................................................................... 453

10.3.1 Milk Products or Protein ............................................................... 45310.3.2 Emulsifiers ..................................................................................... 45410.3.3 Flavoring Materials ........................................................................ 45410.3.4 Preservatives .................................................................................. 45510.3.5 Vitamins and Color ........................................................................ 45510.3.6 Supplements for Health Claims ..................................................... 45610.3.7 Margarine Oils and Fats ................................................................ 456

10.4 Low-Fat Margarine or Spread ..................................................................... 45710.5 Consumer Margarine Oil Formulations ...................................................... 459

10.5.1 Margarine Oil Formulations with Hydrogenated Oils ................... 45910.5.2 Margarine Oil Formulation with Interesterified Oils .................... 46110.5.3 Margarine Oil Formulation with Fractionated Oils .......................46410.5.4 Margarine Oil Formulation with Unmodified Oils .......................464

xvi Contents

10.6 Industrial Margarine Formulations .............................................................46510.7 Margarine and Spread Preparation .............................................................466

10.7.1 Stick Margarine or Spread ............................................................. 46710.7.2 Soft Tub Margarine or Spread .......................................................46810.7.3 Whipped Tub Margarine or Spread ...............................................46910.7.4 Liquid Margarine ...........................................................................46910.7.5 Industrial Margarines or Spreads ..................................................469

References ......................................................................................................... 470

1Chapter 1Liquid Oils ............................................................................................................. 473

11.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 47311.2 Development of Liquid Oils ........................................................................ 47411.3 Cooking and Salad Oil Sources .................................................................. 47611.4 Retail Consumer Oils .................................................................................. 47911.5 Industrial Salad Oil Applications ................................................................ 48111.6 Mayonnaise ................................................................................................. 482

11.6.1 Mayonnaise Ingredients ................................................................. 48311.6.1.1 Salad Oil ......................................................................... 48311.6.1.2 Vinegar ...........................................................................48511.6.1.3 Eggs ................................................................................48511.6.1.4 Flavoring Ingredients .....................................................485

11.6.2 Mayonnaise Processing ..................................................................48611.7 Spoonable Salad Dressing ...........................................................................48711.8 Pourable Salad Dressings ............................................................................488

11.8.1 French Dressing ............................................................................. 48911.9 High-Stability Oils ......................................................................................490

11.9.1 Processed High-Stability Oils .......................................................49011.9.2 Plant Breeding................................................................................49011.9.3 High-Stability Oil Applications ..................................................... 491

References ......................................................................................................... 492

1Chapter 2Quality Management ............................................................................................. 495

12.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 49512.2 Operating Standards ................................................................................... 49612.3 Specifications .............................................................................................. 496

12.3.1 Specifications Format .................................................................... 49712.3.2 Ingredient Specifications ............................................................... 499

12.3.2.1 Ingredient Specifications Format ................................... 50112.3.3 Packaging Specifications ...............................................................502

12.3.3.1 Packaging Specifications Format ................................... 50312.3.4 Product Specifications....................................................................504

12.3.4.1 Product Specifications Format .......................................505

Contents xvii

12.3.5 Customer Instruction Specifications ..............................................50612.3.5.1 Customer Instruction Specifications Format ..................506

12.3.6 Summary Specifications ................................................................50812.3.6.1 Summary Specifications Format ....................................508

12.4 Procedures ...................................................................................................50912.4.1 Procedures Format .........................................................................50912.4.2 Quality Procedures ........................................................................509

12.4.2.1 Complaint Handling Procedure ..................................... 51012.4.2.2 Product Recall Procedure ............................................... 51112.4.2.3 Product Identification Procedures .................................. 51312.4.2.4 Specification Change Requisition .................................. 51512.4.2.5 New Product Approval Procedure ................................. 51712.4.2.6 Weight Control Program ................................................ 51812.4.2.7 Quality Cost System ....................................................... 51812.4.2.8 Label Approval Procedure ............................................. 520

12.5 Methods ....................................................................................................... 52112.5.1 Methods Format ............................................................................. 522

12.6 Process Control Overview .......................................................................... 52412.7 Crude Fats and Oils Process Control .......................................................... 52612.8 Refining Process Control ............................................................................ 52712.9 Prebleaching Process Control ..................................................................... 53012.10 Modification Processes ............................................................................... 532

12.10.1 Hydrogenation Process Control ..................................................... 53312.10.2 Interesterification Process Control ................................................. 535

12.10.2.1 Random Interesterification Using Chemical Catalyst .... 53612.10.2.2 Random Interesterification Using Enzyme Catalyst ...... 538

12.10.3 Fractionation Process Control ........................................................ 53912.10.3.1 Winterization Process Control .......................................54012.10.3.2 Dewaxing Process Control .............................................540

12.11 Postbleach Process Control ......................................................................... 54212.12 Blending Process Control ............................................................................54412.13 Deodorization Process Control ...................................................................54412.14 Bulk Shipment Process Control ..................................................................54612.15 Plasticized Shortening Packaging Process Control .................................... 54712.16 Liquid Shortening Packaging Process Control ........................................... 55012.17 Liquid Oils Packaging Process Control ...................................................... 55212.18 Shortening Flake Process Control Standards ............................................. 55412.19 Margarine and Spread Process Control Standards ..................................... 556

References ......................................................................................................... 559

1Chapter 3Troubleshooting ..................................................................................................... 561

13.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 56113.2 Process Troubleshooting ............................................................................. 563

xviii Contents

13.2.1 Vegetable Oil Extraction ................................................................ 56313.2.2 Meat Fat Rendering ........................................................................56613.2.3 Crude Oil Storage ..........................................................................56613.2.4 Degumming ................................................................................... 57013.2.5 Caustic Oil Refining: Primary Centrifuge ..................................... 57113.2.6 Oil Refining: Water Wash .............................................................. 57413.2.7 Oil Refining: Vacuum Drying ........................................................ 57513.2.8 Prebleaching ................................................................................... 57513.2.9 Hydrogenation ................................................................................ 57813.2.10 Interesterification ........................................................................... 58013.2.11 Postbleaching ................................................................................. 58113.2.12 Winterization ................................................................................. 58213.2.13 Dewaxing ....................................................................................... 58413.2.14 Esterification .................................................................................. 58513.2.15 Blending ......................................................................................... 58813.2.16 Deodorization ................................................................................ 58913.2.17 Antioxidant Addition ..................................................................... 59813.2.18 Bulk Railroad Car or Truck Loading ............................................60013.2.19 Oil Filling and Packaging ..............................................................60313.2.20 Packaged Liquid Oils: Storage and Transportation .......................60413.2.21 Shortening Packaging ....................................................................60513.2.22 Liquid Opaque Shortenings ........................................................... 61113.2.23 Shortening Flakes .......................................................................... 61413.2.24 Packaged Shortening: Storage and Transportation ........................ 62113.2.25 Quality Control Laboratory ........................................................... 62213.2.26 Edible Fats and Oils: Organoleptic Evaluations ............................62413.2.27 Edible Fats and Oils Formulation .................................................. 62713.2.28 Edible Fats and Oils: Processed Oil Storage ................................. 629

13.3 Shortening Applications .............................................................................. 62913.3.1 Baking Shortening ......................................................................... 62913.3.2 Frying Shortenings ........................................................................ 633

13.4 Margarine and Spread Products ..................................................................64413.5 Quality Management ...................................................................................649

References ......................................................................................................... 656

Index ...................................................................................................................... 659

xix

Third Edition Preface

The objective of this edition remains the same as the two previous editions to provide a practical reference for fats and oils processing and formulation for effec-tive food processor, foodservice, and household applications. It is designed to be an information source for personnel and students of fats and oils processing as well as the personnel of the user industries. Most of the additions for this edition are related to nutrition. Dietary recommendations for fat and fatty acids continue to evolve as a better understanding of the role of dietary lipids in human health is gained. Processing and formulation techniques are reviewed to help determine how to achieve the most favorable nutritional characteristics while maintaining function-ality for the various food applications.

This book was designed to delve into the technical aspects that control the functional characteristics of fats and oils products, how these characteristics can be purified and/or modified to perform as needed, and the processing control nec-essary to produce these characteristics on a continuing uniform basis at the most economical cost. Applications development and quality management begin when the customers requirements are identified and continue through product design, sales, manufacturing, product costing, delivery, and service. A thorough understanding of the functions and properties of the various fats and oils products is the basic key to formulating for the desired attributes. Chapters dealing with the raw materials or source oils and fats, process performance and availability, evaluation techniques, formulation attributes, historic changes, and food applications were designed to pro-vide the elements of formulation. Control of oil processing requires consideration of the problems associated with the properties of the raw materials and each process as well as the real and potential customer problems with the ingredients use. A qual-ity management chapter was included to help establish when a system is in or out of control, and a troubleshooting chapter was included to help identify solutions to problems or at least stimulate the thought process for solving the problem.

Fats and oils user industries have a vested interest in the development, pro-cessing, and quality control for shortening, margarine, and liquid oil products. The properties of the fat and oil ingredients are key elements in the performance and nutritional characteristics of most prepared food products. Fats and oils products for general use, specific applications, processes, nutritional contributions, and other functionalities have been successful due to the cooperative development efforts between fats and oil processors and food processors. Therefore, this text focuses on the formulation of fats and oils ingredients for food applications for food processor, foodservice, and household use.

Information and materials for this book have been gathered over the past 45 years from patents, trade journals, personal experience, and exposure to many of the industrys recognized leaders and other individuals who have taken a genuine pride in their work and the product produced.

11ChaPTEr

raw Materials

1.1 InTroduCTIon

Fats and oils are the raw materials for liquid oils, shortenings, margarines, and other specialty or tailored products that are functional ingredients in food products prepared by food processors, restaurants, and in the home. Fats and oils have been used for food and a variety of other applications since prehistoric times, as they were easily isolated from their source. For example, fatty tissues from animals lib-erate free-floating fats on being boiled, whereas oil can be pressed from olives and oilseeds. Fats and oils found utility because of their unique properties. These ingre-dients were found to add flavor, lubricity, texture, and satiety to foods. They have also been found to have a major role in human nutrition. Fats and oils are the highest energy source of the three basic foods (carbohydrates, proteins, and fats), carriers for oil soluble vitamins, and many contain fatty acids essential for health that are not manufactured by the human body.

Fats and oils occur naturally in a wide range of sources, with each source pro-viding a separate and distinctive material. Hundreds of seeds and fruits contain oil, all animals produce fat, and marine sources also provide oils; however, only a few of these sources are of economic importance. All edible fats and oils are water-insoluble substances that consist predominantly of glyceryl esters of fatty acids, or triglycerides, with some nonglyceridic materials present in small or trace quantities. The terms fats and oils are used interchangeably, and the choice of terms is usually based on the physical state of the material at ambient temperature and tradition. Generally, fats appear solid at ambient temperatures and oils appear liquid. In the final analysis, it is the chemical composition that defines the characteristics of the individual fat or oil, which, in turn, determines the suitability of this ingredient in various processes and applications.


2 Fats and oils: Formulating and ProCessing For aPPliCations

1.2 SourCES of faTS and oIlS

Humans have survived as hunters and gatherers for a majority of their known existence on Earth. It was only during the past 10,000 years that they learned to domesticate plants and animals. During this period, the evolution of cultivated plants has been shaped to the needs of modern humans. Todays agricultural crops are man-kinds creation. Humans cannot survive without them, nor can the crops that have been developed survive without our care. The combined largest source of vegetable oils is the seeds of annual plants grown in relatively temperate climates. Most of these annual plants not only are cultivated as a source of oil, but are also utilized as protein-rich foods.

A second source of vegetable oil is oil-bearing trees. Olive, coconut, and palm oils are extracted from the fruit pulp rather than the seed of the fruit. Palm also has seeds, which provide palm kernel oil. All of the oil-bearing tree fruits require a rela-tively warm climate (i.e., tropical for coconut and palm and a warm climate for olive trees). Most of the oil-bearing tree fruits and kernels provide the highest oil yields. Oil seeds are obtained from annual plants that must be replanted each year, whereas fruit oils are harvested from trees with long life spans. Olive trees are the most hardy and can survive to be several hundred years old. Coconut trees start to bear fruit after 5 to 6 years and their life expectancy is as long as 60 years. Palm trees start to bear fruit after 4 to 5 years and continue to do so for another 20 years.

Edible meat fats are supplied almost entirely by three kinds of domesticated ani-mals: lard from pigs, tallow from cattle and sheep, and milk fat or butter from cows. These animals are raised in the greatest quantities where they thrive the best in temperate climates. Animal husbandry has evolved to the stage that these domestic animals require not only a temperate climate, but also intensive agriculture to pro-vide a plentiful supply of foodstuffs to produce the desired quality and quantity.

1.3 VEGETaBlE oIl YIEldS

Fats and oils are renewable resources. The achievements of agriculture and plant cultivation have made it possible to exceed the demand resulting from world popula-tion growth. The major vegetable oil seeds and fruits utilized for edible purposes are listed in Table 1.1 with their typical oil contents, yield per acre of land, and major producing areas.1-3 Palm is unparalleled in oil yield. The palm oil yield of palm trees is 3150 to 3330 pounds per acre, and an additional yield of 350 to 370 pounds per acre of palm kernel oil is obtained from the same fruit bunch. Palm trees yield almost 10 times the soybean oil yield per acre. Most oil seeds are annual crops, and the harvest is seasonal; however, palm oil is a perennial crop with two crops produced per year. Coconut, also with a high oil content and yield, requires 9 to 12 months to mature, but fruit is available each month of the year. Olives mature annually and are the most delicate fruit; extraction must be performed as soon as possible to obtain quality oil. Olives have the lowest yield per acre of all the oils evaluated, even though their

raw materials 3

oil content is about equivalent to cottonseed and much higher than corn germ. The production of one quart of olive oil requires 1300 to 2000 olives.

Three of the four tree oils have the highest oil contents, but soybean, an annual oil seed crop with low oil content, still provides a large part of the vegetable oil production in the world. Corn, with the lowest oil content, is grown in large enough quantities to be the third most utilized vegetable oil in the United States. Canola, an

Table 1.1 Vegetable oils: oil Content, Yield, and Producing areas

oilSource

oilContent, %

oil Yield,lbs/acre Producing areas

Oilseeds:

Canola 4045 647728 Canada, China, india, France, austria, united Kingdom, germany, Poland, Belgium, italy, luxembourg, republic of ireland, greece, Portugal, spain, denmark, Czechoslovakia, united states

Corn 3.15.7 215390 united states, mexico, Canada, Japan, China, Brazil, south africa, argentina, russia, Commonwealth of independent states (Cis), Belgium, France, italy, germany, spain, united Kingdom

Cottonseed 1820 185210 China, russia, united states, india, Pakistan, Cis, Brazil, egypt, turkey, australia

Peanut 4550 13841538 China, india, nigeria, united states, senegal, south africa, argentina

safflower 3035 545635 China, india, united states, spain, Portugal

soybean 1820 456506 united states, Brazil, argentina, China, india, Paraguay, Bolivia

sunflower 3545 419539 russia, argentina, Cis, austria, France, italy, germany, spain, united states, united Kingdom

Tree fruits and kernels:

Coconut 6568 350370 Philippines, indonesia, india, mexico, sri lanka, thailand, malaysia, Vietnam, mozambique, new guinea, ivory Coast

olive 1535 90260 spain, italy, greece, tunisia, turkey, morocco, Portugal, syria, algeria, Yugoslavia, Cyprus, egypt, israel, libya, Jordan, lebanon, argentina, Chile, mexico, Peru, united states, australia

Palm 4550 31503330 malaysia, indonesia, China, Philippines, Pakistan, mexico, Bangladesh, Columbia, ecuador, nigeria, ivory Coast

Palm kernel 4453 350370 malaysia, indonesia, China, Philippines, Pakistan, mexico, Bangladesh, Columbia, ecuador, nigeria, ivory Coast


annual oil seed crop developed and grown for its oil composition, has moved from a virtual unknown to second in oilseed utilization to soybean oil. Canola seed has the second highest oil content and oil yield per acre of all the annual oilseed plants presented in Table 1.1; it is surpassed only by peanut or groundnut oil for oil content and yield.

1.4 aVaIlaBIlITY of faTS and oIlS

An important contributor to the availability of fats and oils is the fact that most fats and oils production is controlled by factors other than the demand. Corn and cottonseed oils are clearly byproducts, whereas soybeans are specifically crushed to meet the demands for meal. Sunflower, canola, and peanut plantings are subsi-dized and controlled by the governments of the major countries producing the oils. Palm kernel oil production is dependent on palm oil requirements, as it is grown in the same fruit bunch. Olive, coconut, and palm oils are all produced from the fruit of trees that have long productive life spans, therefore, their production cannot be adjusted to demand changes from year to year. Animal fats are dependent on meat consumption, and butter output is subject to milk production. Thus, the availability of fats and oils is not geared to demand.

Weather is another factor that affects both availability and demand for fats and oils. For example, a hurricane in Malaysia can decrease the oil available on the world market; alternatively, favorable weather in the United States, which produces a soy-bean crop with maximum yields, will increase the available oil for the world market. Other factors that affect world demand are the Russian sunflower crop, African pea-nut crop, South American soybeans and cottonseed oil yields, and so forth. This is a one-world market in which variable inputs affect availability and demand, which, in turn, affect the price structure.

1.5 unITEd STaTES uTIlIZaTIon of EdIBlE faTS and oIlS

Climate and availability certainly influenced the eating habits of our ancestors. Inhabitants of central and northern Europe obtained their edible fats from animals, whereas people in southern Europe, Asia, and Africa acquired their edible oils from vegetable sources. The food products developed in these different regions used the available fats and oils products. Consequently, the cuisine of central and northern European countries developed around the use of solid fats, such as butter, lard, and tallow for breads, pastries, and other baked and fried products. Similarly, the diets of inhabitants from warmer climates were developed around the use of liquid oils for their food products, which include many sauces and dressings.4 These trends appear to continue to be the preference of their descendants.

Immigrants to the United States brought their food preferences with them and introduced them to others from different regions of the world. Fats and oils tech-nology has further increased the varied and rich American diet by improvement

raw materials 5

of existing products and development of new food products. The North American eating habits that resulted have made the United States a consumer of almost every available fat and oil, but at a different rank order than for world production. Table 1.2 compares the United States and world vegetable oil consumption.3 Soybean oil does not enjoy the dominant position in the world market that it has in the U.S. market. Palm oil has becomes the major source of oil in the world, followed by soybean, rapeseed (canola), and sunflower oil.

The American consumer is offered these fats and oils in the form of cooking or salad oils; butter, margarine, or spreads; and shortenings or as an ingredient in a prepared food product. The sources of the major fats and oils used in the United States are listed in Table 1.3, which reviews the annual usage of both animal fats and vegetable oils over the past five decades.3,5,6 These data indicate some distinct trends over the past 55 years:

1. Individual consumption continues to increase 2. A move away from animal fats to vegetable oils 3. Replacement of previously established fats and oils with different source oils 4. Introduction of new vegetable oils 5. The rise and fall of some individual source oils 6. Source oil changes that reflect the results of medical studies 7. Introduction of genetically modified oil seed varieties 8. And more

Disappearance of fats and oils in the United States has increased to over four times the levels recorded 55 years ago. This increased usage is due to increases in popula-tion, personal consumption, food waste, and changes in the food preparation methods. The per capita use of visible fats and oils increased by 39.7 pounds during this period,

Table 1.2 2004/2005 World Vegetable oil Consumption

rank With u.S. usage Without u.S. usageConsumption,

%

order oil Million lbs oil Million lbs u.S. World*

1 Palm 72,292 Palm 71,039 4.7 33.1

2 soybean 69,828 soybean 51,873 67.8 24.2

3 Canola 34,474 Canola 32,569 7.2 15.2

4 sunflower 18,678 sunflower 18,319 1.4 8.5

5 Peanut 11,088 Peanut 10,817 1.0 5.1

6 Cottonseed 10,098 Cottonseed 9,238 3.3 4.3

7 Palm kernel 8,316 Palm kernel 7,787 2.0 3.6

8 Coconut 7,260 Coconut 6,134 4.3 2.9

9 olive 6,270 olive 5,756 1.9 2.7

10 Corna 2,483 Corn 798 6.4 0.4

total 240,787 214,330 100.0 100.0

Notes: a u.s. production only; * without u.s. consumption.


confirming an increase in personal usage either from consumption or waste. The changes in the food fats utilized reflect the changing eating habits of Americans in relation to time, place, and frequency of eating. During the periods of high increases, the popularity of convenience and snack foods rose sharply, accompanied by rapid growth in the fast food industry, which relies heavily on deep-fat frying.

Fats and oils consumption has been categorized into visible and invisible sources. Visible fats and oils are those isolated from animal tissues, oilseeds, or oil fruits and used for food preparation as shortening, margarine, or liquid oil or for specialty uses. Invisible fats and oils are consumed as part of meats, poultry, eggs, dairy products, fish, fruits, or vegetables and account for approximately 60% of an individuals fat consumption. The values for pounds per person reported in Table 1.3 are those from visible sources only.

A shift from animal fats to vegetable oils began long before 1950. Animal fats dominated the U.S. market until animal fat supply shortages and new process developments helped cottonseed oil gain popularity. In 1950, animal fats were only slightly behind in market share, but 20 years later, in 1970, edible vegetable oils accounted for three fourths of the total and animal fats for only one fourth. This trend has continued, with vegetable oil commanding almost 90% of the U.S. edible oil market in 2005. On a per capita basis, edible vegetable oil consumption increased

Table 1.3 u.S. food fats and oils disappearance and Per Capita Consumption

fats and oils Millions of pounds

Year 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005

Canola 577 1743 1905

Coconut 129 172 788 1032 897 983 1126

Corn 223 310 445 673 1149 1630 1685

Cottonseed 1445 1225 891 523 851 672 860

olive 79 51 67 58 211 459 514

Palm 1 182 299 256 385 1253

Palm kernel 26 53 94 nr 362 256 529

Peanut 103 62 193 112 197 244 271

safflower 100 58 122 87

soybean 1446 3011 6253 9112 12164 16318 17955

sunflower 64 200 357 359

lard 2050 1889 1645 1023 825 630 722

tallow 156 328 518 995 955 1449 1464

Butter 1062 890 860 814 790 1013 1081

total 6719.0 7992 12036 14705 19492 26261 29810

Consumption Pounds per person

Vegetable oils 24.0 26.7 39.0 44.7 52.5 63.0 75.2

animal fats 21.9 18.5 14.1 12.3 8.5 10.2 10.4

total 45.9 45.3 53.1 57.0 61.0 73.2 85.6

raw materials 7

during the second half of the twentieth century from 24 to 75.2 pounds; meanwhile, animal fats usage fell from 21.9 to 10.4 pounds. During this period, cottonseed oil lost its dominant vegetable oil position to soybean oil, due to cottonseed supply shortages and economics surrounding the shortage. Vegetable oils became dominant mainly because of competitive pricing (first for cottonseed oil and then for soybean oil), increased hydrogenation capacity, consumer preference shifts from butter to margarine, and nutritional concerns. Nutritional issues regarding cholesterol and saturated fats led to the demise of animal fats for food use and helped vegetable oils other than soybean and cottonseed obtain a share of the U.S. market. Canola, corn, olive, sunflower, and safflower oils have all been marketed as oils with more attractive nutritional values, such as lower levels of saturated fat and higher levels of polyunsaturated fat. Now, the 2005 data is beginning to indicate efforts to eliminate trans fatty acids in the diet. Increased usage of palm oil and butter probably indicate efforts by consumers and processors to avoid trans fatty acids.

1.6 CharaCTErIZaTIon of faTS and oIlS

The chemical and physical properties of fats and oils are largely determined by the fatty acids that they contain and their position within the triacylglycerol molecule. Chemically, all fats and oils are esters of glycerin and fatty acids; never-theless, the physical properties of natural fats and oils vary widely because (1) the proportions of fatty acids vary over wide ranges, and (2) the triacylglycerol struc-tures vary for each individual oil and fat. Fats and oils are commonly referred to as triglycerides because the glycerin molecule has three hydroxyl groups where a fatty acid can be attached. All triglycerides have the same glycerin unit, so it is the fatty acids that contribute the different properties. The fatty acid components are distin-guished in three ways: (1) chain length, (2) number and position of the double bonds, and (3) position of the fatty acids within the glyceride molecule. Variations in these characteristics are responsible for the chemical and physical differences experienced with edible fats and oils.

The structure of a fatty acid may be denoted by a systematic name after the nomenclature of its parent hydrocarbon, by the biochemist system, by its common name, or by a convenient shorthand designation showing the number of carbon atoms and the number of double bonds. The fatty-acid carbon-chain lengths vary between 4 and 24 carbon atoms with up to six double bonds. The most prevalent saturated fatty acids are lauric (C-12:0), myristic (C-14:0), palmitic (C-16:0), stearic (C-18:0), arachidic (C-20:0), behenic (C-22:0), and lignoceric (C-24:0). The most important monounsaturated fatty acids are oleic (C-18:1) and erucic (C-22:1). The essential polyunsaturated fatty acids are linoleic (C-18:2), linolenic (C-18:3), EPA (eicosapen-taenoic acid) (C-20:5), and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) (C-22:6).

The triglyceride structure of an edible fat or oil is affected by the fatty acids that are present and the point of attachment of each fatty acid to the glycerin. Triglycerides with three identical fatty acids are called monoacid triglycerides. Triglycerides con-taining more than one type of fatty acid are called mixed triglycerides. A mixed


triglyceride containing three different fatty acids has three regioisomeric forms and six stereoisomeric forms, depending on which fatty acid is in the beta or middle posi-tion (sn-2) of the glycerol portion of the molecule and which fatty acids are in the alpha or outer positions (sn-1 and sn-3). The distribution of the fatty acids is consid-ered to be nonrandom when the saturated fatty acids are positioned predominantly in the sn-1 or sn-3 positions and the unsaturated fatty acids are positioned predomi-nantly in the sn-2 position.7

The fatty acid compositions of natural fats and oils vary significantly depending, not only on the plant or animal species, but also within the same species. Among the factors that affect the vegetable oil fatty acid compositions are climate conditions, soil type, growing season, plant maturity, plant health, microbiological conditions, seed location within the flower, and genetic variation of the plant. Animal fat and oil composition varies according to the animal species, diet, health, fat location on the carcass, and maturity.8

1.7 nonGlYCErIdE CoMPonEnTS of faTS and oIlS

The primary constituents in crude fats and oils are the triglycerides, but they also contain varying amounts of minor components, many of which significantly affect their chemical and physical properties. Exclusive of free fatty acids, crude vegetable oils commonly contain 2% or more nonglyceride substances, and animal fats contain much smaller quantities. These minor components, referred to as the unsaponifiable fraction, consist of phospholipids, tocopherols, sterols, resins, carbohydrates, pesti-cides, proteins, trace metals, and pigments, such as gossypol, carotene, and chloro-phyll. Some, but not all, of the nonglyceride materials are undesirable, therefore, the objective in all edible oil processing is to remove the objectionable impurities with the least possible damage to the desirable constituents.

1.7.1 Phospholipids

These compounds are better known to oil processors as phosphatides and are frequently referred to, together with small quantities of carbohydrates and res-ins, as gums, which have adverse effects on product quality and refined oil yield. Phosphatides are emulsifiers and hinder the separation of oil and water phases in the chemical refining process, interfere with effective bleaching, are catalyst poisons, shorten shelf life, and foul equipment surfaces. Phosphatides consist of polyhydric alcohols esterified with fatty acids and phosphoric acid, which is combined with a nitrogen-containing compound. The phosphatides are divided into two catego-ries: hydratable and nonhydratable, depending on the effect that water has on them. The hydratable phosphatides (phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylinositol) can be separated from the oil phase with water. The nonhydratable phosphatides (phospha-tidic acid and lysophosphatidic acid) and the calcium and magnesium salts of these acids remain in the oil after water degumming. A typical water degumming process will remove the hydratable phosphatides to a level of 200 ppm (parts per million)

raw materials 9

phosphorus for soybean and canola oils. Pretreatment of good-quality crude oils with phosphoric or citric acid before refining is successful in removing both nonhy-dratable and hydratable phosphatides to a phosphorus level of approximately 20 to 30 ppm. Two common phosphatides occurring in vegetable oils are the lecithins and cephalins, which may be considered triglycerides that have one fatty acid replaced with phosphoric acid. The gums separated with a water degumming process can be dried for lecithin processing; however, the gums isolated with acid degumming pro-cesses are not suitable for standard lecithin because their phosphatide composition differs and they contain the degumming acid. As indicated in Table 1.4, all the seed oils contain significant quantities of the phosphatides.9-11

1.7.2 Tocopherols and Tocotrienols

Tocols, natural antioxidants found in plant-based oils, include four tocopherol and four tocotrienol isomers, each designated as alpha (), beta (), gamma (), and delta () depending on the number and position of methyl groups on a chromane ring; they also possess vitamin E activity. The tocopherols have a saturated side chain, whereas the tocotrienols have an unsaturated side chain. These antioxidants inhibit lipid oxidation in foods by stabilizing hydroperoxy and other free radicals and their presence has a major effect on oil flavor quality. The antioxidant activity of tocopherols in foods is least for -tocopherols, while the - and -isomers have inter-mediate activities and the -isomer is the most active. Tocotrienols are less effective than their corresponding tocopherols.12 The stability of many vegetable oils has been credited to the presence of these natural antioxidants; however, too high a tocopherol level will enhance oxidation of the unsaturated fatty acids.13 Seed oils are the major sources of tocopherols and there seems to be a direct relationship between the degree

Table 1.4 fats and oils nonglyceride Components

fat or oilPhosphatides

%Sterols

ppmCholesterol

ppmTocopherols

ppmTocotrienols

ppm

soybean 2.2 1.0 2965 1125 28 7 1293 300 86 86

Canola 2.0 1.0 8050 3230 53 27 692 85

Corn 1.25 0.25 15050 7100 57 38 1477 183 355 355

Cottonseed 0.8 0.1 4560 1870 68 40 865 35 30 30

sunflower 0.7 0.2 3495 1055 26 18 738 82 270 270

safflower 0.5 0.1 2373 278 7 7 460 230 15 15

Peanut 0.35 0.05 1878 978 54 54 482 345 256 218

olive < 0.1 100 < 0.5 110 40 89 89

Palm 0.075 0.025 2250 250 16 3 240 60 560 140

tallow < 0.07 1100 300 1100 300

lard < 0.05 1150 50 3500 500

Coconut < 0.07 805 335 15 9 6 3 49 22

Palm kernel < 0.

Fats and Oils - Formulating and Processing for Applications 3rd ed_R.D.O’Brien_2009

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