EXPERT TOPIC 1404- SALMON

8/12/2019 EXPERT TOPIC 1404- SALMON

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July | August 2014EXPERT TOPIC - SALMON

The International magazine for the aquaculture feed industry

International Aquafeed is published six times a year by Perendale Publishers Ltd of the United Kingdom.All data is published in good faith, based on information received, and while every care is taken to prevent inaccuracies,the publishers accept no liability for any errors or omissions or for the consequences of action taken on the basis ofinformation published.Copyright 2014 Perendale Publishers Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any formor by any means without prior permission of the copyright owner. Printed by Perendale Publishers Ltd. ISSN: 1464-0058

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2/1432 | INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED | July-August 2014

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Welcome to Expert Topic. Each issue will take an in-depth lookat a particular species and how its feed is managed.

SALMON

EXPERT TOPIC


3/14

USA

Farmed on landsalmon

Land-based aquaculture is a growing alternative that elimi-

nates the risk of spreading waste, diseases or parasites in

open waters. Closed containment systems do, however,

share a key area of concern with their water-based counterparts,

and thats how many fish it takes to grow the larger ones that

humans eat. System owners also have to filter out fish waste or

develop markets for products like fish fertilizer.

Building an intricate indoor system of tanks and tubes costs

far more than growing Atlantic salmon in nets or cages in open

waters. The technology, which helps conserve water resources on

land, has been evolving for more than a decade, but few businesses

have been able to make it financially viable says the report.

As a research facility, the Freshwater Institute isnt aiming to sell

salmon year-round. Its fish wont hit the market again for another

eight to 10 months, and previous salmon harvests have been

donated to places such as the anti-hunger nonprofit D.C. Central

Kitchen. In the meantime, institute director Joseph Hankins has

opened the facilitys doors to aquaculture businesses and inves-

tors looking to adapt and scale up the recirculating aquaculture, or

closed containment, technology.

The Freshwater Institutes first batch of land reared Salmonwas delivered to markets in Maryland and Virginia in late March

and will be available through mid-May at area Wegmans seafood

counters and on more than a dozen restaurant menus. That means

Washington consumers can get the first taste of the only Atlantic

salmon in the United States grown with this technology.

July-August 2014 | INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED| 33

EXPERT TPIC


4/14

A history ofaquacultureand salmonin Chile

In the early 1990s, according to FAO,

the total harvest from aqua cultivationcentres in Chile did not exceed 80,000

tonnes.

However, by 2004 they had reached

688,000 tonnes.

A massive increase in production which

has, despite some difficulties continued.

Likewise in exported volumes, from 30,000

to 430,000 tonnes in that same period. In

dollar terms this has meant from US$100

million in 1990 to US$1600 million in 2004

and as at 2013 this figure has moved to closetoUS$4000 million.

Salmonid species have been dominant,

both in harvest volume and export values.

Other important species include bivalve

molluscs (oysters, scallops and mussels) and

cultivation of the Gracilaria algae. Turbot

cultivation has registered a gradual growth

from one tonne (1991) to 249 tonnes (2004).

Many exotic aquatic species were intro-

duced into Chile back as far as the 1850s but

it was not until the early 1900s -1920s that

Salmon were imported.

According to report by E.A. Tulian, the

Argentinian Government employed the services

of John W. Titcomb (Bureau of Fisheries in USA)

for a number of months, especially to bring a

number of salmon/trout species from USA.

Titcomb also chose the site for the first

hatchery at Lago Nahuel Huapi, situated in the

Andes Mountains, within three to five kms of

the Chilean boundary.

According to the report as of March I,

1905, the fish in the ponds at the Nahuel

Huapi hatchery were counted and there were

found to be 8500 brook trout, 3800 laketrout, and 1800 landlocked salmon.

They measured from six to eight inches in

length. A large number were accidentally lost

during the latter part of the year, but in May,

1906 they had a considerable number of each

of these species in the ponds. The death rate

in all three from the time hatched, in March,

1904, until May, 1906 was as low as would

have been found at anyone of the more suc-

cessful trout hatcheries in the United States.

By 1908 a lot of some 25,000 brook trout

eggs were shipped from the Nahuel Huapi

hatchery to Santiago, Chile on the railroad

that crosses from Buenos Aires to Valparaiso,

not far from the Argentinian boundary, at the

request of the Chilean government, to be

hatched in a small hatchery belonging to that

government located in the Andes Mountains.

Also in 1908 there was an effort to bring

in other species from UK and on that trip

they were given 20,000 Atlantic salmon eggs

that were secured from the Earl of Denbigh's

fisheries in North Wales.

The story is a little patchy but it seems

due to poor packing and timing there was

some urgency in getting them to a hatchery

and some of those eggs ended up in Chile

in possibly the highest hatchery in the world.The hatchery is still operating today, albeit in

a minor capacity.

Most of the credit is given to The Fisheries

Development Institute (IFOP) who were

instrumental in importing the first Coho

salmon which are recorded as arriving into

Chile in 1921 and over the next 50-plus years

the Institute looked to cutting-edge technolo-

gies from abroad to cultivate various aquatic

species and invited foreign experts to share

their specialist knowledge here.

Foundation ChileIn 1976 Foundation Chile was formed, an

institution dedicated to scientific research and

technology transfer.

It was formed as a public-private partner-

ship by 50 percent Government of Chile

and 50 percent by ITT. Its mission was to

introduce high impact innovations to increase

Chile's competitiveness in world markets.

Aquaculture systems were highlighted as

an important prospect.

In 1978 the governments contribution

grew with the establishment of the Fisheries

Department and the National Fisheries

Service, Sernapesca.

Between 1978 and 1980 a series of private

initiatives, including those by Fundacion Chile,

lead to the creation of various companies

dedicated exclusively to salmon farming.

In the early 1980s a small group of vision-

ary entrepreneurs invested in an uncertain

and unknown business - one considered a

high-risk venture at the time and began

salmon farming in Chile.

In 1982 the first company created byFundacion Chile was formed: Salmon Antarctic

Ltda, seven years later this company was sold

to a Japanese company for US$22 million.

The second Fundacion Chile company, Sea

Harvest Tongoy, which manages the develop-

ment of the culture of the Japanese oyster

was then formed and in 1992 the organisa-

tion was credited with developing the Turbot

aquaculture industry in Chile.

By 1985 36 salmon farms were operating

in Chile and total production exceeded 1200

tonnes. A year later, the salmon industry

boom began, with production topping 2100

tonnes per annum and feasibility studies

churning out impressive return on investment

figures.

Salmon in Chile todayThat same year, as evidence of defi-

nite consolidation within the salmon farming

industry, the Salmon and Trout Producers

Association AG was formed, known as

Salmon Chile today.

From that time on, the associations main

objective has been to secure a seal of quality

for the production and promotion of Chilean

salmon across global markets. It establishedminimum requirements at the processing

plants of its member companies in order to

obtain the best quality product.

In 1990 the industry moved into species

reproduction and the first Chilean Coho

salmon roe were cultivated.

This step represented the first scientific

advancement in Chile and heralded the real

takeoff point for rapid growth of the industry.

At the same time, major improvements in

salmon feeding were made and the subse-

quent increase in volume necessitated a more

professional industry.

Dry foods with a higher lipid content and

a more efficient lipid-protein balance were

introduced.

In 2003 the industry developed a Code

of Good Practice, the first of its kind in Chile.

An industry crisis followedWith good comes the bad and in July

2007 a farm site in Chiloe officially reported

the first case of Infectious Salmon Anemia

(ISA). The disease is caused by a virus of

the Orthomyxoviridae family, of the genusIsavirus, which affects Atlantic salmon grown

in sea water.

The disease created an industry crisis

that affected its production processes and

regional development in infected areas. While

34 | INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED | July-August 2014

EXPERT TPIC


5/14

it doesnt affect humans, it does cause fish

mortality. It was also diagnosed in the 1980s

in Norway and later in Canada, Scotland, the

Faroe Islands and the United States.

The crisis required the rapid setting up of

a public-private partnership to tackle the issue.

Measures taken included a governmental

body issuing initial resolutions as contingency

measures and subsequent resolutions for

monitoring and control. During this time, the

association worked with member companies

to promote self-regulation and fostered rela-

tionships with government bodies.

As with any crisis, the process generated

opportunities that drove the development

of a new production model for the industry.

This included a series of measures concerning

healthy intervals, coordinated treatment and

maximum densities.

These were underpinned by thematic

analyses focused on concessions, production

infrastructure and improved health conditions

including various action plans aimed at the

detection of diseases, vaccinations, the use of

drugs and restrictions on roe imports.

The association coordinated joint projects

with companies in the industry to establish

44 health measures to promote self-regula-

tion and a public-private partnership. These

included modifying existing legislation, in par-

ticular to the General Law on Fisheries and

Aquaculture and adopting new regulations.

Over time, and through the effort and dedica-

tion of all involved, recovery is now evident

within the industry.

Second largest producerThe salmon aquaculture industry is cur-

rently the second largest export sector in

Chile and after Norway, Chile is the second

largest producer of salmon globally. It has gen-

erated more than 60,000 direct and indirectjobs and operates in over 70 markets.

Markets have been forged in developing

areas like Brazil and other Latin American

countries and there is also a push into China

and Russia. Demand as of now is strong so

there is still some depth to the marketability

of the product.

According to FAO on human resources,

there is an adequate availability of research-

ers, professionals, technicians and specialised

labour force to respond to the increasing

demand by industry and public and private

research programs.

Universities and higher education institu-

tions are actively training human resources

oriented towards the satisfaction of the

industrys requirements in production (marine

biologists, veterinarians, fishing engineers,

aquaculture engineers), processing (industrial

and food engineers) and marketing (commer-

cial engineers).

There is also a growing specialisation in

service areas such as environmental impact

assessment, disease diagnosis and treatment,

biotechnology, market studies and foreign

trade, among others. The Government has

a ProChile group which is very helpful in the

trade arena.

Annual plan of actionPerhaps the most important milestone

of the last few years has been the officialpublishing of the National Aquacultural Policy,

which established objectives, principles and

strategies associated to the activitys sustain-

able development.

This important instrument of public-private

participation also established annual plans of

action (for the years 2004 and 2005), which

have been achieved satisfactorily based on the

FAO report.


EXPERT TPIC

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6/14

The results from the commercial-

scale project are unusually clear.

Fish that received feed with krill

offered higher fillet yields than the

control group - says Sigve Nordrum, Aker

BioMarine.

The fillets' firmness was greater and the

incidence of gaping lower in fish fed with krill.

The quality improvements could be of major

importance to the processing industry and to

consumers' experience, he says.

The trialBioMar and Aker BioMarine documented

the value of the fish feed containing krill,

developed by BioMar and called Quick.

QuickTM increases food uptake and

growth in farmed salmon. In this major

commercial-scale project, salmon were fed

BioMar QuickTM. Researchers compared this

group of salmon with the control group of

fish that received BioMar feed without krill.The trial examined 260-farmed salmon,

bred on five sites in Norway.

The fish were analysed by one of Europe's

largest institutes for applied research within

the fields of fisheries, aquaculture and food,

Nofirma. Research examined 14 groups of

fish (between May 2013 and January 2014)

from the standpoints of yield and quality,

including body shape and organ condition, for

example heart and liver index and fat content.

Fillet quality is determined, in part, by

its colour, firmness and gaping. Anotherdeterminant is fat deposition around the

organs. Fat deposition can affect metabolism

and effective metabolism is important for the

filet quality.

Of course, good taste, smell and storage

capabilities are equally vital.

The resultsKrill-fed salmon weighed significantly

more than the control group (4.6kg and

4.3kg, respectively).

Likewise, the filet yield for the krill feed

group was significantly higher (63.7% vs

60.8%). This 2.7 peercent increase corre-

lated with the significantly thicker fillet 4-5

percent thicker and firmer than the control

group.

In summary, the feed with krill stimulated

the development of more and firmer muscle.

This in turn led to less gaping (7 percent vs

20 percent) and higher yield. There were no

negative effects of the fish examined.

Norfimas study supports earlier experi-

ments on krill-fed Atlantic salmon.

Independent studies at NorwaysAquaculture Protein Center showed that

dietary krill meal, compared with fish meal,

stimulated feed intake and growth in salmon

(see http://www.nofima.no/filearchive/hl-

brosjyre-2012-web_2.pdf).

And a commercial-scale feed trial in Chile

showed that young Atlantic salmon eat more

and grow faster and bigger with krill

added to their diet.

Farmed salmon use the nutrients in the

feed to store fat and build muscle. More

muscle improves the fillet quantity and

quality.

Researchers believe the increased feed

intake may be due, in part, to the improved

palatability of krill-based diets.

Long-term collaboration forsustainability

Aker BioMarine and BioMar are also

collaborating with other companies and

international environmental organisa-

tions to (1) assure kr il l s essent ia l ro le in

marine ecosystems and (2) minimise the

risk of krill fishery impacting ecosystem

health.

Krill are small crustaceans, like shrimp,

that maintain the vital dynamics in the foodchain between microscopic plants and larger

animals, such as seals and whales.

Krill are the most abundant animal species

on the planet.

Though hard to measure, because of their

large home range, the biomass is estimated

between 120-600 million tonnes. Because

of their position in the food chain, changes

that affect krill have repercussions that flow

through the rest of the ecosystem.

Research is underway to examine the

human and environmental changes on krill,that is warmer and more acidic oceans.

In June 2014 the British Antarctic Survey

and WWF co-hosted a workshop on krill

conservation in the Scotia Sea and Antarctic

Peninsula region. The workshop involved

participants from the scientific, conservation

and fishery sectors.

It concluded that the current catch levels

are unlikely problematic, but uncertainties

about fishery impact increase with catch

levels.

Thus, in the management of krill fishery,

a research and development strategy is criti-

cal. Broadening dialogues and availability of

information is equally critical.

Aker BioMarine is taking pro-active

initiatives to do just that as it continues to

pioneer further development, Nordrum

said.

Salmon fillet gap

Krillimproves

filletyield andquality

A NEW COMMERCIAL-SCALE

PROJECT REVEALED THAT KRILL

FEED IMPROVES SALMON FILLET

QUALITY AND QUANTITY


EXPERT TPIC


7/14

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8/14

IN SALMONID FEEDS

Volatility of supply, price and quality

of commonly-used ingredients and

lack of proper characterisation of

their components are forcing aqua-

culture feed manufacturers to use high safety

margins for nutrients while formulating a feed.

Techniques such as cooking, conditioning,soaking and finally, using enzymes for various

components are increasingly used to improve

the quality of ingredients in feed or to reduce

the variations in their quality.

Besides phytase (for phosphorus) and

some carbohydrases, dietary proteolytic

enzymes are gaining attention in recent years,

mainly because of the need for better utilisa-

tion of proteins from existing sources.

Protease breaks down large, indigestible

and insoluble proteins to highly digestible

smaller peptides and some free amino acids.

These small chain peptides may also contain

some bioactive properties influencing inges-

tion, digestion, absorption, and assimilation of

nutrients in animals.

These intrinsic properties of protease

enzymes are encouraging for nutritionists

and feed formulators as they allow them

to include more low-digestible

protein ingredients without

compromising the quality of

the feed.

The influence ofexogenous proteaseIn the intestine of animals,

polypeptides are digested to

smaller peptides and amino

acids by several enzymes

derived from pancreas or secretory cells of

the intestinal epithelium in slightly alkaline

environment achieved by pancreatic secretion

of bicarbonates and bile acids from the gall

bladder (see Figure 1).

The absorption of nutrients occurs in the

intestine by optimising the intestinal surface

area within the constraints of the coelomiccavity. Presence of exogenous protease can

influence the rate of reactions in the intestine

enhancing nutrient utilisation efficiency of the

animals.

Effects of protease in aquaculture feed can

be manifested in more digestible proteins in

feed, improved digestibility of nutrients in an

ingredient, better mucosal health, growth and

feed conversion of the farmed aquatic animals.

Trials with shrimp, crab, salmonids, carps,

tilapia, pangasius, seabream and other spe-

cies have shown significant improvement in

growth, feed conversion or nutrient utilisation

efficiency. In studies with salmonids spe-

cies, addition of protease in feed not only

improved the protein quality of the feed but

also stimulated gut health, growth, and feed

conversion helping the bottom line of feed

manufacturers and producers.

Improving protein qualityIn several in-vitro and in-vivo studies with

the Jefo protease, a marked improvement in

protein digestibility of ingredient and feed was

observed.

In a study conducted at the University

of Saskatchewan of Canada, addition of the

protease to a co-extruded canola-pea baseddiets resulted in significant improvement in

apparent digestibility of crude protein, energy,

lipid and dry matter (P


9/14

Pepsin digestion for 16 hours and

then, separation of solids.

The protein digestibility of a

feed was then determined using

the following equation:

Protein Digestibility (%) = 100

x (Initial CP Final CP)/Initial CP

The protein digestibility was

analysed in three different hydro-

lysing conditions (temperature

and pH). In all three cases, sig-

nificantly more digestible protein

was reported in feeds containing

the protease than in those with-

out (see Figure 3).

Growth performance

and intestinal healthSeveral growth and digest-

ibility trials conducted in Canada

and Chile showed significant

improvement in performance of

the test animals fed diets contain-

ing the protease compared to

those fed the control diets (see

Table 1).

Similarly, height (m), density

and structure of intestinal villi also

showed a marked improvement

in fish fed the protease diets (see

Figure 4).

Increased availability of nutri-

ents coupled with increased

intestinal nutrient absorption

capacity resulted in the better

growth and feed conversion in

treatment animals.

Challenges for usinga protease enzyme

Issues with heat-stabilityhave been a major hindrance

for the use of enzymes in aqua-

feed.

Very few enzymes in the mar-

ket today are truly heat-stable.

Figure 2: (A) ADC of crude protein in co-extruded flax:pea andcanola:pea diets with and without Jefo protease in rainbow

trout; (B) Feed conversion and (C) specific growth rate ofrainbow trout fed co-extruded flax:pea and canola:pea with and

without Jefo protease


EXPERT TPIC
http://www.yeast-science.com/


10/14

In addition, it is difficult for feed manu-

facturers to compare efficacy of various

enzymes to improve the protein quality of

their feed using traditional or prescribed

enzymatic activity assays. Traditional or

prescribed enzymatic assays rely on spe-

cific substrate, which may not be suitable

for a feed.

Feedmills must be able to rapidly and

accurately test complete feeds for the

presence of a protease as part of their QA/

QC process. The in-vitro protein digest-

ibility assays provide a solution to this

problem enabling feed manufacturers to

test the effects of an enzyme not by meas-

uring activity but in real term, the quality

of proteins.

This innovative solution should be stand-

ardised and utilised as a tool to compare

effects of different enzymes on a particular

feed.

Preference to multi-enzyme containing

protease-complex has also been a risingphenomenon.

All enzymes are proteins and add-

ing a protease in the cocktail creates a

situation where other enzymes become

the nearest substrate for the protease .

Whi le it is acceptab le to use al l the

carbohydrases together, using protease

in a cocktail usually reduces the efficacy

of other enzymes.

Several published and unpublished trials

with carps, shrimp and salmonids showed

lower beneficial effects of multi-enzyme com-pared to a single protease or a protease-

complex.

If intended, it is recommended to use

protease either separately or in a protected

form in a multi-enzyme cocktail to prevent

hydrolysis of other enzymes.

Conclusion

Apart from their avai labi l ity and

poor nutrient characterisat ion, imbal-

anced amino acid profi les, poor digest-

ibility of nutrients, presence of various

anti-nutritional factors has been limiting

the us e of so me nove l in gr ed ie nt s in

aquaculture feed.

Using a protease enzyme would therefore

be a useful solution to address these unknown

factors.

It can be assumed that in the near

future, similar to phytase, protease enzymes

would become an essential component of

feed as a cost-effective solution to improve

the quality of salmonids feeds.

References:Chowdhury, M.A.K. 2012. Aquafeed: Advances in

Processing & Formulation, Autumn Issue.

Drew et al. 2005. Animal Feed Science and

Technology, 119:117-128

Table 1. Growth performance and intestinal villi height of rainbow trout fed diets containinggraded level (0, 175, 250 ppm) of Jefo protease

Treatments

Initialbody

weight(g)

Finalbody

weight(g)

Specificgrowth

rate(SGR, %)

Thermal-unit GrowthCoefficient

(TGC)

FCRVilli size

(m)

Control 390 850a 0.92a 2.52a 1.43b 630a

Control + 175 ppm protease 402 971b 1.05b 2.94b 1.35a 663b

Control + 250 ppm protease 399 987b 1.07b 3.03b 1.33a 737b

Notes: Different letters in a column denote significant differences (P


11/14July-August 2014 | INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED| 41

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New Zealand (NZ) has no nativeSalmonid species and in these

days of high biosecurity it

always makes you wonder how

imported species have become established.

In the case of salmon in New Zealand

it seems that colonists back in the 19th

Century were keen to have access to

pleasures that were associated with the very

wealthy the right to hunt and to fish for

salmon and trout.

At that time NZ rivers were devoid ofsporting fish hence species were imported.

One of the main organisations behind

this work was the Auckland Acclimatisation

Society (AAS), which is still in existence today.

AAS was New Zealands first such society

and was established around 1861.

Many others soon followed, including in

Whanganui and Nelson in 1863, and Otago

and Canterbury in 1864. Their rules were very

similar to the British Acclimatisation Society

and focused on introducing all manner of new

species as long as they were innoxious. By

1866, the British society had merged with the

Ornithological Society.

New Zealand became the standard set-

ting for a network of regional acclimatisa-

tion societies that lasted almost 130 years

although their role later changed. Their

activities received government sanction, but

not financial support.

In 1867, the first of a series of Animal

Protection Acts in NZ protected many intro-

duced animals and formally recognised the

acclimatisation societies. The importation of

trout was enabled by the Salmon and TroutAct, passed in the same year.

Exchange agreementsSpecies exchange agreements were made

between New Zealand societies and those

overseas. At first many societies had gardensfor propagating new plant species, but these

were soon shed in favour of focusing on

animals, as a result, hatcheries were built for

breeding trout and aviaries for raising game

birds, for release into the wild.

Farmer and rabbit inspector, Lake Ayson, is

regarded as being the main person responsi-

ble for introducing Chinook salmon into New

Zealand.

He had apparently seen the successful

introduction of Brown Trout in the late 1800s

(strangely introduced from Tasmania) andhad some first-hand knowledge through being

appointed curator of the Masterton trout

hatchery. In 1898 he became the Fisheries

Commissioner for the country and as a prior-

ity decided to identify fish species that would

be suitable for New Zealand. Whilst in the

USA on a research trip he was offered half a

million Chinook ova free-of-charge and from

there history was created.

King SalmonChinook or quinnat salmon (Oncorhynchus

tshawytscha) are native to the north-west

coast of North America and north-east Asia

but are known in New Zealand by the term

King Salmon. New Zealand appears the only

place in the world where Chinook salmon

have become established successfully outside

their natural range.

Other species such as Atlantic and

Sockeye were also imported and from the

records there was a strong feeling that

the Government had backed the wrong

species but history now shows that is not

the case.Chinook are the largest species of the

Salmonidae family in New Zealand, com-

monly reaching 1015 kilograms. Most

adults are three years old when they

spawn. When they enter river mouths on

their spawning runs, they are very silvery incolour but this gets duller the longer they

stay in fresh water.

The fish are found mainly on the South

Islands east coast, from the Waiau River in

North Canterbury to the Clutha River in

South Otago. There are also small runs in the

Paringa, Taramakau and Hokitika Rivers on the

West Coast and the renowned fisheries are

the Waitaki, Rangitt, Rakaia and Waimakariri

rivers.

The taking of water for irrigation has seen

these rivers suffer from river mouth closurein summer. Reports have it that in the 2000s

they were no longer regarded as good salmon

fisheries.

Small landlocked Chinook salmon can also

be caught in some South Island lakes such as

Lake Wakatipu. Dams on the Clutha River

prevent them migrating to sea, so they never

grow to any great size (they are typically less

than one kilogram). Occasionally stray salmon

are found in North Island Rivers.

Ocean ranching plans

and canal farmsIn the 1970s and 1980s there were also

plans for ocean ranching commercialis-

ing the fishery based on the theory that

hundreds of thousands of salmon would be

hatched from ova and released. They would

go to sea and feed at no cost and come back

as adults to be harvested. The plans went

ahead and the salmon were released, but they

did not come back.

In the 2000s commercial salmon farms

operated at South Island freshwater sites such

as Waikoropup Springs near Tkaka, and theTekapo canal in the Mackenzie country.

Most sea farming occurs in the

Marlborough Sounds, Stewart Island and

Akaroa Harbour, while fresh water opera-

tions in Canterbury, Otago and Tasman

KINGSALMON

The successful transposing of

Chinook salmon to New Zealand


EXPERT TPIC


13/14

utilise ponds, raceways and hydro canals for

grow out operations.

The salmon are born in land-based hatch-

eries and transferred to sea pens or fresh

water farms to grow out to harvest size.

New Zealand has very focused farming

practices, strict bio-security procedures and

absence of any native salmon species mean

that the King Salmon are raised without need

for vaccines or antibiotics.

Code of Practice

The New Zealand Salmon Farmers

Associations Finfish Aquaculture

Environmental Code of Practice states that

raw material for fish feeds should come from

sustainably managed fisheries.

Temperature is an important factor in

determining fish health and growth. King

Salmon thrive in cooler waters and best

growth is achieved at a temperature of

12-17C. King Salmon take around 12-18

months to grow in sea water. Depending onmarket requirements, the salmon are harvest-

ed at an average of approximately 3.5 - 4.0kg.

Farm site selection is very critical and

remains the subject of much debate and, as

has been seen recently with legal challenges in

the New Zealand Supreme Court.

Farms tend to be placed in areas with

strong currents to flush the cages and improve

the rearing environment and minimise the

effects of waste on the environment. The

Global Aquaculture Performance Index

(GAPI), developed by Dr John Volpe and

the Seafood Ecology Research Group at

the University of Victoria, Canada, rated

New Zealand is the top performer of all 22

assessed salmon farming countries, with a

country score of 73.

While GAPI only considers the produc-

tion of Chinook salmon in New Zealand,

according to FAO production data,

Chinook salmon actually accounted for all

marine finfish production in New Zealand

in 2007.

Relatively low, dispersed production drives

New Zealands cumulative country score up

to 90among the highest cumulative scores

of all assessed countries.

Dominance of the

domestic market

Initially the industry was driven by the

export market but currently the domesticmarket is absorbing some 60-70 percent of

production. The main organisations involved

in arms are NZ King Salmon (60-70 percent

of NZ production), Sanford (20-25 percent)

and Mount Cook Alpine Salmon.

Mt Cook Alpine Salmon is driving a bold

NZ$20 million expansion plan to fuel a 1400

percent production increase for the company

within four years. This organisation was pro-

ducing around 500 tonnes in 2011 and with

a NZ$20 million expansion, including a pro-

cessing factory and a value-added plant, they

believe they will be turning out 2000 tonnes

in 2014 onwards.

New Zealand King Salmon has been

through application processes to increase its

2011 production of 7500 tonnes of salmon a

year to 15,000 tonnes by 2015-16. Only a small

percentage of farms have been granted permis-

sion through Supreme Court rulings so the

chances of this happening have been stalled.

Overall NZ King Salmon remains a strong

player in the New Zealand Seafood industry

but its future is being questioned by a strong

conservation movement and people who

would like to see little if anything in the

pristine waters of the Marlborough Sounds

References:

Swimming Upstream by Jennifer Haworth

http://web.uvic.ca/~gapi/results/browse/newZealand.html

http://www.nurturedseafood.com/aquaculture-in-

nz/industry-overview/key-facts/

http://aquaculture.org.nz/wp-content/

uploads/2012/05/NZ-Aquaculture-Facts-2012.pdf

http://www.seafoodnewzealand.org.nz/our-industry/

key-facts/

http://www.teara.govt.nz/


EXPERT TPIC

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EXPERT TOPIC 1404- SALMON

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