evans.uw.edu€¦ · XLS file · Web view · 2017-07-243/30/2015. 2005 15 283000 0 2 180 788....

Professor Leigh Anderson, Principal Investigator

Self-Help Groups in Development:A Review of Evidence from South Asia and Sub-Saharan AfricaReview Framework and Results Coding EPAR Technical Report #283

Suggested Citation: Evans School Policy Analysis and Research Group (EPAR) (2015). Self-Help Groups in Development: A Review of Evidence from South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa Review Framework and Results Coding. Seattle: University

of Washington.

March 30, 2015

Pierre Biscaye, Zoë True, Christopher Clark, Katie Panhorst Harris, C. Leigh Anderson & Mary Kay

Gugerty

Evans School Policy Analysis and Research Group (EPAR) (2015). Self-Help Groups in Development: A Review of Evidence from South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa Review Framework and Results Coding. Seattle: University

of Washington.

Nature of intervention

Article Name of theList the intended outputs of the intervention. Alcock et al. (2009) City Initia a study of female peer facilitators involved Anderson & Baland (2002) N/A No additional outside intervention. This studyAnderson, Baland, & Moene (2009) N/A No additional outside intervention. This studyAzad et al. (2010) BADAS PerinTraining and support of facilitators to form Baird et al. (2007) Tanzania’s Examines the effects of a government program onBarham & Chitemi (2008) Agricultur Strengthening existing smallholder producer grBhoj, Bardhan & Kumar (2013) SwarnajayaRural female dairy farmers participating in SHCarlson et al. (2012) Young Citi Training of facilitators to form and lead youtCaro, Pangare, & Manfre (2013) Sunhara IndTesting different group intervention models Colbourn et al. (2013) MaiKhanda Creation of women's groups and improvements toDagnelie & LeMay-Boucher (2008) N/A No additional outside intervention. This studyde Hoop et al. (2014) Multiple N Multiple NGO and Gov sponsored SHGsDeininger & Liu (2009) DPIP - DistrThe program aims to build on AP’s tradition oDesai & Joshi (2012) SEWA SustaiSEWA field workers invite all women to become Dongre, Deshmuk, & Garg (2007) Community LThe intervention provided maternal and child hEnsor et al. (2014) Safe MotheCreation of Groups and provision of improved Fischer & Qaim (2011) Africa HarvDescriptive study of group membership on ag oFritz et al. (2011) Sahwira HI Use of peer educators in beer halls to reduce sGreaney et al. (2013) SILC PromoChanging group design to increase financial iGugerty & Kremer (2008) InternationPreexisting Women's groups in Kenya were choseHargreaves et al. (2010) IMAGE This intervention combines microfinance, gendHolvoet (2005) Multiple MThe study used data from the Integrated RuraHouweling et al. (2013) Ekjut Trial Organized women’s groups to identify and addKaganzi et al. (2009) Nyabyumba Smallholder Farmers groups build capacity toKuhlmann et al. (2013) Avahan Female Sex Worker participation in project coLassi, Haider, & Bhutta (2010) Multiple G Intervention packages that included additionalLewycka et al. (2013) MaiMwana TWomen's group facilitation and education on mLuchters et al. (2008) IMPACT Peer-mediated interventions among female sex Manandhar et al. (2004) MIRA MakwTraining and support of facilitators to lead Maro, Robert, & Sorensen (2009) EMIMA ProPeer-coached sports activities to increase knMolyneux, et al. (2007) N/A The study looked at impacts of a variety of diMore et al. (2012) City Initia Forming Women's Groups to increase informatOdek et al. (2009) StrengtheniAdding a microfinance element to existing heaPlace et al. (2004) National AgExisting groups provided with nursery stock toProst et al. (2013) Multiple in Training and support of facilitators to form

How is the intervention, project,

or trial described

in the study

referred to?

Intervention/Project

Rath et al. (2010) Ekjut Trial Training and support of facilitators to lead pReddy & Manak (2005) SHG Bank LThe policy environment in India has been extreRosato et al. (2006) MaiMwana TParticipatory Women's Groups Created. Women tRoy et al. (2013) Ekjut Trial Participatory women's groups created. ParticipaSaha, Annear, & Pathak (2013) N/A This study evaluates outcomes from SHGs that Sinha et al. (2006) SHG Bank LSHPAs, banks, and/or NGO promote SHG groupSwain et al. (2009) NABARD SHGroup builds credit through savings and banks Swain (2012) NABARD The SHG bank linkage program links with the pTesoriero (2006) Rural Unit This is a formative evaluation of savings-lendTripathy et al. 2010 Ekjut Trial Training and support of facilitators to lead Van Rompay et al. (2008) PerambalurThis intervention is a peer education model de

Article Information

What is the title of the article?

Article title Full Citation Authors and affiliations Article Year

The title listed on the article. All authors listed on thehe month if listed.Community-based health programsAlcock, G. A., More, N. S., Patil 2005The Economics of Roscas and IntAnderson, S., & Baland, J.-M. (2 Anderson, S., & Baland, 2002Enforcement in Informal Saving Anderson, S., Baland, J.-M., & M Anderson, S., Baland, J 2009Effect of scaling up women’s grouAzad, K, et al. (2010). Effect of 2005Investing at the bottom of the p Baird, S., McIntosh, C., Ozler, B S Baird – University of No date

James Barham, United S 2008Determinants and implications ofBhoj S., Bardhan D., Kumar A.. (2S Bhoj, D Bardhan and 2013Enhancing adolescent self-effica Carlson, M., Brennan, R. T., & Ea 2012Women’s Empowerment in AgricultCaro, Pangare, & Manfre. (2013)Deborah Caro, VasudhaPa 2012Effects of quality improvement i Colbourn, T., Nambiar, B., Bondo,Tim Colbourn, UCL Insti 2013Rosca Participation in Benin: a Dagnelie, O., & LeMay-Boucher, PDagnelie: Institute de 2008Women's Autonomy and Subjectivde Hoop, T., van Kempen, L., Lin Thomas de Hoop, America 2014Economic and Social Impacts of SDeininger, K., & Liu, Y. (2009). E Deininger, K, & Liu, Y: 2009Collective Action and Community Raj M. Desai, Georgetow 2012A community based approach to iDongre, A. R., Deshmukh, P. R., 2009Mobilizing communities to improvEnsor, T., Green, C., Quigley, P. Tim Ensor: University 2014Linking Smallholders to Markets: ELISABETH FISCHER and 2011Evaluation of a Peer Network-BasFritz, K., McFarland, W., Wyrod, K. Fritz, International 2011CAN SELF-HELP GROUPS REALLY BGreaney, B., Kaboski, J. P., & V 2013Outside Funding and the Dynamic Mary Kay Gugerty, Univ 2008Process evaluation of the Interv Hargreaves, J., Hatcher, A., StranJames Hargreaves: Infec 2009The Impact of Microfinance on DHolvoet, N. (2005b). The Impact Holvoet, N. 2005The equity impact of participatorHouweling, T. A., Tripathy, P., Na 2013Sustaining linkages to high value Elly Kaganzi: CHF Inter 2009Investing in Communities: Evalu Kuhlmann, A. S., Galavotti, C., Anne Sebert Kuhlmann: W 2013Community-based intervention pa Lassi ZS, Haider BA, Bh 2010Effect of women's groups and voluLewycka, S., Mwansambo, C., RosatLewycka S.: Institute f 2013Impact of five years of peer-medLuchters, S., Chersich, M. F., Ri Stanley Luchters: Inter 2008Effect of a participatory interve Manandhar, D. S., Osrin, D., Shre 2004Using sport to promote HIV/AIDS eMaro, C.N., Roberts, G.C., & SoreMaro, C.N., Roberts, G. 2009The role of community-based organiMolyneux, C., Hutchison, B., ChumaMolyneux C, Hutchison B 2007Community Mobilization in MumbaMore, N. S., Bapat, U., Das, S., Neena Shah More, Ujwala 2012Effects of Micro-Enterprise Ser Odek, W. O., Busza, J., Morris, CWillis Omondi Odek: Dep 2009Assessing the factors underlying Place et al. (2004) - Calliandra Frank Place, Justine Wa 2004Women’s groups practicing particProst, et al. (2013). Women’s gr 2013

Who are the listed authors and what are

their affiliations?When was the article

written/published (year and month)?

1University College London Centre for International Health and Development, Institute of Child Health, London WC1N 1EH, UK and 2Society for Nutrition, Education and Health Action (SNEHA), Mumbai 400017, India

Prof A Costello FRCP), and Clinical Operational Research Unit (C Pagel PhD), University College London, London, UK; Women and Children First, London, UK (D Flatman MSc); Health Foundation, London, UK (D Flatman); and Centre for Child and Adolescent Health, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK (M Ellis PhD)

COLLECTIVE ACTION INITIATIVES TO IMPROVE MARKETING PERFORMANCE: Lessons from Farmer Groups in Tanzania Barham, J., & Chitemi, C. (2009). Collective action initiatives to improve marketing performance: Lessons from farmer groups in Tanzania. Food policy,34(1), 53-59.

d Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

Desai, R. M., & Joshi, S. (2013). Collective action and community development: evidence from self-help groups in rural India. Dongre AR, Deshmukh PR, & Garg BS.Dr Sushila Nayar School of Public Health, Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences, Sewagram, Maharashtra, India

Fischer, E., & Qaim, M. (2012). Linking smallholders to markets: determinants and impacts of farmer collective action in Kenya. World Development, 40(6), 1255-1268.

Eva Van Leemput (PhD Student Economics at the Univ. of Notre Dame)

Gugerty, M. K., & Kremer, M. (2008). Outside funding and the dynamics of participation in community associations. American Journal of Political Science,52(3), 585-602.

Tripathy P, Nair N, Rath S, Rath S, Gope R, Sinha R: Ekjut, Chakradharpur, Jharkhand, IndiaHouweling, TA, Looman CW: Department of Public Health, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam

Kaganzi, E., Ferris, S., Barham, J., Abenakyo, A., Sanginga, P., & Njuki, J. (2009). Sustaining linkages to high value markets through collective action in Uganda. Food policy, 34(1), 23-30.

Lassi, Z. S., Haider, B. A., & Bhutta, Z. A. (2010). Community-based intervention packages for reducing maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality and improving neonatal outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 11.

8 Centre for Sexual Health and HIV Research, University College London

Explaining the impact of a women 2010Self-Help Groups: A Keystone of Reddy, CS., & Manak, S. 2005

Rosato, M., Mwansambo, C. W., Kaz 2006Improved neonatal survival after Roy, S. S., Mahapatra, R., Rath, SSwati Sarbani Roy, Raje 2013The effect of Self-Help Groups onSaha, S., Annear, P. L., & Pathak,Saha, S. (Nossal Institu 2013Self Help Groups in India: A Stud Sinha, et al. (2006). Self Help Gr EDA: Sinha, Tankha, Bra 2006Does Self Help Group Participati Swain, Ranjula Bali - 2009Differential Impact of Microfina Swain, R. (2012a). Differential Swain, R 2012Strengthening communities throu Tesoriero, Frank 2005Effect of a participatory interv Tripathy, P., et al. (2010). Effe 2010Empowering the people: Developm Koen KA Van Rompay: Sah 2008

Rath, S., Nair, N., Tripathy, P. K., Barnett, S., Rath, S., Mahapatra, R., ... & Prost, A. (2010). Explaining the impact of a women's group led community mobilisation intervention on maternal and newborn health outcomes: the Ekjut trial process evaluation. BMC International health and human rights, 10(1), 25.Suchitra Rath1, Nirmala Nair1, Prasanta K Tripathy1, Sarah Barnett2, Shibanand Rath1, Rajendra Mahapatra1, Rajkumar Gope1, Aparna Bajpai1, Rajesh Sinha1, Anthony Costello2, Audrey Prost2*1Ekjut, Ward No-17, Plot 556B, Potka, Po-Chakradharpur, Dist. West Singhbhum. Jharkhand Pin- 833102, India

Reddy, C. S., & Manak, S. (2005). Self-help groups: A keystone of microfinance in India-women empowerment and social security. Andhra Pradesh Mahila Abhivruddhi Society (APMAS). India: Hyderabad.Women’s groups’ perceptions of maternal health issues in rural Malawi

Project, Box 2, Mchinji, Malawi [email protected]•

Swain, R. B., & Varghese, A. (2009). Does Self Help Group participation lead to asset creation?. World Development, 37(10), 1674-1682.

Tesoriero, F. (2006). Strengthening communities through women's self help groups in South India. Community Development Journal, 41(3), 321-333. (P Tripathy MSc, N Nair MBBS, R Mahapatra MSc, Sh Rath MA, Su Rath MA, R Gope PGDRD, D Mahto DCHM, R Sinha); University College London Centre for International Health and Development, Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, UK (S Barnett PhD, A Prost PhD, Prof A Costello FRCP); Effective Intervention, Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Economics and Political Science, London, UK (R Lakshminarayana DNB); London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK (J Borghi PhD, Prof V Patel PhD); Sangath, 841/1 Alto Porvorim, Goa, India (Prof V Patel); and Clinical Operational Research Unit, University College London, London, UK (C Pagel PhD)

Van Rompay, K. K., Madhivanan, P., Rafiq, M., Krupp, K., Chakrapani, V., & Selvam, D. (2008). Empowering the people: Development of an HIV peer education model for low literacy rural communities in India. Human Resources for Health, 6(1), 6.

Article Information

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For published articles, writ Search for the a Aug Initial Literature Search Published Oxford Journals - Health Ed 15 Aug Initial Literature Search Published The Quarterly Journal of Ec 310

Initial Literature Search Published Journal of Development Ec 46 Mar Initial Literature Search Published Lancet 93

Google search, SHG effectNot published Not published. It is a slide 0 Oct Ag Supplemental Search Published Food Policy 76 Oct Ag Supplemental Search Published Livestock Research for Rur 0 May Initial Literature Search Published Elsevier – Social Science & 13 May Google search, SHG effectNot published Not published; Sunhara IndiNot reviewed. June Initial Literature Search Published International Health 5 Feb Initial Literature Search Not published Not published; part of a the30 Apr Initial Literature Search Published Feminist Economics 0 Mar Google search, SHG effectNot published Not published, World Bank p36 Apr Google Scholar search, R Not published Not published; Draft (Worl 6 Jan Initial Literature Search Published Indian Journal of Pediatrics 22 Nov Initial Literature Search Published Bulletin of the World Health0 Nov Ag Supplemental Search Published World Development 40 March Initial Literature Search Published AIDS Behavior 24 Apr Initial Literature Search Not published Not published, submitted 1 July Ag Supplemental Search Published American Journal of Political 86 Oct Initial Literature Search Published Health Education Research 21

Initial Literature Search Published Development and Change 139 Mar Initial Literature Search Published International Journal of Ep 4 OCT Ag Supplemental Search Published Food Policy 53 Oct Initial Literature Search Published AIDS and Behavior 0Jul Initial Literature Search Published Cochrane Database of Syste 126 May Initial Literature Search Published Lancet 10 Apr Initial Literature Search Published BMC Public Health 67 Sept Initial Literature Search Published Lancet 538

Initial Literature Search Published Scandinavian Journal of Med29 Jun Initial Literature Search Published Health Policy and Planning 23 May Initial Literature Search Published PLoS Med 11Nov Initial Literature Search Published AIDS and Behavior 50 Jul Ag Supplemental Search Published Agricultural Systems 30 May Initial Literature Search Published Lancet 32

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Oct Initial Literature Search Published BMC International Health &27 Oct Google search, SHG effectNot published Not published, Andhra Prade42 Sep Initial Literature Search Published Lancet 46 Apr Initial Literature Search Published Bulletin of the World Health3

Initial Literature Search Published International Journal for Equ1Google search, SHG effectNot published Not published, study suppo 19

Mar Initial Literature Search Published World Development 33Initial Literature Search Published Applied Economics Letters 2

Jul Google Scholar search, R Published Community Development Jo45 Mar Initial Literature Search Published Lancet 162Apr Initial Literature Search Published Human Resources for Healt 38

Article Information Study Information

Article selection Type of research

Note the criteri Categories are l"Primary researcNote what the auDescribe the autBriefly note the Describe the conHigh relevance oPrimary Researcqualitative methRelationship be how peer workerFriendship and cWe think that ouRetrieved from EPrimary ResearcThis study uses This study uses The present papeMarried women wiMarried women wRetrieved from Primary ResearcThe study highliIn this paper th Very little is k The organizationThe authors firsHigh relevance oPrimary ResearcThis study used The authors assThis study was bNeonatal mortalFor participatoCompares outcomPrimary researcAn experiment toEffects of trai To study whetheThe government pGroup leaders gaRetrieved from APrimary ResearcThis study aims To Identify fact Group age, strenFind- ings suggeRetrieved from APrimary ResearcThe authors survThe authors aim The authors aim Age, level of e Respondent’s agPrimary ResearchPrimary ResearcThe study conducTo explore whethto see if a succ The benefits to Evidence of its Retrieved from Primary ResearcEvaluation of thEvaluation of the Impacts of th 62% of women reRetrieved from Primary ResearcThe authors evalThe Study evaluaBy conducting a A combined FacilFor control clusRetrieved from EPrimary ResearcThe study conducEvidence of ind The study providRoscas help memIn Cotonou, evenMeets, criteria Primary ResearcReporting impacTo measure the iThis paper cont SHG membership On average, SHG Grey literature, Secondary ReseThe authors useBy considering The motive for eThe estimation oThere are three Relevance of s Primary ResearcThis study pres To show that extThe paper makes The authors conA comparison of Retrieved from Primary ResearcA variety of comStudied effects The objectives oThe interventio There was signiRetrieved from Primary ResearcA study to invesTo determine whThe interventio The community inThe difference-iRetrieved from APrimary ResearcThis article inv To assess det Group membershiEmploying propenRetrieved from Primary ResearcThe study used sThis article rep The authors suggThe authors fouThe authors founIncludes cost i Primary Researcstudy of financi This study examito see if SHGs c SHGs can becomeRetrieved from APrimary ResearcThe study uses To determine whThis paper seeksThe authors fouRelevance of stuPrimary ResearcThis process evaThis study seeks Many believe thaWe conclude thatMicrofinance andRetrieved from EPrimary ResearcThis article see Using householdEvaluations of Women’s group mIt is shown thaRetrieved from Primary ResearcThe authors collFirst study of e Little is known The study showsThe Ekjut trial Retrieved from APrimary Researc This article exa Uganda’s rapid uGroups can helpcollective actioRelevance of st Primary ResearcThis study eval This study aims Our study is thehigher levels o In both our modeRelevance of st meta-analysis Review of 18 RC The authors as The most succesRetrieved from Primary ResearcIn Africa, no tr First populationIn Africa, no tr Community mobilThe authors comRelevance of st Primary ResearcThis study eval This study aims to highlight th Peer-mediated inuncer- tainty oRetrieved from Primary ResearcThe study conducFocus on effectithought that a pThe interventioRetrieved from TPrimary ResearcThe purpose of First experimentThe authors repoUsing trained peThe important fiRetrieved from Primary ResearcThe authors use In this paper t There is disagreCommunity -basedExisting social Retrieved from Primary ResearcThis study reporFirst use of clu The authors not Facilitating urb The authors did Relevance of st Primary ResearcThis study assesExamines the effect of layering Micro-enterpriseTwo-thirds of paRetrieved from APrimary ResearcThis study examiTo assess what fThe authors seek to identify ga Collective actioRetrieved from Meta-analysis Systematic revieReview of effectAuthors that theWith the particiWith the partici

How was this article selected

for review?

What type of research did the authors conduct

(primary research, secondary research, evidence

review, or meta-analysis)?

How does this study aim to contribute to the body of

evidence on this topic?

What are the overall

conclusions of the study?

Contribution to the literature

Overall conclusions

0306-9192/$ - see front matter Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.10.002which certain group characteristics and asset endowments facilitate collective action initiatives to improve group marketing performance.

entitlements, up from 15 percent.(

the determinants of group membership, whether marginalized farmers are included, and how group membership impacts welfares. implications on the group outreach, or inclusiveness.

driven by a difference in the population served by privatized providers. PSPs cater to a more business-oriented population…. may create problems of cream- skimming, especially if NGOs are still interested in providing services to the truly poorest of the poor.The authors found little evidence that outside funding expanded organizational strength, but substantial evidence that funding changed group membership and leadership, weakening the role of the disadvantaged. The programled younger, more educated, and better-off women to enter the groups.New entrants,men, and more educated women assumed leadership positions. The departure of olderwomen, the most socially marginalized demographic group, increased substantially.

This articles examines the impact of the Nyabyumba FarmerGroup, located in Kabale District, south-western Uganda.

(Bhutta 2005; Haws 2007) but those were not subjected to metaanalyses. Therefore, in this review we will not only assess the ffectivenessof community-based intervention packages in reducing maternal and neonatal morbidities and mortality and improving neonatal outcomes but also the impact of different strategies (home visitation, home-based care, community support groups/women’s groups etc.) on the reported outcomes. This review will not evaluate the impact of training TBAs alone (Sibley 2007), or effectiveness of a health education strategy designed for mothers and other family members on newborn survival (Thaver 2009), as these are being evaluated in other reviews.

Implications for research Notwithstanding these findings, this analysis largely derives from a limited number of effectiveness trials, as most studies were conducted in efficacy settings. Also the bulk of the data were from studies conducted inAsia,with very limited information fromsub- Saharan and central African settings. There is thus a clear need for additional research at an appropriate scale and in the right settings. There is also a need for high quality randomised controlled trials that employ stringent methods to ensure quality. Given the rapid rise in healthcare costs, and the imperative of reaching hard-to-reach communities, it has become crucial to focus on developing cost-effective and affordable ways to prevent disease and promote health in community settings. Although this was not one of the main objectives of this review, it plays a fundamental role in selecting and bundling intervention packages for scaling up and particularly in tailoring interventions to available health system resources. Only a few studies reported the actual costs incurred for providing interventions for saving one life or the cost of one averted death. Therefore, cost-effectiveness is a priority area for research for the future and researchers should facilitate cost-effectiveness meta-analysis by collecting and reporting costeffectiveness data in a standardised format (e.g. costs per lives saved or disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) averted).

reduced neonatal mortality by 30% Maternal Mortality was also significantly lower in intervention areas changes in home-care practices and health-care seeking for both neonatal and maternal morbidity members raised awareness of perinatal issues outside the groups themselves 95% of groups remained active at the end of the trial despite no financial incentives and the opportunity costs incurred by women spending time away from other tasks

High relevance, Primary Researcmostly qualitatiexamines the grthis study reporThis study showGrey literature Primary ResearcThis report is This paper examToday, Self-HelpThe impact of S The status of wo

Primary ResearcParticipatory woExamines percep The study showeThe maternal hePrimary ResearcFrom 2004 to 201To investigate thBuilds on the EkThe effect of paData on 41 191 b

Received from BSecondary ReseThe study conducFirst study to u The authors claiThe presence of Authors state thGrey literature Primary ResearcThis is a study This study explores questions abSHGs may be lessMost stakeholderRelevance of st Primary ResearcThis study evaluThis study examAt the time of t Longer membershTraining by NGORetrieved from ESecondary ReseThe study uses dThe author examResearchers and The author showsThe author showsRelevance of st Primary Researchis article dis This article looks at the inters Women in SHGs peEvery group in tRelevance of stuPrimary ResearcThis study is or This study aims Maternal depressParticipatory w Women’s groups lRelevance of stuPrimary ResearcThis paper desc Explore other method to increasUsing establish Using establish

Participatory interventions with community groups can influence maternal and child health outcomes if key intervention characteristics are preserved and tailored to local contexts. Scaling-up such interventions requires (1) a detailed understanding of the way in which context affects the acceptability and delivery of the intervention; (2) planned but flexible replication of key content and implementation features; (3) strong support for participatory methods from implementing agencies. The study demonstrated a 45% reduction in neonatal mortality in the last two years of the intervention, largely driven by improvements in safe practices for home deliveries.mobilization through groups is not a discrete intervention where impact is delivered linearly from implementers to recipients. Instead, implementers, facilitators, group members and community members are all in turn ‘designers’, ‘implementers’ and ‘recipients’ of learning and change.

Improvements in preventive and care-seeking behaviors to reduce maternal mortality in rural Africa depend on the knowledge and attitudes of women and communities. Surveys have indicated a poor awareness of maternal health problems by individual women. We report the perceptions of women’s groups to such issues in the rural Mchinji district of Malawi.

Study Information

Methodology Scale of Project Total Population

Categories are List the total population includeEither populatioNon-experimentqualitative methLocal 283000 Women in the selected slum nQuasi-experimeThe study uses pLocal Evidence was col500000 Kibera extends oConsenting housQuasi-experimeThe study uses pLocal Evidence was col500000 Kibera extends oConsenting housExperimental 18 clusters (wit Regional 503163 Consenting 15–49Experimental An experiment toNational Household-level Not specified. Must be from a Quasi-experimenThe study uses pRegional This study area 776772 The total area oFarmer's groups Quasi-experimenThis study uses Local Haldwani block, Not specified. Participants seleExperimental The design consiRegional 144739 Consenting chilNon-experimentNot reviewed. Regional 7 districts of Ut Not specified. Not reviewed. Members of groups participatingExperimental Regional 3280000 Consenting preQuasi-experimeThe study does Local 1100000 Consenting indivQuasi-experimenInterviews with Local 19 Villages in P Not specified. Households in thQuasi-experimeThe authors aim Regional The study coversNot specified. Household living in the study arExperimental RCT randomized aLocal 80 Villages (32 iNot specified. All women who liNon-experimentNo control groupLocal 31482 All mothers with child 0-11 monQuasi-experimeA baseline surveRegional 1000000 Women of reprodQuasi-experimenCompares groupRegional 4 districts in Ce Not specified. Banana growers iExperimental The Authors conLocal 1436000 Consenting men, Experimental Empirically, we Multi-national Not specified. UnclearExperimental An RCT comparinLocal 2 Districts in Ke Not Specified Not Specified. Members of 80 WNon-experimentThis study used Regional The IMAGE trial Not specified. Consenting women living in LiQuasi-experimeThis study expli Local Due to time andNot specified. Households withExperimental The authors usedRegional 228186 All consenting Non-experimentThe methods usedLocal Kabale District, Not specified. Members of theQuasi-experimeEvaluated 104 cRegional 104 clusters th Not specified. 2,389 FSW were Consenting FSW in chosen clustSystematic Rev Multi-national 18Experimental The authors did Regional 185888 Consenting womeQuasi-experimeA pre-interventiLocal The study took 250000 population of t Consenting, selfExperimental Cluster randomizRegional 168000 Consenting womeQuasi-experimeA quasi-experimeLocal Not specified. Consenting chilNon-experimentThe study collecRegional This study was cNot specified. Consenting housExperimental A cluster randomLocal 283000 Consenting womeQuasi-experimepre-post withoutLocal 227 respondents300,000 community populConsenting FSW living in researQuasi-experimenCompared performRegional 6 Districts in Not specified. Groups that agreSystematic Rev Systematic revieMulti-national N/A Study criteria:

For original research, is the

study experimental,

quasi-experimental, or

non-experimental? For evidence

reviews, is the review

systematic, non-systematic, or theoretical? Describe the

methodology.

Is the study conducted on a

local (city or town), regional

(multiple districts, states,

or regions), national, or

multi-national scale?

What is the total population in the study area

(both intervention and

control clusters)?

What are the criteria for

participation in this study?

Criteria for participation

For evidence reviews, "systematic" indicates that the review attempted to analyze all empirical evidence that fits pre-specified eligibility criteria in order to answer a specific research question. "Non-systematic" indicates that the review indicates some smaller portion of the evidence. "Theoretical" indicates that the article discusses the theory behind a given research question, rather than looking at any evidence.For an evidence review that includes a meta-analysis, the notes for this question should include both the scope of the review and a general description of the methods of the analysis.

This trial was registered as InternationalStandard Randomized Controlled Trial [ISRCTN18073903]

subsets from one trial. We incorporated data from these trials using generic inverse variance method in which logarithms of risk ratioestimates were used along with the standard error of the logarithms of risk ratio estimates.

Non-experimentmostly qualitatiRegional 228186 consenting commNon-experimentThe information Regional This report is Not specified. Not specified.Non-experimentThis study is pa Regional Not specified. All participantExperimental This study descrRegional 228186 Clusters were selected in JharkQuasi-experimeThe study analyzNational 653944 Ever-married woNon-experimentThe study is basNational The study covers Not specified. SHGs with exampQuasi-experimeThis study analyNational Cross-sectional Not specified. Lists number of Consenting women in villages witQuasi-experimeThe author uses Regional This empirical Not specified. Does not specifyNot specified.Non-experimentThis study was aRegional Tamil Nadu, KV Not specified. Not specified.Experimental From 36 clustersRegional 228186 Consenting womeNon-experimentThe evaluation oRegional Rural Tamil NaduNot specified. Not specified.

Study Information

Sample size

For original res Note how the conDescribe the critNote how partiFor original r Note the size For original rWomen in the selected slum n None Study-selectedTwenty-four loc24 facilitators selected fro

The 520 householYes The authors comRandom sampli Households, s520 householdsThe authors inThe 520 householYes The authors comRandom sampli Households, s520 householdsThe authors inConsenting 15–49Yes Random, by dis 503,163 particThe total popuSee sampling criYes See sampling criStudy-selected 59 groups in the treatment (

No All groups were Study stratifi Groups were id388 individualYes 30 non-member Stratified Ran Multistage pur90 Households90 women (60

The eligible popYes, randomly spaired communitRandom samplin 60 neighborhoMembers of groups participatingNo All participants were members of groups in 6000 Women The interventi

The Unit of RandYes Random samplinClusters were 61 Clusters, 1461 clusters raThe authors use Yes The surveyed inPseudo-randomThe authors se497 householdsAll the 497 hoBecause only HHsYes Households wit Stratified Ran Sample in 19 v400 Household

Household living in the study arYes The authors drawRandom at villDistricts were 6000 householWe measure the Yes Villages were stAll women in study villages 3205 Women The baseline a

All mothers with child 0-11 monNo No control groupAll consentingThe interventi404 mothers atAll community mYes Data were collecStudy surveyedThe interventiBaseline: InterThe sample sizthe total sampl Yes Non-group farmeRandom SamplinWe first obtai 444 banana gr444 banana gr

Yes Authors selectedAdaptation of 24 Beer Halls Field Agent (FA)Yes Random sampliThe research f51 agents in KThe original y

Yes Once the 80 eligGroups identif 80 groups withConsenting women living in Li No pre-post model Selected by reThroughout the378 participanFor each type

Samples were draYes The study comparRandom samplSampled random300 household60 households The study includYes 36 poor clustersRandom samplinThe study area22,716 live bi The study incl

No Not specified. Not specified.Consenting FSW in chosen clustNo The project this study evaluated did not set 104 clusters In the same sa

Yes The control group in these st We identified a total of 30,183 (after removing duplicates) titles and abstracts, writAll women aged Yes The study used aRandom samplin48 clusters we43,719 women,A cohort of 43Eligible partici No This study used Study identifi initial respon 1005 responde503 and 502 reWomen of childbeYes - Clusters randomly allocat matched 42 vil42 villages, 2 pair-matched 4A total of 950 p Yes There are two cPrimarily self Children self- 950 participantA total of 950The authors usedYes The authors compCross-sectionaIt is not clea 870 household870 householdsKey participant Yes Control clustersRandom samplin 48 Clusters, 18

Consenting FSW living in researNo pre-post model Self Selected (participants ha227 participantsNo The study examiRandom Selecti40 were select40 groups, 15 40 were select

The four criteri Yes The study only iSystematic lit Authors found

Does the study include the use

of a control group to

compare against the group

receiving the intervention?

What is the sampling

strategy for the study?

What is the study's sample

size?

Control group used

Sampling strategy

The control clusters included three tea garden estates that had substantially worse health and socioeconomic indicators than did the rest of the study area. In these areas, surveillance started late because of entry restrictions. We did not know about the entry difficulties and high mortality rates before the recruitment and allocation of clusters and therefore did not exclude these areas before allocation. Additionally, about 10% of mothers in our study area were temporary residents and mainly came into the cluster areas to give birth, since the tradition is for women to go to their mothers’ home just before delivery. These temporary residents were not exposed to the women’s group intervention, and often had returned to their marital homes outside the study area before the post-natal interview.Each district constituted one stratum and each union a cluster (see web appendix p 2). 18 unions (six per district) were selected. The total population within these 18 unions was 503 163 people, with union sizes ranging from 15 441 to 35 110. Unions were randomly allocated to either intervention or control groups by districtGroups surveys at 6, 12, and 30 months

one another and be willing to collaborate in specific activities, such as training.

the sample for this study comprised 34groups with a mean group size of 35 members. Thirty-seven percent of all group members working with FAIDA and 29% of those working with TIP participated in the first round of interviews and completed questionnaires about themselves and their households. Thus, the total study sample represents 33% of all group members.were then stratified into low, medium and high performing groups on the basis of savings made by

the groups in one year using Cumulative Square root of Frequency method. A total of 15 women dairy SHGs were selected for the study having representation from each stratum on proportionate basis. A complete enumeration of all members of selected SHGs was conducted for the purpose of developing a sampling frame. All the members were classified according to their wealth statusa household until an eligible child was found. One child per household, the youngest in the age range, was recruited. The assessor would then move to the next quadrant and repeat the same process. In the final stage of sampling attention was given to achieving gender balance within the groups.The two-stage sampling plan is illustrated in Fig. 1. In the pretreatment stage a probability sample of adults in the 60 residential mitaa was recruited to participate in the baseline survey prior to selecting and allocating matched pairs of 30 mitaa to treatment and control arms. The research team used the same GIS maps to enroll 24 adolescent participants from households in each of the 30 paired mitaa. a household until an eligible child was found. One child per household, the youngest in the age range, was recruited. The assessor would then move to the next quadrant and repeat the same process. In the final stage of sampling attention was given to achieving gender balance within the groups.

who participated in a government-supported SHG, and 147 households hadno SHG members.The authors draw on a 2004 survey of more than 6,000 households in program districts where the program became available in 2001 (DPIP) and control districts where it became available in late 2003 (RPRP). The survery yielded useable information on 2,516 households from 250 revenue villages in DPIP districts, and 3,824 households from 409 revenue villages in RPRP districts. An SHG questionnaire was administered to 1,239 randomly selected program SHGs in DPIP areas.

Needs assessment: After obtaining informed consent, out of 503 expected mothers of children 0-11 months, a team of trained social workers could interview 404 mothers (80.2% coverage) using pre-designed and pre-tested questionnaire by house-to-house visits.Follow-up Assessment: In the year 2007, after obtaining informed consent, out of expected 503 mothers of children 0-11 months, a team of trained social worker could interview 393 mothers (78.1% coverage) using same pre-designed and pre-tested questionnaire by paying house to house visits.

Inclusion criteria for beer halls were being located in a residential area and not adjacent to large markets or public transport hubs that could contribute to cross-contamination between beer halls after randomization. Eligibility criteria for participants were being male, 18 years of age and older, a patron of the beer hall whererecruited, sober, and being enumerated as one of every three people to cross the predetermined intercept zone at the entrance of the beer hall during the sampling period after a randomly chosen starting time.

for inclusion; (2) creating a calendar of 4-h recruitmentevents; (3) randomly selecting beer halls to fill each calendar event; and (4) assessing the eligibility of every third man entering an intercept zone located at the beer hall entrance. The spatial–temporal sampling frame was constructed such that 70% of recruitment events took place during peak patronage periods (Friday evenings, Saturdays and Sundays) and 30% during slow to moderate periods (weekday evenings).

Beer Halls were the unit of Analysis. 24 were included in the study. A total of 1,284 men from 40 beer halls were surveyed at baseline, 725 of whom were patrons of these 24 beer halls that were ultimately randomized to the intervention and control arms. The post-intervention assessment surveyed 1,217 men at thesame 24 beer halls“One downside of the experiment is that it lacks a true control, in the sense of a set of villages receiving no SILCs whatsoever.”

Child Support (ICS), in consultation with Kenyan women’s groups and local officials from the Ministry of Agriculture. ICS identified 100 operational women’s groups in Busia and Teso, two poor rural districts in western Kenya, through lists provided by the Ministry of Culture and Social Services and interviews with localCommunity Development Assistants. Eighty of these groups met project eligibility criteria, which excluded a few wealthier groups in the district capital and required that the groups meet regularly and already be engaged in group-based agricultural activity. Groups were typically located some distance apart, and we found no evidence that groups were in competition for the same potential members.

ICS identified 100 operational women’s groups in Busia and Teso, two poor rural districts in western Kenya, through lists provided by the Ministryof Culture and Social Services and interviews with local Community Development Assistants. Eighty of these groups met project eligibility criteria, which excluded a few wealthier groups in the district capital and required that the groups meet regularly and already be engaged in group-based agricultural activity. Groups were typically located some distance apart, and we found no evidence that groups were in competition for the same potential members.80 Groups, ≈1680 members

The Nyabyumba Farmer Group was selected for a number ofreasons: they represent a common situation whereby initial success in supplying a local market can lead to oversupply if marketing strategies do not take into account the sudden increase in supply that can be achieved using new agricultural production technologies. The

Random sampling at cluster-levelRandom sampling at cluster-level

gangs, pavement dwellings—and areas for which resettlement wasbeing negotiated.

24 intervention and 24 control settlements in Mumbai, India covered a population of 283,000. The analysis included 18,197 births over 3 years from 2006 to2009.

The inter-institute National Agroforestry Research Project, based at Embu, hasbeen working with farmer groups in the dissemination of fodder trees in Central Kenya since the early 1990s (Franzel et al., 1999). These groups were initially identified with the help of extension and NGOs and had volunteered to participate in establishing tree nurseries.Authors searched the following databases: PubMed, Embase, Cochrane library, CINAHL, African Index Medicus, Web of Science, the Reproductive Health Library, and the Science Citation Index, using the inception date for each database and Oct 13, 2012, as inclusion dates. Search terms were a combination of “community mobilization”, “community participation”, “participatory action”, “participatory learning and action*”, “women* group*”, and “women”. No language restrictions were applied.

Authors also sought unpublished data from researchers who were known to be active in this specialty. Authors reviewed the results of the electronic searches and acquired electronic reports of published studies, and manuscripts of unpublished studies from the respective investigators. Two authors made the final decisions about the inclusion or exclusion of reports or manuscripts separately after inspection, and then independently extracted data for the characteristics, quality, and outcomes of each study. Together, the reviewers checked and verified these data. Investigators for the primary studies were contacted for clarification if there were discrepancies in the extracted data.

Yes Selected for i Respondents (gestimated popThis study expData presumablyNo The study evaluData presumably is collectedNot specified. Data presumablThe women’s groNo Results from group meetings 3171 women

Clusters were selected in Jhark No In this study, w All births, st We recorded al41191 Births During this peThe data for indYes The authors compMulti-stage strThe DLHS-3 use22,825 villag The authors anThe authors wereNo Purposeful samThe study is b 214 SHGs The study is b

Consenting women in villages witYes The treatment gRandom, by disThe sampling s842 responden604 from old This empirical Yes This empirical Random samplThe sampling s742 individual691 SHG memb

No Random selectiA sample of ei18 SHGsaged 15–49 yearsYes We identified 1 Random, by disWe identified 228,186 particestimated popu

No pre-post model Not specified. 198 SHG members; 153 SHG

To be in one of the clusters: clusters within three bordering districts of Jharkhand (West Singhbhum and Saraikela Kharsawan) and Orissa (Keonjhar)The intervention areas were rural, largely tribal, and covered a population of 114 141, including 193 villages and 254 hamlets.

To be in one of the clusters: clusters within three bordering districts of Jharkhand (West Singhbhum and Saraikela Kharsawan) and Orissa (Keonjhar)control areas were less rural and had better access to health services.

Data from the summary forms on the identifi cation and prioritization of maternal health issues were available for 172 and 171 women’s groups, respectively, of 204. The remaining 33 groups are still completing or have recently completed the meetings. 119 of the 172 groups who identifi ed problems categorized issues by period, the remainder did not.

Study Information Research Quality and Risk of Bias

Strong Transparency

Categories areDescribe the pRate the overal = Yes, 0 = no Provide an oveRate the reasoA theory of chRate the transQualitative The basic reseMedium-Low 0 Very qualitati Medium Authors base tLowQuantitative The data used High 0 High based on hHigh Outlines econoHighQuantitative The data used High 0 High based on hHigh Discusses theoHighMixed All data was r Medium 1 This study hadHigh HighQuantitative Medium-High 1 Hard to judge dMedium-Low The slides sug LowMixed Interviews repMedium-High 1 Medium-High bHigh A conceptual mMedium-High Quantitative Participants wMedium-High 0 HIGH quality, Med-High Authors presenHigh Mixed High 1 High The YC ProgramMedium-HighQualitative A three personMedium-Low 0 Medium, this iMedium-High The TOC is welHigh Quantitative High 1 The technical High A section on t HighQualitative colThe first waveHigh 0 High based on hHigh There is a longHighQuantitative Medium 0 Unclear methodMedium The authors deHigh

The survey datMedium-High 1 Medium-High duHigh The authors usHighMixed Quantitative dHigh 0 High quality foHigh High, the authHigh Mixed Method Medium-Low 0 Medium-Low basHigh About half of Medium-HighQualitative ColA baseline surMedium 1 Medium based oMedium The study was Medium Mixed Methoddata collectedHigh 1 High rated on High Good understanHigh Quantitative Participants c Medium-High 0 The primary reHigh The study was HighMixed Medium 1 Careful attent High The theory we Medium-High3 surveys admiThree sets of High 0 High Provides two hHigh Mixed Data is mostlyMedium-Low 0 No control andMedium Authors discusMediumQuantitative All interviews Medium-High 0 Medium-High baHigh Discusses theoHighQuantitative aAll births and High 1 High based on hHigh Introduction oHighMixed Methods,The methods usMedium-Low 0 Medium-low basMedium-High Paper is mainlyLowQuantitative Multinomial loMedium 0 No control andMedium Authors presentMedium

We identified a total of 30,183 (after removing duplicates) titles and abstracts, writ 1Quantitative High 1 High based on High Authors make tHighMixed Data CollectioMedium-Low 0 No control andMedium-Low Article does n MediumQualitative The local femMedium-High 1 Medium-High baHigh The authors baHighQuantitative Medium-Low 0 Medium-low basHigh The article in Medium-LowMixed The study whicMedium-Low 0 Medium-Low basHigh Outlines relev Medium-LowQuantitative Live births, s Medium-High 0 Medium to highHigh Authors note sHigh Mixed data collectedMedium 0 No control, seMedium-High Extensive backHighMixed MethodIn September 1Medium 1 Medium based High Good definitioMedium Quantitative Medium-High 1 Medium to high Medium Authors predicMedium

How were the data in the

study collected and

analyzed (quantitative, qualitative, or

mixed methods)?

What is the overall

technical quality of the article, based

on the methodology

and the criteria below?

Med + Qual, Med + Ex Val,

Regional or Larger

Does the article outline a clear theory or reasoning linking the

intervention(s) to the

outcome(s) studied?

Is the study transparent in presenting its

context, methods, data, and analysis?

Data collection and analysis

Overall technical quality

Theory of change

Our aim was to test the generalizability and scalability of this community-based participatory approach with women’s groups.Survey/questionnaire-based design that uses mostly income/assets as outputs. Household Surveys (baseline, 12- and ~30-month follow-up). Group Surveys (rapid resurvey at 6-months, then at 12- and ~30-month follow-up). Public Goods and Ultimatum Games (played for real stakes). For both games, authors can test whether TASAF treatment or the Social Capital and Business Skills training alter game play or alter the elite/non-elite differential.

Three neighborhood-level scales were derived: a 4-item scale of adult perceptions of the efficacy of young adolescents as it relates to HIV health promotion (child collective efficacy) for the post treatment survey only; a 6-item scale of neighborhood collective efficacy; and a 5-item scale of neighborhood problems. Without deleting any of the original items, the 6 neighborhood collective efficacy items were revised for the post-treatment survey from a yes/no format to a 4-point Likert scale of agreement. Table 1 footnotes indicate items added or revised in the post-treatment assessment scales along with the Likert scales used. The individual items were developed in English, translated to Kiswahili and back translated by Tanzanian native-speakers using a team approach and pre-tested. Item composition and reliability of the self- and collective-efficacy scales are shown in Table 1.High, clear model that matches research design and consideration of potential threats to validityExtensive tables from analysis with all variables and output.

leave the house without permission. Both men and women were asked for their agreement with statements related to the freedom of women to go tothe market and visit a doctor without a man’s permission.

The authors draw on a 2004 survey of more than 6,000 households in program districts where the program became available in 2001 (DPIP) and control districts where it became available in late 2003 (RPRP). The survery yielded useable information on 2,516 households from 250 revenue villages in DPIP districts, and 3,824 households from 409 revenue villages in RPRP districts. An SHG questionnaire was administered to 1,239 randomly selected program SHGs in DPIP areas.

The second phase comprised of community mobilization, health education efforts and monitoring by using Lot Quality Assurance Sampling (LQAS) method. A trained program supervisor paid house visit to 95 randomly selected pregnant women, 19 from each supervision area and interviewed them by using pre-designed and pre-tested questionnaire. The weighted averages of a set of indicators were monitored over three consecutive years.The third phase comprised of follow up assessment using the same pre-designed and pre-tested questionnaire by paying house to house visits. The quantitative data was entered and analyzed in SPSS 12.0.1. Post follow up survey, a qualitative study (free list and pile sort exercise) was undertaken to bridge identified gaps in information from survey. The free list and pile sort exercises with ten purposively selected representative members of VCCs who were willing to participate and talk freely were undertaken. A two dimensional scaling and hierarchical cluster analysis was completed with pile sort data to get collective picture of perceived rationale behind health care seeking for danger signs/symptoms.

village censuses were then matched with a list of known SILC members in order to select a sample for the fourth data source, the household survey. From the list of SILC and non-SILC members, a sample of Five households with known SILC members and Five households without known SILC members were chosen with weights assigned appropriately based on their proportions in the matched village census list. For households with known SILC members, the respondent is the SILC member, while for the others it was generally the spouse of the head of household (appropriate since SILC members are disproportionately women).

From December, 2004, to December, 2010, each cohort member was visited once a month by a cluster enumerator and data were gathered. All pregnancies, births, and neonatal, infant, and maternal deaths were identified, and surviving mothers and infants were followed up to 1 year. Trained interviewers administered questionnaires about the demographic characteristics, maternity history, care and care-seeking, and maternal and infant morbidity at 1 month and 6 months after delivery. Feeding practices were ascertained through 24 h and 7 day recall at both interviews. Deaths were verified by a supervisor, through a verbal autopsy interview 2–6 weeks later. When respondents were temporarily unavailable, they were followed up by the interviewers until an outcome was ascertained. If respondents were permanently unavailable, information about dates and timings of events was sought from other community members.Analysis was by intention to treat at cluster and participant levels. Data were excluded from analyses when dates of birth or death were not known. We tested the intervention effect on primary and secondary outcomes on the basis of previously agreed hypotheses. We used multivariate logistic regression with random effects on individual-level data in State. Main analyses were factorial and adjusted for clustering, stratification by the other intervention, and socioeconomic and demographic variables. Analyses were adjusted for baseline differences in the women’s group intervention, but not in the volunteer peer counseling intervention because this intervention had already started during the 6 month inception and therefore there was a risk of masking early effects.

Mean values and standard deviations were calculated for each of the scales for the whole sample at Time 1 and Time 2. The post-hoc MANOVA at Time 1 showed that the groups differed at Time 1. Therefore, the authors decided to use MANOVA procedures at Time 2 using normalized residual difference scores. For each of the variables, the residual at Time 2 controlling for the difference at Time 1 was entered into the MANOVA analysis. As post-hoc tests, the authors used univariate ANOVA procedures on each dependent variable. They used Tukey honestly significantly difference (HSD) to determine where the significant differences were.

Authors extracted study-specific odds or risk ratios for each outcome, using the main estimates reported in each study. These ratios accounted for clustering, stratification, and, where appropriate, adjustments for other covariates. Authors did not undertake data analysis of individual participants because of differences in methods to adjust for clustering and in the range of variables that were adjusted for in each study. When a required outcome was not reported in a study, authors used methods identical to those reported in the original study to calculate an effect size from the trial datasets. Authors did a meta-analysis of the study-level data with the metan command in State using random-effects models because assumed that the effects seen in each trial were taken from an underlying distribution. Conducted subgroup analyses based on the population coverage of women’s groups, proportion of pregnant women participating, and background mortality and institutional delivery rates as measured in the control areas during the trials. Used meta-regression analysis to assess whether each of the predictors was associated with intervention effects. When there was evidence of statistical heterogeneity (I2>50%, p<0.05), we separated the trials into groups according to the results of the meta-regression analyses.

Qualitative morespondents weMedium-High 1 Excellent theoHigh This study aimHighQualitative The informatioMedium-Low 0 Medium-Low basMedium The authors ouMedium-LowMixed High 1 High based on hN/A The Article preHigh Quantitative, See HouwelingHigh 1 High based on hHigh Article is bas HighQuantitative DLHS-3 includeMedium 1 Medium to highMedium The authors hyHighQualitative The authors coMedium 1 Medium based oMedium-High The theory of MediumQuantitative The data used Medium-High 1 Medium-High baHigh Article is bas HighQuantitative This empirical Medium 0 Medium based oMedium Author describMedium-LowQualitative Data collectio Low 0 No control, smMedium-Low Author describLowQualitative colA surveillance High 1 High transparenHigh Based on previHighMixed The evaluationMedium-Low 0 No control andMedium-High Authors refereLow

In-depth qualitative data was also obtained through nine semi-structured focus-group discussions and four semi-structured interviews to provide detail and context to the quantitative data obtained by all groups. These methods explored several issues, including how and why problems were identifi ed or prioritized. Focus groups were done with six women’s groups to supplement the quantitative data. These groups were purposively sampled to represent the range of diversity of characteristics across all 204 groups, such as socioeconomic status, ethnicity, intervention combination, urban-rural mix, and individual characteristics of local facilitators. 67 women took part in these discussions, and ranged in age from 15 to 50 years.

Research Quality and Risk of Bias

A study with hiRate the approA study with hRate the studyA study with hRate the internA study with hiDescribe the cSome detail isMedium-Low The research quMedium Emphasis on loLow Selection bias LowAuthors descriHigh The authors waHigh The choice of High The two-stage MediumAuthors descriMedium-High The authors waHigh The choice of High The two-stage Medium

High Method is very Medium The authors trMedium Selection bias MediumThis is (likely High The methodologLow Somewhat uncleMedium-High Without havingMedium-HighAuthors give aMedium-High These methods High Authors providMedium The study begaMedium Authors presenHigh Authors have gHigh Authors demonsMedium-High Some small potMediumListing of all High The YC ProgramHigh Examines diffeHigh Medium-HighThe authors prMedium-low The study meetHigh The interventiMedium-Low The recall baseMedium The study foll Medium-high Use of the CluHigh The study accoMedium-High Coverage was lMediumAuthors go intHigh High There is a wid High Authors use HeHighAuthors providMedium "SWB" is an emMedium Authors seem tMedium The subjectiveMedium-lowAuthors clearlHigh MethodologicalHigh Authors note tMedium-High There is a ris Medium-HighAuthors providHigh Authors use a pHigh Authors identifHigh Authors use higMedium The authors prMedium-Low The objective Low-Medium The study contLow The lack of a MediumContext is madMedium-low The differenceMedium -low The authors diMedium The study doesMediumGood descriptiHigh The authors deHigh Authors work tMedium-High Inclusion of n Medium-High The authors cleMedium-high The study's usMedium-high The authors deMedium The authors reMediumAttention to l Medium Low Not defined Medium Selection bias MediumProvides outputHigh Use of the RCT High High Medium-HighActivities of Medium The methods usMedium The interventiLow Response bias,Medium-LowAuthor clearlyMedium-High The authors usHigh Selection of d Medium-High MediumDetailed and wHigh The study examHigh The authors prMedium-High MediumLack of data f Medium The study desiMedium Study is descr Medium Hard to say, b Medium-LowAuthors are caMedium To evaluate anHigh The focus on oMedium-Low Based solely oMedium-Low

The study incl High High The study contHigh Medium-HighThis study detMedium-Low It is very diff Medium use of local e Medium-Low Testing beyondLowAuthors presenHigh Authors revieweMedium Participatory Medium Attrition, spi Medium-HighThe authors cleMedium The research pMedium-High The authors coLow-Medium MediumThe authors doMedium The authors coMedium In Kenya, a poMedium-Low The validity o Medium-HighThe study is a High Use of cRCT maMedium-High.The authors weMedium-High.The authors noMedium-LowVery clear anaHigh A rigorous metHigh Model is largeMedium validity weakenMedium-LowNo access to rMedium One half of th High Good grasp andMedium-Low The primary meMedium-High Authors presenMedium Authors reviewMedium-High Medium-High High

Is the chosen design and

method well-suited to the

research question?

Does the study explicitly

consider any context-

specific factors that may affect the

analysis/findings?

To what extent is the

study internally valid

(consider ambiguous temporal

precedence, omitted

variables, selection bias, response bias,

recall bias, maturation,

testing effects, instrument

change, regression toward the

mean, attrition,

consistency and validity of

measures, diffusion/spillo

vers, John Henry and Hawthorne effects, and

experimenter bias)?

To what extent is the

study externally

valid (consider the context, study design,

effects of conducting the

study on outcomes,

overall fit of the model,

etc.) for poor, developing contexts in

South Asia and Sub-Saharan

Africa?

Appropriateness of

methodologyConsideration

of contextInternal validity

External validity to

contexts of interest

Methodology and analysis choices are made clear.

Families moving out of the municipality and adolescents attending boarding schools were the most common reasons for attrition from the study

Estimates the average effect of treatment for the treated (ATT) looking at various outcomes when receiving and not receiving treatment, in this case, rosca participation. Even though this technique does not eliminate completely the selection bias, controlling for a large set of covariates, including area fixed effect, as well as propensity-score matching, should reduce it greatly. Consider different levels of involvement in roscas by including variables related to participation and how groups are designed. The dependent variables of interest, in monthly equivalent, are: the proportion (in total money uses) of frivolous expenses, of savings and of given transfers.The authors consider several estimators of the average treatment effect on the treated: the bias corrected matching estimator put forward by Abadie and Imbens (2007), and three others based on propensity score matching: local linear regressions (Heckman et al., 1998), biweight kernel estimation and nearest neighbor with random replacement.

Also, the agents being randomized seems less rigorous than if they had randomized the villages or groups.

and cultural background), selection processes and program placement strategies. She collected pre-intervention data on a number of relevant household- and individual-level background characteristics, as a kind of check for initial comparability among different sub-samples. She formally tested for any differences in background characteristics among the different sub-samples and controlled for the remaining differences in the regression analysis set out later in this article. To further control the selection problem, she also explored the impact of longer group membership, one of the ways in which a selection bias has been accounted for in previous studies. To avoid diffusion, the sample excluded households participating in multiple credit programs and only included households from villages where only one out of the IRDP and TNWDP programs existed, and the non-participant control group was chosen for program eligibility but no significant contact with program members. To try to diminish the threat of attrition bias, 60 households were randomly selected for each of the 5 bank lists, of which a random sample of 50 was used. Statistically significant differences among sub-samples were accounted for by entering those variables as control variables when performing regressionanalysis to explore impacts of different credit schemes on decision-making processes.Measurement bias for neonatal mortality is not a likely issue. Neonatal mortality rate was the primary outcome measure of the original trial, and stringent measures were taken to ensure completeness and reliability of the data relating to this measure. The surveillance system for monitoring births and neonatal deaths has been extensively tested in trials over the past 10 years and appears to minimize risk of bias. However, there is some risk of recall bias. The behaviors in the present trial were measured at 6 weeks post-partum and depended on maternal recall; in particular, differential misclassification may occur between the mothers of surviving newborns and of newborns that die. Unmeasured behaviors, such as the quality of wrapping of an infant, which is important to prevent hypothermia, may also have played a role in the effect of the trial by affecting the consistency and validity of measures.

48 clusters were randomly assigned equally to interventions—women’s group plus volunteer peer counseling, women’s group only, volunteer peer counseling only, or no intervention. The mean population per cluster was 3873 (range 3083–4933). Intervention implementation started before the trial periods began. The volunteer peer counseling intervention began on Dec 1, 2004, and the women’s group intervention on May 1, 2005. Authors took the 6 months’ inception, Jan 1, to June 30, 2005, as a baseline for the women’s group intervention, and an establishment period for the volunteer peer counseling intervention.Analysis was by intention to treat at cluster and participant levels. Data were excluded from analyses when dates of birth or death were not known. Authors tested the intervention effect on primary and secondary outcomes on the basis of previously agreed hypotheses. They used multivariate logistic regression with random effects on individual-level data in State. Main analyses were factorial and adjusted for clustering, stratification by the other intervention, and socioeconomic and demographic variables. Analyses were adjusted for baseline differences in the women’s group intervention, but not in the volunteer peer counseling intervention because this intervention had already started during the 6 month inception and therefore there was a risk of masking early effects. Analysis of year 2 and 3 outcomes was planned because of the potential for delayed effects of the women’s group intervention. Treatment group analysis was prespecified to investigate any interaction between the interventions, and inter action terms were included in factorial models to assess the strength of interaction.

Authors note some study limitations, such as errors in measurement in spite of quality controls, due to self-reporting and recall errors. They state that because women knew their intervention allocation, behavioral answers were open to best behavior bias. However, corresponding reductions in mortality outcomes suggest that changes in behavior were real.Overall, the authors included a lot of measures to attempt to minimize bias, so the study seems to have high internal validity.

Attrition: There was some attrition of students in the out-of-school control group. If their attrition is related to factors that could have influenced their test scores, this would introduce bias into their results. Potentially, this would inflate the scores for the out-of-school control group if it is assumed that those who left study would have performed worse on the questionnaire.

Conducted three sub-analyses, breaking down studies according to level of coverage of groups, background mortality rates, and institutional delivery rates, to try to determine if these factors led to different outcomes.When estimating effect, generated one estimate assuming intervention would have same effect at scale as that from the analysis, and one assuming a 30% loss of effectiveness to provide a conservation lower bound.

The complex nature of the intervention means that the attribution of mortality reductions to discrete mechanisms is not straightforward. Contextual and implementation factors (e.g. extent of facilitator training in different interventions, number of women per group, differences among interventions in intensity of group participation/meetings) are likely to have altered the effect sizes, and need further cross-site analysis.Authors were unable to undertake metaregression analysis of individual participants because the trials adjusted for different sets of covariates and used a mix of individual-level and cluster-level analyses to address clustering. Individual patient data analysis would have allowed them to investigate sources of heterogeneity in more depth.

Assumptions aHigh Though not as High Use of local f Medium Recall bias: p MediumThe study citeMedium APMAS appears High Because APMAS Unclear Without more iMedium-LowThe authors prHigh The study usesHigh Use of local faMedium-High The study denoMedium High, full accoMedium-High High The authors arMedium-High There is some Medium-HighYes, the studyMedium Using logistic Medium The study geneMedium-Low MediumThe authors arMedium-Low The authors coHigh The authors coMedium Although the leMedium-HighThe authors acHigh Authors accounHigh The study assesMedium Due to survey iMedium-HighThe author cleMedium The author useMedium The author useMedium Impact of SHG Medium-LowAuthor does noLow This subject c High This study empLow Data is either LowVery clear metHigh High A participatoryMedium Spillover: The HighThough the stuMedium-Low Though a pre-pMedium The study gaveLow The study usedMedium

The original and current study are concerned with the impact of community mobilization using groups on RMNCH outcomes. The original study was well designed to meet those objectives and the current study does well to answer its objectives of: whether the original study was replicable and sustainable. The third objective, however: (iii) to identify the mechanisms underlying the intervention’s effect on neonatal survival by assessing trends in the study zones over 7 years., is less clear than the others. These limitations mean that the results can only examine the association between explanatory variables (including presence of SHGs) and the four health outcomes, rather than determining causality.

For comparison of mortality outcome, we used multivariate logistic regression with random effects on individual-level data in State (version 10.0).23 We compared secondary indicators using generalized estimating equations models with semi robust SEs at the cluster level.23 Generalized estimating equations models were used for secondary indicators and categorical scores of maternal depression because these outcomes had high intracluster correlation coefficients (>0·30). We compared K10 scores grouped in three categories (none/mild, moderate, or severe) during years 2 and 3 of the trial. This method was chosen in favor of linear regression to address the data’s strong positive skewness. We adjusted for stratification by including strata as variables in the regression analyses, and for multiple hypothesis testing by adjusting the p values for the primary outcomes using the Holm correction in the results tables. We did not adjust for clustering at the level of the mother. All results are presented as odds ratios with 95% CIs.

Research Quality and Risk of Bias Intervention Summary

Reliability

Describe the cRate the reliabA study with hiRate the approA study with aName of the trial described iList the intendLow It is very like no control City Initiative for Newborn a study of fem

The study assuMedium-High The authors usHigh The control grN/A No additional The study assuMedium-High The authors usHigh The control grN/A No additional They had issueLow Low The control cl BADAS Perinatal Care ProjecTraining and sThe study is li High Randomization High Based on the iTanzania’s Social Action Fun The researcherThe study is onMedium-High The authors usNot Applicable Agricultural Marketing Sys Strengthening Authors selectMedium-High The study does Medium The control grSwarnajayanti Gram SwarogaRural female dValid for othe Medium-High If the treatmeHigh Random, tested Young Citizens Program Training of faThe study doesLow The article waN/A Sunhara India Project Testing diffeThe study exclHigh Researched incHigh The Control, aMaiKhanda Trial Creation of woThe theory behHigh High The control grN/A No additional The study has aMedium-High The authors didMedium The study was Government and NGO sponsReports on autonomy and welThe authors coHigh Authors use muMedium-High The authors usDPIP - District Poverty InitiatThe program aiSmall scale andHigh Results appear High There was someSEWA Sustainable LivelihoodsSEWA field worThe study mightMedium-Low The qualitativ N/A There was no cCommunity Led Initiatives forThe interventiThe study desiMedium The authors prUnclear It is mentione Safe Motherhood Action Gr Creation of GrThe target groHigh Most results weMedium Non-members weAfrica Harvest and Techno- Descriptive stThe study was Medium The researcherMedium-High The Control grSahwira HIV Prevention Pro Use of peer edThis is dependMedium Potentially va Medium Financial inde SILC Promotion Program Changing groupLooks at womeHigh The authors usHigh There was no sInternational Child Support (Preexisting WoThis was a proMedium Demographic daN/A No control us IMPACT This interventThe study is d Medium The author presMedium All 6 sub-sampMultiple Microfinance Prog The credit proThe study showHigh The authors speHigh 36 poor clusteEkjut Trial Organized womBecause the stuMedium-Low There is poor iN/A Nyabyumba Farmers' Group Smallholder Farmers groups The limited in Medium Various techniN/A no control useAvahan Female Sex Wor

MultipleCommunity mobiMedium-High Authors did noMedium-High Women in the fMaiMwana Trial Women's group The very local Medium The lack of a Low Used FSWs prioIMPACT Peer-mediated interventionsThe data collecMedium-High The data collecHigh Controls were MIRA Makwanpur Study Training and sThe findings s Medium Low-Medium Both control gEMIMA Program Peer-coached sWhile there arMedium-Low The authors useMedium Group members N/A The study lookDue to lack of High The authors adjHigh Control cluste City Initiative for Newborn Forming WomenDesign relied Medium without a contN/A No control us Strengthening STD/HIV ContrAdding a microThe group was Medium Methods were nN/A National Agroforestry ResearExisting groupThe review incMedium-High High The studies in N/A Training and s

To what extent are the findings likely to be sensitive

to the analytical technique

used?

Does the control group

serve as a reasonable

estimation of the

counterfactual for the

treatment group

throughout the study?

How is the intervention,

project, or trial described in

the study referred to?

How does the intervention

aim to achieve its intended

outcomes (e.g. through

accumulation of social capital, through capacity building,

through access to credit,

etc.)?

Appropriateness of control


Implementing NGO/Agency

Nature of intervention (descriptive)

a logistic regression model was fitted to the individual-level data, which incorporated the stratum, maternal age, education, and household assets, but excluded any information about trial group. The resulting regression model was used to calculate ratio residuals for each cluster, which were then used in place of cluster- level observations for a stratified t test described above for unadjusted analysis. Results are presented as risk ratios with 95% CIs.

For the decision to join roscas, the authors ran other regressions as robustness checks, changing the specification and also using the traditional Heckman two-step procedure. Their conjectures were always verified.The propensity score matching outcomes for spending activities are subjected to additional sensitivity tests. The point estimates of the ATT are quite stable and significant. Moreover very large outcome and selection effects are required to induce important variations in the ATT estimations compared to the baseline estimate. As the existence of such a confounder is not plausible, the validity and robustness of the results are confirmed. It is very unlikely that, in this context, selection on unobservables drives the results derived under the CIA.

The questionnaire appears to have been designed to be highly reliable. All portions of the questionnaire were based on questions tested and analyzed in previous studies for high validity and internal reliability (high Cronbach coefficients). Because many of these scales were adapted to the sport context, and were translated into Kiswahil, the authors conducted exploratory factor analyses on each scale to determine whether the items contributed to the factors they were intended to represent. The factor analyses showed that most items loaded on the construct they were supposed to represent. If an item cross-loaded on two factors, that item was eliminated. Further, an item discrimination procedure was used, and if any item improved the coefficient of the scale when it was eliminated, then that item was not used in the main analyses.The authors did not conduct any sensitivity analyses or attempt different statistical techniques. Results may have differed if they had used linear regressions or similar statistical techniques. Introduction of some school or neighborhood fixed effects may also have influenced the results.

The authors conducted several sub-analyses to try to find whether other factors significantly changed the impact of provision of women's groups on RMNCH outcomes. Only % of coverage of groups was found to be significant. Results may have differed if the studies were analyzed at the individual level rather than the population level, but this was not possible in this study.

Though this stuMedium Size of study, High Ekjut Trial Training and sThe study is s Unclear Without more iN/A no control useSHG Bank Linkage The policy envThe study may High This study repN/A MaiMwana Trial Participatory Women's GroupThis study shoHigh Multiple analytN/A Ekjut Trial Participatory women's groupsThis study dreMedium-High Authors includeMedium N/A This study evaThe authors clMedium-Low Findings may hMedium Comparisons ofSHG Bank Linkage Program SHPAs, banks,This study wasMedium-High Analytical tec Medium Control group NABARD Group builds cThe study resuMedium-High The author useMedium Using PSM helpSHG Bank Linkage Program The SHG bank lBecause the stLow There is not e N/A No control us Rural Unit for Health and SocThis is a formative evaluati

High Analytical tec High The control maEkjut Trial Training and sExternal valid Low No control and N/A no control usePerambalur Education and PrThis intervent

The control clusters were skewed slightly out the researcher’s favor as they had better access to care facilities and # of health workers, which would make their ability to increase use of these facilitates easier.The intervention clusters were slightly disadvantaged compared with control clusters, with less access to primary health centers and fewer community health workers such as Anganwadi workers or Auxiliary Nurse Mid- wives.

The fact that SHGs are mainly concentrated in certain parts of India leads me to believe that there may be other unobserved factors differentiating treatment and control groups that could impact both the presence of SHGs and the health outcomes measured, thus biasing the results. However, SHGs do appear to be present in at least some villages in all Indian states. Another factor differentiating the control group is that treatment individuals may be primarily from rural villages as SHGs are defined as comprised of rural women. Therefore, villages with no SHGs may be less rural than villages with SHGs. The study used past data so there was no change in the presence of SHGs between treatment and control villages. Assuming district-level fixed effects and other control variables account for most of the variation between villages, the treatment and control villages could be considered equal in expectation.

Intervention Summary Intervention Goals and Tactics

Country

Describe the i Note whether tNote the countNote the district/state/city Yes, No, or N/ Yes, No, or N/ Yes, No, or N/capacity build South Asia India Mumbai six wards (in No No No The authors arSub-Saharan AKenya Kibera The data used N/A N/A N/AThe authors arSub-Saharan AKenya Kibera The data used N/A N/A N/AThrough educaSouth Asia Bangladesh Bogra, FaridpuThree district No No No The training i Sub-Saharan ATanzania National Kwimba, Nzega,Yes No NoThis study is Sub-Saharan ATanzania Arumeru and HaThe total areaYes No No SHGs with formSouth Asia India Uttarkhand, Nainital District Yes Yes No

Sub-Saharan ATanzania Moshi (Urban dTanzania, MoshNo No No The Sunhara InSouth Asia India Uttar Pradesh 7 Districts in Yes Yes No The study focuSub-Saharan AMalawi Lilongwe, Kasu Yes Yes YesRoscas are usuSub-Saharan ABenin Vossa and EnagParticipants a N/A N/A N/A

Reports on autonomy and welSouth Asia India Odisha N/A N/A N/AThe authors evSouth Asia India Andhra Pradesh Yes Yes No

South Asia India Dungarpur Yes No No South Asia India Maharashtra The present coYes No No

Our interventiSub-Saharan AZambia Serenje, Mong6 districts i Yes Yes YesSince 2003, AfSub-Saharan AKenya Muranga, Nyeri, Embu, and Yes No YesThe Sahwira prSub-Saharan AZimbabwe Harare 12 Beer Halls No No No The interventiSub-Saharan AKenya, TanzanKenya, TanzaniKenya, TanzaniNo No No

Sub-Saharan AKenya Busia and TesoBusia and TesoYes No YesThis study doeSub-Saharan ASouth Africa Limpopo Yes No NoThe study usedSouth Asia India Dharmapuri Due to time anYes No NoThe interventiSouth Asia India Jharkhand andThe study areaNo No No

Smallholder Farmers groups Sub-Saharan AUganda Kabale District Yes No No FSW in Andhra South Asia India Andhra Pradesh No No No

Both Multiple India, Banglad bb207 women’s grSub-Saharan AMalawi Mchinji distric90% of Malawi’No No No

Peer-mediated interventionsSub-Saharan AKenya Mombasa a division of Yes No Yeswomen are infoSouth Asia Nepal Makwanpur disMakwanpur disYes No No The EMIMA progSub-Saharan ATanzania Buguruni, VingThree communitNo No No The study founSub-Saharan AKenya Kilifi Kilifi district Yes No YesThe conceptualSouth Asia India Mumbai 6 Districts in No No No Our study asseSub-Saharan AKenya Nairobi Kibera slums Yes No NoThe inter-inst Sub-Saharan AKenya Nyeri, Maragwa, Kirinyaga, Yes No YesThe interventiBoth Bangladesh, InThere are two There are two No No No

In what geographical location are participants

located?

Does the intervention aim to affect

demand through

influencing participants'

access to services?South Asia or

Sub-Saharan Africa

District/State/City

Increasing Access

Objective

Increasing Participant

Mobility

Providing equipment/su

pplies

foster critical, intergenerational public discourse about HIV/AIDS. Through the participatory drama method of Boal (1979), adolescents are able to portray the biological complexity of HIV infection and confront the social stigma surrounding AIDS through critical engagement with public audiences. The hypotheses are that the YC Program enhances: 1) adolescents’ confidence to deliberate on the biological and social issues related to the prevention, testing and treatment of HIV infection with residents of all ages and 2) the recognition by adult residents of adolescents’ capabilities as health agents to promote collective efficacy and HIV/AIDS competence.

Surveillance covered 8% of the rural population of Lilongwe district (around 150 000), 15% of Kasungu (90 000) and 21% of Salima (70 000).

First, all women in a village were invited to become members of SEWA by paying a nominal fee of Rs. 5 (approximately $0.10).10 Members participated in a full day of basic training programs that were intended to create a sense of unity and direction, and an understanding of SEWA’s objectives. SEWA members were then organized into SHGs. These groups typically consist of groups of 10 – 20 women with an elected leader. All these activities were led by SEWA field workers: two local married and educated women with 12 years of education who are highly regarded by the local community. These field workers report to a SEWA coordinator, who works from the SEWA office in Dungarpur town. The team of SEWA workers made considerable attempts to ensure that the intervention was participatory and socially inclusive. They held open meetings, disseminated information along local networks (for example, through school teachers, health care workers, government employees, home visits based on official lists of individuals who fall below India’s nationally poverty line) and held meetings with community leaders to spread information and ensure that the poorest women were able to participate.Once SHGs were formed and leaders were elected, participants would meet once a month and set savings targets of Rs. 25 – 100 each. These were deposited into a savings account at an SHG-linked bank. SHG meetings were also used to discuss other issues—details of job training programs, motivational messages, the importance of participating in local government, etc. SHG leaders were trained to manage the group, maintain minutes of meetings, manage group accounts, and monitor the group’s activities. All meetings were attended by SEWA field workers, who provided women with information about government schemes/programs and their eligibility for those programs. Since most women were illiterate, they also helped with other activities such as recording minutes of the meetings, assisting in necessary activities such as filling out all necessary paperwork at the local bank and/or arbitrating in the event of any dispute between the women. In addition to these activities, SEWA also conducted educational programs, job-training programs and employment/income-generation workshops. These programs were always open to all women in a village, not just SEWA members. They were almost always very well-attended. All meetings emphasized the importance of collective action and encourage women to engage in community issues.In each village, monthly comprehensive maternal and child health services and health education sessions were delivered under the Bal Suraksha Diwas (BSD, Child health day) celebration through a team of social worker, Auxiliary Nurse Midwife (ANM), CLICS doot and the representatives of Village Coordination Committee. In BSDs, as a part of birth preparedness plan, the pregnant mothers were educated on newborn danger signs and importance of appropriate health care seeking. Apart from this, CLICS doots paid home visits for postnatal and newborn care. Government health care providers at district level, PHC and sub-centre level were given skilled-based training in IMNCI. Apart from this, the trained social workers ensured participatory health education to all CBO members on newborn danger signs during their monthly village based meetings. The photocopy of the above mentioned handmade flipbook was used in health education sessions. The behavior change communication (BCC) activities of the program were based on Integrated Model of Communication for Social Change (IMCFSC)

The project’s goals were to strengthen women’s community organizations and to improve agricultural practices and output (Webo 1997). ICS paid for two days oftraining for three group leaders on leadership skills, group management techniques, bookkeeping, and project administration. Each group received a set of agricultural inputs including implements, certified seeds, fertilizer, and pesticides/herbicides sprayers. Three executive officials and one additional member were funded for five days of agricultural instruction and experiential training at the Ministry of Agriculture’s farmer training center in the district capital.

The control group in these studies was the one that received their usual maternal and newborn care services from local government and non-government facilities.Pakistan (Bhutta 2008; Bhutta 2010; Jokhio 2005), two in Gambia (Foord 1995; Greenwood 1990), one in Nepal (Manandhar2004), one in Indonesia (Alisjahbana 1995), and one in Greece (Kafatos 1991).

This study repSouth Asia India Jharkhand and Yes No No The past 25 yeSouth Asia India Andhra Prade This report is Yes No No

Participatory Women's GroupSub-Saharan AMalawi Mchinji districMchinji districN/A N/A N/AParticipatory women's groupsSouth Asia India Jharkhand and Odisha No No No

No specific meSouth Asia India National The study drawYes No No SHPAs differ i South Asia India National Andhra PradeshYes No NoThis study evaSouth Asia India National Andhra PradeshYes No NoThree types ofSouth Asia India Orissa, AndhraThe data comesYes No No

This is a formative evaluati South Asia India Tamil Nadu KV Kuppam BloN/A N/A N/ACommunity mobiSouth Asia India Jharkhand andJharkhand andNo No No This study ide South Asia India Tamil Nadu Perambalur diYes Yes Yes

Jharkhand and Orissa,West Singhbhum and Saraikela Kharsawan) and Orissa (Keonjhar)

Intervention Goals and Tactics

Yes, No, or N/ Yes, No, or N/A Yes, No, or N/ Yes, No, or N/ Yes, No, or N/ Yes, No, or N/ANo No Yes No No YesN/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/AN/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/ANo No Yes No No YesYes No The program liYes No No Yes Groups are forYes No Increasing accYes Yes Yes Yes Trainings inclYes No Distance to maYes Yes Yes No A significant No No No No No NoYes Yes Increased markYes Yes Yes Yes All of these sYes No Yes No No YesN/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/AN/A N/A Yes Yes N/A N/AYes Yes The program inYes Yes Yes Yes To expand coveYes No Women SHGs forYes Yes No Yes Members set saYes No No No No NoYes No Yes No No YesYes No Provides membeNo No No No No No No No No NoNo No Yes Yes No YesYes No Provide groupsYes No No No Yes ICS paid fNo No intervention aYes Yes No No Intervention Yes No The credit proYes Yes No No The main innovNo No No No No YesYes No Increasing accYes Yes Yes No The group was No No Yes No No No participation

No No Yes No No YesNo No interventions Yes No No No Participants aNo No Yes No No YesNo No No No No NoYes Yes Strategic and iYes Yes No No Most groups atNo No No No No NoNo No intervention i No Yes No Yes intervention cNo No Group provideNo No No No No No No No No No


demand through

empowering participants?

Creating linkages with

service providers

Providing group

discounts

Empowering Participants

Objective

Creating group savings

programs

Supporting insurance or

risk spreading

Facilitating group

decision-making

No No Yes No No YesYes Yes A most notableYes Yes No Yes The bank linkaN/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/ANo No Yes No No YesYes No Yes Yes No YesYes No Yes Yes No Yes SHPAs differ iYes Yes Formed groups Yes Yes No N/A Formed groups Yes No The bank linkaYes Yes No No There are threN/A N/A Formative evalYes Yes N/A Yes Groups' main rNo No Yes No No YesYes No SHG Peer LeadeYes No No No Providing edu

SHPAs differ in their approaches to group promotion, with varying emphasis on ‘microfinance’ (the savings and credit transactions, decisions and record-keeping), and/or ‘microfinance +’ (SHGs often being part of a wider village development programme, with other social development inputs). Usually, though not invariably, NGOs and Government SHPAs are ‘mF +’, Banks naturally are ‘mf’. NGO SHPAs which have village wide development focus make participation acrosscastes a condition of their programme. As part of a deliberate strategy, we find that this takes persistence, time and a lot of convincing by the field staff. But it does lead to some degree of interaction across castes, including SCs and different sub-castes. Over time, the experience of women from different castes and sub-castes coming together from their separate hamlets and being part of village meetings, can help to build the confidence of the usually marginalized and begin to break down some prejudices.

Intervention Goals and Tactics Intervention Training and Support Activities

Yes, No, or N/ Yes, No, or N/ Yes, No, or N/ Yes, No, or N/A Yes or No Yes or No # of daysYes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Not specified.N/A N/A N/A N/A Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.N/A N/A N/A N/A Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes 5Yes Yes No No Increased infoNo No 0Yes No No No Groups were prNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.No No No No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Not specified.Yes Yes No No Women are provNo No 0Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Not specified.N/A N/A N/A N/A No No 0N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/AYes No No No The program heNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Yes Yes No Yes Married women Yes Yes Not specified.Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Not specified.Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Not specified.Yes Yes No No Training throuNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 3No No No No Yes No 0Yes No No Yes ICS paid for t No No No Yes No No Yes Interventions aYes Yes Not specified.No No No No No No 0Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes 7Yes No No Yes Group receivesNo No 0No No No No No No 0

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 5Yes Yes No Yes They conductedYes Yes 5Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Not specified.Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Not specified.No No No No No No 0Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Not specified.Yes Yes No N/A Micro-enterpriNo No 0No No No No No No 0Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Not specified.


demand through

informing participants?

Does the intervention

include training and

support activities for

group facilitators?

Informing Participants

Objective

Organizing peer

education sessions

Organizing peer

counselingTraining group

facilitatorsTraining and

supportPre-

intervention training

Number of days of

facilitator training

Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes 7No No No No Yes No Not specified.N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes Yes Not specified.Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes 7Yes Yes No Yes Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Yes Yes No Yes Where there weYes Not specified. Not specified.N/A N/A N/A N/A No No 0No No No No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/AYes Yes No Yes Yes Yes 7Yes Yes No Yes SHG Peer LeadYes Yes 4

Intervention Training and Support Activities Intervention Coverage, Costs, Scalability, and Sustainability

Yes or No Yes or No Describe the tyYes or No Describe the tyThe rate of gr Describe what If specified in the study, nNot specified. Yes Yes, training No Yes, training Not specified. 2Not specified. Not specified. The rosca leadeNot specified. 40 In Kibera the p40Not specified. Not specified. The rosca leadeNot specified. 40 In Kibera the p40Not specified. Yes Training of tr No Training of tr 36 Almost half th36No No Yes Training for g Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Yes Partner organizNot specified. All members ofNot specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. No Yes (training No Yes (training Not specified. Does not speciNot specified.No No Yes Asi provided t Not specified. Not specified.Yes No Training and sNo Training and s10 The authors r 10No No No 17 17% of partic 17N/A N/A Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Yes The program inNot specified. Not specified.Yes Not specified. Professionsal fYes SEWA provides Not specified. 43Not specified. Yes Yes 17 17Not specified. No Community voluNo Community voluNot specified. Data about groNot specified.Not specified. Not specified. Yes Africa HarvestNot specified. Not specified.Yes No Peer EducatorsNo Peer Educators63 All of the par 63Not specified. No Mainly for theNo Mainly for theNot specified. study focused Not specified.No No Yes ICS paid for t Not Specfied Not Specfied Not SpecifiedNot specified. Yes Facilitators ar Yes "natural leaderNot specified. Not specified.No No The NGOs incluYes The NGO MiradaNot specified. Not specified.Yes Yes After a 7-day No After a 7-day Not specified. 6,281 women haNot specified.No No Yes Not specified. Not specified.No No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Yes Yes Group facilita No Group facilita Not specified. The study did 51Yes Yes Study staff ai No Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Yes No 37 Only 8% of ma37Not specified. Yes EMIMA providesNo EMIMA provides50 50% of the chi50No No Groups do not Not specified. 37 This is a lowe 37Yes Yes Facilitators w No Facilitators w 2 Groups include2No No The interventiYes The interventiNot specified. Not specified.No No No Not specified. Groups were ide100 Target populat100Not specified. Yes No N/A N/A

Do group members

receive external training

directly (not through trained

facilitators)?

What proportion of participants in the study are members of a SHG or similar

group?

What proportion of

the target population attended a

SHG or similar group during

the intervention?Ongoing

facilitator training and

support

Funding/materials for facilitators

Direct training of group members

Group membership

in target population

Group participation

in target population

The trained social worker facilitated Community’s Action Experience Learning Cycle (CAELC) through VCCs to explore and collectively act upon their priority maternal and child health issues. The CLICS program and VCC together selected village based CLICS doot (local female community health worker) per 1000 population who was trained by CLICS program and supervised by local VCCs. CLICS doots from all villages were trained in identification of newborn danger signs and prompt referral under household and community IMNCI (country specific adaptation of IMCI) to ensure household-to-hospital continuum of care (HHCC). CLICS doots conducted home visits to pregnant and new mothers.The trained social worker facilitated Community’s Action Experience Learning Cycle (CAELC) through VCCs to explore and collectively act upon their priority maternal and child health issues. The CLICS program and VCC together selected village based CLICS doot (local female community health worker) per 1000 population who was trained by CLICS program and supervised by local VCCs. CLICS doots from all villages were trained in identification of newborn danger signs and prompt referral under household and community IMNCI (country specific adaptation of IMCI) to ensure household-to-hospital continuum of care (HHCC). CLICS doots conducted home visits to pregnant and new mothers.In 2004, 8% of mothers of children aged 0-11 months belonged to a SHG. In 2007, 16.9% were members. However, other women may have been members of other community groups, such as Kishori Panchayat (KP, forum of adolescent girls), Kisan Vikas Manch (Farmers' club) and Village Coordination Committees (VCC).

CIAT provided training in market chain analysis, business planning and market linkage for Africare and the farmers’ group.Table

members learned about neonatal care and maternal health issues, then were supported to do community education projects. The form and content of discussions within women’s groups varied, as did levels of involvement and potential strategies. Some typical strategies were community generated funds for maternal or infant care, stretcher schemes, production and distribution of clean delivery kits, home visits by group members to newly pregnant mothers, and awareness raising with a locally made filmto create a forum for discussion. Throughout the process the groups were involved in other health-related activities in their communities.

members learned about neonatal care and maternal health issues, then were supported to do community education projects. The form and content of discussions within women’s groups varied, as did levels of involvement and potential strategies. Some typical strategies were community generated funds for maternal or infant care, stretcher schemes, production and distribution of clean delivery kits, home visits by group members to newly pregnant mothers, and awareness raising with a locally made filmto create a forum for discussion. Throughout the process the groups were involved in other health-related activities in their communities.

Colbourn Malawi: 81 volunteer facilitators supported by nine MaiKhanda study staffColbourn Malawi: 81 volunteer facilitators supported by nine MaiKhanda study staffColbourn, Malawi: 10%Fottrell, Bangladesh: 36%

No Yes No Not specified. 244 groups wit37Yes Not specified. APMAS (Mahila Not specified. It is not clea Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Yes The study detaiNo The study detaiNot specified. All participan Not specified.Yes Yes The women’s grNo The women’s grNot specified. 63Not specified. Not specified. The author notYes SHGs are suppoNot specified. Participant vi Not specified.Yes Not specified. Some SHPAs traiYes The pattern an29 SHG coverage o29No No Role of facilitaYes provide traini Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. The author notNot specified. The author notNot specified. Not specified.N/A N/A N/A Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Yes Local facilita Yes Local facilita Not specified. 37No Yes Facilitators r No Not specified. The study hadNot specified.

facilitators trained in participatory communication methods who were not health educators but received basic training to discuss health problems during pregnancy and childbirth.facilitators’ residential training was held in two phases with the first session lasting 5 days and the second session 2 days after a period of 6 months. The first training module emphasized listening and communication skills, and the first five meetings (identification and prioritizing of newborn and maternal problems) of the women’s group cycle. In the second session, facilitators were trained in the process of developing stories depicting the causes and effects of health problems, making pictorial presentations of the stories to find solutions and prioritizing strategies to address problems. The training used a wide variety of methods including participatory exercises, group discussions, role-plays, story making, picture making and story narration. Participants were encouraged to keep a learning diary throughout the training, noting key learning points, training methods and notes for further action.

facilitators trained in participatory communication methods who were not health educators but received basic training to discuss health problems during pregnancy and childbirth.facilitators’ residential training was held in two phases with the first session lasting 5 days and the second session 2 days after a period of 6 months. The first training module emphasized listening and communication skills, and the first five meetings (identification and prioritizing of newborn and maternal problems) of the women’s group cycle. In the second session, facilitators were trained in the process of developing stories depicting the causes and effects of health problems, making pictorial presentations of the stories to find solutions and prioritizing strategies to address problems. The training used a wide variety of methods including participatory exercises, group discussions, role-plays, story making, picture making and story narration. Participants were encouraged to keep a learning diary throughout the training, noting key learning points, training methods and notes for further action.

Intervention Coverage, Costs, Scalability, and Sustainability

If specified in the study, n Rate the level The number of The total number of people iNote the averagFor studies thaNote the ratiosLow 180 788 Not specified. Not specified.

In Kibera the pNot specified. 385 Not specified. During the secNot specified. Not specified.In Kibera the pNot specified. 385 Not specified. During the secNot specified. Not specified.Group membershHigh 810 309 Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Low 34 22846.23529 Other types ofNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Low 15 Not specified. Not specified. Likely no cost Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Group membershLow 729 1200 Not specified. Included in se Highly Cost-EfGroup membershNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

43% of women iNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Group membershHigh 132 239 Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. $0.46 The estimated Cost-effectiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Group membershNot specified. 413 Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. 5700 Not specified. Varies Some groups haNot specified.

Not Specfied Not Specified Not Specified Not Specified Not Specified The project spThe project spIneffectiveEnrolled 10–20%Finally, while Not specified. Not specified. Finally, while Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. High 518 440 Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Reported in ProHigh 207 440 $16.6 per infa The total econCost-effectiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Group membershLow 111 756 Not specified. Cost-effectiveGroup membershNot specified. 37 Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.This is a lowe High Not specified. Not specified. In the mid-199Not specified. Not specified.Group membershLow 180 788 Not specified. Not specified.Participants h Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.N/A N/A N/A Not specified. Cost-effective

What is the level of

coverage of SHGs in this

study?

How much does the

intervention cost per

participant?

How does the cost of the

intervention relate to the

outcomes achieved (e.g. $ per case of

HIV averted, $ per newborn

death averted, etc.)?

Coverage (Population

per SHG between 450-750 is medium

coverage)

Number of SHGs in

intervention clusters

Population per SHG in

intervention clusters

Cost per participant

Cost-effectiveness

Medium 244 468 Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. 2000000 Not specified. APMAS estimateNot specified. There is signi Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

During the ori High 518 440 $140/Group The average anHighly Cost-EfNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Group membershNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. 3000 Rs per g Cost per groupNot specified.Not specified. Not specified. 687000 Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. 367 Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

37% on averageMedium 244 468 Not specified. Highly Cost-EfNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. The 102 SHG PeNot specified. Not specified.

Intervention Coverage, Costs, Scalability, and Sustainability Groups Summary

Scalability Sustainability

Describe the gLow to High An interventioLow to High Describe whethLow to High An interventioSummarize theNot specified. Not specified. Full time paymeLow Not specified. Women of childNot specified. Not specified. Low-medium Actual harm toNot specified. Roscas are comNot specified. Not specified. Low-medium Actual harm toNot specified. A rosca is a gNot specified. Medium-High Low Not specified.Not specified. Medium Low Not specified. Groups formed Not specified. Not specified. Medium-low The authors noNot specified. Smallholder prNot specified. Not specified. Low Not specified. Average age ofNot specified. Medium The authors poLow Three lines of Not specified. 24 AdolescentsNot specified. Not specified Medium There is limit Medium The authors co

The combined FMedium Findings inclu Low The researcherNot specified. NGO sponsored Not specified. High Low-medium An early recepHigh The median rosIn developing Not specified. Not specified Medium-High The authors fi Not specified. SHGs in Rural vNot specified. Medium-High The program buLow Not specified. SHG members meNot specified. Medium SEWA already rMedium-low Not discussed, Not specified. Women's SHG wiNot specified. Medium-Low This context mLow No negative ouMedium-High The authors poGroups include

The cost per aHigh If the interve Low Ethical ApprovNot specified.Not specified. Not specified. low No indication Not specified. Groups formedNot specified. Low Study reported Low While the inteLow Study reported Peer Groups of

the study noteMedium Medium This intervent Not specified. after the inteLow Low practicali High Mixed

Not specified. Medium This study was Low Ethical approvMedium Delivery was fParticipants iNot specified. Not specified. Low The credit proNot specified. Groups are forNot specified. Medium-High Low Ekjut’s strategNot specified. The interventiNot specified. Not specified. Medium The authors noNot specified. Farmers group Not specified. Not specified. The authors chLow The overall st Not specified. Not specified.

In years 2–3, High This study is Low There is no in Not specified. Groups were suNot specified. Not specified. The very local Low For both surveNot specified. Group lead by

High Low Risk of advers Not specified. this approach These groups aNot specified. Not specified. Low This is not di Not specified. Peer coaches oNot specified. Not specified. Medium There appear fMedium-Low Various CBOs aNot specified. Low No significant Low The authors diNot specified. Women's groupsNot specified. Not specified. The very local Medium-Low This intervent Not specified. 5-15 self seleNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Low No indication Not specified. Includes a mix

High The authors apLow No indication oNot specified. Women's groups

How practical would it be to scale up the

intervention to a larger

number of participants

(e.g. in terms of cost,

technical expertise,

intervention design, etc.)?

What is the likelihood that

the intervention or group may have adverse effects on the

target population?

How has the effectiveness or cost of the intervention

changed over time?

What are the characteristics

of the community

groups in this study?

Likelihood of harm

Groups summary

women’s groups, if scaled to an adequate coverage, have the potential to reach the poorest people and bring about substantial health and non-health benefits. Nonetheless, a women’s group approach requires adequate human resources support for community mobilization and appropriate coverage. The threshold coverage or dose effect for the women’s group intervention needs to be established for future scale-up programs.46 of the 55 maternal deaths in the intervention clusters (excluding tea garden or temporary residents) were to women who had neither heard of nor attended groups and there were no maternal deaths in members of women’s groups, which suggests that the intervention did not have a direct adverse effect.women’s groups, if scaled to an adequate coverage, have the potential to reach the poorest people and bring about substantial health and non-health benefits. Nonetheless, a women’s group approach requires adequate human resources support for community mobilization and appropriate coverage. The threshold coverage or dose effect for the women’s group intervention needs to be established for future scale-up programs.46 of the 55 maternal deaths in the intervention clusters (excluding tea garden or temporary residents) were to women who had neither heard of nor attended groups and there were no maternal deaths in members of women’s groups, which suggests that the intervention did not have a direct adverse effect.

both SHGs and farmers’ groups. In Sultanpur the farmers groups also operate as SHGs.

17% of all individuals in the sample participate in roscas, so there is therefore scope for additional growth of roscas in the study area, especially considering the low costs and technical expertise needed, the significant benefits, and the ease of tailoring to specific needs. However, rosca members have much higher monthly income (86,377 compared to 48,233 overall), have more dependents (3.18 compared to 1.91), and have more job security (159 months at same job compared to 85) than non-members, which might imply that current non-members might not have the same characteristics as those who are likely to join roscas, unless rosca membership itself contributes to these differences. The study also finds that likelihood of rosca participation is quadratic in income. However the maximum is reached at a very high level of income indicating that for most of the sample the probability increases in income. The inverted-U shape prediction concerning age is also verified when regressing on the whole sample, the relationship beginning to decrease at 51 years of age. This tends to confirm that demand for indivisible expenditures is increasing among young agents and decreases as they get older. Based on these findings, the youngest and poorest may be less likely to join roscas, but likelihood of joining (and therefore ease of scalability) increases with age and income up to a certain (relatively high) point, indicating that a large portion of the population could be good targets for expansion of roscas.

In 2003, Safe Motherhood Action Groups were established in Zambia as part of a national safe motherhood program. Initially, they were supported by the United Nations Population Fund in North-West Province before being adopted by the Government of Zambia in a national program. Each group serves a cluster of villages and is encouraged to meet regularly in a communal area. The aim was to mobilize communities to improve the health of women, men and children and reduce the number of human immunodeficiency virus infections. However, a lack of central coordination has meant that communities often found it difficult to know how to use these groups and, as a result, many of these remain dormant.Our intervention involved revitalizing Safe Motherhood Action Groups to raise awareness of the need to prepare for pregnancy complications and delivery. The main aim was to improve both understanding of maternal health and access to maternal health-care services.

Medium scalability

Aside from its impact on group agricultural production, there was no evidence that the program had a positive impact on other objective measures of group capacity, strength, or solidarityOne important caveat is that the study does not imply that the group itself is harmful, but rather that outside assistence to the group may lead towards elite capture of group resources and marginalization of the most vulneralable members. One important caveat, is that this study does not imply the group structure itself is unsustainable, but that outside funding had an effect on group composition, particularly entrance by wealther participants, and exits of poorer, and older women. Group leaders are unpaid members rather than paid professionals, and key group decisions are made by consensus or vote. The executive officials—chair, secretary, and treasurer—organize and chair meetings, set meeting agendas, and represent the group at community events. The majority of executive officials have less than a secondary level of education and less than 20% have formal sector income.Women’s groups in Kenya typically include a limited number of male members (Srujuna 1996), and in our sample, roughly 20% of group members are male, 73% of whom are husbands of female members. However, men are generally excluded from holding key executive leadership positions. At baseline, 97% of executive officials in our sample were women.

Two complementary mechanisms may explain the stronger intervention effect among the most marginalized groups in the study. First, the uptake of the intervention (women’s group attendance, behavioral improvements) was similar among the most and less marginalized groups, whereas interventions normally reach higher socio-economic groups to a greater extent.Second, when their utilization is similar, then effective and appropriate interventions arguably have stronger effects on mortality among high-risk groups. The fairly simple home-care practices discussed in the women’s group meetings in the Ekjut trial probably addressed important causes of death among groups with high rates of neonatal mortality. Neonatal death often results from a combination of and interaction between morbidities. Therefore, the spin-off effects of addressing one risk factor on other risk factors are arguably greater among the more vulnerable. This has been reported for immunization, refuting the replacement mortality hypothesis. Similarly, addressing infection brings greater survival benefits to babies of low birth weight. Likewise, the observed improvements in hygienic practices in the trial may have had stronger effects on mortality among the most marginalized groups.

(these costs: do not include benefits to infants born outside the closed cohort surveillance; they ignore longer-term benefits of the intervention to subsequent pregnancies; they exclude benefits to infants of reduced morbidity and to mothers from reduced morbidity and mortality; and they omit potential savings in set-up and supervision costs if the activities were replicated elsewhere.)appropriate investment and political commitment, the authorsthink the intervention could be scaled up rapidly

Heavy dependence among implementing CBOs on voluntary participation, with little or no remuneration, and the substantial level of responsibility attached to some voluntary posts, is a particular concern. For households faced with daily hardship and regular financial crises, contributing time on a voluntary basis to community projects constitutes yet another burden, and may be unmanageable or lead to questionable alternative strategies for financial support. In addition, the way in which the strategic, umbrella-type organizations implement their activities through partner organizations appears confusing, and is often in conflict with the approach of other, similar NGOs. This situation leads to replication, conflict and confusion amongst communities. This has implications for thesupport and sustainability of activities, and ultimately for the ability of these organizations to build up the resources that are critical for households to prevent and cope with illness costs. It suggests that greater cohesion between strategic CBOs would improve their potential to directly, and especially indirectly, impact on household ability to pay for health care. In their present form, intermediate CBOs appear to lack the capacity to sustain community participation at the local level, and have little clout in terms of being able to demand accountability from political and administrative officials who should be responsive to local needs and priorities. Greater coordination among these organization could support long-term sustainability.

Lewycka Malawi: 577, 0.65xGDP/capFottrell Bangladesh: 650, 0.37xGDP/cap

Not specified. High Low Use of local f Not specified. This interventi244 women’s grThe linking of High SHGs have spreLow-medium There are a vaMedium In many IndianA SHG is a gro

Not specified. Not specified. Low Not specified. Groups were suThe incrementaHigh Low-cost, commLow Ekjut’s strategMedium-High The authors fo244 groups in

Not specified. Not specified. There is no in Low The interventiNot specified. There is no in The study lookNot specified. Medium Medium-Low In functioning Medium SHGs enable woNot specified. Not specified. This study foc Low Since groups aNot specified. This study looNot specified. Not specified. Low The bank linkaMedium-Low There are signiSelf-Help GroupNot specified. Not specified. Low The study implNot specified. SHGs whose mai

incremental coHigh This design waLow No indication Not specified.Not specified. Medium The focus on aMedium-Low The study noteNot specified. Study does notPre-existing S

Adaptability to context, low cost (minimal training of facilitators, low resource input, use of voluntary, often pre-existing, groups). There may be an important threshold of group member to community ratio to maintain effectiveness.community mobilization approaches should be replicated and scaled-up to improve maternal and newborn health … in combination with appropriate outreach and health services strengthening activities. The Ekjut and Makwanpur studies have shown that interventions building on community mobilization are effective in high mortality settings where a high proportion of deaths occur in the community from causes such as sepsis and hypothermia. This impact may be more difficult to achieve in settings where further mortality reduction is largely dependent on improvements in health service access and quality, in particular emergency obstetric care, but where structural factors hinder communities’ ability to act on these.

SHGs generally seem to be easily replicable and scalable. However, there are some issues to consider with regard to scalability. It is quite common for SHPA field staff to work first with the ‘easiest’ potential members (those who do not need much persuasion). Targets (number of SHGs/village), as in Government programmes, may contribute to this. Though with substantial growth in the numbers of SHGs (as in AP), different socio-economic groups are included. Including the poor and very poor nevertheless requires more effort and more intensive follow-up by the SHPA, if SHGs are to be able to cater to their needs, accommodating more variable cash flows, for example, or different working hours.The ratio of external borrowing outstanding to internal capital averages a low 1.43; though available data on actual last borrowed amount shows some groups having a very high ‘debt/equity’ ratio of 6-9. Such SHGs lie behind some emerging apprehensions of the limited ability of SHGs to manage larger funds even as banks extend the scale of loans to SHGs that have successfully repaid an earlier loan, without a further appraisal. There are likely to be practical limits to the credit absorption capacity of different groups, depending on the circumstances of individual members as well as the local opportunities for investment.

The level of ‘defunct’ and broken groups in the study villages overall seems relatively low (7%). But in AP, defunct groups may be emerging as an indicator of loan default. However, while SHG members and others spoke, by and large, of a long-term life for the SHG, the desire to work with stable and continuing groups may be seen as a donor and MFI/promoter concern rather than something integral to an SHG’s functioning. There are several instances the world over (for example the CARE Village Savings and Lending programme in Niger) where groups save and break up after every year.There is a need for simple and user-friendly records and books of accounts, coupled with a similar MIS. This should be linked to monitoring – by SHPAs and Banks. Financial literacy and communication for SHGs also assumes importance (especially if SHG members move into running enterprises) and providing women with necessary knowledge in the initial years of SHG functioning would empower them better. It does not seem necessary that SHGs (or their office bearers) have to maintain their accounts themselves. This can be a service to the group, as is being tried out through different forms of computerised account keeping – by Pradan (the computer munshi), by Dhan kalanjiams and by MYRADA (in community resource centres). Their experience suggests that this may be a cost effective solution, in comparison with training and checking of records at group level.

By discussion of case studies imparted through contextually appropriate stories, group members identified and prioritized maternal and newborn health problems in the community, collectively selected relevant strategies to address these problems, implemented the strategies, and assessed the results.

Groups Summary

Type of SHG Type of Group Size of groups

State how the State how the Describe how tNote the generDescribe the gThe ICO definition states that an SHG should have the foWomen's HealWomen's Group Not specified. Yes It may be quesYesSavings GroupRoscas In these assoc13 The median numYes The savings grNoSavings GroupRoscas 16 The average roYes The savings grNoWomen's HealWomen's Group Not specified. Yes It may be quesYesOther Groups Vulnerable Gr 10 Article sugges Yes The article do YesFarmers' GrouFarmers' Groups 35 Group size ranYes Groups meet alYesSavings GroupIndian SHG SHGs are typic15 In the case of Yes These groups aYesOther Groups Other Peer Grthey don't des24 no variation, No The groups areYesMixed Group SHG/Farmers Group 15/25 SHGs were betYes Most of these YesWomen's HealWomen's Gro Participatory 30 Yes It may be quesYesSavings GroupRoscas 22 Groups vary wiYes The savings grNoSavings GroupIndian SHG 15 Yes These groups aNoSavings GroupIndian SHG SHG members me12 A typical pro Yes These groups aYesSavings GroupIndian SHG 15 Yes These groups aYesSavings GroupIndian SHG Groups includeNot specified. Yes These groups aYesWomen's HealWomen's Gro Safe MotherhoNot specified. Yes These groups aYesFarmers' GrouFarmers' Groups 52 Between 44-10No Groups meet alYesOther Groups Other Peer GrGroup is made Not specified. No It is not clea YesSavings GroupSILCs (Savings groups focuse19 savings-groupsYes The savings grYesFarmers' GrouSHG The women’s gr 21 Groups had anYes YesSavings GroupSavings Group 5 Yes The groups in YesSavings GroupIndian SHG Not specified. Yes These groups aYesMixed Group Women's Gro Intervention uNot specified. Yes It may be quesYesFarmers' GrouFarmers' Groups Dec-40 Increased seedNo Groups meet alYesOther Groups Program Committees Not specified. No It is not enti YesWomen's Health GroupsWomen's HealWomen's Gro Facilitators w Not specified. Not mentionedYes It may be quesYesOther Groups Other Peer Group Not specified. No It does not ap YesWomen's HealWomen's Gro Married womenNot specified. training of lo Yes It may be quesYesOther Groups Other Peer GrPeer coaches o15 After a peer c No The groups areYesMixed Group Savings GroupVarious CBOs aNot specified. Yes The majority oNoWomen's HealWomen's Gro Women's Grou10 Sakhis formedYes It may be quesYesSavings GroupMicro-EnterprGroup of women10 Groups generaYes The peer educaYesMixed Group Farmers' GrouAmong group ty20 Avg. group siz Yes The study lookYesWomen's HealWomen's Group Not specified. Cannot determYes It may be quesYes

Is the group called a Self-Help Group (SHG), or is

another term used?

How many members does a typical group

include?

Does the group meet

the ICO definition for

an SHG?

Does the study describe

groups that participated in

a particular intervention?

SHG per ICO definition

Group participation

in an intervention

At each meeting, each person contributes a predetermined amount into a collective ‘pot’ which is then given to a single member. The latter is subsequently excluded from receiving the pot in future meetings, while still being obliged to contribute to the pot.The meeting process repeats itself until all members have had a turn at receiving the pot.

Groups are newly formed from vulnerable households and are then asked to put together a proposal for an income-generating activity (joint).

and 24 in Salima Rotating savings and credit associations (roscas). Roscas are usually regarded as a means for poor people to save money in order to make an indivisible expense. A group of individuals gather on a regular basis for a cycle of meetings. At each meeting all members contribute a fixed amount of money to a common pot allocated to one of them. The latter is then excluded from the reception of the collective savings in subsequent meetings but is still obliged to contribute to the pot for the rest of the cycle. This process repeats itself until each member has received the pot, which marks the end of a cycle. The rosca may then begin another cycle or decide to break up. Groups vary widely in terms of amount of contributions, number of members and frequency of meetings. The pot can be allocated either according to a random process (random roscas), through a decision imposed by the governing body of the group (decision roscas) or through a bidding process (bidding roscas).

Mixed Group Women's Gro Groups met to 17 Yes It may be quesYesSavings GroupIndian SHG 15 A SHG is a gro Yes These groups aYesWomen's HealWomen's Group 19 3171 women frYes It may be quesYesMixed Group Women's Gro Primarily womeNot specified. Yes It may be quesYesSavings GroupIndian SHG The authors de15 SHGs tend to Yes These groups aNoSavings GroupIndian SHG SHGs enable wo14 Overall averagYes These groups aYesSavings GroupIndian SHG 15 SHGs tend to Yes These groups aYesSavings GroupIndian SHG 15 SHG groups coYes These groups aYesSavings GroupIndian SHG Not specified. Yes These groups aYesMixed Group Women's Group Not specified. Yes It may be quesYesSavings GroupIndian SHG primary goal o15 607 women's SYes The interventiYes

Groups Summary Group Objectives

The ICO definition states that an SHG should have the fo List the primarYes or No Yes or No Yes or No Yes or No Yes or No Describe what No Improving RMNCYes No No No Yes increase inforYes Increased self No No Yes Yes Yes Evidence showsYes Increased self No No Yes Yes Yes Evidence showsNo Improving RMNCYes No No No Yes The facilitatoNo Higher incomeNo No Yes No YesYes Agricultural MNo Yes Yes Yes Yes Groups formed Yes Fincance/savi No No Yes Yes YesNo HIV awareness; No Yes No Yes Yes increase self-Yes Increasing in No No Yes Yes Yes The original puYes Improving RMNCYes No No No Yes The primary obNo Supporting savNo No Yes Yes No Roscas are usuNo Finance No No Yes Yes YesYes Micro-credit; No No Yes No Yes The program buNo Finance No No Yes Yes Yes Groups are forNo Improving RMNCYes No Yes No Yes It appears thaNo Improving RMNCYes No No No Yes Originally groYes to facilitate No No Yes No Yes Africa HarvestNo Reducing sexuaNo Yes No Yes No Male peer grouNo Supporting savNo No Yes No No no details offNo Income-generatNo No Yes Yes Yes Women’s groupsNo Alleviate poveNo No Yes No No Establish a loaYes Increased finanNo No Yes No Yes The main innovNo Improving RMNCYes No No No Yes The groups useYes Agriculture: I No No Yes Yes Yes Improved farmeNo Not specified. No Yes No No No

No Improving RMNCYes No No No Yes Through the foNo Increase freq No Yes No No NoNo Improving RMNCYes No No No Yes improved infanNo HIV awareness; No Yes No Yes No Inter-club matYes Increased finaNo No Yes Yes No Groups mainly No Improving RMNCYes No No No Yes The conceptualNo Increase accesNo No Yes No No Increase accesYes Mixed No No Yes Yes Yes Mixed - generaNo Improving RMNCYes No No No Yes Groups discuss

Study compares

outcomes for groups with

different characteristics

What are the primary goals for which the groups were formed (e.g.

access to savings/credit, marketing/bargaining power,

capacity building, etc.)?

Note: These may be

different from the goals of a

specific group-based

intervention.

Comparison of group

characteristicsOriginal group

objectives

Improved RMNCH

outcomes are a primary

group objective (Yes/No)

Improved non-RMNCH health outcomes are

a primary group

objective (Yes/No)

Improved financial

outcomes are a primary

group objective (Yes/No)

Improved social capital

or social bonding is a

primary group objective (Yes/No)

Capacity building or

improved self-efficacy of groups and

members is a primary group

objective (Yes/No)

Start a "business" or sustainable income-generating activities

No Improving RMNCYes No Yes No Yes Women’s groupsYes Access to cre No No Yes Yes Yes By the 1990s, No Improving RMNCYes No No No YesNo Improving RMNCYes No No No Yes The women’s grNo Access to crediNo No Yes Yes Yes The goals listYes Facilitate sa No No Yes Yes Yes SHGs enable woYes Access to credNo No Yes No No Formed groups Yes Increased finanNo No Yes No No Groups are creNo Savings/lendinNo No Yes No NoNo Improving RMNCYes No No No Yes Learn about maNo Savings/lendinNo No Yes No No

Group Member Characteristics

Gender Rural/Urban

Describe mix Yes or No Yes or No Describe the bYes, No, MixedDescribe the aRural, Urban, Describe the rWomen only Yes Yes No UrbanMixed - primaNo No 84% of rosca mNo UrbanMixed - primaNo No 86% of rosca No UrbanMixed - primaNo Yes Primarily womeNo RuralMixed No No No Not specified. Appears primarMixed Mixed No 40% of memberNo Groups memberRural Women only Yes No No Rural Mixed No Yes Not primarily Yes The main partiUrbanMixed No No roughly 25% ofNo Rural Women only Yes Yes The intervent No Because the anaMixed Sample includeMixed No No The sample o No No, the study Urban Vossa and EnaMixed No No THe authors deNo Rural Women only Yes No No MixedWomen only Yes No No Rural Mixed - primaNo Yes Mothers of chiNo Women under 1Rural Wardha is a rurWomen only Yes Yes Only women werNo Adolescents arRural Participants liMixed No No 40% of group No RuralMen only No No Men Only No To be eligible, Urban Over 80% of reMixed - primaNo No Participants No Mixed Mix of urban aMixed - primaNo No No No Rural All participantsWomen only Yes No No UrbanWomen only Yes No All of the gro No Rural The study takesMixed - primaNo Yes The study incl No Some adolescenRural The trial was Mixed No No 60% of group No Rural Women Not specified. No No Mixed about half urba

Mixed - primaNo No The women’s grNo No, though parRural Mchinji distriWomen Not specified. Yes No FSW 16 years aUrbanWomen only Yes Yes Women of childNo The study doesRuralMixed No No In the study s Yes The children wUrban Three communitMixed No No Group membersNo Mixed The study samWomen only Yes Yes Very poor WomeNo No, but roughlUrban All participanWomen only Yes Yes members mustNo UrbanMixed - primaNo No 66% of the g No Rural Women only No Yes Studies focus No No, but some aRural

What is the gender make-

up of the community

groups?

Are the participants

primarily adolescents?

Do the participants

primarily live in rural or

urban areas?

Only women can join groups

(Yes/No)

Groups primarily consist of women of

reproductive age (15-49

years) or who gave birth

during study period

(Yes/No)

Adolescent Focus

Women’s groups inKenya typically include a limited number of male members (Srujuna 1996), and in our sample, roughly 20% of group members are male,73% of whom are husbands of female members. However, men are generally excluded from holding key executive leadership positions. At baseline, 97% of executive officials in our sample were women.

Colbourn Malawi: ruralFottrell Bangladesh: rural

Mixed No No all communit No RuralMixed - primaNo No SHG members No MixedWomen only Yes Yes No Participants i MixedMixed - primaNo Yes The study incl No Some adolescenRural The trial was Women only No No The study foc No The study focuMixed Assume that thMixed - primaNot specified. No Women from difNo MixedMixed - primaNo No primarily poo No RuralMixed - primaNo No SHG group conNo Not specified.Women only Not specified. No No RuralMixed - primaNo Yes Primarily womNo 14% from adoleRuralWomen only Yes No No Rural

Group Member Characteristics Group Formation and Membership Criteria

Yes or No CharacteristicsDescribe the chMembers, exteYes or No Describe how tIntervention, Yes Not specified. External Yes Groups formed Created for InterventionNot specified. Marital Status,Female rosca pMembers No Many roscas arPre-existingNot specified. Marital Status,Rosca members Members No Many roscas arPre-existingNot specified. Not specified. Mixed Yes Groups were orgMixedNot specified. Poverty Not specified Members No The groups appMixedYes Intervention t Occupation: Farmers primarilMixed No Intervention t MixedYes The SGSY modelFarmers/Livestock owners External Not specified. Pre-existingNot specified. Children betwenot many detaiExternal Yes Coordinated bCreated for InYes the very poor are included, although it is noExternal No ASI made a strPre-existingNot specified. Samples includAll pregnant wExternal Yes Groups establ Created for InYes Age, level of The average agMembers No A group of indPre-existingYes Only those beloPoverty Level External Not specified. both NGO andPre-existingYes The program foNot specified. Mixed No The program woMixedYes SEWA members tLiteracy, tribal status, mostlyExternal Yes Groups organizCreated for InYes Relatively low In 2007, 20.4%Mixed No MixedNot specified. Recently given Women who had External Yes Groups originaPre-existingYes Low Income, alOccupation - banana farmersExternal No Africa HarvestCreated for InNot specified. Age, level of eAll of the par Members No "Members" shouPre-existingNot specified. Not specified. Mixed Yes Groups were prMixedYes Rural women’s Farmers, mostlFarmers Members No Groups interallPre-existing Yes Poor, women Not specified. External Not specified. Unclear, but s Created for InterventionYes NGOs mobilizePoverty, caste About 42 per cExternal No The main innovCreated for InYes Literacy, econ Literacy, econ Mixed Yes The groups are Created for InNot specified. Occupation - Potato FarmersExternal No Groups organizPre-existing Yes Female Sex WoNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Literacy Most women enExternal Yes From May, 2005Created for InYes Female Sex WoNot specified. External Not specified. Created for InYes Marital StatusWomen of childExternal Yes Outside impetuMixedYes Age, level of e External Yes The normal proCreated for InYes Around 28% of Poverty, literaKilifi district Mixed No MixedYes Socio-EconomiAll participan External Yes Groups were foCreated for InYes Female Sex WoOlder (average age of 41) Mixed No Health focusedMixedNot specified. Occupation: AlAside from OcMixed No Half of groupsPre-existingNot specified. Permanent ResThe More (IndiExternal Mixed Groups were forCreated for In

Do the groups include

marginalized populations?

What other characteristics

distinguish group

members (e.g. poverty level, literacy, etc.)?

Was the group coordinated

and put together by its members or in

response to outside

impetus?

Was the group coordinated

and put together for

the purpose of a particular

intervention, or was it pre-

existing?Groups include

marginalized populations

(Yes/No)

Other group member

characteristicsLocus of group

formationMembers

recruited by facilitators

Timing of group

formation

The authors note that Community based organizations (CBOs) like 85 women’s self help groups, 20 Kishori Panchayat (KP, forum of adolescent girls) and 27 Kisan Vikas Manch (KVM, Farmers’ club) and 20 Village Coordination Committees (VCC - a representative committee of above mentioned CBOs) were formed in all villages to form a platform at community level for the intervention. However, some of these seem to have existed before the intervention, and therefore would have been established by their members.

Participants’ mean age was 13.7 years (range 12–15). The mean level of education was 5.5 years (mastery 5.5; regular 5.4; in-school 6.5 years; out-of-school 4.3 years). In this sample, 7% of the children in EMIMA, 3% of the children in school and 51% of the children who were out-of-school were orphans. Clearly, the children we recruited for the out-of-school group were more likely to be an orphan, and by definition to be at risk in this community. The in-school control group was less likely to be sexually active (4.5% compared to ~13.5%) and had more years of education (6.5 compared to 5.5 for treatment and 4.3 for out-of-school control). The in-school control group was also evenly balanced between males and females, while the other groups were all primarily males.Typically they are small groups set up by households known to each other. However, some groups are set up by strategic or intermediate CBOs to implement activities.

Not specified. Tribal, illiterate, limited acceMixed Yes MOST GROUPS exMixedYes SHGs include mCaste Group members Mixed No Group membersMixedNot specified. Ethnicity, Educ90% Chewa, 95External Yes Groups establCreated for InterventionNot specified. Literacy, econ Study areas hadMixed Yes The groups are Created for InNot specified. Marital status The women in tMixed No It seems that Pre-existingYes Poverty, level 51% of membersExternal No SHGs are formeCreated for InYes poor, rural Not specified. External Not specified. In the first m Created for InYes The poverty h Not specified. Mixed Not specified. The bank link Created for InNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Pre-existingYes Tribal, poor, and rural populMixed Yes In the 18 inte MixedNot specified. Not specified. Members No Intervention uPre-existing

The same principle applies to access to credit and repayment, again within specifiedminimum norms.

Group Formation and Membership Criteria Funding and Participation Rules

Describe whethYes or No Yes or No Membership criYes or No Members, exteYes or NoCreated for Intervention Yes No No real criter Mixed Not specified. No

Members come tYes Not specified. Roscas requireNo Members YesMembers come tYes Not specified. Roscas requireNo Members YesGroups were orgNot specified. Yes No Mixed YesThe groups areYes Not specified. Members must Not specified. External No20 groups wereYes Not specified. Groups with stNo Not specified. Not specified.

Yes Not specified No Mixed YesPut together foYes No Age: 9-14 No External No

Yes Not specified. groups are notNo Not specified. Not specified.Most groups weYes No All women in tNo Not specified. Not specified.A group of indNo No Roscas usuallyYes Members Yes

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. N Members YesThe program buYes Not specified. Only women caNot specified. Mixed YesThe study incl Yes No Members have tYes SEWA Mixed YesWhile the inteNo No The authors noYes Members YesIn 2003, Safe No No All communityYes External NoGroups foundedYes Not specified. No Mixed YesThe study hopeNo No Age restrictio No None Nosome were likeNo No No Mixed YesGroups had beeYes Not Specified. Some restricti No Mixed Yes

Created for Intervention Yes Not specified. Must attend mNot specified. External YesWomen’s groupsYes Not specified. Women only caNo Mixed YesThe groups areNo No Primarily womeYes External NoThe Group was Yes Not specified. No Mixed Yes probably NGO Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. No

Women's groupsYes Yes Criteria for m Yes External NoPeer-facilitators were trai No Not specified. External Nofor the interv Yes No women, married,No Mixed YesTo be eligible Yes No To be eligible No External No

No Not specified. For reasons ofNot specified. Mixed YesWe recruited oYes No Women of reproNo Not specified. NoHealth focusedYes No he eligibility No Members YesAverage Group Yes Not specified. Groups were deNot specified. Not specified. YesGroups were forYes Yes They are womenMixed External No

Does the group specify

formal membership criteria (e.g. gender, age, payments to join, etc.)?

Are group activities open

to non-members?

Does the group

primarily receive

funding from its members

or from external sources?Formal

membership criteria

Group membership loosens over

time to be more inclusive

(Yes/No)

Non-member participation

Source of funding

Members provide funding

different intervention models, as well as recognition of the high failure rate of farmers’ organization in India.

Typically they are small groups set up by households known to each other. However, some groups are set up by strategic or intermediate CBOs to implement activities.

groups that exMixed Yes Changed as timYes Not specified. NoThe practice oNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Mixed Yes

Created for Intervention Yes No All Women in sYes Not specified. NoThe groups areNo No Primarily womeYes External NoThere is no in Not specified. No No Members YesSHGs are formeYes Not specified. There are barrYes SHG records maMixed YesNGO or bank inNo No Not specified. Mixed YesThe bank linkaNot specified. Not specified. No Loans are dist Mixed Yes

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.In the 18 inte No No membership waYes External No

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Funding and Participation Rules

Describe the sNote whether gNote whether the groups follow a cycle of activities that is referred to as a Participatory Action Cyclefacilitators weYes Mixed Not described Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Members contriYes No Members followYes Yes Varies YesThe average moYes No Roscas go throYes Yes Varies YesSome external (Yes Yes Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Yes No Trainers had f Yes Yes Not specified. Not specified

No No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Yes No Not specified. Not specified. Yes Yes

Not specified. Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Yes Mixed Not described Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

A group of indYes No Not specified. Not specified. Varies YesSHGs where meNot specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. YesSHG members meNot specified. No Yes Not specified. No YesMembers pay fNo No Yes No No Yes

No No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Initially, gro No No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Yes, group memNo No Yes Yes No No

No No Not specified. Not specified. Yes YesFunds accumulaNo No Not specified. Not specified. Varies YesPre-interventi No No No Yes Yes Not specified. Not specifiedNGO funds facYes No Yes No No YesMembers contriNot specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.The Ekjut projeYes Yes Not specified. Not specified. No YesGroup initiall No No Not specified. Yes Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Group facilita Yes Yes Not specified. Not specified. No YesNGO trains peeNot specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Yes Nodetails unclea Yes Yes Not specified. Not specified. No YesThe article do Yes No Not specified. Not specified. Yes YesMost local lev Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. YesNo mention is Yes Mixed Not described Not specified. Not specified. No YesNGO trains memMixed No A series of tr Yes to qualify for Not specified. Not specified.This was not meNot specified. No Yes Yes Not specified. Not specified.Funding of grouYes Mixed Not described Not specified. Not specified. No Yes

Does the group follow a predetermine

d cycle of activities?

Is group attendance

mandatory or voluntary, and

are other mandatory activities

specified?Cycle of

ActivitiesParticipatory Action Cycle

Mandatory group

attendance

Other mandatory activities

Groups meet at least weekly

(Yes/No)

Groups meet at least monthly (Yes/No)

Yes Yes Not specified. Not specified. No YesState governmeNot specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Yes Yes Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. YesThe Ekjut projeYes Yes Not specified. Not specified. No Yes

No No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. YesAll members ofYes No The basis of t Yes Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.NGOs typicallyNo No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Once the groupNot specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.NGO provided tYes Yes Not specified. Not specified. No YesArticle notes Yes No There are set lNot specified. Not specified. No Yes

Funding and Participation Rules Community Network and Group Governance

Note whether the groups follow a cycle of activities that is referred to as a Participatory Action Cycle Describe the dMotivations could include financial incentiveNote the extenDescribe the gNot specified. knowledge Friendship, facNot specified. higher frequencNo6 Groups insist Conflict withi Evidence showsNot specified. Not specified.6 Potentially, r Early access t On average, roNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Yes No Works with NGONot specified. Business fundiFinancial incenNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. Groups with otNot specified. Yes Members particYes Groups were liNot specified. Income Not specified. No Social partici28 Not specified. Yes This isn't spec No group formatioNot specified. Income Yes Men in the comNot specified.Not specified. Not specified. No Within groups,Yes MaiKhanda andVaries Savings commiThe study findNo No The study doesNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. SHG members meAccess to loans; increased seNot specified. Not specified.12 Group attendanAccess to employment Not specified. Activities open Yes members were Not specified. Social capital, The authors meYes Yes The interventi4 Members recruIt isn't clear Not specified. Social pressur No There is no me7.4 Members also aMarket accessOvercoming barNo Group activitieYes Work with NGONot specified. Social Beer Halls are No No Groups do not Varies Not specified. Not specified. In the women’sYes Catholic ReliefNot specified 1Most groups Social Insuranc Not specified. Not specified. Access to loans/credit Not specified. NoNot specified. The data suggeAccess to loanThe participanNot specified. Yes Members stress20 Desire to im Neonatal mortaYes Not mentionedNo Ekjut provides Not specified. Access to higher value ag actNot specified. The group had Yes Groups engageNot specified. Not specified. Yes this appears t Not specified. Like coordinat

20 Unclear The article do Not specified. The treatment Yes Each group wasNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Yes Collaboration 10 Unclear the study is e Yes Participation No group is large8 Sports, social The EMIMA progNo A sample of 23No EMIMA providesNot specified. All groups wit Access to loansGroups mainly Yes Groups set up Yes Local level gro36 Community exprWomen were priYes Women participYes Groups are suNot specified. Access to loans/credit Yes other micro-fi Not specified.Not specified. Self-efficacy, risk sharing, o Not specified. Yes All groups hadVaries Unclear Not clear, but Yes No Indirectly high

What motivates

group members to

join and continue

participating in an SHG?

Does the group

collaborate with other community members in

implementing activities or

strategies for improving outcomes?

Does the group

collaborate with NGOs or other external

groups (outside of facilitator training)?Number of

Group meetings in a cycle (Avg. #)

Participant motivation

Collaboration with other community members

Collaboration with other

groups

there were significant attitudinal effects among adults who witnessed the community dramas presented by Young Citizens. Unable to make claims about long-term at this point. increase in collective efficacy in their communities in the face of a serious health challenge

Participants said they were motivated to join the project activities because of the need to improve their income from farming.

In the year 2007, about 54% of mothers got information from CLICS doot, followed by 22.3% from ANM, 9.8% from doctors and 15% of mothers got information from VCC members. However, it is not clear how these levels are different from pre-intervention levels. It is likely that with the increase in the number of groups, more mothers would have access to relevant RMNCH information from group members who are trained in these issues.

in Kenyan society. Traditionally, much of Kenyan social structure re- volves around kinship and clan structure. Because of strict exogamy rules preventing marriages among relatives and the fact that residence is patrilocal, meaning that women move away from their home after marriage, women are left with a limited social network outside of that provided by their husband’s family. Thus, women’s groups may be particularly important for widows and older women, who are particularly disadvantaged in rural African communities because of reduced support from kin and weaker access to community resources (Abt 1997; Miguel 2005).traditional leaders. This suggests that the program prompted a move towards more vertical, patron-client relationships between government officials and groups.

Group members disseminated stories about pregnancy and delivery during community meetings on at least four occasions during the cycle. During the 3-year study period, facilitators and members narrated an estimated 976 new stories.participation of frontline government staff in meetings in the study’s 3 districts: ASHAs and Angan- wadi workers were present in over 60% of meetings, and auxiliary nurse midwives (ANMs) attended an estimated 50% of meetings.

Not specified. Not specified. Yes Yes CollaborationNot specified. Access to loans/credit, increYes There have beeYes The role of NG20 recruited by facilitator. Not specified. 2 meetings werNo20 Desire to improve RMNCH oYes No Ekjut provides Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Our data show Yes SHGs are suppoNot specified. All members oAccess to loanLinked not onlYes There are appaYes The pattern anNot specified. groups meet ' Access to loanfinancial incenNot specified. Yes Collaborate wNot specified. Access to loanThe only descriNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Yes Every group inYes Sixty seven pe20 Not specified. Yes No Collaborate wNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Yes Collaboration

Community Network and Group Governance Group leadership

Rate the prevalence of peer Yes or No Yes or No Note if groups Yes if the memNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoYes The collegial Yes Rules are writ Yes The need to prExecutive YesYes As an informalYes Before the cycYes There are confExecutive YesNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Executive NoYes mechanisms werYes Not specified. Executive YesNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Executive Yes Yes Within groups,Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Executive YesNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Yes Providing grai Yes SHG members meNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Yes Elected LeaderYes Field workers Executive YesNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Executive YesNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator YesNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoYes Yes Yes Executive yesYes Group loans, Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoYes In terms of whYes Norm-followingNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Executive YesNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoYes Groups aimed aYes In some cases Not specified. Mixed YesNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoYes group savings Yes Group makes oNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Yes In terms of deNot specified. Executive YesNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator No

Do the groups include peer

accountability mechanisms

beyond social sanctions based on meeting

attendance? (e.g. member

fees, peer home visits,

specific member

responsibilities, etc.)

Are group membership

and participation

rules changed democratically

?

Are group disputes resolved

collectively?

Are groups led by facilitators, executives/governing bodies, or collectively

by group members

themselves?Peer

accountability mechanisms

Any democratic

group governance

Dispute resolution

Group leadership

Facilitators/executives are

chosen by group

members

there was no evidence that the program had a positive impact on other objective measures of group capacity, strength, or solidarity (shown in Table 1, Panel B).There were no significant differences between program and comparison groups in the change in attendance rates at generalmeetings frompre- to post-intervention, meeting frequency, visits tomembers’homestogive emergency assistance, financial support of needy members, rotating savings and credit association (rosca) meeting frequency, or monthly contributions.

The simple dynamics of democratic decision making by existing members of community associations can generate long-run outcomes in which thepoor and disadvantaged either do not belong to any associations or belong to weak organizations.The study found that after receiving outside resources groups were more likely to see members leave due to conflict.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoNot specified. Yes The setting of Not specified. Executive YesNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Executive YesYes The theory of Yes SHG members arYes Executive Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Yes The bank disbuNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Yes Engages in gr Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator NoNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Facilitator Not specified.

Finding out about dropouts - how many? who? and why? - tells us something about whether SHGs are not always catering to the needs of all their members. In functioning SHGs, the drop out rate for the two regions combined is under 10% of membership. Almost 50% of the SHGs had no dropouts; one-third had two or fewer dropouts. Usually it seems to be the member’s (or her family’s) decision to leave; otherwise it is a case of ‘mutual agreement’ between the member and the group. Though there are cases of groups expelling a member. There are examples, more difficult to track, but nevertheless important, of SHPA staff successfully resolving differences between member and group.Dealing with default can entail a fine balance, building or maintaining a culture of repayment discipline, whilst exploring options to assist a member in case of difficulties. Groups need more guidance on workable options. Such options are likely to include adjustment of savings for loan repayment, (though this means a member dropping out of the group), or rescheduling of the loan if this seems warranted. This confirms the need for longer term and more sophisticated SHPA support, by people who have been trained on how to advise SHGs to deal with default situations: which is much more complicated than the process of getting a group going.

Group leadership MNCH Health Outcomes

Describe how tPos, Mixed, NoDescribe.Positive improve materPositive impacbasics of mateNot specified. Not specified.

The founder ofNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.The founder ofNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Mixed neonatal mortaNo significant No significant Positive impacrecognize emerPositive impacGroup leaders Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.How leaders weNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. not many detaiNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Group chairs Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.729 groups arePositive The study usedNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Rosca members Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Leaders ElecteNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.The authors doPositive Overall there Not specified. Positive impacOverall there Positive impacGroups managePositive The indicators Positive impacAlthough improPositive impac10% more womenPositive impac

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.These are infoNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.The role of FANot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.NGO selected fNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Local women, sPositive In the interve Positive impactThe interventiNot specified. Not specified.Members elect Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Mixed Positive impacCommunity-baseMixed Impact No significant

Facilitators ( Positive The results su Positive impacAnalysis of se Positive impactSecondary outcPositive impacFSW from KisauNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.The form and cPositive reduced neonatPositive impacinterested in fiPositive impacThe treatment Positive impacPeer coaches, Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Group members Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Facilitators ( No Significant No significant We found no diPositive impacThe occurrenceNo significant

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Most groups haNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.The facilitatorMixed Women’s groupsPositive impac Positive impac No significant

Does the group have an

impact on health

outcomes related to

maternal and newborn

health specifically?

What is the impact of the

group on maternal and newborn care

practices at home (e.g. uptake of maternity

services, home birth practices, breastfeeding,

etc.)?


group on care-seeking for

complications during

pregnancy, delivery, or postpartum

period?


group on institutional or

skilled attendant delivery?

Overall MNCH Impact

Maternal and newborn care

practices at home

Care-seeking for

complications

Institutional or skilled

attendant delivery

In our subgroup analysis, we found that community-based packages that disseminated education and promoted awareness related to birth and newborn care preparedness based on building community support groups/women’s groups were best for reducing total and early neonatal deaths. On the other hand, packages that comprised community mobilisation and education strategies and home visitation by CHWs managed to reduce neonatal, perinatal deaths and stillbirths, possibly with the reason that these strategies focused on women in the antenatal period and on early newborn care, management and referrals of sick newborns. Home-based neonatal care showed a significant role in reducing total neonatal deaths, stillbirths, and perinatal deaths and was highly significant in reducing early neonatal deaths, but the evidence was derived from only one study. On similar grounds, when community mobilisation was added to home-based neonatal care, it significantly reduced total neonatal deaths by 44% (one study). This is not surprising as it focused on therapeutic aspects of management of neonatal illnesses and infections and the majority (more than 50%) of planned neonatal visits was within the first week of life. Packaged interventional care also improved neonatal care outcomes like breastfeeding, and healthcare seeking for neonatal morbidities, etc; however, paucity of studies precluded robust estimation of pooled effects. We managed to conduct a meta-analysis of studies reporting initiation of breastfeeding within an hour of birth (early breastfeeding), which showed that interventions consisting of antepartum newborn care and breastfeeding education to mothers doubled rates of initiation of breastfeeding. A recent commentary (Jana 2009) on review findings for interventions for promoting the initiation of breastfeeding also suggested that educational strategies during the antenatal period (including breastfeeding education, along with other components of essential newborn care) and maternal support are likely to have the greatest impact on early initiation of breastfeeding. Significant impact was observed for referral to health facility for any complication during pregnancy. (RR 1.40; 95% CI 1.19 to 1.65, fixed-effect (two studies, n = 22,800)), (I² = 0% and Chi² P value 0.76) (Analysis 1.14).We also found that community-based intervention packages had a non-significant impact on healthcareseeking for maternal morbidities (average RR 1.46; 95% CI 0.76 to 2.81, random-effects (three studies, n = 28,304)), (T² = 0.27, I² = 82% and Chi² P value 0.004) (Analysis 1.18); however it had a positive impact on healthcare seeking for neonatal morbidities (average RR 1.45; 95%CI 1.01 to 2.08, random-effects (five studies, n = 57,157)), (T² = 0.14, I² = 94% and Chi² P value < 0.001) (Analysis 1.19).

The primary outcomes described perinatalcare, maternal morbidity, and extended perinatal mortality however, the authors found no differences between trial arms in uptake of antenatal care, reported work, rest, and diet in later pregnancy, institutional delivery, early and exclusive breastfeeding, or care-seeking. The stillbirth rate was non-significantly lower in the intervention arm (odds ratio 0.86, 95% CI 0.60–1.22), and the neonatal mortality rate higher (1.48, 1.06–2.08). The extended perinatal mortality rate did not differ between arms (1.19, 0.90–1.57). There was no evidence that these differences could be explained by the intervention.

Lewycka Malawi: increased uptake of any antenatal care, exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 weeks of lifeFottrell Bangladesh: increased hand washing by attendant before home deliveries, increased used of clean delivery kits for home births, increased appropriate cord care for home births, early initiation of breastfeeding (within 1 h of birth) , exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 weeks of life

More India: increased care-seeking for the mother in case of a post-partum problem

Facilitator tr Positive Intervention aPositive impacthrough increaPositive impacincreased acceNot specified.The setting of Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Positive Not specified. Positive impacThe study aimeNot specified.Local women, sMixed Data on 41 191Positive impacHygiene duringPositive impacCare-seeking bNo significant

Positive The interventiPositive impacThe presence oNot specified. Positive impacSHG leaders arNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Groups took paPositive Positive impacimproved hygienNot specified. Not specified.the Leader forNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

haemorrhage (275). HIV/AIDS and sepsis were identifi ed or prioritized much less because complexity and contextualfactors hindered their consideration.

Our findings also show that a low-cost intervention involving non-health-care workers might affect maternal mental health. We hypothesize that the large reduction in moderate depression seen in the third year could have occurred through improvements in social support and problem-solving skills of the groups.

MNCH Health Outcomes Reproductive Health and HIV Outcomes

Yes or No Describe.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Trained traditiNot specified. secondary, butNo significant Our study showNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive HIV awarenessNot specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No significant This was an inPositive impacThis was the pNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive Women in interNot specified.

The institutio Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.The final surv Not specified. This is a desi Not specified. This is a desi Positive Positive impac

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. No Significant Decrease in sexPositive impacNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive Positive impacNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Positive impacIn the interve Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Interventions hNo significant Positive impac Not specified.Analysis of se Positive impacThe results su Positive impacPMR, NMR, and Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive Positive impacWomen in interPositive impacMaternal MortaPositive impacFrom 2001 to 2Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive Increased knowPositive impacNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

No Difference No significant There were 20 No significant The stillbirth Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive Positive impacNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

We found no evPositive impacMeta-analyses Positive impacMeta-analyses Not specified. Not specified.


group on maternal

mortality and morbidity

rates (antenatal,

intrapartum, and

postnatal)?


group on infant


rates (stillbirth, perinatal,

neonatal, and infant)?


impact on reproductive health or HIV outcomes?

What is the impact of the group on the

use of contraceptives

?Maternal


rates

Infant mortality and

morbidity rates

Overall Reproductive

health/HIV Impact

Contraceptive usage

of pregnancy, it had no impact in reducing any of the complications during pregnancy, including eclampsia (RR 0.74; 95% CI 0.43 to 1.27, fixed-effect (one study, n = 19,525)) (Analysis 1.12), obstructed labour (average RR 0.80; 95% CI 0.36 to 1.77, random-effects (two studies, n = 22,800)) (T² = 0.32, I² = 97% and Chi² P value < 0.001) (Analysis 1.10), puerperal sepsis (average RR 0.57; 95% CI 0.26 to 1.27, random-effects (two studies, n = 22,800)) (T² = 0.30, I² = 89% and Chi² P value 0.003)(Analysis 1.11), haemorrhage (average RR 0.1.17; 95% CI 0.34 to 3.97, random-effects (two studies, n = 22,800)) (T² = 0.76, I² = 97% and Chi² P value < 0.001) (Analysis 1.9) and spontaneous abortion (RR 0.81; 95% CI 0.55 to 1.18, fixed-effect (one study, n = 19,525)) (Analysis 1.13).Group Interventions performed comparably to other types of CM Interventions in reducing Neonatal Mortality. Estimations show that groups where more positively associated with reductions in Early Neonatal mortality but however they did not have a significant association with reductions in late neonatal mortality where other interventions, such as training TBA workers were.

indirectly, th Not specified. indirectly, th Not specified. Main measure Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Institutional Not specified. Positive impacReductions in Not specified. Not specified.The presence ofNot specified. Not specified. Positive The interventiNot specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Positive impacNMR was reduceNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive Positive impac

Reproductive Health and HIV Outcomes

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

(does not explicPositive impac Not specified. Not specified. Positive impacNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Positive impacWomen in interNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Mothers are enNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Beer Hall ownNo significant While we foundNot specified. Not specified. No significantNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Through other Positive impacThrough other Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

This is a goal Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Primary goal oNot specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.In 2005, FSW wPositive impacPeers had highNot specified. Positive impacHIV prevalenceNot specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Condom experiePositive impac Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Through other Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.


group on prevalence of risky sexual

behavior beyond

increasing contraceptive

usage?


group on knowledge and use of

family planning

services and methods?


group on rates of

transmission of HIV?

What is the impact of the group on the proportion of adults seeking

voluntary counseling and testing (VCT)?

Risky sexual behavior

Knowledge and use of

family planning

services and methods

Transmission rates of HIV

Adults seeking VCT

There were significant attitudinal effects among adults who witnessed the community dramas presented by Young Citizens. We take this as stronger evidence that broader social norms and expectations were being influenced. Public discussion of HIV/AIDS in this region is generally discouraged, especially exchanges involving adolescents and adults… efficacy scale indicated that adolescents and adults could converse freely about HIV/AIDS and that adolescents could help break the silence and stigma surrounding this topic.

Attitude to having an exclusive sexual partner: the in-school and out-of-school groups did not reliably differ from each other, and both were less likely to believe that having an exclusive sexual partner was a safe behavior against HIV infection than the EMIMA intervention groups. In addition, the mastery intervention group had a more positive attitude to the use of an exclusive sexual partner than the regular intervention group.Subjective norms about having an exclusive sexual partner: That the two EMIMA intervention groups did not reliably differ from each other, but both had higher subjective norms about having an exclusive sexual partner than the in-school and out-of-school groups, which did not reliably differ from each other.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Positive impacHouseholds in Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Encourages coNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive impac

Reproductive Health and HIV Outcomes Other Health Outcomes

Yes or No Describe.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Although HIV tNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. This was mentiNot specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Positive Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Having tested Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Positive Immunization Not specified. Not specified.

aims to incre Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Positive Groups help mNot specified. Positive ImpacNot specified. Not specified. Mixed Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.


group on adherence to

HIV drug treatment regimes?


impact on other health

outcomes outside of

MNCH, reproductive health, and

HIV?


group on antimalarial

activities (e.g. increase use of

anti-malarial medication,

increase use of anti-malarial

bed nets, etc.)?

What is the impact of the group on the proportion of households seeking care for illnesses

(e.g. pneumonia,

diarrhea, malaria, etc.)?Adherence to

HIV drug regimes

Other health aim summary

Anti-malarial outcomes

Care-seeking for illness or

disease

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Positive Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Mixed The stories sh Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Outreach workeNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Other Health Outcomes

Immunization Deworming

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

A goal of the Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Positive impact Complete immunizNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Members of CBONot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.


number of children and/or adults receiving immunizations?


use of deworming pills

and medications?


group on health outcomes related to

incidence of disease/illness?

Incidence of disease aim

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Other Health Outcomes

Nutrition WASH outcomes

Yes or NoNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. MixedNot specified. This was mentioNot specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. MixedPositive impact With 55%, the maNot specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Positive impact Women in SEWA viNot specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Positive impact The interventio Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. MixedNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Positive impact Groups set up t Positive impact Some CBO supportNot specified.Not specified. Positive impact Improving WASH oNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Empowerment Outcomes


group on nutrition

outcomes?


group on WASH outcomes of

group members (e.g. access to clean water,

good hygiene practices, etc.)?


group on other specific health

outcomes?

Does the group have an impact on individual

empowerment?

Other health outcomes

Overall Individual

empowerment Impact

Not specified. Not specified. Not outside of Not specified. indirectly, but PositiveNot specified. Positive impact The female contrNot specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Positive impact Thirty percent oMixed impact The stories showMixedNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Describe.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

The roscas helpPositive impact The authors demoNot specified. Not specified.The roscas helpPositive impact Roscas with stroNot specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive impact Participation i Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive impact In areas where Positive impact Participation i Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Positive impact Group members p

Nearly all of ro Positive impact Rosca members sPositive impact Among the 56% ofNot specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive impact The project is Positive impact The program contPositive impact Estimated impactPositive impact Residence in a SPositive impact SEWA members wePositive impact The results alsoNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Mixed Impact The most marked

Increased financNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive impact Positive impact The group has a Positive impact Members stressePositive impact Members stresse

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Goal of study, bNot specified. Goal of study, bNot specified. Not specified.


95% of groups reNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.The mastery motPositive impact Perceived behavNot specified. Not specified.


increased incomNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.


group on control over

decision-making of group members (especially household decision-making)?


group on participation of group members

in other community groups or

community events?


group on participation of group members in governance

Control over decision-making

Presence in Society

Political Participation

Friendship, trust, and credibility are important to group facilitators’’ ability to communicate health issues effectively.

Not specified. Not specified. Positive impact Collaboration wPositive impact Positive impact While there has Not specified. Positive impact

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Groups are intePositive impact Thirty percent Mixed impact In one out of evMixed Impact In one out of evNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Vulnerability, Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Empowerment, woNot specified. Positive impact Every group in tPositive impact Sixty seven percempowerment to Positive impact By discussion o Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

One of the key benefits of SHGs is women’s empowerment and this can be seen with the number of women involved in public affairs. The trend of women involvement in politics is moving up. Their presence today is affecting the perception of women and their role in the political arena. They are being recognized as an important group with serious concerns. SHGs sometimes finance the campaign of its members that stand for election. The spread of SHGs led also to the formation of SHG Federations which are a more sophisticated form of organization that involve several SHGs. SHG Federations resulted in several key benefits including stronger political and advocacy capability. In addition, a high percentage of SHGs participate in Government Programs. There have been several occurrences of SHGs resolving disputes between members and the community at large. These instances include initiating legal action, arbitration, divorce and others. While there has long been dispute resolution mechanisms in villages, in the past it was controlled by men. Now, there are instances of women, SHG members, being involved in resolving disputes. Women are able to fight for their rights and entitlements and have emerged as a force to be reckoned with. Political engagement includes active involvement by SHGs in government including local assemblies, Lok Sabha or Panchayati Rai Institutions (PRIs). The female contribution to civil issues ranges from issue of ration cards, laying of pucca roads, building of school, ensuring appointments in vacant positions in schools and health centers, recovery of river bank lands from encroachers and laying of drinking water pipes. SHGs not only empower its members but also wield a powerful political role as a group as well. At local village meetings, the leaders of SHGs are often invited to attend and speak.

Financial Outcomes

Savings Access to credit

Yes or No Describe.Positive impact facilitators sai Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Positive Women describe Positive impact Women describe Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive impact Members receivePositive Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive impact Disaggregated anPositive Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Mixed impact While women repoPositive Women and men pPositive impact They contributePositive impactNot specified. Positive Positive impact Within groups, mNot specified.Not specified. Mixed Positive impact Rosca members sNo impactMixed impact SHG participati Positive Positive impact SHGs support meNot specified.Positive impact The share of groMixed The share of groPositive impact SHG members meetPositive impactPositive impact We find that oveMixed Women in intervPositive impact Women in intervNot specified.Not specified. Positive Not specified. Positive impactNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive impact financial indep Positive individual grou Positive impact The PSP leads toPositive impactNot specified. Not specified. Negative Negative* Outside funding No impact*Positive impact Members report Yes increased accessNot specified. Positive impactNot specified. Positive Under IRDP, therPositive impact The group fund aPositive impactNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Groups that exisNot specified.Not specified. Mixed Farmers report hNot specified. Positive impactNot specified. Goal of study, bNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive impact The mastery motiNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Mixed Mixed impact Local level grouPositive impactNot specified. This wasn't repoNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive impact Through group dPositive Increased incomPositive impact NGO trains membeNot specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.


group on other measures of

empowerment and self-efficacy

of group members?

Does the group have an impact on individual

financial outcomes?


group on group members' savings?


group on group members'

access to credit or other financial services?

Subjective well-being &

AutonomyOverall Financial

outcomes

Increased income and value of assets is the main aim of the government program. Group elites give more, care for more, get higher profits. Village elites get more private assets, put in more time, and get more profit.

About 26% of rosca members answered that they experienced some extra economical advantages by participating in a rosca: 18% say that fellow members prefer to buy at their shop or doing business with them and 6% say that they have met their employer (past or present) in the group. These answers tend to confirm that roscas provide social connectedness and that they can bring additional advantages.Rosca members spend, on average, 13.3% to 24.4% less than non-members on items which their long term self would prefer not to buy. The results also show that rosca members save around 10 percentage points more than non members (the estimated average saving rate of non members being 12.7%). From these two results, one is incited to believe that roscas indeed help agents to discipline themselves to save.

Local level groups help with both assisting with savings and acting as part of a safety net to allow households access to essential day-to-day items, and to meet unexpected expenses (including treatment costs). In some cases they also allow members to take the proceeds before their turn. However, in some cases people report having personally lost money because of fellow members being unable to pay their contribution or because of corrupt group leaders. In addition, the poorest experience difficulties in trying to access any form of credit because of their lack of resources to repay debts. As their poverty increases, their ability to draw on the range of strategies employed by community members to pay for health care decreases. It appears that the poorest households andindividuals are least likely to be reached through existing groups. Thus working only through existing CBOs may risk widening gaps between less poor and poorest.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Groups that exisNot specified.Positive impact The impact of S Mixed Positive impact Group members coMixed impactNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Groups that exisNot specified.Not specified. Positive Not specified. Positive impactPositive impact Over time, the eMixed Mixed impact SHGs enable womePositive impactPositive impact There was a posPositive longer membershiPositive impact Formed groups haPositive impactPositive impact The training of Positive SHG members showPositive impact Formed groups haPositive impactPositive impact Empowerment, woPositive Positive impact SHGs support meNot specified.Positive impact women’s groups Not specified. Not specified. Groups that exisNot specified.Not specified. Positive Positive impact SHGs support meNot specified.

There is no doubt that there has been greater outreach of financial services to the poor through SHGs. One study of bank linkages clearly indicated that the repayment rates were high and that the bank linkage made difference in the lives of the SHG members. Impoverished women develop greater language and financial skills through the SHG which provides the building blocks for higher levels of confidence to engage the world. However, the study also pointed out certain issues that require attention. These include adequacy of loan size, timeliness of credit and also the need for branch manager or the promoter undertaking a rating before the SHG is bank linked. The penetration of microfinance to the poorest of the poor is still weak and needs a wider reach. Only 50% SHGs felt that the loan size was adequate. It takes more than four months for an SHG to get a bank loan. 10% SHGs reported that they were forced to take loan to repay their bank loan.

Forty-six groups (21% of the sample) had been involved in a group based enterprise or enterprise contract. Roughly half of the group enterprises appeared to be viable, though with relatively low earnings for SHG members. In some SHGs (up to 18%), leaders are accessing more credit, especially over a longer time frame (northern data, Orissa particularly). This is known by other group members and is not necessarily seen to be exploitative (or at any rate is not reported as such in group discussions). Overall, the data shows relatively low standard deviation around the mean for number of loans and amount borrowed by members.The findings on financial performance of SHGs are mixed. Around half of the sample groups are operating at a profit, with a good return on assets of 6.5%, and a return on internal capital (or member equity = member savings + accumulated interest) of 11%. Around 20% of the sample are running at a loss, and for the rest we do not know for lack of data. In the majority of groups it is not the case that SHG earnings are high enough to maintain the value of SHG members’ capital.

Financial Outcomes

Income

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Positive impact Women describe Positive impact 25% of groups hNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive impact Positive impact Increased incomePositive impact Groups are askedNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive impact Average annual hPositive impact Significant (P<0 Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

As a group maturPositive impact 62 percent of woPositive impact Women reported gPositive impact As a group maturNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Only three roscaPositive impact About 26% of roPositive impact Nearly all of ro Positive impact 49% of rosca memNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Loans come from No impact The authors' estNo impact The authors' estNot specified.No impact No significant Not specified. Not specified.

The authors menNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

The PSP program Positive impact The PSP leads toNot specified. Positive impact Business investmNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Members supply Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Members contribuNot specified. Positive impact Members also felPositive impact About 40 per ce

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Group initially Positive impact Farmers report hNot specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Local level grouNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive impact Increased incomNot specified. Positive impact FSWs expand incNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.


group on group members' income?



ownership of assets?



business or micro-

enterprise activity?

Ownership of assets

Micro-enterprise

Increased income and value of assets is the main aim of the government program. Group elites give more, care for more, get higher profits. Village elites get more private assets, put in more time, and get more profit.

There were no significant differences between program and comparison groups in the change visits tomembers’homestogive emergencyassistance, financial support of needy members, rotating savings and credit association (rosca) meeting frequency, or monthly contributions.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

SHGs support memPositive impact SHGs support meNot specified. Not specified.SHGs enable womeNot specified. Positive impact Forty-six groupsPositive impact Forty-six groupsOnce savings pasNo impact The authors do nPositive impact Results examine Not specified.Groups are creatNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

There is no doubt that there has been greater outreach of financial services to the poor through SHGs. One study of bank linkages clearly indicated that the repayment rates were high and that the bank linkage made difference in the lives of the SHG members. Impoverished women develop greater language and financial skills through the SHG which provides the building blocks for higher levels of confidence to engage the world. However, the study also pointed out certain issues that require attention. These include adequacy of loan size, timeliness of credit and also the need for branch manager or the promoter undertaking a rating before the SHG is bank linked. Only 50% SHGs felt that the loan size was adequate. It takes more than four months for an SHG to get a bank loan. 10% SHGs reported that they were forced to take loan to repay their bank loan.

Financial Outcomes Agriculture outcomes

Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Positive Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Mixed The study uNot specified. Mixed impa19 Farmer Not specified.Not specified. Positive Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Positive Positive imParticipantPositive imWomen were Positive imNot specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive impact The program fostNo Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Mixed Increased pNo impact No increaseMixed impathe authorsPositive imNot specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Positive Though not Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Mixed No impact Not specifi Not specifi Not specifiNot specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Positive Positive imTechnologicPositive imThrough thePositive imNot specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not Specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.No impact The poorest expeNo Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Positive Positive imChange of gNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.


poorest members of

their community?


group on agriculture

outcomes of group members (e.g. access to

inputs, increased

productivity, etc.)?

Is group participatio

n associated

with impacts on increased

productivity?


n associated

with impacts on increased

market access (better prices, lower

transaction costs,

marketing)?


n associated

with impacts on adoption of new

technology or

management

practices?Impact on the

very poorAgriculture

outcomes aimProductivit

y Outcomes

Market Outcomes

Technology Outcomes

Negative The absolute probability of a woman over 50 leaving or becoming inactive is 14 percentage points higher in program groups, representing a more than 60% increase over the base exit rate of 18%.

As shown in Table 1, Panel A, gains in agricultural output are statistically insignificant and point estimates of these gains are very small relative to the value ofinputs. Point estimates of the increase in agriculture output inprogramgroups are only about $18 in the main long rains season and $4 in the secondary short rains season, 6% of the value of inputs such as seeds and fertilizer that should have paid off within one season. This suggests that if any significant share of the inputs indeed went towards group production, the return was spectacularly negative.

This may be explained in two ways: One, group members did not supply sufficient complementary land and labor to effectively employ the increased capitalthat was provided. Second, inputs supplied by the project were diverted to the private plots of some group members, particularly leaders. Funded groups planted about half an acremore per agricultural season than comparison groups. This totaled only about 30% of the area that could have been planted with the additional inputs. Average labor input was roughly nine hours greater per member in program groups than comparison groups in the main agricultural season and only an insignificant two hours greater in the subsequent season.

Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.No impact The penetration No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.No impact SHGs are expectePositive Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Positive Results exaNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive impact The poverty headNo Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. No Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Agriculture outcomes Group-Level Outcomes

Yes or No Describe.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive The authorNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Positive imAgriculturaNot specified. PositiveNot specified. Positive imGroups wereMixed impa19 Farmer Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Positive ImData were cNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Both women Positive imWomen partiPositive im62 percent Positive imObtaining dPositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. PositiveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Indeed, ad Negative i First, the Positive imFinally, fo Positive imYet, we fin Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specifi Not specifi Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive imThough not Not Sspecified.

Not specifi Not specifi Not specifi Not specified. No impact.Surveys conMixed Aside from Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive Positive imNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. The interve

Farmers werNot specified. Positive imFarmers recNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Mixed Mixed impacNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.


n associated

with impacts on

income diversification (crops, non-farm activity)?


n associated

with impacts on

farm income?


n associated

with impacts on increased access to

and use of inputs?

Does the intervention

have an impact on group-level

outcomes?

Diversification

Farm Income

Inputs Outcomes

Group-level outcomes aim

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Mixed Mixed impaNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive imForty-six g Mixed SHPAs are Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive Levels of pNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Group-Level Outcomes

Economies of scope

Not specified. Facilitator Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Positive impact A variety oNot specified. Not specified.Positive impact A key featuPositive impact A variety oNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. Facilitator Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive impact Part of the Positive impact Training prNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive impactPositive impact LeadershipNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. NGO provideNot specified. Positive impact The basis oPositive impactNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive impact The share oPositive impact Providing gPositive impact The data alPositive impactNot specified. Not specified. Positive impact Members werNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive impact It appears Not specified.Not specified. Community vNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. The interveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Mixed impact There was nMixed impact Not specified. Not specifi Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Positive impact In terms ofPositive impact Members strPositive impactNot specified. Local womenNot specified. The partici Positive impact Groups thatPositive impactNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Not specified. Facilitator Not specified. Groups wereNot specified. Positive impactNot specified. Study staff Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Positive impact Throughout Positive impactNot specified. A program oNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Mixed impact Dishonesty Positive impact Groups set Not specified.Not specified. Facilitator Not specified. Not specified. Positive impactNot specified. Not specified. Positive impact The interveNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. The facilit Not specified. Not specified. Positive impact

What is the impact of the group on

governance of the group?


group on levels of participation and cohesion within

the group?

What is the impact of the group on economies

of scope, by working through a group rather than with individuals

(e.g. targeting multiple different outputs or

outcomes or providing multiple different

services)?


group on economies of

scale, by working through a group rather than with individuals (e.g.

reaching a greater number of people

or providing a greater amount of

services more effectively or efficiently)?

Governance of the group

Levels of participation and

cohesionEconomies of

scale

The trained social worker facilitated Community’s Action Experience Learning Cycle (CAELC) through VCCs to explore and collectively act upon their priority maternal and child health issues. The CLICS program and VCC together selected village based CLICS doot (local female community health worker) per 1000 population who was trained by CLICS program and supervised by local VCCs. CLICS doots from all villages were trained in identification of newborn danger signs and prompt referral under household and community IMNCI (country specific adaptation of IMCI) to ensure household-to-hospital continuum of care (HHCC). CLICS doots conducted home visits to pregnant and new mothers.

The number of applicants to program groups was 40% higher than in comparison groups, significant at the 5% level but new entrants were twice as likely to have formal sector income and secondary education (sig at 10%)

Not specified. Facilitator Not specified. ParticipatoPositive impact Groups thatNot specified.Mixed impact Not specified. Positive impact SHGs are bePositive impactNot specified. Not specified. Groups wereNot specified. Positive impactNot specified. Local womenNot specified. Positive impact Groups thatNot specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive impactMixed impact Mixed impact There are eMixed impact Positive impactNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Positive impact SHGs can prNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Positive impact Sixty sevenNot specified.Not specified. Groups tookNot specified. Groups tookPositive impact Groups thatNot specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.

Areas such as financial management, governance and human resources range from weak to average quality for a majority of SHGs. The need for a coordinated and comprehensive support strategy is imperative as the financial management issues of SHGs need to be addressed otherwise the benefits of the civil society impacts will be lost as SHGs will become overburdened and un-sustainable. Further, SHG leaders dominate bank linkages and take 30% of the loans overall. Just 50% of SHGs practice equal distribution of bank loan. In addition, since SHGs are accessing external borrowings through SHG Bank Linkage and then lends these funds to its members, there has been cases of poor cash flow management to repay debts not just externally but also internally. APMAS finds that the risk of overleveraging SHGs is high. The role of NGOs to provide support is essential to many SHGs success stories. The support needed ranges from bookkeeping and accounting, organizational structure, governance and other areas.The spread of SHGs led also to the formation of SHG Federations which are a more sophisticated form of organization that involve several SHGs. Typically, about 15-50 SHGs make up a Cluster/Village Organization, with either one or two representatives from each SHG. Depending on geography, several clusters or VOs come together to form an apex body or an SHG Federation. At the cluster and federation level, there are inter-group borrowings, exchange of ideas, sharing of costs and discussion of common interests. There are typically various subcommittees that deal with a variety of issues including loan collections, accounting and social issues. However, as a result of its rather informal members, there are internal constraints that it faces. Namely, it has a poor capacity for self-governance, average to low quality managers and systems and process are poorly defined. Further, there is significant financial cost to organizing and registering a SHG Federation which has been estimated to be about Rs 7,000 per SHG member.

Based on an audit exercise at each group, we found that 15% of SHGs have good quality records - complete and up-to-date with virtually no errors, another 39% have records of moderate quality - were mostly up to date, though with some errors. A significant proportion of sampled groups (40%) have weak records. Paid SHG office bearers and SHPA staff are more likely to keep good records; unpaid SHG office bearers or nonmembers are more likely to have weak records. Computerization of records appears to bring some improvement. Part of the problem lies in the relative complexity of the recording system – the number of records, and the amount of work to record the transactions. Record keepers may find them difficult to manage. Office bearers as well as group members – most of whom as we have seen have had no or little schooling - do not find them useful nor are they easy to explain. And SHPAs themselves find it difficult (at any rate resource intensive) to provide the necessary back-up. Financial statements are not being regularly prepared. In only 28% of the SHGs (22% in the south, 35% in the north) was an income and expenditure statement available, and in an equal number, a balance sheet and portfolio information.Even with social objectives, ‘Self-Help’ has a financial base (depositing and managing savings, lending and borrowing) and the base has to be right, with effective and transparent management and the guidance to do this. Clear guidelines and systematic record-keeping for microfinance transactions are essential, whatever the SHPA orientation. This has to be part of the initial focus and guidance, over a period of 2-3 years. It is a case of ‘getting the basics right.’

SHGs seem uniquely placed to support their members on issues of social justice affecting women. Nevertheless, we did not find that SHGs are dealing regularly with issues of social justice. Nor did many groups report such actions: 12% of sample SHGs (with some groups mobilising together on single issues) had taken up issues such as domestic and sexual violence, bigamy, and a few cases of dowry death, prevention of child marriage, support for separated women to remarry.SHGs represent an opportunity for social action and empowerment through women’s involvement in considering, addressing and participating in issues that affect their members and their communities, including issues that affect women in particular. The extent to which this happening is perhaps less than hoped for – although a beginning is being made. One reason is the huge challenge involved in women having the right to speak out and take a stand in still very traditional, patriarchal, societies. The related reason is that social objectives too require a strategic approach, persistence and follow-up. SHPA support and guidance seems critical and mobilising across groups seems most effective. Clustering of SHGs may have strong social potential, as in federations, though this builds in another level of capacity level and financing – still to be established as sustainable.

Group-Level Outcomes


The study found that 68% of all rosca members said that they had selected the group they were in because they knew or had links with other members.

The program involves establishment of second tier institutions at the village and mandal (county) levels to capitalize on economies of scale in capacity building, credit and insurance, and to ensure that public programs reach the poor. Specific projects benefiting the whole community to make available in-kind credit for food and marketing services were implemented by 36% and 10% of groups, respectively, in 2003. Allowing for heterogeneity of program impacts points not only towards a significant average impact on female empowerment but highlights that this effect is indeed an externality that accrues equally to all residents in program villages, irrespectively of whether or not they participate in a self-help group. The fact that benefits accrue even to non-participants suggests that the program’s institutional structure has avoided elite capture at least in this respect. On the other hand, finding a significant empowerment-effect even for those who had earlier participated in self-help groups implies that the focus on social issues and women’s empowerment is indeed one of the features distinguishing the program at hand from earlier initiatives.

Not specified.

Local-level CBOs are another potential source of direct and indirect support in paying for health care, and working through established groups appears a good way of reaching many community members.The intervention aims to include non-members as well as members of groups, and encourages group members to involve the whole community in planning, implementing, and evaluating strategies for improving RMNCH outcomes.

The treatment communities had lower rate of neonatal & maternal deaths. Some typical strategies were community- generated funds for maternal or infant care, stretcher schemes, production and distribution of clean delivery kits, home visits by group members to newly pregnant mothers, and awareness raising with a locally made film to create a forum for discussion.

A sample of 235 members helped 1,372 other distinct women so that, on average, one woman reached out to six others, particularly by providing them with information on antenatal and newborn care, suggesting that they visit health providers, and occasionally accompanying them. One group succeeded in getting the municipal corporation to cover local sewage channels, but efforts were generally more individual than collective and involved women’s own families and neighborhoods.

Groups eventually expand, implying that group members are influencing other members of the community.

Group members disseminated stories about pregnancy and delivery during community meetings on at least four occasions during the cycle. During the 3-year study period, facilitators and members narrated an estimated 976 new stories. Group members organized community meetings at specific times during the cycle to share their learning with the wider community and enlist their support in implementing strategies to address problems in pregnancy and childbirth.

The spread of SHGs led also to the formation of SHG Federations which are a more sophisticated form of organization that involve several SHGs. SHG Federations resulted in several key benefits including economies of scale, access to greater capital, and sharing of knowledge and experiences. Increasingly, SHG Federations are being seen as a key interface with the SHG movement because of their formal registration under the Mutually Aided Co-operative Society (MACS) and recognition from bankers.2 meetings were held to involve the entire community in implementing strategies developed by the women's groups.

In places where safe delivery kits were not provided, group members made them and provided information about their contents to mothers, then visited pregnant women during the eighth month of pregnancy to ensure that they had received kits and would use them. Birth outcomes might have been affected by the fact that these community members attended the groups or were advised by group members, thus generating increased social awareness and support for clean delivery practices.Thirty percent of SHGs in the sample have been involved in community actions. These involved: improving community services (43% of the total actions, including water supply, education, health care, veterinary care, village road), trying to stop alcohol sale and consumption (31%), contributing finance and labour for new infrastructure, (12%), protecting natural resources and acts of charity (to non-members). Not included are activities such as cleaning the village before village functions – which community leaders increasingly find SHGs useful for. Nor have we included general participation in campaigns or rallies - pulse polio, literacy, anti-dowry, for example - for which SHGs are becoming a means of mobilising women, especially in the southern states. The mobilisation of numbers of women through village or cluster networks, or federations, was a significant feature of effective community action.The ratio of external borrowing outstanding to internal capital averages a low 1.43; though available data on actual last borrowed amount shows some groups having a very high ‘debt/equity’ ratio of 6-9. Such SHGs lie behind some emerging apprehensions of the limited ability of SHGs to manage larger funds even as banks extend the scale of loans to SHGs that have successfully repaid an earlier loan, without a further appraisal.


The study found that 68% of all rosca members said that they had selected the group they were in because they knew or had links with other members.


Local-level CBOs are another potential source of direct and indirect support in paying for health care, and working through established groups appears a good way of reaching many community members.The intervention aims to include non-members as well as members of groups, and encourages group members to involve the whole community in planning, implementing, and evaluating strategies for improving RMNCH outcomes.




The spread of SHGs led also to the formation of SHG Federations which are a more sophisticated form of organization that involve several SHGs. SHG Federations resulted in several key benefits including economies of scale, access to greater capital, and sharing of knowledge and experiences. Increasingly, SHG Federations are being seen as a key interface with the SHG movement because of their formal registration under the Mutually Aided Co-operative Society (MACS) and recognition from bankers.2 meetings were held to involve the entire community in implementing strategies developed by the women's groups.




The intervention aims to include non-members as well as members of groups, and encourages group members to involve the whole community in planning, implementing, and evaluating strategies for improving RMNCH outcomes.




The spread of SHGs led also to the formation of SHG Federations which are a more sophisticated form of organization that involve several SHGs. SHG Federations resulted in several key benefits including economies of scale, access to greater capital, and sharing of knowledge and experiences. Increasingly, SHG Federations are being seen as a key interface with the SHG movement because of their formal registration under the Mutually Aided Co-operative Society (MACS) and recognition from bankers.


Thirty percent of SHGs in the sample have been involved in community actions. These involved: improving community services (43% of the total actions, including water supply, education, health care, veterinary care, village road), trying to stop alcohol sale and consumption (31%), contributing finance and labour for new infrastructure, (12%), protecting natural resources and acts of charity (to non-members). Not included are activities such as cleaning the village before village functions – which community leaders increasingly find SHGs useful for. Nor have we included general participation in campaigns or rallies - pulse polio, literacy, anti-dowry, for example - for which SHGs are becoming a means of mobilising women, especially in the southern states. The mobilisation of numbers of women through village or cluster networks, or federations, was a significant feature of effective community action.

ArticleArticle title Full Citation Article Year

Barr et al. (2007) Evaluation of DFI Barr, Basavraj, Girdwood, 2007Basu & Srivastara (2005) This paper reviewsScaling-up MicrofiBasu & Srivastara. (2005). 2005BFA (2012) InFocus Note 3: CoBankable Frontier Associa 2012Bhawan & MSwarnajayanti Gra A Report on the Su 2008Bouman (19Multiple ROSCA and ASCRA:Bouman, F.J.A. (1994). RO 1994Burns, BogaPSNP Plus Linking Poor Rura 2010Collins & Goss (2014) Describes potentiSavings Group LinCollins, Daryl & Goss, Sal 2014DANIDA (20 WYTEP in Karnat This report presenFarm Women in Dev 2004DDD (2011)COSALO I Study of 54 group 2011Fernandez (2006) Fenandez. (2006). History 2007Florescu (2009) Women’s Access toFlorescu, Cosmin (2009). 2009Gugerty (2007) You Can't Save AloGugerty, M. K. (2007). Yo 2007IFAD (2010) India Country Pro IFAD. 2010. “Empowerin 2010Jenkins & Fries (2013) Project Nurture i PROJECT NURTURE:Jenkins, Beth and Lorin F 2012Johnson, Brown, & Foullet (2Report examining THE SEARCH FORJohnson, Brown & Foullet 2012Kindernothilfe (KNH) (2008) the Self Help App Kindernothilfe (2008). Th 2008Lawal (2000) Evaluation of the Self-Help Groups aLawal, W.A. (2000). Self-H 2000Murrangira Sustainable Access VSLA as a PlatformMurangira, Frankin & Orti 2012Nadeau (2010) The First Mile: Th Nadeau, E.G. (2010). The 2010Nair (2005) Sustainability of Nair. (2005). Sustainabili 2005Nelson (2012) BUILDING FINANNelson, Candice (2012). B 2013Odell (2012) Describes the landMicrofinance in AfOdell, Marcia (2012).Micr 2011Odell & Rippey (2011) A case study of sa Odell, Marcia & Rippey, 2011Pronyk et aMicrofinance for Effect of a structu Pronyk, P. M., Hargreaves, 2006Rippey & Fowler (2011) AKF Synthesis on Rippey, Paul & Fowler, Be 2011Rushdy (20ISHAKA ANALYSIS OF THRushdy, Sherif (2012). Ana 2012Sa-Dhan (2004) A Study Report on Sa-Dhan (2004). A Study R 2004Saleh (2012) Information as a MSaleh, Adam Gambo (2012). 2012Seibel (2012) Describes a pilot Regional Project f Seibel, H.D. (2012). Regio 2012Self Employed Women's Association (2012) Self Employed WomSEWA (2012). Self Emplo 2012Sinamandla Karnataka Urban About the Self-He Sinamandla (2014). "Abou 2007Sitaram (2007) This case study ev Sitaram, S. (2007). Eva 2007Sulaiman (2004)Swain & VaMultiple Banking on Self-H Swain, R. B., & Varghese, 2012Tankha (20TASAF Tankha, A. (2012). Banking on Self-help GroThe Self He25+ Interventions The Self Help GroThe Self Help Approach - 2008The Self He25+ Interventions The Self Help GroThe Self Help Approach - 2009Wellard (20Multiple Knowledge TransfeWellard, K. (2011). Knowl 2011World BankNigerian Rural Fin RURAL FINANCE World Bank. 2008. Rural F 2008


Nature of intervention

This study evaluated two projects focused on natural resource management and improved livelihoods in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The projects both used SHGs as the primary platform for service delivery.

Provides findings from a BMGF funded study of how financial institutions in developing countries (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and Rwanda) can improve service delivery to low income populations. Note 1 contains a demand analysis outlying beneficiary motivations for participation, part two includes a market segmentation analysis, and Note 3 includes a synthesis of findings and proposed methodologies for implementation. A Study of Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY) SHG promotion programs in Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, and Bihar.Bhawan & Marg. (2008). A Report on the Success and Failure of SHG’s in India – Impediments and Paradigm of Success. Not published, VOICE.

Contains descriptive analysis of the differences between ROSCAs and ASCAs in SSA through three case studies in Cameroon, Senegal, and Nigeria.

Burns, J., Bogale, S., & Bekele, G. (2010). Linking poor rural households to microfinance and markets in Ethiopia: Baseline and mid-term assessment of the PSNP plus project in Doba. Addis Abeba: Tufts University.

DANIDA. (2004). Farm Women in Development Impact Study of Four Training Projects in India. Not published, DANIDA.

Results of Study of Post‐Project Replication of Groups in COSALO I DDD (2011). Results of Study of Post Project Replication of Groups in COSALO I ‐This paper traces the origins and progress of the self-help group (SHG) movement in India from 1985 to March 2006. It looks at the roles, in order of their entry into the movement, of NGOs, the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), other banks, IFAD and central and state governmentsHistory and spread of the self help affinity group movement in India

The role played by IFADLiterature of SHG activities and background information for Ethiopia. Contains detailed case studies of programs facilitated by Project Concern International and The Self-help Approach Ethiopia.

Describes 18 IFAD funded projects in India from 1987 to 2009, including 9 ongoing projects. The majority of projects focus on SHG promotion to improve women’s empowerment and access to financial services in remote, poor, and tribal areas in Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, and others.

Provides process documentation of CARE Rwanda's pilot project to combine the Sustainable Access to Financial Services for Investment (SAFI) and Social Change for Family Planning Results Initiative (RI) projects in Gatsibo district, Eastern Province. The goal of the new SAFI-RI pilot was to use existing VSLAs to improve women's empowerment and RMNCH outcomes through savings and peer education. This paper presents a model for community-based health cooperatives in Sub-Saharan Africa that is based to a large extent on a successful community health mobilization program in Kenya.This study explores the potential of SHG federations in providing sustainability to SHGs by providing financial services and other support. Describes current and potential strategies for increasing financial literacy amongst CRS and CARE supported savings groups in Kenya.

The Permanence and Value of Savings Groups in CARE Kenya’s COSAMO Programme

Describes the outcomes and methodology of a program to reduce intimate partner violence in rural Limpopo provice of South Africa using loans for enterprise development, and trainings of women beneficiaries. Loans were made to individuals, but solidarity groups were formed to encourage repayment. The intervention claims to have reduced intimate partner violence by 55%. Study of 9 Savings group interventions in Africa, South Asia, and Central America used to carry out projects across several outcome areas. Evaluation of CARE Burundi's Ishaka project, which uses modified VSLAs to economically and socially empower adolescent girls in urban and peri-urban areas of Bujumbura and Gitega provinces. Study examines the emerging impact and practices of twenty seven Indian SHG federations: thirteen from the Southern region, three from the Western, five from the Northern, three from the Eastern and another three from the Northeastern part of the country.Describes how women's groups in Borno State, Nigeria, seek out and use infomration.

Overview of Sinamadla's SHG programs in South AfricaSELF HELP GROUPS IN KARNATAKAEvaluation of the self help group process and project approach of R7830 & R7839 Sulaiman, R. (2004). Evaluation of the self help group process and project approach of R7830

& R7839. ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region.Book describing the evolution of the SHG movement in India, and an examination of the literature regarding scale, sustainability and costs.. The book contains outputs and findings of a study conducted by the author in the latter part of 2011 for ACCESS Development Services.Describes a Government of Tanzania program to increase incomes and opportunities of people living under the national poverty line. Includes a Savings Group Component. Gives a general background of SHG promotion and activity by over 25 NGOs in Ethiopia. Gives a general background of SHG promotion and activity by over 25 NGOs in Ethiopia. Examines the use of groups in Community Based Extension to increase food security in Uganda, Ghana, and Malawi.Includes a review of the historical and current policy environment of rural finance in Nigeria, including an examination of service providers and supply chain financing. Includes recommendations for improving smallholder access to financial resources such as promotion of SHGs.

Methodology Country Type of SHG Type of Group

Program DocumenSouth Asia India (West BengalSavings Groups Indian SHGNon-experimentalSouth Asia India Savings Groups Indian SHGNon Experimental Sub-Saharan Afric East Africa (Keny Savings Groups Savings GroupNon-experimentalSouth Asia India Savings Groups Indian SHGNon-experimentalSub-Saharan Afric International (CamSavings Groups ROSCAs and ASCRAsProgram DocumenSub-Saharan Afric Ethiopia Savings Groups VSLANon-experimentalBoth International (Ke Savings Groups savings and loan groups (SGs)Program DocumenSouth Asia India Mixed Group TypeWomens Farmers Groups and Savings Groups Program DocumenSub-Saharan Afric Kenya Savings Groups COSALO GS&L & ROSCANon-experimentalSouth Asia India Savings Groups Indian SHGProgram DocumenSub-Saharan Afric Ethiopia Savings Groups SHGNon-experimentalSub-Saharan Afric Kenya Savings Groups ROSCAsProgram DocumenSouth Asia India Savings Groups Indian SHGProgram DocumenSub-Saharan Afric Uganda/Kenya Farmers' Groups Farmers' GroupsProgram DocumenSub-Saharan Afric Kenya Savings Groups ASCAS, ROSCAS, similarProgram DocumenSouth Asia Multinational Savings GroupsProgram DocumenSub-Saharan Afric Nigeria Savings Groups SHGsNon-experimentalSub-Saharan Afric Rwanda Savings Groups VSLANon-experimentalSub-Saharan Afric Kenya Mixed Group Typevarious CBOsNon-experimentalSouth Asia India Savings Groups SHGs and SHG FederationsNon-experimentalSub-Saharan Afric Kenya Savings Groups COSALO GS&L & ROSCANon-experimentalSub-Saharan Afric International (Zim Savings Groups Savings GroupsProgram DocumenSub-Saharan Afric Kenya Savings Groups Savings Groups (mostly modified VSLA)Experimental Sub-Saharan Afric South Africa Savings Groups Loan Repayment Group Program DocumenBoth International Savings Groups Savings GroupProgram DocumenSub-Saharan Afric Burundi Savings Groups VS&L Solidarity Group Non-experimentalSouth Asia India Savings Groups Indian SHGQuasi-experimentaSub-Saharan Afric Nigeria, Borno staSavings Groups Women's groupsNon-experimentalSouth Asia India (Andhra Pra Savings Groups Indian SHGProgram DocumenSouth Asia India Savings GroupsNon-experimentalSub-Saharan Afric South Africa Savings Groups SHGProgram DocumenSouth Asia India (Karnataka) Savings Groups Indian SHGProgram DocumenSouth Asia India Savings Groups Indian SHGReview South Asia India Savings Groups Indian SHGsProgram DocumenSub-Saharan Afric Tanzania Other Groups Vulnerable Groups Non-experimentalSub-Saharan Afric Ethiopia Savings Groups SHGNon-experimentalSub-Saharan Afric Ethiopia Savings Groups SHGQuasi-experimentaSub-Saharan Afric international (uga Farmers' Groups Farmers' GroupsProgram DocumenSub-Saharan Afric Nigeria Savings Groups SHG

South Asia or Sub-Saharan Africa

savings and loan groups (SGs)Womens Farmers Groups and Savings Groups

Savings Groups (mostly modified VSLA)

Individual constraints to behavior change: What is the impact of group-based delivery on the following constraints?

Article Income Access to credit Financial assets Transaction costs

Barham & CFarmers' GNot specified. Not specified Not specified. Positive ImpactFischer & Farmers' GPositive ImFarmer's saNegative I Farmer's whMixed ImpaMiddle-incoMixed ImpaThe authorsKaganzi et Farmers' GMixed ImpaFarmers sawPositive Imgroup membNot specified. Positive ImpactPlace, et alFarmers' GNot specified. Not specified Not specified. Not specifiedBhoj, Bard Indian SHGPositive Impact Positive Impact Not specified. Positive ImpactDeininger &Indian SHGPositive ImThe programPositive ImData regardNo Impact The authorsNot specified.Holvoet. (2Indian SHGNot specified. Positive ImThe main inPositive ImAbout 40 peNot specified.Reddy & MaIndian SHGMixed ImpaThe penetraPositive Im'Group membNot specified. Not specified.Sinha, et alIndian SHGNot specified. Positive ImSHGs are exPositive ImForty-six g Not specified.Swain, et aIndian SHGNot specified. Positive ImThe SHG banNot specified. Not specified.Swain. (20 Indian SHGMixed ImpaThe requirePositive ImFormed grouMixed ImpaTraining byNot specified.Caro, PangMix Positive Impact Positive ImAccessing sPositive ImA few womenPositive ImAggregatingAnderson &Savings Gr Unclear Married womMixed ImpaRoscas enaNot specified. Not specified.Anderson, Savings Gr Not specified. Mixed ImpaRoscas suppNot specified. Not specified.Molyneux, eSavings Gr No impact Protecting Mixed ImpaAround 28% Not specified. Not specified.Colbourn, eWomen's GNot specified. Positive ImWithin grouNot specified. Not specified.

Type of Group


Power negotiation Time Flexibility Information Education

Not specified. Not specified Not specified Positive Impact Not specified. Not specified. Not specified Not specified Positive Impact Not specified. Not specified. Not specified Not specified Positive Impact Positive ImpactNot specified. Not specified Not specified Positive Impact Not specified. Not specified. Negative I Women spenNot specified Positive Impact Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive ImIt is shown Not specified. Not specified. Positive ImThe main inPositive ImThe main inNot specified. Not specified. Negative I The study aNot specified. Mixed ImpaAPMAS has tNot specified. Not specified. Mixed ImpaAs amounts Not specified. Not specified.Positive ImSHGs can prNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive ImThe traininNot specified. Negative I There are hNot specified. Not specified. Positive ImNGOs providNot specified. Not specified Not specified Positive Impact Positive ImThrough thePositive ImThe authorsNot specified. Negative I A rosca als Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified. Negative I In a collec Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Negative I For househoMixed ImpaLocal level Not specified. Not specified.Positive ImBoth FI andNot specified. Not specified. Positive ImThe Study ePositive ImThe Study e


Commitment Risk Inertia Self-efficacy Household norms

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Mixed ImpaAccessing hNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specified Not specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Positive ImMembers moNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive ImProviding gNot specified. Not specified. Positive ImThe share oNot specifi About 21% oPositive ImIn terms ofNot specified. Positive ImThe partici Positive ImThe main inPositive ImIt is shownPositive ImGroup membeNot specified. Not specified. Positive ImThe role ofPositive ImStatus of wPositive ImThe theory Mixed ImpaForty-six g Not specified. Positive ImOver time, Not specified.Positive ImFormed grouNot specified. Not specified. Positive ImThe traininNot specified.Positive ImFormed grouNot specified. Not specified. Positive ImNGOs providNot specified.Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Positive ImBuild and nPositive ImSunhara IndPositive ImThe collegi Mixed ImpaTo these coNot specified. Positive ImA stated foPositive ImThe authorsPositive Im Positive ImThe authorsNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Mixed ImpaNumerous peNot specified. Not specified. Not specified.Positive ImWithin grouNot specified. Positive ImWomen's groPositive ImTraining anPositive ImCI focuses

As an informal group, a rosca cannot legally enforce agreements between members. As discussed in the introduction, roscas can inflict two types of sanctions on defecting members. First, they can exclude the member from all future roscas and from all other rosca groups as well. Second, roscas can also punish defection via a range of social sanctions such as giving a bad reputation, retaliating at the workplace, or damaging personal property. When a member fails to contribute regularly, groups generally resort to a system of progressive sanctions, usually preceded by an attempt to establish the reasons for his defaulting. They visit themember at his home, or send warning letters. In the absence of a satisfactory reaction, many roscas also attempt to retrieve the amounts due. Forinstance, when one member left with the pot, one group went to the home of the person and appropriated a radio set to compensate for the loss. In all groups, the acceptance of new members is subject to them being well-known by the group. Members with poor attendance may be punished by being given a late number for receiving the pot.

Individual constraints to behavior change: What is the impact of group-based delivery on the following constraints? Group Characteristics Affecting Outcomes: Are the following characteristics emphasized as being correlated with group success?

Group membership

Community norms Mobility Customization Small group size

Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. No Group size No There was nNot specified. Positive Immembers furNot specified. Not specifi Mean numbeNot specifi Social partNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specifi 120 membeNot specifi Members havNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Somewhat The authorsNo Groups selfNot specified. Positive Immembers furNot specified. Not specifi In the caseNo The authorsPositive ImAbout 21% oPositive ImThe programNot specified. Not specifi A typical Not specified.Positive ImIt is shown Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specifi Norm-followPositive ImSignificant Not specified. Negative I The study aNot specifi A SHG is a Not specifi SHGs includMixed Impa Positive ImOver time, Not specified. Not specifi Overal averYes At group leNot specified. Positive ImSHG membersNot specified. Not specifi SHG groupsNot specified.Not specified. Not specified. Negative I Many groupsNot specifi SHGs tend Not specified.Mixed ImpaOnce the woPositive ImGoing into Not specified. Not specifi SHGs were Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specifi The median Not specifi Married womNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Yes The averageNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Mixed ImpaLocal level Not specified. Not specified. Positive ImGroup stratPositive ImWomen's groNot specified. Not specifi Not specified.

Homogeneity of members

Over half the elected women representatives (25 out of 44) were active in the panchayat, attending meetings regularly, carrying out responsibilities; only seven (16%) turned out to be proxies meaning that their husbands took their place. Another 12 had low engagement in situations where, although a woman representative might attend a panchayat meeting, her presence is largely ignored by others (men) and she does not get the opportunity to build the awareness or experience to carry out an active role. The findings on social harmony underline the persistence of traditional attitudes and divisions, but show that in some areas, and with SHPA initiative and persistence, SHGs are beginning to bridge such divisions, through mixed caste membership in some cases, and in others through joint actions across groups of different castes.

and 24 in Salima

Group Characteristics Affecting Outcomes: Are the following characteristics emphasized as being correlated with group success?

Group membership Group dynamics

Low levels of poverty Savings component Meeting frequency

No Indicators No Surprisingl No Formed for Not specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specifi Middle incoNot specifi Groups onlyNot specified. Not specified.Yes Members havNot specifed. Not specifi Potato groYes Collective Not specified.Not specified Not specifed. No The sheer dNot specified. Not specified.Not specified No There wereNot specifi SHG for DaNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specifi The programNot specifi The programYes The programYes ImprovementNot specified. Not specified. Not specifi Members strYes The group fYes The data suNot specifi Group membeNot specifi The penetraNot specifi SHGs are beYes Group membeNot specified.Not specified. Not specifi 51% of membNot specifi SHPAs diffeYes SHGs enableNot specified.Yes SHGs can prNot specified. Not specified. Yes Formed grouYes groups meeNot specified. Not specifi The requireNot specified. Yes Formed grouNot specified.Not specified. Not specifed. Not specified. Yes They contrNot specified.Not specifi Years spentNot specifeMarried womNot specified. Yes Women descrYes Members conYes Members of Not specified. Not specified. Yes The averageNot specified.Yes Identifying Not specifi Protecting Not specifi Groups set Yes Local level Not specified.Not specifi Group stratNot specified. Not specifi The basis oYes Within grouNot specified.

Shared social networks

Clearly defined boundaries


Group dynamics Group governance

Membership fee

Not specified. Yes 20 groups wNot specifi Trainings i Not specifi Quality of Not specified. Yes Yes, group Not specifi Groups founNot specifi Farmers proNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specifi The Group wNot specifi The group wYes Based on thNot specified. Not specifi This was notNot specifi Average GroNot specified. Yes Strong leadNot specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Not specified. Yes The programNot specifi The programNot specified. Not specifi Providing gNot specified. Not specifi Women’s groYes The main inNot specified. Yes In terms ofNot specified. Not specifi The practicNot specifi Another comNot specifi Group leadeNot specifi members comNot specified. Not specifi SHGs are foYes The patternNot specifi SHG leadersNot specifi The theory Not specified. Yes NGO or bankYes The traininNot specifi Column (1) Not specified.Not specified. Not specifi The bank liYes NGOs providNot specified. Not specified.Not specified. Not specifi Not specifi For women’sNot specified. Not specified. Not specifi IndividualsNot specifi Members comNot specifi The rosca lNot specifi The founderNot specifi The collegiYes A minority Not specifi Members comNot specifi The rosca lNot specifi The founderYes The authorsNot specified. Not specifi Not specified. Not specifi Numerous peNot specifi Groups aimeNot specified. Not specifi Most groupsNot specifi Training anNot specified. Not specifi Within grou

Timing of group formation

Training to support group governance/

decision-makingAppropriate leadership

Peer accountability mechanisms

different intervention models, as well as recognition of the high failure rate of farmers’ organization in India.

Typically they are small groups set up by households known to each other. However, some groups are set up by strategic or intermediate CBOs to implement activities.


Group governance

Yes More mature groups (p=0.045) with a greater number of activities (p<0.001) were found to be more likely to improve their market situation. Sixtyfive percent of the existing groups (13 out of 20) were able to improve their market situation compared to fewer than half of the newly formed groups (43%). This finding is associated with the activity level variable, since those with maturity and functioning group activities are better positioned to mobilize resources and take advantage of emerging market opportunities than groups that have just started and lack such experience.Yes A significant increase in banana income can only be observed in older groups. Likewise, the group membership effect on the share of banana income to total income is higher in older than in younger groups. These results imply that the benefits of group membership do not materialize immediately, especially when group activities go beyond collective marketing and also involve aspects of technology adoption and production in perennial crops like banana.Yes Through the farmer field school, the Nyabyumba farmers had built large stocks of ‘bonding’ and ‘bridging’ social capital, but they had not extended their links to private sector market chain actors. Nevertheless, the historical characteristics of the group lent themselves to collective marketing. The farmers already possessed many of the attributes important for positive collective action, such as being clustered in small groups, having shared norms and past successful experiences; appropriate leadership, interdependence among group members and homogeneous interests.No Age of group not significantly related to measures of group performance.Not specified. Mixed For most outcome variables, there was not a significant difference in the outcomes for newly formed and converted SHGs. However, converted groups may not have had an advantage of past successful experiences given that these experiences did not conver the same activities as those implemented as part of the program.Yes Women’s group membership seriously shifts overall decision-making patterns from norm-guided behaviour and male decision-making to more joint and female decision-making. Longer-term group membership strengthen these patterns.Not specified.Not specifi The average age of SHGs is 5.9 years.Not specifi Groups are created and must demonstrate stability and financial discipline for 6 months, after which they receive loans of up to 4 times the amount it has saved. The bank then disburses the loan and the group decides how to manage the loan.Yes Formed groups have to build credit discipline by first saving a certain amount. Once savings pass a threshold level, then the groups wait six months to receive loans which are four times the savings amount. The bank then disburses the loan and the group decides how to manage the loan. As savings increase through the group’s life, the group can access a greater amount of loans. Longer membership duration in SHGs positively impacts asset creation.Not specified. Not specifi The median number of cycles in the lifetime of a given rosca was 3.21.Not specifi Potentially, roscas can choose whether they last only one cycle, or are repeated. However, given the assumed motivations of members, there is always a motive to save, and hence, it is always worthwhile to repeat the rosca. The average rosca in the sample had completed 9.5 full cycles. Not specified.Not specified.

Past successful experiences

More mature groups (p=0.045) with a greater number of activities (p<0.001) were found to be more likely to improve their market situation. Sixtyfive percent of the existing groups (13 out of 20) were able to improve their market situation compared to fewer than half of the newly formed groups (43%). This finding is associated with the activity level variable, since those with maturity and functioning group activities are better positioned to mobilize resources and take advantage of emerging market opportunities than groups that have just started and lack such experience.A significant increase in banana income can only be observed in older groups. Likewise, the group membership effect on the share of banana income to total income is higher in older than in younger groups. These results imply that the benefits of group membership do not materialize immediately, especially when group activities go beyond collective marketing and also involve aspects of technology adoption and production in perennial crops like banana.Through the farmer field school, the Nyabyumba farmers had built large stocks of ‘bonding’ and ‘bridging’ social capital, but they had not extended their links to private sector market chain actors. Nevertheless, the historical characteristics of the group lent themselves to collective marketing. The farmers already possessed many of the attributes important for positive collective action, such as being clustered in small groups, having shared norms and past successful experiences; appropriate leadership, interdependence among group members and homogeneous interests.

For most outcome variables, there was not a significant difference in the outcomes for newly formed and converted SHGs. However, converted groups may not have had an advantage of past successful experiences given that these experiences did not conver the same activities as those implemented as part of the program.Women’s group membership seriously shifts overall decision-making patterns from norm-guided behaviour and male decision-making to more joint and female decision-making. Longer-term group membership strengthen these patterns.

Groups are created and must demonstrate stability and financial discipline for 6 months, after which they receive loans of up to 4 times the amount it has saved. The bank then disburses the loan and the group decides how to manage the loan.Formed groups have to build credit discipline by first saving a certain amount. Once savings pass a threshold level, then the groups wait six months to receive loans which are four times the savings amount. The bank then disburses the loan and the group decides how to manage the loan. As savings increase through the group’s life, the group can access a greater amount of loans. Longer membership duration in SHGs positively impacts asset creation.

Potentially, roscas can choose whether they last only one cycle, or are repeated. However, given the assumed motivations of members, there is always a motive to save, and hence, it is always worthwhile to repeat the rosca. The average rosca in the sample had completed 9.5 full cycles.


For most outcome variables, there was not a significant difference in the outcomes for newly formed and converted SHGs. However, converted groups may not have had an advantage of past successful experiences given that these experiences did not conver the same activities as those implemented as part of the program.

Formed groups have to build credit discipline by first saving a certain amount. Once savings pass a threshold level, then the groups wait six months to receive loans which are four times the savings amount. The bank then disburses the loan and the group decides how to manage the loan. As savings increase through the group’s life, the group can access a greater amount of loans. Longer membership duration in SHGs positively impacts asset creation.


Formed groups have to build credit discipline by first saving a certain amount. Once savings pass a threshold level, then the groups wait six months to receive loans which are four times the savings amount. The bank then disburses the loan and the group decides how to manage the loan. As savings increase through the group’s life, the group can access a greater amount of loans. Longer membership duration in SHGs positively impacts asset creation.

More mature groups (p=0.045) with a greater number of activities (p<0.001) were found to be more likely to improve their market situation. Sixtyfive percent of the existing groups (13 out of 20) were able to improve their market situation compared to fewer than half of the newly formed groups (43%). This finding is associated with the activity level variable, since those with maturity and functioning group activities are better positioned to mobilize resources and take advantage of emerging market opportunities than groups that have just started and lack such experience.

Through the farmer field school, the Nyabyumba farmers had built large stocks of ‘bonding’ and ‘bridging’ social capital, but they had not extended their links to private sector market chain actors. Nevertheless, the historical characteristics of the group lent themselves to collective marketing. The farmers already possessed many of the attributes important for positive collective action, such as being clustered in small groups, having shared norms and past successful experiences; appropriate leadership, interdependence among group members and homogeneous interests.

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