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ExplainingtheEsotericImagination:

TowardsaTheoryofKataphaticPracticeAbstract:

Theimaginationiscentraltoesotericpractices,butsofarscholarshaveshownlittleinterestin

exploringcognitivetheoriesofhowtheimaginationworks.TheonlyexceptionisTanya

Luhrmann’sinterpretivedrifttheoryandrelatedresearchonmentalimagerycultivation,which

hasbeenusedtoexplainthesubjectivepersuasivenessofmodernritualmagic.Thisarticledraws

onrecentworkintheneuroscienceofperceptioninordertodevelopageneraltheoryof

kataphatic(thatis,imagerybased)practicethatgoesbeyondtheinterpretivedrifttheory.

Mentalimageryisintimatelylinkedwithperception.Drawingon“predictivecoding”

theory,Iarguethatkataphaticpracticesexploittheprobabilistic,expectation-basedwaythatthe

brainprocessessensoryinformationandcreatesmodels(perceptions)oftheworld.Thisview

throwslightonawiderangeoffeaturesofkataphaticpractices,fromtheircontemplativeand

cognitiveaspects,totheirsocialorganizationanddemographicmake-up,overtheirpageantry

andmaterialculture.Byconnectingreadilyobservablefeaturesofkataphaticpracticetospecific

neurocognitivemechanismsrelatedtoperceptuallearningandcognitiveprocessingofmental

imagery,thepredictivecodingparadigmalsocreatesopportunitiesforcombininghistorical

researchwithexperimentalapproacheswithinthestudyofreligion.Iillustratehowthis

frameworkmayenrichthestudyofWesternesotericisminparticularbyapplyingittothe

paradigmaticcaseof“astraltravel”asithasdevelopedfromtheGoldenDawntraditionofritual

magic,especiallybyAleisterCrowley.

Keywords:mentalimagery;predictivecoding;interpretivedrifttheory;kataphaticpractice;

astraltravel.

1.Introduction:ExplainingtheEsotericImagination

Practicesthataimtoproducesubjectivelypowerfulexperiencesare

commonplaceinthehistoryofesotericism.Fromconversationswithangels

throughcrystalsanderoticencounterswithDivineSophia,toadventuresonthe

astralplaneandthechannellingofascendedmastersfromthePleiades,esoteric

practitionersoftenseekspecialknowledgethroughintimateexperienceswith

mediators.Scholarshavelongagreedthat“imagination”iscentraltothese

practices,andithasevenbeensuggestedthattheimaginationisadefining

characteristicofesotericismitself.1Whereveronestandsontheissueof1Faivre,AccesstoWesternEsotericism,12.


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definitions,itseemssafetosaythatesotericismhashistoricallybeenintertwined

withkataphaticspiritualpractices2–thatis,practicesthatfocusonsensing,

visualizing,andfeelingthedivinedirectly.3Indeed,thekataphaticfocuson

positive,personalexperienceofmediatorsgivestoesotericpracticesmuchof

theirheterodoxfeel.

Butwhatdoesitreallymeantosaythatesotericpracticesrelyonthe

imagination?Whatistheimaginationinthefirstplace,andhowdoesithelpus

explainhowphenomenasuchasangelscrying,clairvoyance,orastralprojection

work?Howarewerelatingtheseeventstocategoriessuchas“dreams”,

“hallucinations”,“fantasy”,andplain-old“perception”?Esotericismscholarstend

tobesilentonthesematters.Inthepresentarticle,Iwilldrawonrecent

perspectivesfromtheneuroscienceofperceptionandthecognitivescienceof

religioninordertosuggestanexplanatorymodelforkataphaticpracticesin

general.Inordertoillustratethemodelanddemonstrateitsusefulnessto

historiansofesotericismspecifically,thebulkofthearticle(Section5)isdevoted

toexplainingaparticularlyparadigmaticcaseofesoterickataphaticpractice:the

astraltravelexercisesthathavebecomeastapleelementofoccultistmagicdue

tothepopularizationofthemagicalsystemsoftheHermeticOrderoftheGolden

Dawnand,especially,AleisterCrowley.

IconsiderGoldenDawn-stylepractice,inwhichIincludeCrowley’s

elaborations,paradigmaticfortworeasons.First,ithasbeenatthecentreofthe

debateaboutthepsychologizationofmagic,andisthereforeakeycaseinstudies

oftheshiftinginterpretationsofimagery-basedpractices.4Secondly,Golden

DawnpracticeswereatthebasisofTanyaLuhrmann’sgroundbreakingstudy,

ThePersuasionsoftheWitch’sCraft(1989),whichisstill,ratheramazingly,the2SeeAsprem,‘EsotericismandtheScholasticImagination’.3Iamassumingakataphatic/apophaticdistinctionalongthelinesusedinthestudyofmysticism.

Onthisview,“kataphatic”(kataphasis,“affirmation”)referstotechniquesthatstresstheactive

developmentofmentalimageryandsensations,while“apophatic”(apophēmi,“todeny”)refersto

attemptstoquenchorstillthemindbystoppinganymentalcontentfromarising.Seee.g.Egan,

‘ChristianApophaticandKataphaticMysticisms’.4SeeespeciallyHanegraaff,‘HowMagicSurvivedtheDisenchantmentoftheWorld’;Asprem,

‘MagicNaturalized?’;Pasi,‘VarietiesofMagicalExperience’;Plaisance,‘IsraelRegardieandthe

PsychologizationofEsotericDiscourse’.SeealsoOwen,ThePlaceofEnchantment,148-185.


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onlymajorattempttoembedoccultistmagicalpracticeinanexplanatory

frameworkconsistentwithcontemporarycognitivescience.5Iwilltherefore

openthisarticlebydiscussingLuhrmann’s“interpretivedrift”theory(Section2).

IsharetwoimportantassumptionswithLuhrmann’swork.First,thatthe

relevantmeaningoftheterm“imagination”istheabilitytoformmentalimagery6

–which,moreover,canbelongtoanyoftheperceptualmodalitiesandnotonly

vision.Second,thatkataphaticpractices–esotericorotherwise–provide

techniquesofcultivatingmentalimagery.Inotherwords,kataphatic

practitionersdonotjustlearntotalkinadifferentway,asconstructionist

approachessometimesinsist,butreallydoaltertheirexperientialrepertoire.

Talkingwithangels,ortravelingontheastralplane,areskillsthatcanbetrained.

Theobjectiveofanyexplanatorytheoryofkataphaticpracticemustthereforebe

tounderstandthecausalfactorsthatallowsuchtrainingtotakeplace,andto

identifythematerial,bodily,andmentaltechniquesthatpractitionershaveat

theirdisposalinordertohonetheskill.

Pursuingthisobjectivetakesmebeyondinterpretivedrift,toarecent

neurocognitivetheoryofperceptionknownaspredictivecoding(Section3).7

Accordingtothisview,perceptionisaguessinggame.Ratherthanpassively

recordingincomingsensedata,thebrainandthenervoussystemactivelytriesto

predictchangesintheenvironmentbyproducingmodelsthatareconstantly

testedagainstexperience.Theperceptsthatweexperiencearethemodelsthat

bestexplainthebody’scurrentsituation.Theyarethebrain’sbestguessesof

5ButseeSledge,‘Between“Loagaeth”and“Cosening”’;Klaassen,‘SubjectiveExperienceandthe

PracticeofMedievalRitualMagic’;Asprem,‘Reverse-Engineering“Esotericism”’.Thesituationis,

ofcourse,differentifwelookatmagicasageneralconcept.SeeespeciallyJesperSørensen,A

CognitiveTheoryofMagic.6“Imagination”isnotawell-definedtechnicaltermincurrentpsychologicalscience.Broadly

speaking,Idifferentiatetwomeaningsthatareanalytically(andprobablyneurologically)

distinct:theabilitytocreatementalimagery,andtheabilitytocreatenovelrepresentations.The

pointinseparatingthesetwoisthatmentalimageryappearstobeaspecialkindof

representation,thatisprocesseddifferentlyfrom,e.g.,linguisticorpropositional

representations.Forasurveyoftheevidenceofimageryasaseparatekindofrepresentation,see

Kosslyn,Thompson,andGanis,TheCaseforMentalImagery.7Foraparticularlyluciddiscussionbyaleadingphilosopherofmind,seeClark,‘WhateverNext?’


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whatisoutthere,basedonpreviousexperienceandcurrentpredictive

performance.Iarguethatthispredictionmodel,whichhasrecentlybeen

embracedbysomeresearchersinthecognitivescienceofreligion,8providesan

idealframeworkformakingsenseofmentalimagerycultivation(Section4).This

modelexplicitlyrelatesmentalimagerytotheperceptualprocess,andembeds

perceptionitselfinageneralizedmodelofexpectation-basedlearning.The

predictivecodingframeworkmakesitpossibletodemonstratehowkataphatic

practicesexploitthewaythebrainprocessessensoryinformation.Aftershowing

howwecanusetheseprinciplestopaycloserattentiontolittle-discussed

aspectsofastraltravelpractice(Section5),Iclosewithadiscussionofthenew

linesofresearchthatareopenedupbythisapproach(Section6).

2. TheCultivationofImaginationandtheInnerSenses

TheTheoryofInterpretiveDrift

Framedbytherationalitydebateinanthropology,LuhrmanncastPersuasionsas

thestudyof‘acaseinwhichapparentlyirrationalbeliefsareheldbyapparently

rationalpeople,’withanaimto‘identifytheelementswhichseemimportantto

explaininghowtheydoso’.9Thetheoreticalobjectivewastoexplainhow

humansarecapableofexperiencingandunderstandingtheworldinradically

differentways.Luhrmannfollowededucated,middleclassEnglishpeoplethat

joinedsmallmagicalgroups,describedherownparticipationinthecoursesand

exercisesthatwereprescribedtoaspirants,andstudiedhowparticipants

acquirednewskillsthateventuallyturnedthemintoaccomplishedmagicians.

Luhrmanndescribedthislearningprocessas“interpretivedrift”,definingitas

‘theslowshiftinsomeone’smannerofinterpretingevents,makingsenseof

experiences,andrespondingtotheworld’.10

8Schjoedtetal.,’CognitiveResourceDepletioninReligiousInteractions’;Andersenetal.,

’MysticalExperienceintheLab’;TavesandAsprem,’ExperienceasEvent’.SeealsoMarkússon,

’IndicesintheDark’(thisissue),foranapplicationofthesameframeworktoawhollydifferent

problem.9Luhrmann,PersuasionsoftheWitch’sCraft,13.10Ibid.,12.


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Onemightgettheimpressionthatthelearningprocessprovides

interpretationsof“raw”experiencesthat“justhappen”,butthiswouldbean

incorrectreading.AsLuhrmannshowedinthechapteronvisualizationpractices

–andinmorerecentresearch,asweshallsoonsee–thespecifictechniquesthat

buddingkataphaticpractitionersaretaughtbringthemtopayattentiontothe

contentoftheirownmindsandtoavarietyofbodilysensationsinwaysthat

resultinentirelynovelkindsofexperience.11Theprocessofbecominga

magiciandoesnotonlyresultinadriftofinterpretations,butintherebuildingof

thepractitioner’sexperientialworld.Anexplanatorytheoryofthelearning

processmustthereforeaccountforhowandwhycertainpracticescaneffect

lastingchangesinpeople’sexternalandinternalperceptions.

MentalImageryCultivationasanObjectofResearch

Thecultivationofmentalimageryhasbeenontheradarofpsychologically

informedanthropologistssinceRichardNollpublishedaseminalarticleonthe

subjectin1985.12Noll’sparadigminfluencedtheinterpretivedrifttheory,but

Luhrmannandcolleagueshavepushedthislineofresearchfurtherinmore

recentwork.13Their“SpiritualDisciplinesProject”investigatedhowCharismatic

ChristianslearntohearthevoiceofGod,focusingonthehypothesisthat

kataphaticprayertechniqueswithaheavyemphasisonseeing,feeling,and

talkingwithJesusmayhaveaneffectonpractitioners’abilitiestoformmental

imagery,aswellasincreasetheirchancesofreportingspontaneousexperiences

thattheyappraiseasspirituallysignificant.Itshouldbenotedthat“imagery”,in

thiscontext,doesnotrefertovisualrepresentationsalone.Luhrmannand

colleaguesprefertalkingabout“innersensecultivation”inordertohighlight

thattheyareinterestedinimageryrelatedtoanyoftheperceptualmodalities

11Ibid.,180-202.12Noll,‘MentalImageryCultivationasaCulturalPhenomenon’.13SeeLuhrmannandMorgain,‘PrayerasInnerSenseCultivation’;Luhrmann,Nusbaum,and

Thisted,‘“Lord,TeachUstoPray”’;CassanitiandLuhrmann,‘TheCulturalKindlingofSpiritual

Experiences’;Luhrmann,WhenGodTalksBack.


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(smell,hearing,touch,taste,andvision),includingtheinteroceptive,vestibular,

andproprioceptive“bodilysenses”.14

TheSpiritualDisciplinesProjecthasdocumentedthatkataphaticprayer

hasameasurableeffectonpeople’sabilitiestovisualizeandtheirlikelihoodof

reportingcertainkindsofanomalousexperiences.15However,theresearchhas

alsoshownthatthesetechniquesdonothavethesameeffectoneveryone:Some

peoplearekataphatic“naturals”,whileothersneverlearntoseeorfeelmuchof

thespiritualworld.Inparticular,theyfoundthatpeoplewhoscoredhighlyon

testsofthepersonalitytrait“absorption”weremuchmorelikelytoget

somethingoutofkataphaticprayertechniques.16Furthersupportforindividual

differenceeffectsarefoundinresearchonmentalimageryvividnessingeneral:

personalityfactorssuchasschizotypy17andfantasyproneness18arealso

associatedwithhigherreportedvividness,whilethereappearstobeamodest

genderdifferenceinfavourofwomen.19Inotherwords,bothspecifictechniques

andindividualdifferencesarecausalfactorsthatinfluencementalimageryability.

TheSpiritualDisciplinesProjecthasuncoveredanumberofintriguing

correlationsbetweenpersonalityfactors,spiritualpractice,vividnessofmental

imagery,andthepropensitytohallucinate,butitdoesnotprovidean

explanatoryaccountoftheseconnections.Thatis,itdoesnotpropose

mechanismsthatspecifyhowproximatecausesinteracttoproducetheeffects.20

Inwhatfollows,Iwillsuggestthattheneurocognitivepredictivecoding14Respectively,thesearethesenseofthebody’sautonomoussystems,likeheartbeat,

respiration,andthedigestivesystem(interoception),thesenseofbalance(vestibularsense),and

thesenseofbodyownership(proprioception).Foranuptodatediscussionofthese(andrelated)

aspectsofthesensorium,seeRitchieandCarruthers,‘TheBodilySenses’.15Foradetaileddiscussionoftheprocedureandanalysisoftheresults,seeLuhrmann,Nusbaum,

andThisted,‘“Lord,TeachUstoPray”’,164–171.16SeeespeciallyLuhrmann,Nusbaum,andThisted,‘TheAbsorptionHypothesis’.17Oerteletal.,‘MentalImageryVividnessasaTraitMarkeracrosstheSchizophreniaSpectrum’.18AlemananddeHaan,‘FantasyProneness,MentalImagery,andRealityMonitoring’.19IsaacandMarks,‘IndividualDifferencesinMentalImageryExperience’.20Iassumeacausal-mechanisticviewofexplanationalongthelinespresentedbyCraverand

Tabery,‘MechanismsinScience’.Forin-depthdiscussions,seeAspremandTaves,‘Explanation

andtheStudyofReligion’;TavesandAsprem,Explanation:APrimer.Foranaccessibleoverview,

seealsoAspremandTaves,BuildingBlocksofHumanExperience(URL:http://bbhe.ucsb.edu/).


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framework,asanaction-andexpectationorientedtheoryofperceptuallearning,

offerssuchanaccount.Importantly,itdirectsourattentiontoaspectsofthe

trainingprocessthatgobeyondthosecoveredbyinnersensecultivationalone,

andpinpointsspecificproximatecausesthatareinvolvedinsuchpractices.

3. ImageryastheMind’sHypothesis:APredictiveCodingAccountof

Imagination,Perception,andHallucination

Thepredictivecodingframeworkholdsthatthecontentofourexperienceisthe

resultofinternallygeneratedmodelsratherthanpassiverecordingsofwhatis

“outthere”.21Morespecifically,itholdsthattheseinternalmodelsarepredictions

–theyarethebrain’sbestattemptsatguessingthebody’scurrentsituation.

Contrarytotheold-schoolempiricistview,sensedatadoesnotprovideraw

materialsforconsciousexperience;thesensorystream’sroleisrathertotest

aspectsofmodelsgeneratedinsidethebrain.Thebrainguessesxaboutthe

world,andgetstherestofthebodytotestthepredictionbyactingontheguess

andturningtoexpectedstimuli.Ifexpectationsdonotworkout,anerrorsignal

issentbacktothebrain.Whensuchsignalsarelow,thehypothesisisconfirmed

andwehaveastablepercept.Whenerrorsignalsincrease,thepredictionfails

andthebrainstartslookingfornewmodelsthatmightbetterexplainthe

sensorystream(seefig.1).

Inshort,predictivecodingisacomputingprinciplethatisimplementedin

theorganizationofthenervoussystem,whichprovidestheorganismwitha

cost-efficientstrategyforinteractingwithacomplexworld.Adistinctivefeature

ofthisstrategyisthatitusesprobabilitiesbasedonwhathashappenedinthe

pastinordertomake“guesses”(ormodels)ofwhatishappeningnow.

21Theframeworkhasbeendevelopedattheintersectionofneuroscience,cybernetics,and

embodiedcognition,especiallyintheworkofKarlFristonandcollaborators.Seee.g.Friston,‘A

TheoryofCorticalResponses’;idem,‘TheFree-EnergyPrinciple’;Fristonetal.,‘Perceptionas

Hypotheses’.SeealsoRaoandBallard,‘PredictiveCodingintheVisualCortex’;Corlett,Frith,and

Fletcher,‘FromDrugstoDeprivation’.AsystematicandaccessiblediscussionisavailableinClark,

‘WhateverNext?’IbuildprimarilyonClark’sphilosophicallyprovocativeunderstanding,and

refertotheopenpeercommentariestohisarticleforfurtherreferences.


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Technically,theseexpectationsareknownas“priorprobabilities”,orpriors.22On

thisview,mentalimagesareourstockofperceptualhypotheses,basedon

expectationsfrompastexperience(i.e.,priors).23Likepercepts,imageryarises

asinternalmodelsinthecorticalareasresponsibleforagivenperceptual

modality–thus,avisualmentalimagewillcorrelatewithneuralactivityinthe

visualcortexindistinguishablefromtheactivationduringvisualperception.24

Howvividlytheimageisexperienceddependsonhowwelltheseinternal

modelssuppresspredictionerroratagivenmoment–predictionerrorbeingthe

brain’sindirectproxyforhowwelltheinternalmodelfitswiththeoutside

world.25

Figure1:Thesensoryprocessaccordingtopredictivecoding.Priorprobabilities

(expectations)informtheproductionofinternalmodelsthattrytoactivelyguess(infer)

whatis“outthere”.Thetopillustrationshowsasteadystatewhereaclearperceptis

22ThistermisliftedfromBayesianprobabilitystatistics,whichisthemathematicalframeworkof

predictivecoding.23Clark,‘WhateverNext?’,197-199;idem,‘PerceivingasPredicting’.24SeeRaoandBallard,‘PredictiveCodingintheVisualCortex’.SeealsoKosslynetal.,‘Visual

MentalImageryActivatesTopographicallyOrganizedVisualCortex’;Cuietal.,‘Vividnessof

MentalImagery’.25Clark,‘PerceivingasPredicting’.


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heldinview.Thesecondillustrationshowsanoldhypothesisbeingrejectedand

replacedforanotheraserrorsignalsincrease.This,inturn,leadstoanupdateofthe

priors.Modelscorrespondingtothenewhypothesisaremorelikelytobegeneratedin

thefuture.

Table1:KeyconceptsofpredictivecodingTerm Meaning

Internal

generative

model

Corticalareasgeneratemodelsoftheexpected

activityonthelevelsbelowitintheneural

hierarchy.Generativemodelsarepredictive

hypothesesofexpectedlower-levelactivity,

basedonpriorprobabilities.Theyaretested

(andupdated)bytheprocessingofbottom-up

errorsignalsfromthesensoryperiphery.

Prior

probability

A(Bayesian)statisticalconceptexpressingthe

estimatedchanceofsomefutureobservation

basedonwhathashappenedinthepast.Prior

probabilitiesareconstantlyupdatedthrough

feedback-basedinteractionwiththe

environment(learning).

Error

signal

Errorsignalsrepresentamismatchbetween

anexpectedoutcomeandanactualoutcome.

Theytracktheinaccuracyofaninternally

generatedmodelandtheactivitybelowitin

theneuralhierarchy,whichittriestomodel.

Top-down

processing

Predictionsproducedbyinternalmodelsare

signalleddownwardsintheneuralhierarchy,

fromthecortextothesensoryandmotor

systems.Whentop-downprocessing

dominates,subjectsexperiencewhatthey

expect.Top-downprocessingisassociated

with,e.g.,unambiguousperception,hypnotic

induction,pattern-recognition,hallucinations,

anddreams.

Bottom-up

processing

Errorsignalsaresentupwardsinthe

hierarchy,fromthesensoryperipherytoward

thecortex.Whentheerrorsignalisstrongand

bottom-upprocessingdominates,subjectswill

experienceconstantlyshifting,novel


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perceptionsandthoughts.Bottom-up

processingisassociatedwith,e.g.,attention,

learning,disorientation,confusion,and

paranoia.

Theerrorsignallingprocessisseldomperfect.Mismatchesbetweenan

internalmodel(theimage)andtheworldoutsidemayhappenwhenthey

shouldn’t(leadingtofailuretorecognizefeaturesthatareactuallypresent,ora

searchformorefar-fetchedpatterns),ornothappenwhentheyshouldhave

(leadingtomisperceptionsorhallucinations).Notonlyareimaginationand

perceptionintimatelyrelatedtoeachother,then,buttheyalsostandona

continuumwithotherexperientialcategoriessuchasdreamsandhallucinations.

Thepredictivecodingframeworkhelpsusspecifysomeofthephysiological

variablesthatmodulatesuchperception-likeexperiences,offeringimportant

cluestohowandwhymentalimagerymaytakeonperceptualqualities.

Someofthecausalfactorsinvolvedcometoviewwhenwelookatthe

moreextremecasesofalteredperception,suchashallucinations.Hallucinations

haveusuallybeendefinedascompellinglyrealisticperceptionsthatoccur

withoutacorrespondingexternalstimulus.26Thepredictivecodingmodel

complicatesthispicture,becauseitrejectstheviewthatperceptsarebuiltup

“bitbybit”fromsensedata.Bothperceptsandhallucinationsareinternally

generatedpredictions(mentalimages)thatsuccessfullysuppressprediction

erroratagivenmoment.Inhallucinations,however,thishappensbecausethe

errormonitoringprocessisimpededinwaysthatfavourtop-downprocessing.27

Thiscanhappeninmanyways.Oneistocutofftheexternalsensorystream

altogether,whetherbyremovingexternalstimuliorbyblockingtheprocessing

ofinformationfromthesensestothecentralnervoussystem.Thisaccountsfor

thehallucinatoryexperiencesassociatedwithsensorydeprivationandsome

formsofvisualimpairment(likeCharlesBonnetSyndrome),butitalsooccurson

aphysiologicallevelduringREMsleep,whenthebrain’saccesstosensoryand

26See,e.g.,Sacks,Hallucinations,ix-xi.27SeeespeciallyCorlett,Frith,andFletcher,‘FromDrugstoDeprivation’.


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motorsystemsisblocked.28Errormonitoringmayalsobedisruptedby

interferingwiththeneurotransmittersthatmediatebothtop-downprediction

signalsandbottom-uperrorsignals.29Alterationsonthislevelareapartofthe

pictureinhallucinationsinducedbydrugs,psychopathology,andREMsleep

alike.

CultivationBeyondtheBrain:TheRoleofPatternedPracticesandMaterialCulture

Mentalimagerybecomesmorevividwhentop-downprocessingoutweighs

bottom-upprocessingofpredictionerrors.Whilesensorydeprivationandintake

ofpsychotomimeticdrugsarecapableofjumblingthisbalanceinwaysthat

producedramaticshiftsinperception,theeffectsaregenerallyshort-lived.In

ourcontext,wearemoreinterestedinprocessesthatcancreatelastingshiftsin

theabilitytoformandsustainvividimagery.Tounderstandsuchprocesses,itis

necessarytoconsidernotjustthebody-boundmediationofpredictionsand

errorsinthenervoussystem,buthowtheorganismasawholeinteractswith

environmentsandmaterialobjectsinspecificpracticessustainedovertime.

Aswehaveseen,thepredictivecodingframeworkcastsperceptionasan

adaptivelearningprocess.Pastexperiencecreatesexpectationsthatallowthe

braintocreatenewinternalmodels,whichareactivelytestedagainstthe

sensorystream.Thisisaverygenerallearningstrategy,wheretheconceptual,

perceptual,andmotoricflowintoeachother.30Forexample,whenwelearnto

readanewalphabet,webeginwithoutinternalmodelsfortheshapesofthe

letters.AnoviceinHebrewmightfindthattheletteralephlooksnothinglikeany

lettertheyknowfromtheLatinalphabet.Inpredictivecodingterms,aconstant

streamofpredictionerrorissentupwardsinthecognitivehierarchyasthe

studentexaminestheletter,leadingtoacuteattentiontodetail(edgesand

28Seeibid.,523-526;HobsonandFriston,’WakingandDreamingConsciousness’;cf.Hobsonand

Friston,’Consciousness,Dreams,andInference’.29ErrorsignalsarethoughttobemediatedbyAMPAandGABAreceptorswhiletop-down

predictionsaremediatedbyNMDAreceptors.Arangeofneurotransmitterssuchasdopamine,

acetylcholine,andserotonin,arethoughttoregulatethe“gain”or“weight”onthesesignals.Fora

discussion,seeespeciallyCorlett,Frith,andFletcher,‘FromDrugstoDeprivation’,517-519.30SeeClark,’WhateverNext?’


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shapes)asthebrainstrugglestofindahypothesisthatmightpredictthesensory

streamfromthepaper.Eventually,thebraincomestoexpectcertainshapes(i.e.,

newpriorsareformed),whichistosaythatthestudentcomestocreatean

internalpictureoftheletterthatallowshertoidentifyitwithoutpaying

attentiontoallthedetailsonthepaper.31Processingnowsubtlyshiftsfrom

bottom-uptotop-down.Afterthealphabethasbeeninternalizedinthisway,the

sameprocessisrepeatedonthewordlevel;atfirst,predictionerrordominates,

andattentionisturnedtominutevisualdetailsasthestudentidentifiesevery

singleletterastheyappearinorder,buteventually,internalmodelsofwhole

wordsareformed,whichletstheproficientreaderidentifywordswithout

payingcloseattentiontohowtheyarespelled.Astheprocessunfolds,thebrain

learnstoregulatethesensorystreamandthusthelevelatwhicherror

monitoringtakesplace,byshiftingattentionthroughthemovementoftheeyes’

saccades.32

Simpleexampleslikethissuggestthat“culture”,inthesenseofregularly

repeatedbehaviours,or“patternedpractices”,33hasdeepeffectsonperceptual

processing.Interactingwithenvironmentsinpatternedwaysselectivelyshape

oursensoryinput,and,overtime,theserepeatedbehavioursgivewayto

expectationsandinternalmodelsthat,effectively,structuretherepertoireof

whatcanbeperceived.Materialculture,intheshapeofobjects,architecture,

signs,tools,etc.,playsacentralpart.Internalmodelsaresustainedbypatterned

engagementswithmaterialobjectsandbuiltenvironments,whichisespecially

importantincaseswheretheyarefarremovedfromanythingencounteredin

humanity’sancestralhabitats.34Thus,societiestendtoconstructhighly

specialized‘designerenvironments’,whichallowindividualbrainstobuildand31Readingproficiencyinagivenalphabetaltershowweclassifylettersandprocessthevisual

dataoflettershapes.ForarecentstudyusingArabicasexample,seeWiley,Wilson,andRapp,

‘TheEffectsofAlphabetandExpertiseonLetterPerception’.32Ontheroleofsaccadesintestingperceptualhypotheses,seeespeciallyFristonetal.,

‘PerceptionasHypothesis’.33Roepstorff,Niewöhner,andBeck,’EnculturingBrainsthroughPatternedPractices’,1052.For

empiricalevidenceofsucheffects,seee.g.Henrich,Heine,andNorenzayan,‘TheWeirdestPeople

intheWorld?’34SeeMalafouris,HowThingsShapetheMind.


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sustainveryspecificandabstractsetsofexpectations.35Theartificial‘cognitive

niches’thatresultfromsuchlong-term,interactive,andmaterialengagement

withdesignedstimulimakeitpossibleto‘inducetheacquisitionofgenerative

modelswhosereachanddepthfarexceedstheirapparentbaseinsimpleforms

ofsensorycontactwiththeworld’.36

4.TowardsaGeneralTheoryofKataphaticPractice

Vividmentalimagerydependsontwofactors:Strongpriors,andweakerror

signals.Whilepharmacologicalinterventionscanpotentlyalterthebalance

betweentop-downandbottom-upprocessingontheshortterm,practiceand

materialcultureareessentialforgainingsystematic,long-termeffects.Such

long-termlearningwillincludeaseamlessmixofconceptual,perceptual,and

motoricaspects:learningaletter,forexample,involvestheconceptoftheletter

(includingphonemiclinks),apercept(avisualshape),andanoculomotor

movement(eyemovementconfirmingtheshape).Moreover,peopleprocess

errorsignalsdifferently.Somepeoplearemoreeasilygiventotop-down

processingthanothers–fromtheextremeexampleofpatientswith

schizophrenia,whosedisturbeddopaminetransductioncontributetodelusions

andhallucinations,37tohighlyhypnotizablesubjects,whoappearableto

suppresserrorsignallingandupregulatetop-downprocessinginthepresenceof

certainsocialandmaterialcues.38

Howcantheseinsightshelpusunderstandkataphaticpracticesinwhich

practitionersseektointeractdirectlywithwhattheyconsidertobeaspiritual

world?First,theyhelpusdistinguishfourgenericfeaturesofanylearning

process:internalizationofconceptualframes,theregulationofattention,theuse

of“designerenvironments”,andunevenadvantagesdependingonindividual

cognitiveandpersonalitydifferences(i.e.,“talent”).Undereachofthesegeneric

categorieswecanpointtospecificfeaturesrelevanttokataphaticpractice:

35Clark,‘WhateverNext?’,195.36Ibid.37Corlett,Frith,andFletcher,‘FromDrugstoDeprivation’;FletcherandFrith,‘Perceivingis

Believing’.38SeethediscussioninTaves,RevelatoryEvents,chaptereleven.


14

conceptualknowledgeaboutdifferentkindsofexperiences(eventschemata);

attentionalpracticesfocussedoninternalmentalandbodilycues;material

objectsandenvironmentsthathampererrormonitoringandfacilitatetop-down

processingrelativetospecificeventschemata;andaselectiveadvantagefor

personalitytraitsassociatedwithheightenedmentalimageryvividnessand/ora

top-downprocessingstyle.

Atitsbase,anysuccessfulkataphaticpracticemustinstilanewsetof

expectations(priors)thatallowforcertainexperiencestobegeneratedand

recognizedatall.Theseexpectationsmustnotonlybeaboutindividualpercepts,

butmustprovideeventmodelsthatpredictsequencesofpercepts,attribute

causalandintentionalrelationsbetweensequences,andallowthemtobe

integratedwithintheperson’slifestory.39Eventmodelswill,forexample,allow

thepractitionertorecognizethatacertainunfoldingofimagesisa“vision”and

nota“daydream”,orthataninternalvoiceisthatofaspiritandnotjustone’s

ownthoughts.Eventschemataareasignificantpartofsucheventmodels:

Schematicknowledgeofspecifictypesofeventsisactivelyusedtopredictwhat

willhappennext.Tobeabletodothisweformseparatecategoriesofeventsin

semanticmemory,whichallowustodistinguishdifferenttypesofevents(e.g.

visionsfromdaydreams)fromeachother,enablingustoinferthelikelycauses

behindwhathappens,interpretitssignificance,andtakeappropriatemotor

actionsbasedonpriorexpectations.

Successfulkataphaticpracticesmustprovideeventschematafor

internallygeneratedimagery,whichshouldtypicallyberelatedtoabroader

conceptualstructurethatmakestheeventrelevanttothepersonexperiencingit

andsuggestiveofspecificcoursesofaction.Forexample,aneventschemafor

“talkingwithanangel”willrecognizecertainbodily,perceptual,andmental

imagerycuesasindicativeofthateventisoccurring(e.g.,makingitpossibleto

discernavisionfromadreamontheonehand,andfromtalkingwithanormal

personontheother).Itwill,however,alsoconnectthesecuesandimagestoa

broaderstructureofbeliefsabout“angels”,which,inturn,mightelicitactions

39Fortheroleofeventmodelsandeventschematainunderstanding“religious”experiences,see

TavesandAsprem,‘ExperienceasEvent’.


15

suchastestingthattheangelwasnotademonindisguise,andtaking

appropriateactionsbasedontheresult.

Inadditiontotheseconceptualaspectsinvolvedwithlearningandusing

eventschemata,thereisanindispensablepracticalcomponenttothe

establishmentofeventmodels.Weshouldexpecttofindpatternedpracticesthat

drawattentiontointernalimageryandsensorycues,manipulateimagery

throughvisualization,mentalrotation,orthesimulationofsituations,andlink

thesementalrepresentationstotheeventschematathatcategoriseandexplain

whatishappening.Suchpracticeswould,effectively,usetheconceptually

learnedexpectationsaboutcertainexperientialcategoriestotryandpredictthe

streamofinternalsensations.Top-downperceptualmodelsarereroutedin

ordertomakesenseof“noisy”signalsarisinginsidethenervoussystemitself–

leadingtoperception-likeexperienceswhenthey,throughaneffortfulshiftin

attention,succeed.Moreover,wewouldexpectthatsuchtaskstakeplacein

environmentsthatimpedethenormalerrormonitoringprocessandupregulate

top-downprocessing.Examplesofimpedederrormonitoringincludethe

removalofnoisystimuli,notonlythroughtheuseofsecluded,quiet,anddimly

litlocations,butalsobytheintroductionofstimulithatsupportspecificimagery.

Examplesofincitingtop-downprocessingmayalsoincludehypnoticinductions

(e.g.,throughthepresenceofcharismaticteachersoreven“charismatic

objects”),40ortheuseofdrugsandsensorydeprivationasaidestotheexercise.41

Moreimportantly,though,sincementalimageryabilitycorrelatespositivelywith

motor-actionskills,42weshouldexpectthatkataphaticpracticesnotmerely

encouragepractitionerstositinsilence,butembedtherepresentationalcontent

(i.e.,specificimagerythatistobevisualizedandgeneratedinternally)in

embodiedactionsequencesthatprovidessensory-motorengagementwithit.In

40Fortheeffectofcharismaontop-downprocessing,seeSchjoedt,Stødkilde-Jørgensen,Geertz,

andRoepstorff,‘ThePowerofCharisma’.Oncharismaticobjects,seeTaves,‘Non-Ordinary

Powers’.41Foranexampleofthisrecommendationinacontemporaryprimarysource,seeCarroll,

Psychonaut,147-150.42SeeIsaacandMarks,‘IndividualDifferencesinMentalImageryExperience’,486-493.


16

otherwords,weshouldexpecttofindaritualizationofimageryrunningparallel

tofocusedvisualizationexercises.

Relatedtospeciallocationsandpractices,weshouldalsoexpect

kataphaticpracticestocreateawholematerialcultureforthemselves,an

inventoryofobjects,(physical)images,symbols,andarchitecturaldesignsthat

supportthepractice.Itisnothardtothinkofexamplesinthecontextofreligious

practices,whichareusuallyrichinpageantrythatstimulatesthepractitioner’s

sensorium.Examplesincludeindividualobjectsthatmightworkas“material

anchors”forconceptualblendsrelevanttothepractice43–suchaswhena

crucifixsuggeststheentirerangeofemotionalimageryassociatedwiththe

passionoftheChrist,oraspecificincenseisassociatedwithaparticularevent,

concept,oremotion.44Moreover,entirearchitecturaldesignscanbeproduced

thatminimizenoisystimuliandencouragetop-downprocessing.Monasteries

areexcellentexamplesofthis,typicallyprovidingspaceforisolation,absenceof

distractions,andaspecializeddécorthatsystematicallydirectsattentionto

specificrepresentationalconcerns.

Finally,sinceimageryabilityisunevenlydistributedinthepopulation,we

mightalsohypothesizethatkataphaticpracticestendtorecruitcertaintypesof

individuals,orthatpeoplewithcertainpersonalitydispositionsaremorelikely

toremainoncetheyhavetakenupthepractice.Basedonwhatweknowfrom

previousstudies,absorption,hypnotisability,fantasyproneness,andpositive

schizotypymayallbeexpectedpredictorsofsuccessfulinvolvementwiththese

practices.45Theliteraturealsosuggestsaconnectionbetweenbodycontroland

imageryability(athletesaregoodvisualizerswhiletheclumsyarenot),which

mayputfurtherconstraintsonwhomweexpecttoexcelinakataphatic

environment,andwhatphysicalactivitiestheymightbedoingwhennot43Onconceptualblendsandmaterialanchors,seeespeciallyFauconnierandTurner,TheWayWe

Think,195-214;Hutchins,‘MaterialAnchorsforConceptualBlends’;Malafouris,HowThings

ShapetheMind,103-106.SeealsoTimalsina,TantricVisualCulture.44Forexamplesofthelatter,seee.g.AshbrookHarvey,ScentingSalvation.45Interestingly,thereissomepsychologicalevidenceofacorrelationbetweenschizotypy,

absorption,andrelatedpersonalityfactors(likethinboundariesandmagicalthinking)and

involvementinnewagebeliefsandpractices.Seee.g.FariasandGranqvist,‘ThePsychologyof

theNewAge’;Farias,Underwood,andClaridge,‘UnusualbutSoundMinds’.


17

meditating.Forexample,masteryofcomplexsensory-motoricscriptssuchasa

danceoramartialartmaybeparticularlyadvantageoustoenhancedmental

imagery.

Table2:Fourcomponentsofkataphaticpractices.

5.HistoricalEvidenceofInnerSenseCultivation:AMagicianLearnstoFly

Howmayallofthishelpadvanceourunderstandingofesotericusesofthe

imagination?InthisfinalsectionIwillillustratetheusefulnessofthepredictive

codingframeworkforthestudyofkataphaticreligiouspracticebyapplyingitto

astraltravelinthecontextofGoldenDawn-styleritualmagic.Ichoosethiscase,

becauseastraltravelisaparticularlywell-documentedformofkataphatic

practicethatallowsustobasetheanalysisoninstructionmaterialaswellas

first-personaccountsandcontextualdata.Whilemymainfocusisonhowthe

predictivecoding-basedtheoryofkataphaticpracticesketchedaboveishelpful

forhistoricalresearchonesotericism,Iwillalsosuggestwaystointegrate

experimentalapproachesintotheesotericismscholar’stoolbox.

Astraltravelisoneofthemostinfluentialexperientialcategoriesthat

emergedfromthelate-nineteenthcentury“occultrevival”.46Thebasicnotionis

thatwepossessanumberofsubtlebodiesinadditiontothephysicalbody,and

thatsomeofthesecanbetemporarilyseparatedfromthematerialbodyand

traveltootherlocationsandrealms.47Organizationssuchastheearly

TheosophicalSocietyandtheHermeticBrotherhoodofLuxordeveloped

practicesforastraltravel,whiletheSocietyforPsychicalResearchgotinterested46Forthehistoricaldevelopmentoftheconcept,seeDeveney,‘AstralProjectionorLiberationof

theDoubleandtheWorkoftheEarlyTheosophicalSociety’.47Onthedevelopmentof“subtlebody”doctrinesintheoccultistcontext,seeAsprem,‘Pondering

Imponderables’.


18

instudyingitasaparanormalphenomenon.Italsobecamecentraltotheritual

magicaltraditionemergingfromtheHermeticOrderoftheGoldenDawninthe

1890s,48andastraltravelremainsessentialtoWesternmagicalgroupstoday.49

Modernmagicianshaveproducedaconsiderableamountoftrainingmanualsas

wellasassessmentcriteriafordeterminingwhen“genuine”astralexperience

hasbeenachieved.Thisinstructionmaterialisessentialforreconstructingthe

learningprocessinvolvedwithcultivating“astralskill”.Beforeassessingthis

evidence,however,itmaybeusefultolookathowanalreadytrainedmagician

wouldinducesuchexperiences.

InducingAstralExperience:ExamplefromaG.D.Instruction

ThefollowinginstructionwaswrittenbyElaineSimpsonandFlorenceFarr(the

famousactress)in1892.Aimedatinitiateswhohadalreadygonethroughthe

order’selaboratetrainingprogramme,itexemplifiesamethodforinducing

“astralvisions”.InbracketsIhaveplacedtagsthatindicatehowrelevantfactors

ofthepredictionmodelareweavedintotheprocedure:

Secureforanhourorforlongerabsolutefreedomfrominterruption[reduceerror

signals].Thenalone,orwithoneortwoAdepti,enterthevault,oraprivatechamber

[designerenvironment].Remaininsilenceandcontemplationforseveralminutes

[attentionregulation,shifttotop-downprocessing].Rise,andperformtheQabalistic

Crossandprayer[expectations/priorsactivatedinmotoricaction-schema].Thenproceed

tocontemplationofsomeobject,sayaTarotTrump[materialanchor,designedstimulus]:

eitherbyplacingitbeforeyouandgazingatit,untilyouseemtoseeintoit;orbyplacing

itagainstyourforeheadorelsewhere,andthenkeepingtheeyesclosed;inthiscaseyou

shouldhavegivenpreviousstudytotheCard,astoitssymbolism,colouring,analogies,

etc.[activateinternalmodelsofesotericimagery].Ineithercaseyoushouldthendeeply

sinkintotheabstractidealofthecard[top-downprocessing];beinginentireindifference

toyoursurroundings[errorsignalsdown-regulated].Ifthemindwanderstoanything

disconnectedwiththecard,nobeginnerwillsucceedinseeinganythingspiritually

[attentiontoimagery,executivecontrol].ConsiderallthesymbolismoftheTarotCard,

48SeeespeciallyOwen,ThePlaceofEnchantment.49SeeAsprem,‘ContemporaryRitualMagic’.


19

thenallthatisimpliedbyitsletters,number,andsituation,andpathsconnected

therewith…andthenthevisionmaypassoveryou.50

Theinstructionrequirestheenvironmenttobecontrolledtominimizerandom

noisethatmightinduceerrorsignalsandturnthemindtobottom-upprocessing.

Ideally,theGoldenDawn“vault”shouldbeused–thisreferstoapurpose-built

ritualchamberintheorder’sIsis-UraniatempleinLondon,inwhichthewalls

andceilingweresaturatedwithsalientesotericsymbols,shapes,andcolours

thatinitiateswouldhavealreadyinternalized.Internalizedrepresentations

(bothconceptualandimagerybased)areevokedfromandstabilizedbymaterial

anchors(liketarottrumps).Ritualizedmotor-schemataareperformedin

conjunctionwiththepractice.Patternedpractice,priorconceptualstudy,

materialobjects,andarchitecturaldesignsallcometogetherintheprocessof

induction.

Therecommendationtoinducevisionsbystaringataphysicalobject

deservesfurtherattentionasitgivescluestoaspecialtechniquefordeploying

designerstimuli.Staringatanobjectforaprolongedperiodoftimebefore

closingone’seyeswillgenerateanafterimage,adelayedsensorysignalfromthe

opticnervecausedbythefatiguingofphotoreceptorcellsintheretina.51Even

aftereyeshavebeenshut,theretinacontinuestoproduceasensorysignalthat

thevisualcortexwillattempttoexplainbyproposingvariousperceptual

hypotheses.Ifthesubject’sinternalmodelssuccessfullymakesenseofthe

residualupstreamsignal,thatshouldresultinparticularlyrealisticimagerythat

comesclosetoregularperception.

EvidencethattheG.D.foundersweredeliberatelyusingafterimageeffects

totriggervisionaryexperiencesisprovidedbyacloserlookattheorder’s

materialculture,particularlytheiruseofso-called“flashcards”drawnin

“complementary”colours(e.g.,aredsymbolonasurfaceoflightgreen).52The50FarrandSimpson,FlyingRollIV,inKing,AstralProjection,71.51GersztenkornandLee,‘PalinopsiaRevamped’,2.Butcf.Shimojo,Kamitani,andNishida,

‘AfterimageofPerceptuallyFilled-InSurface’.52SeeRegardie,TheGoldenDawn,479.“Complementarity”is,however,atheory-dependentterm.

TheGoldenDawnusageisderivedfromtheold“red-yellow-blue”(RYB)theoryoftheprimary

colours,which,atleastfromthescientificviewpoint,haslongsincebeenreplacedbythe“red-


20

eye’sreceptorcellsforcolours(conecells)comeinthreetypes:red,green,and

blue.Fatiguingthesecolourreceptorsbyoverexposingthemtoafigureinoneof

thethreecolourscreatespowerfulafterimagesofthatfigureinthe

complementarycolourtotheoneusedinthestimulus.Forexample,whenthe

“red”cellsareover-stimulatedbystaringataredtrianglefor30seconds,cone

cellscodingforredinthetriangularareawillbefatigued.Thebrain,however,

willnotinterpretthissimplyasanabsenceofred,butaspresenceofgreenand

blue(thetwoother,still“active”conecelltypes)intheaffectedarea,which,

together,createcyan–thecomplementarycolourofred.53Whiletheredcells

arefatigued,then,theeyewillbeproducingasignalthatthebraininterpretsasa

cyantriangle.

Giventheprimaryandcomplementarycolours’powertoproduce

particularlystrongafterimageeffectsitislittlesurprisethatthemastermind

behindtheG.D.system,SamuelLiddellMacGregorMathers,advisedhisfellow

initiatestostartvisualizationpracticesnotjustwithanykindofexternalsymbol,

butwith‘TabletsandTelesmas…madeinFlashingColours’.54These“flashing”

coloursincludecertaincombinations,suchasgreenandred,whichareprimary

colourswithconecellscapableofbeingexhaustedbystimulation.The

combinationofredandgreen,then,isparticularlygoodatcreatingtheintended

“flashing”effectastheyfatiguebothredandgreenconesinadjacentareasofthe

eye,producinganintensecombinationofcomplementaryafterimagesofcyan

andmagenta.Asforthepractitioner’sowninterpretationoftheeffect:‘Insuch

tablets’,Mathersexplained,‘dotheelementalforcesmanifestmostreadily,and

moststudentscanperceivetheirflashesofradiance,whichare,however,partly

green-blue”(RGB)theorybuiltfromourknowledgeofhowcoloursareproducedinthe(human)

eye.Interestingly,theeffectofthisisthattheGoldenDawnsymbolsbasedonthemodern

primarycolours(e.g.,redandgreen)createamuchstrongereffectthantheonesusing

“complementary”coloursfromtheextendedRYBcolourwheel(e.g.,blueandorange,yellowand

violet).53Foranaccessibledemonstration,seeWolfe,‘ComplementaryColours,After-Images,Retinal

Fatigue,ColourMixingandContrastSensitivity’.54Mathers,FlyingRollXI,King,AstralProjection,77.


21

subjectiveandpartlyobjective.Theyattractandreflectraysoflightfromthe

akashicplaneenvelopingthem’.55

TheStepwiseProgressionofAstralSkillCultivation

Whilethistellsussomethingaboutthetechniquesusedtoevokevisualisations,

practitionersweresupposedtohavealreadyundergoneacrucialstep-wise

trainingprocessthatwouldhavetweaked“priorprobabilities”inconceptual,

perceptual,andbody-representationaldomains.Theinstitutionalstructureof

theG.D.wasorganisedaroundaprogressivetrainingladder:itsinitiationsystem

tiedeachdegreetospecificlearninggoals,progressingfromtheconceptual

towardthepracticalandself-transformational.Theprogrammecanbedivided

intothreesteps:1)Internalizationofesotericconcepts,representations,and

eventschemata;2)practiceofmeditativetechniquesfocusedonattention,bodily

posture,concentration,andmentalimagery;3)developmentofnewself-

representations(self-models).

Stepone:Concepts,Representations,Schemata

Atthebottomofthetrainingladder,studentswereintroducedtoalargebodyof

esotericconcepts,embeddedindiscretesymbolicsystemsandsensorydomains

(colours,shapes,odours,etc.).56Theyweretaughtassociativetechniquesthat

relatetheseconceptsinavastwebofcorrespondences.Thisimpliesthatprior

beliefsweretweakedsothatthestudentcouldnotonlyproduceinternalmodels

oftheconcepts,butalso“matchup”theconceptswithabroadvarietyofsensory

stimuli.Forexample,thinkingof“victory”shouldactivatetheseventhsefirot

netzach,“predict”thenumberseven,thecolourgreen,emeralds,roses,andthe

planetVenus.57Theseexpectancieswouldshapehowthestudentinteractedwith

theworldinapatterned,associative,andself-reinforcingway,shiftingtheir

attentiontospecificstimuliinaccordancewithtop-downexpectations.Itwould

55Ibid.56Fortheinventionofthiscorrespondencesystem,seeAsprem,‘KabbalahRecreata’.57ThisexampleisbasedonthecorrespondencesinCrowley’selaboratetablesinLiber777(first

published1909).Exactcorrespondencesdiffersomewhatbetweenauthors,butthisisofno

consequencetothepresentargument.


22

alsolaythefoundationformentalimageryexercisesofthetypewesawabove.

Contemplationinanenvironmentwithreducedsensoryinput(e.g.meditation

witheyesclosed)wouldenablethetrainedmindtospontaneouslygeneratethe

associatedimagery.Inafeedbackbetweentop-downinternalmodels,

environmentalstimuli,andmotoractions,theblendwouldallowonetodeploy

relevantexternalimagery,coloursymbolism,incenses,orobjectsinorderto

createacognitivenicheappropriateforinducingastralexperiences.

Importantly,studentswerealsotaughteventschematathatwouldallow

theinitiatetosetasideandidentifyspecificeventsasbeinginstancesof

“clairvoyance”,“astralvision”,or“astraltravel”,andtodistinguishthesefrom

“imagination”and“fancy”.58Oneinstructionexplicitlysaidthat“clairvoyance”or

“skrying”mustbeginin“imagination”,clarifyingthat‘Imaginationmustbe

distinguishedfromFancy–frommererovingthoughts,oremptyvisions’.59

Practitionerswereaskedtopayattentiontothevividnessofinternalsensory

impressionsinordertodifferentiate.60Anotherinstructionexplainedthat

clairvoyance,astraltravel,and‘risingontheplanes’arethree‘stagespassingone

intotheother’,instructingthestudentto‘[b]eginwithsimpleClairvoyance,and

thenpasstotheotherstates.’61Theseinstructions,detailedandoften

accompaniedwithexamples,provideexperientialcategories(i.e.,schemata)that

allowthestudenttoparsetheirexperienceintodiscreteevents,attributevalue

andsignificancetothem,andpredicthowaspecificeventshouldunfold.

Steptwo:Attentiontobodilyprocessesandmentalimagery

Thesecondstageinthecultivationprocessinvolvespsycho-physiological

techniquesforalteringone’sattentiontomentalimageryandsomaticsensory

signals.ThebestillustrationofthistrainingprocessisfoundinAleister

Crowley’sinstructions.InaninnovationontheoriginalG.D.system,Crowley

advisedhisstudentstoobtain‘afairmastery’ofthreeyogictechniquesbefore

58ForananalysisoftheconceptofimaginationinkeyG.D.sourcesanditsrelationtohistorical

precursors,seePlaisance,‘MagicMadeModern?’,165-174.59W.W.Westcott,FlyingRollV;inKing,AstralProjection,51.60Ibid.,87.61FlyingRollXI,issuedonApril9,1893.SeeKing,AstralProjection,75-83.


23

venturingontotheastralplane:posture(asana),controlofbreath(pranayama),

anddisciplineofthought(dharana).62Masteringposturesandregulatingone’s

breathinslowandextendedcyclesinvolvethemodulationofwhatcognitive

scientistscallinteroception,i.e.,theperceptionofthebody’sphysiologicalstates,

includingitsautonomicfunctions(e.g.pulse,digestion,breath).63Research

suggeststhatpredictivecodingofinteroceptiveprocesses(i.e.,thebrain’s

automaticmodellingofthebody’sstates)playsabigroleinourphenomenal

feelingofselfhood:Interferingwiththeseprocesses(e.g.,manipulating

interoceptionofheartbeatandbreath)hasbeenshowntotriggerprofound

alterationstotheexperienceofself,includingthesenseofpresenceandout-of-

bodyexperiences.64Indeed,Crowleynoteswithregardtopranayamathat

‘[v]ariousremarkablephenomenawillveryprobablyoccurduringthese

practices’,insistingthatthese‘mustbecarefullyanalysedandrecorded’.65Such

experiencesmaybeimportantforcreatingnewself-models,whichIwillsaymore

aboutlater.

Meanwhile,thepracticeofdharana(thoughtcontrol)isdirectlyrelatedto

thecultivationofmentalimagery.Crowley’sinstructionindharanaclearly

showshowthestudentmustprogressfromafocusonsimplementalimages,

whicharetobeexpandedonandmanipulatedasthetaskadvances.Hereisan

examplethatstartswiththe“tattvas”66introducedbytheG.D.:

1.Constrainthemindtoconcentrateitselfuponasinglesimpleobjectimagined.Thefive

tatwasareusefulforthispurpose;theyare:ablackoval;abluedisk;asilvercrescent;a

yellowsquare;aredtriangle.62TheemphasisonyogaisacrucialinnovationonCrowley’spartandwouldnothavebeenpart

ofGoldenDawntraininginthe1890s.Itdoes,however,followanaturalprogressionfromthe

originalprogram.OnCrowley’syoga,seeDjurdjevic,IndiaandtheOccult,35-59.63Craig,‘Interoception’.64Seth,Suzuki,andCritchley,‘AnInteroceptivePredictiveCodingModelofConsciousPresence’;

Seth,‘InteroceptiveInference,Emotion,andtheEmbodiedSelf’.65Crowley,‘LiberOvelManusetSagittae’,28.66ThefoundersoftheG.D.appeartohavetakenthisconceptfromaseriesofessaysbyRama

Prasad,firstpublishedinTheTheosophistandreissuedasthebookNature’sFinerForces:The

ScienceofBreathin1889.IntheG.D.version,thesearesymbolicrepresentationsofthefour

elementsplustheelementofspirit,frequentlyemployedforthepurposeofvisualisation.


24

2.Proceedtocombinationsofsimpleobjects;e.g.,ablackovalwithinayellowsquare,

andsoon.

3.Proceedtosimplemovingobjects,suchasapendulumswinging,awheelrevolving,

etc.…

4.Proceedtocombinationsofmovingobjects,e.g.,apistonrisingandfallingwhilea

pendulumisswinging.Therelationbetweenthetwomovementsshouldbevariedin

differentexperiments.67

Inwhatfollows,thestudentisaskedtoextendtheinnersensoriumtoother

modalities,suchas‘thetasteofchocolate,thesmellofroses,thefeelingofvelvet,

thesoundofawaterfall,orthetickingofawatch’,andfinallytogenerateentire

internallandscapes,populatedwithlivingbeingscapableofindependent

actions.68Thestudentisensuredthatdiligentexercisewillleadtomorevivid

andlifelikeexperiences.69Thesuccessfulstudentwouldnotonlyneedto

generateevermorespecifictop-downpredictionsofsensorycontent,butwould

alsohavetomodulatetheerrormonitoringprocessinsuchawaythatthe

predictionsoverridetheinformationcomingfromthesenses,essentially

creating“falsepositives”furtherdownthehierarchy.Themorevividthemental

imagery,theclosertothesensoryperipherythesemodelswillhavesucceededin

predictingactivity.

Theseremarksemphasizethepredictivecodingmodel’sabilitytotakeus

beyondtheinterpretivedrifttheoryandprovideempiricallytestablehypotheses

aboutphysiologicalmechanismsthatundergirdtheprocessofinnersense

cultivation.Forexample,vividvisualimageryshouldbeaccompaniedby

measurableactivityintheeye,onaparwiththeocculomotoricactivitywesee

duringREMsleep.70Similarly,aninternallyconfirmedtactilehypothesis,suchas

seemingtofeelthatthetemperatureisfallingwhileitisinfactstable,wouldbe

associatedwithmeasurablechangesinelectrodermalactivity,andshouldbe

accompaniedbyappropriateautonomicresponsessuchasshiveringorgoose

bumps.Specifyingsuchphysiologicalproxiesmeansthatwecan,tosomedegree,

67Crowley,‘LiberEvelExercitiorum’,29.68Ibid.,29-30.69Ibid.70Seee.g.HobsonandFriston,‘WakingandDreamingConsciousness’.


25

designobjectivemeasurementsofthepractitioners’owncriteriaforsuccessor

failureincultivationpracticessuchasCrowley’s.71

Stepthree:Rewiringtheself

Practicemanualsandethnographicdata72bothsuggestthatthemultimodal

“visions”wehaveconsideredsofarcanbedevelopedfurthertoproducean

immersiveexperienceof“astraltravel”.Here,thepractitionerseemstobe

movingaroundinasubjectivelyrealistic,internallygeneratedvirtualreality.The

keytothisthirdstepinthecultivationprocessis,Isuggest,tinkeringwithtop-

downpredictionsassociatedwiththeexperienceofselfhoodandbody-

ownership.73Theconceptsof“body-image”and“body-schema”,74alongwith

whatThomasMetzingercalls“selfmodels”,75arehelpfulhere.Allcanbe

understoodinpredictivecodingterms,76andIsuggestthatweseeevidenceof

directmanipulationsofself-modelsinthecultivationofastralskill.

FollowingMetzinger,thereisno“substantialself”,onlyacomplexprocess

bywhichthebraincreatesmodelsthatseektomapitssituationandregulateits

activities.Self-modellinghappensonanumberofinterlacedlevels,fromthe

basicmodellingofmotoric,feedbackorientedinteractionwithanenvironment

(whichhumanssharewithprimitiveorganismsandadvancedrobots),tothe

conscious,“phenomenalself-model”thatsimulatesglobalpropertiesofthebody

(includingsocialrelationships,biography,identity,andavailablefuture

scenarios)andmakesthemavailableforconsciousresourceallocation.77Iam

71Thisis,however,nottodenytheseriousexperimentaldifficultiesposedbythesepractices.See

especiallyAndersen,Nielbo,andSchjoedt,‘OldProblemsDieHard’.72SeeespeciallyRinde,‘SwoopingAroundinOuterSpace’.73Foracriticaldiscussionoftheextremelyslipperyconceptof“theself”,seeShaunGallagher’s

‘Introduction:ADiversityofSelves’intheOxfordHandbookoftheSelf(editedbyidem).74IrelyontheconceptualdistinctionbetweenthesetermsstipulatedbyGallagherandColes,

‘BodyImageandBodySchemainaDeafferentedSubject’,371-372.Foradiscussion,see

Gallagher,HowtheBodyShapestheMind,17-39.75Metzinger,BeingNoOne;cf.idem,‘SelfModels’.76Foraparticularlypromisingstepinthisdirection,seeSeth,‘InteroceptiveInference,Emotion,

andtheEmbodiedSelf’.77Metzinger,‘SelfModels’.


26

suggestingthatastraltravelintheG.D.traditioninvolvesmanipulationofthe

phenomenalself-modellingprocessbyworkingonthemorebasicbody-image

andbody-schemas.

Theinstructionmanualsprovideseveraldifferentdescriptionsofhowthe

transitionfromclairvoyancetoastraltravelisbroughtabout:theorderchief

MacGregorMathersspokeof“projecting”one’ssubjectivitylikea“ray”intothe

“mirror-like”imaginaryworldofclairvoyance;78anotherinstructiontalkedof

findinga“copy”ofone’sownbodyintheastralworldandtakingpossessionof

it;79whileCrowleyemphasizedtheneedtobuilda“bodyoflight”inthe

imagination,whichthepractitionerthenhadtoanimateanddiscipline.80

Inallaccounts,theastraltravelexperienceisdifferentiatedfrom

clairvoyancebyatranspositionofthefirst-personperspectiveintothevisualised

scene,creatingtheimmersiveexperienceofmovingaroundinanenvironment.

Actionsshouldinvolvethesimulationofmotoricmovementfromafirst-person

perspective.Thisincludesrepresentationsofmovingbodyparts(reaching,

gesturing,walking),alongwithappropriatetactile,proprioceptive,and

vestibularsensationsofmoving,falling,orflying.Inshort,thisisabout

manipulatingbodyandmotorimagery.

Boththebody-image(ourmentalrepresentationof,andattitudes

towards,ourownbody)andthemostlyunconsciousproceduralknowledgeof

motorcapacities,postures,andabilitiesthatcomprisethebody-schemasare

mouldedinthefeedbackloopbetweentop-downpredictions,motivatedactions,

andbottom-upsensoryfeedback.Theycanthereforebemanipulatedand

refashionedinthesamewayasotherperceptualmodels.81Thepracticeof

creatinga“bodyoflight”inimaginationbuildsonthebody-imagesystem,

potentiallyworkingwithalterationsacrossallofitsthreemodalities(perceptual,

conceptual,andaffective):anidealizedbodyisproduced(body-imagemodel),

newconceptualstructuresareattachedtoit(e.g.,thedoctrineofmultiple,

separablebodies),whileemotionalattachmentsofawe,dignity,andfear

78MathersinKing,AstralProjection,78-80.79Brodie-InnesinKing,AstralProjection,88-89.80Crowley,Magick,243.81GallagherandColes,‘BodyImageandBodySchemainaDeafferentedSubject’,371-372.


27

responsesarecultivatedthroughtheperformanceofastralritualsand

protectionsfrom“astraldangers”throughthesimulationofsymbolsandmagical

weapons.Theemphasisondoingthingsinthebodyoflightemphasizethat

establishingspecificbodyschematathroughembodiedactionisanecessary

prerequisiteforlearningastraltravel.Onemustfirstlearntopracticeactions

suchas“thelesserbanishingritualofthepentagram”intherealworld,before

onecanattempttosimulatetheproceduralschemaintheimaginedbody.

LearningtoFly:AccountingfortheDisobedientNatureoftheAstralBody

Allofthismay,however,beeasiersaidthandone–asinterviewswith

contemporarypractitionersseemtodemonstrate.InarecentMAthesis,Adrian

RindespokewithThelemicastraltravellerswhoreportedlyknewthattheyare

supposedto“see”theirlimbsinhighdefinition,butexplainedthatinpractice,it

isusuallyacaseofvaguely“feeling”or“knowing”thattheyarethere.82One

practitionerexplainedthatsometimesonlypartofthebodyisformulated:‘I

hadn’tbeenabletoformtheentirebody,soitwasabitlike,itwasaconditionof

weightlessness,and…itwasme,myarmsandmyconsciousness’.83Thebody-

representationmayalsobedifficulttocontrol,asthesameinformantexplained:

I’vestoodup,andI’vewalkedacrossthefloor.Ifeelthatmybodygetsdraggedin

differentdirections,itisveryhardtocontrol,Ifallthroughthefloor,Iswoopupthrough

theroof.Thatkindofstuff.ThenIfeelthatkindofmywholebody…thelegsarethere,

theback,thetorsoisthere,thearmsarethere,andtheheadandeverything,inaway.

ButwhenIswoopoutintoouterspacethenitgetsmoremetaphysical,floatingaround

likeaconsciousnesstypeofthing.84

Thesedifficultiesinmakingtheastralbodydowhatit’ssupposedtooffer

aninterestingpuzzleforourexplanatoryframework.Weallpossessrelatively

stablementalrepresentationsofourownbodiesandbehaviouralrepertoires,

whichplayessentialfunctionsineverydaycognition.Undercertainunusual

circumstances,theseselfmodelsmaypresentasbizarrephenomena,suchas

82E.g.Rinde,Swooping,Appendix,33-34.83Ibid.,Appendix,23.84Ibid.,Appendix,60.


28

heautoscopic85andautoscopichallucinations.86Successfulastraltravellikely

dependsonmimickingsomeofthesebody-andself-hallucinationsinamanner

thatretainsadegreeofexecutivecontrol.Thevariablesuccessesthat

practitionersofastraltravelreportareeasilyaccountedforwhenweviewself-

modellinginlightofthepredictivecodingviewofimagination.Havingarealistic

experienceofanalteredselfhingesnotonlyonlearningtop-downmodelsof

body-imageryandactionschemas,butalsoonthesuccessfulmatchingupof

thesemodelswithadriving,bottom-upsensorystream.Phenomenal

descriptionsof“knowing”thatone’shandsaretherebutnotreally“seeing”them

suggestsafailuretosubdueerrorsignalsfromthesensoryperiphery.Themore

successfullytheyaresuppressedatlowerlevels,themorevivid,clear,andreal

anexperiencefeels.

6.ConcludingRemarksforFutureResearch

Ihavearguedthatapredictivecodingtheorythatseesmentalimageryaspartof

thebrain’sstrategyforperceivingandnavigatingintheworldprovidesuswith

usefulinsightsabouthowkataphaticpracticeswork,andwhysuchpracticesare

organizedthewaytheyare.Bysuggestingspecificneurocognitivemechanisms

forsuchpractices,theseinsightsaddaproperlyexplanatorydimensiontothe

interpretivedrifttheory,andultimatelytakeusbeyondit.Inconcluding,I

providealistofwhatItaketobethemostpromisingimplicationsforfuture

workonkataphaticpractice.Mostimportantly,themodelsuggestedhere

providesanoverarchingframeworkthatbindstogetherhistoricaland

experimentalapproachesinafruitfulway,byconnectinghistoricallyobservable

featureswithphysiologicalmodelsofhowthebrainprocessessensory

85Seeingone’sownbodyintheperceptualfield.86Viewingtheenvironmentfromsomeplaceoutsideofthebody.Forresearchon,and

experimentalinductionof,thesephenomena,seee.g.BlankeandMohr,‘Out-of-BodyExperience,

Heautoscopy,andAutoscopicHallucinationsofNeurologicalOrigin’;Metzinger,‘WhyAreOut-of-

BodyExperiencesInterestingforPhilosophers?’;CheyneandGirard,‘TheBodyUnbound’;

Braithwaiteetal.,‘CognitiveCorrelatesoftheSpontaneousOut-of-BodyExperience(OBE)inthe

PsychologicallyNormalPopulation’.


29

information.Bydoingthis,italsoprovidesabasisforcross-historicalandcross-

culturalcomparisonsofimagery-based,kataphaticpractice.87

Summarized,therearethreemaintakeaways:

1) Historianshavemuchbetteraccesstocognitiveprocessesthanthey

usuallyassume,duetothecentralroleofpatternedpracticeandmaterial

cultureinthecultivationofmentalimagery.Itis,however,necessaryto

thinkdifferentlyabouttheselectionanduseofsourcematerial:

o Patternedpracticescanbetracedthroughacombinationoffirst-

andthird-persondescriptionsindiariesorfieldnotes,butitis

crucialtocorrelatethesewithsecondpersoninstructionmaterial

usedbypractitioners.Carefulanalysisofinstructionmaterial

yieldssomeofthemostinterestinginsights,andcanbe

triangulatedwithethnographicandsemi-experimentalstudiesof

contemporarypractitioners.

o Materialcultureisanintrinsicpartofthecognitiveprocess.The

studyofphysicalimagery,objects,architecture,colouruse,smell,

etc.,aresourcesofevidencethathistorianscanaccessto

reconstructpractitioners’patternedengagementswithdesigner

stimuli.

2) Thegenericaspectsofkataphaticpracticeprovideuswithauseful

constructfordoingcomparativeresearchbetweentraditions,cultures,

andhistoricalperiods.Suchcomparisonscouldhelpusrefinethe

relationshipbetweenthepostulatedcausalfactorsofeffectivekataphatic

practice,namely:recruitmentoftalentedindividuals,presenceandextent

ofconceptualtraining,attentionalpracticefocusedoninternalimagery

andsensorycues,and(extentof)deploymentofdesignerenvironments.

Correlatingthesefactorswithhowsuccessfulapracticeis(measured,for

example,innumberofpractitioners,membershipretention,orgroup

87FollowingthecallforanalogicalcomparisonsinAsprem,‘BeyondtheWest’.


30

longevity)couldhelpusestablishsomeoptimalityprinciplesfor

katapahticpractice.88

3) Predictivecodingspecifiesanumberofempiricallyavailableproxiesor

markersofsuccessful(accordingtopractitionercriteria)innersense

cultivationthatcanbeexploitedbycontrolledexperimentalstudies.89

Whileitmustbeacknowledgedthatexperimentalistswillfacegreat

challengeswhenapplyingmeasuresdesignedforthestudyofsensory

pathwaystointernallygeneratedimagery,90Isuggestthatexisting

researchonhallucinationsduringhypnosismayprovideapromising

basisforexperimentalapproachestokataphaticpractices.91Possibilities

include:

o Employingskinconductionresponse(SCR)duringkataphatic

practiceinordertomeasurecorrelationsofself-reportedinternal

sensoryvividnesswithalteredelectrodermalconductivity

(“arousal”).92Forexample,SCRcouldbecombinedwith“event

modelanalysis”ofself-reportednarratives,withtheexpectationof

findingcorrelationsbetween,e.g.,startlereflexes(measuredby

theSCR)andstrikingsub-eventshifts(codedinthenarratives)in

experiencedpractitioners.93Resultswouldbeexpectedtomirror

88Inanalogywiththenotionofcognitiveoptimalityinreligiousrepresentationsandrituals.On

this,seee.g.Boyer,ReligionExplained;Whitehouse,ModesofReligiosity;andHammer,

‘CognitivelyOptimalReligiosity’forapplicationtoanesotericcontext.89Foraninspiringrecentattempt,seeAndersenetal.,‘MysticalExperienceintheLab’.90Fordiscussionsofexperimentalchallenges,seeespeciallyAndersenetal.,“OldProblemsDie

Hard”;Nielboetal.,“SegmentationandCulturalModulationinPerceptionofInternalEventsare

NotTrivialMatters”;AspremandTaves,“ConnectingEvents”,41-43.91E.g.BarberandCoules,‘ElectricalSkinConductanceandGalvanicSkinResponseduring

“Hypnosis”’;Spiegeletal.,‘HypnoticHallucinationAltersEvokedPotentials’;Kallioetal.,‘The

MMNAmplitudeIncreasesinHypnosis’;Jamiesonetal.,‘ChangesinMismatchNegativityacross

Pre-Hypnosis,HypnosisandPost-HypnosisConditions’.Forattemptstointegrate

hypnosis/suggestionresearchinthestudyof“mystical”experience,seeAndersenetal.,‘Mystical

ExperienceintheLab’.92Seee.g.BarberandCoules,‘ElectricalSkinConductance’.93Foreventmodelanalysis,seeTavesandAsprem,‘ExperienceasEvent’;AspremandTaves,

‘EventModelAnalysis’.


31

thephysiologicalsignaturesobservedinhighly-hypnotizable

subjectsexperiencinghypnoticallyinducedhallucinations.

o Thereisevidencethathypnoticinductionalterssomatosensory

evokedpotentials(SEP)indicatingashifttotop-down

processing.94Studiesofauditorymismatchnegativity(MMN)

duringhypnosishassimilarlyfoundevidenceofalteredsensory

processingataperipheralandpre-attentivelevel.95Onemight

predictthattheskilledkataphaticpractitionerwould,muchlike

highly-hypnotizablesubjectsinhypnoticconditions,suppress

evokedsomatosensoryresponsesandshowalteredprocessingof

deviantauditorystimuli.96Morespeculatively,onemightalso

expectdifferentialresultsbetweenpairingsofstimulustypes(e.g.,

visual[suchasbeamingalightonclosedeyelids],auditory,

somatic)anddifferentmentalimageryconditions(e.g.,focuson

visual,auditory,ortactileimagery).Inexperimentsofthistype

onemightalsowanttousean“interventiondesign”,inwhich

participantsreceivedifferenttypesofkataphatictraining(for

example,with/withoutconceptualframeworks,with/without

designerenvironments)anddisplaydifferentlevelsof“talent”

(e.g.,low/highhypnotisability,low/highabsorption).

Eachofthesepointshasthepotentialofbringingourcurrentunderstandingof

thepracticalandexperientialdimensionsofesotericism,andofreligionmore

broadly,manystepsforward.Yet,inmyopinion,therealpromiseliesinthe

creationofaunifiedtheoreticalframeworkthateffectivelyallowsustotransfer

researchquestionsfromhistoricaltoexperimentalsettings,anddrawon

evidencefromcognitiveneurosciencetogroundourhistoricalanalysisoftextual

andmaterialsources.Hopefully,theexamplesdiscussedinthepresentarticle

94Spiegeletal.,‘HypnoticHallucinationAltersEvokedPotentials’.95Kallioetal.,‘TheMMNAmplitudeIncreasesinHypnosis’;Jamiesonetal.,‘ChangesinMismatch

NegativityacrossPre-Hypnosis,HypnosisandPost-HypnosisConditions’.96SeealsovanElk,‘AnEEGStudyoftheEffectsofInducedSpiritualExperienceson

SomatosensoryProcessingandSensorySuppression’.


32

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Acknowledgements:

TheresearchforthisarticlewasmadepossiblebyaRubicongrantfromtheNetherlandsOrganizationforScientificResearch(NWO,projectnumber446-13-001),andasix-monthresearchstayattheDepartmentofPhilosophyandReligiousStudies,NorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology.ThewritingwascompletedatStockholmUniversity.IwishtothankMarkusAltenaDavidsenandtwoanonymousreviewersforusefuladvice,suggestions,andcorrections.

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