Exam 3 Notes

7/29/2019 Exam 3 Notes

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Exam 3 6/18/2012 2:17:00 PM

Module 17: Classical Conditioning

Learning- What do you think learning is?

Associative Learning- Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning,

Observational Learning

Learning- a relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to

experience

History of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1943)

-Connected to behaviorism

-Early years, received MD when he was 33 years old, won Nobel Prize when

dealing with digestive system of the dog (show dogs food, they will salivate)

-Accidental Discovery

-Experiment, attached an apparatus to a dogs mouth, paired food and tone

to showing dog, automatically salivated, even if one DV was not there

Components of Classical Conditioning:

The Unconditioned Association Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)- Stimulus that naturally and

automatically triggers a natural response.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)- Unlearned natural response tonatural stimuli. (ex- hit hammer on knee- knee-jerk)

The Conditioned Association

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)- Formally the neutral stimulus since byitself does not evoke a response. After paired with the

unconditional stimulus, triggers the conditional response.

Conditioned Response (CR)- Learned response to previously neutralconditioned stimulus.

Other Key Concepts

Acquisition- The initial learning of the stimulus-responserelationship


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Extinction- Diminished responding that occurs when the CS nolonger signals an impending US

Spontaneous Recovery- When an association is acquired orextinguished and some time has passed without the CS and then

when the CS is presented, the CR reappears. Generalization- The tendency to respond to similar stimuli. Ex-

abused woman, dogs

Discrimination- The learned ability to discriminate betweenconditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli. Ex- traffic lights,

cats


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Module 18: Operant Conditioning

Skinners Claim:

Skinner argued that we are completely controlled by our environment andthat all behavior is shaped by the consequences that our environment

provides. According to Skinner, when we demand freedom, we really want

freedom from aversive consequences and we do not have freedom to make

choices. The only freedom we really have is to arrange our own

consequences.

Questions:

Do you agree with Skinner that our beliefs in human freedom areillusions?

Are we really free or are we controlled by the consequences in ourenvironment?

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

Law of Effect- Rewarded behavior is likely to recur and vise versa Experimentation of Pigeons/ Skinner Box

Operant Conditioning- an organism associates its behavior with

consequences

1. Organisms are more likely to repeat rewarded behaviorEx- Compliments for a new outfit, people laugh when jokes are told

2. Organisms are less likely to repeat behaviors that are punishedEx- getting put in time-out, dog getting scolded for barking

Principles of Reinforcement

Reinforce- Any event that increases the frequency of a precedingresponse

o Positive Reinforcers (+)- Just means adding or takingsomething away to increase certain behavior (ex- play

time/chores)

o Negative Reinforcers (-) An aversive stimulus is taken away(ex- umbrella/ rain)

*Note on positive and negative

Types of Reinforcement

Primary Reinforcer- An innately reinforcing stimulus that satisfiesbiological needs (ex- getting Gatorade, tooth pulled)


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Conditioned (secondary) Reinforcer- A stimulus that gains itsreinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

(ex- money)

Continuous Reinforcement- Reinforcing the desired response everytime it occurs

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement- Reinforcing a response onlysome of the time (ex- slot machines)

Reinforcement Schedules

Fixed-Ratio Schedule- Reinforces a response after a set number ofresponses (ex- radio calls)

Variable-Ratio Schedule- Reinforces a response after a varyingnumber of responses (ex- slot machines)

Fixed-Interval Schedule- Reinforces a response after a set time haselapsed (ex- your birthday)

Variable-Interval Schedule- Reinforces a response at unpredictabletime intervals (ex- wall posts)

Punishment

An event that decreases the behavior it follows.Ex- Getting a bad grade for not studying; Getting spanked for

disobeying parents

Punishment is effective for decreases in behavior but there aredrawbacks:

o Suppressed, not forgotteno Increases aggressivenesso Fearo Learned helplessness

*Punishment tells you what not to do and reinforcement tells you

what to do

Shaping

Reinforcers that guide behavior toward closer and closerapproximations

Successive Approximations- Reward responses that are ever closerto the final desired behaviors (ex- potty training)


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*MODULE 19: Observational

Learning*

-Mirror Neurons: Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain

actions or when observing another doing something.

Observational Learning: Learning by observing others

-Modeling: Observing and imitating a specific behavior

*Bobo Doll Experiment: Put kid in a room filled with toys, including a large

bobo doll. Experimenter is violent with the bobo doll then leaves the kid in

the room --> Kid then is also violent with the bobo doll.

Prosocial behavior--> Behavior that conforms with the rules and social

decorum. Ex. Gandhi, MLK, Bono

Antisocial behavior --> Behavior that goes against the rules and defies social

decorum. Ex. Grand Theft Auto

*Does viewing violence in the media contribute to aggressive behavior?

-Homicide rate increased as a result of the development of TV

-Elementary school kids became more likely to bully with the

development of TV.*Two factor phenomenon: Imitation (parents, TV, etc..) and Desensitization

(prolonged exposure to violence in any way).


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MODULE 20: Information

Processing

Memory: The persistence of learning over time through the storage and

retrieval of information.

*Information processing model: Encoding (Input Info. =Keyboard)-

>Storage (Retaining Information over time=Hard drive)-->Retrieval (Getting

info. back out= Opening file)

Atkinson/Shiffrin Model of Encoding:

*Three different types of memory:

1. Sensory Memory: The immediate recording of sensory information

in the memory system. Two main types:

i. Iconic Memory: A copy of visual stimulus available for a few

tenths of a second.

ii. Echoic Memory: Fleeting memory of auditory sensory

information (Lasts for 3-4 seconds).

2. Short term memory: Memory that holds a few items briefly before

the information is stored or forgotten. Can hold about 7 items (+/- 2), about

four chunks of information or what you can say within 2 seconds.3. Long term memory: The relatively permanent and limitless

storehouse of the memory system.

*Working Memory: The memory you are currently working with (Your RAM).

Encoding!

-Automatic Processing: Occurs with little or no effort. Types include: space,

time, frequency and well-learned materials.

-Effortful Processing: Requires attention and conscious effort, can be

automatic with practice. Ex. First attempt to read, math, chemistry, etc...

Three ways to encode:

1. Iconic Encoding: Representation of exact images. (Shallow encoding)

2. Echoic Encoding: Encoding of a sound. (Intermediate encoding)

3. Semantic Encoding: Encoding of meaning. (Deep encoding)


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Rehearsal: The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in

consciousness or to encode it for storage.

*Sleep actually helps to encode information studies; however, when

something is presented directly before sleep (Like less than 5 min before),

its is rarely remembered.-Can't learn during sleep because were not rehearsing it!

-Ebbinghaus discovered that the amount remembered depends on the time

spent learning it.

-Self-reference Effect: Relevant information to you is likely to be

remembered very well. (Beauty of paraphrasing)

-Imagery: Mental pictures, a powerful aid for processing information,

especially when combined with semantic encoding. Ex. Nouns (apple,

cigarette)

Mnemonics: Memory Aids

1. Method of Loci: Mentally locating topics in areas of a familiar place

2. Making up vivid and ridiculous stories from non related nouns

3. Peg Words: Matching words with another word then envisioning them

together

Organizing Information

-Chunking: Organizing information into meaningful units. Ex. HOMES (TheGreat Lakes)

-Hierarchies: When a few broad concepts are divided into narrower concepts

and facts. Ex. Lecture Structure and Outlines

Effortful Processing Effect

-Next-In-Line-Effect: Poorest memory before your turn to speak

-Spacing Effect: Distributed practice is superior to massed practice for long

lasting recall (A.K.A. Take Breaks!)

-Serial Position Effect: Information presented at beginning and end of list are

recalled better than in the middle.

Memory and the Brain

*Memory isn't localized in one specific area of the brain, but instead is

spread out throughout the brain, one of which is the hippocampus.


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-Long Term Potentiation (LTP): When the sending neurons need less

prompting to release neurotransmitters and the receiving neurons' receptor

sites increase.

-Hippocampus: Involved in our ability to learn and remember info. (Loading

dock for information)-Infantile Amnesia: We can't remember explicit memories before 3 years

thats explicit facts because hippocampus isn't fully developed yet; however,

we retain implicit memories that we have learned.

Memory and Stress

-Arousal sears events into our brain. Ex. Something scary

-Blocking arousal= difficult to encode information and possibly PTSD?!

-Damage can be caused by extreme arousal and stress

Flashbulb Memory

*Do you remember where you were during the 9/11 attacks? :p

-Memory sparked by intense and/or emotional event

Implicit/Explicit Memories

-Amnesia: Loss of Memory

1. Implicit Memory (Procedural Memory): Unconscious learning. Ex. Bike-

riding2. Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory): Memory that allows us to declare

that we know something. Ex. classroom material, what you did yesterday

Retrieval: Getting Information out!

-Memory is any evidence that learning has occurred

-Recall: Remembering without cues

-Recognition: The ability to tell the familiar from the unfamiliar

-Relearning: Time to relearn something decreases; we remember something

more than we realized.

-Critical Point: We remember more than we can recall

Retrieval Cues

Priming: The activation, often unconsciously, of a particular association in

memory which allows for recall.


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Moods and Memory

-State-Dependent Memory: What's learned in an emotional state is best

remembered when in that emotional state.

-Mood Congruent Memory: Being in a certain mood biases the recall ofinformation


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MODULE 21: Forgetting, Memory

Construction and Improving

Memory*

-Encoding Failure: Attention is limited and without attention, memories don't

form.

-Storage Decay: Gradual fading of memory trace via disruption or

interference.

-Retrieval Failure: Memories may be available but inaccessible.

*Interference: When information is blocking the availability of other

information.

1. Proactive Interference: The disruptive effect of old learning in

the recall of new information

2. Retroactive Interference: The disruptive of new learning on

the recall of old information.

-Motivated Forgetting: Revising memory for personal benefit or comfort.

-Repression: Freud's notion that we protect ourselves from painful memories

by shoving them into our unconscious.

Memory Construction

-Misinformation Effects: Incorporating misleading information into one's

memory of an event. (Language can have an influence)

-Imagination Effects: On recall, gaps in memory are filled in with plausible

guesses and assumptions.

Source Amnesia (Source Misattribution): Attributing facts learned from one

source to another.

Improving Memory

-Study repeatedly

-Make material more meaningful

-Activate retrieval cues

-Use mnemonic devices


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-Minimize interference

-Sleep more

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