Europe

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Europe Area 10,180,000 km2 (3,930,000 sq mi)[n] Population 742,452,000[n] (2013, 3rd ) Pop. density 72.9/km2 (about 188/sq mi) Demonym European Countries 50 (and 6 partially recognised) (list of countries) Languages List of languages Time zones UTC to UTC+6 Internet TLD .eu (European Union) Largest cities Metropolitan areas in Europe Istanbul [1] Moscow London Paris Ruhr Madrid Milan European states European territory of transcontinental states Asian territory of transcontinental states Asian states Europe From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Europe ( i / ˈ jʊәr ә p/ or / ˈ j ɜr ә p/ [2] ) is a continent that comprises the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia. It is generally divided from Asia by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting the Black and Aegean Seas. [3] Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and the Black Sea and its connected waterways to the southeast. Yet the borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary, as the primarily physiographic term "continent" also incorporates cultural and political elements. Europe is the world's secondsmallest continent by surface area, covering about 10,180,000 square kilometres (3,930,000 sq mi) or 2% of the Earth's surface and about 6.8% of its land area. Of Europe's approximately 50 countries, Russia is by far the largest by both area and population, taking up 40% of the continent (although the country has territory in both Europe and Asia), while Vatican City is the smallest. Europe is the thirdmost populous continent after Asia and Africa, with a population of 739–743 million or about 11% of the world's population. [4] The most commonly used currency is the euro. Europe, in particular ancient Greece, is the birthplace of Western culture. [5] It played a predominant role in global affairs from the 15th century onwards, especially after the beginning of colonialism. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European nations controlled at various times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania, and the overwhelming majority of Asia. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain around the end of the 18th century, gave rise to radical economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe, and eventually the wider world. Demographic growth meant that, by 1900, Europe's share of the world's population was 25%. [6] Both world wars were largely focused upon Europe, greatly contributing to a decline in Western European dominance in world affairs by the mid20th century as the United States and Soviet Union took prominence. [7] During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east. European integration led to the formation of the Council of Europe and the European Union in Western Europe, both of which have been expanding eastward since the revolutions of 1989 and the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Union nowadays has growing influence over its member countries. Many European countries are members of the Schengen Area, which abolishes border and immigration controls among its members. Contents 1 Definition 2 Etymology 3 History 3.1 Prehistory 3.2 Classical antiquity 3.3 Early Middle Ages 3.4 Middle Ages 3.5 Early modern period 3.6 18th and 19th centuries 3.7 20th century to the present 4 Geography 4.1 Climate

description

europe

Transcript of Europe

  • 3/19/2015 EuropeWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe 1/27

    Europe

    Area 10,180,000km2(3,930,000sqmi)[n]

    Population 742,452,000[n](2013,3rd)

    Pop.density

    72.9/km2(about188/sqmi)

    Demonym European

    Countries 50(and6partiallyrecognised)(listofcountries)

    Languages Listoflanguages

    Timezones UTCtoUTC+6

    InternetTLD

    .eu(EuropeanUnion)

    Largestcities

    MetropolitanareasinEuropeIstanbul[1]

    MoscowLondonParisRuhrMadridMilan

    Europeanstates

    Europeanterritoryoftranscontinentalstates Asianterritoryoftranscontinental

    states Asianstates

    EuropeFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

    Europe( i/jrp/or/jrp/[2])isacontinentthatcomprisesthewesternmostpeninsulaofEurasia.ItisgenerallydividedfromAsiabythewatersheddividesoftheUralandCaucasusMountains,theUralRiver,theCaspianandBlackSeas,andthewaterwaysconnectingtheBlackandAegeanSeas.[3]

    EuropeisborderedbytheArcticOceantothenorth,theAtlanticOceantothewest,theMediterraneanSeatothesouth,andtheBlackSeaanditsconnectedwaterwaystothesoutheast.YetthebordersofEuropeaconceptdatingbacktoclassicalantiquityarearbitrary,astheprimarilyphysiographicterm"continent"alsoincorporatesculturalandpoliticalelements.

    Europeistheworld'ssecondsmallestcontinentbysurfacearea,coveringabout10,180,000squarekilometres(3,930,000sqmi)or2%oftheEarth'ssurfaceandabout6.8%ofitslandarea.OfEurope'sapproximately50countries,Russiaisbyfarthelargestbybothareaandpopulation,takingup40%ofthecontinent(althoughthecountryhasterritoryinbothEuropeandAsia),whileVaticanCityisthesmallest.EuropeisthethirdmostpopulouscontinentafterAsiaandAfrica,withapopulationof739743millionorabout11%oftheworld'spopulation.[4]Themostcommonlyusedcurrencyistheeuro.

    Europe,inparticularancientGreece,isthebirthplaceofWesternculture.[5]Itplayedapredominantroleinglobalaffairsfromthe15thcenturyonwards,especiallyafterthebeginningofcolonialism.Betweenthe16thand20thcenturies,EuropeannationscontrolledatvarioustimestheAmericas,mostofAfrica,Oceania,andtheoverwhelmingmajorityofAsia.TheIndustrialRevolution,whichbeganinGreatBritainaroundtheendofthe18thcentury,gaverisetoradicaleconomic,cultural,andsocialchangeinWesternEurope,andeventuallythewiderworld.Demographicgrowthmeantthat,by1900,Europe'sshareoftheworld'spopulationwas25%.[6]

    BothworldwarswerelargelyfocuseduponEurope,greatlycontributingtoadeclineinWesternEuropeandominanceinworldaffairsbythemid20thcenturyastheUnitedStatesandSovietUniontookprominence.[7]DuringtheColdWar,EuropewasdividedalongtheIronCurtainbetweenNATOinthewestandtheWarsawPactintheeast.EuropeanintegrationledtotheformationoftheCouncilofEuropeandtheEuropeanUnioninWesternEurope,bothofwhichhavebeenexpandingeastwardsincetherevolutionsof1989andthefalloftheSovietUnionin1991.TheEuropeanUnionnowadayshasgrowinginfluenceoveritsmembercountries.ManyEuropeancountriesaremembersoftheSchengenArea,whichabolishesborderandimmigrationcontrolsamongitsmembers.

    Contents

    1Definition2Etymology3History

    3.1Prehistory3.2Classicalantiquity3.3EarlyMiddleAges3.4MiddleAges3.5Earlymodernperiod3.618thand19thcenturies3.720thcenturytothepresent

    4Geography4.1Climate

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosporushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonisation_of_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schengen_Areahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_orthographic_Caucasus_Urals_boundary.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_geographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.euhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borders_of_the_continents#Europe_and_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:En-us-Europe.ogghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_colonisation_of_the_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_continentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madridhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonymhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drainage_dividehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcontinental_stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Londonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTC%2B6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_metropolitan_areas_in_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTChttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/En-us-Europe.ogghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatican_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-level_domainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_continents_by_populationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Pacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATOhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_Asia_transcontinental.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_geographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Curtainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcontinental_stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_populationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_integrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Europe

  • 3/19/2015 EuropeWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

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    4.2Geology4.2.1Geologicalhistory

    4.3Biodiversity5Politicalgeography6Integration7Economy

    7.1Pre1945:Industrialgrowth7.219451990:TheColdWar7.319912007:Integrationandreunification7.420082010:Recession

    8Demographics8.1Language8.2Religion

    9Culture10Seealso11Notes12References13Externallinks

    Definition

    ClickablemapofEurope,showingoneofthemostcommonlyusedcontinentalboundaries[8]

    Key:blue:stateswhichstraddletheborderbetweenEuropeandAsiagreen:statesnotgeographicallyinEurope,butcloselyassociatedpolitically[9]

    Alb.

    And.

    AustriaArmenia

    Azer.

    Belarus

    Belgium

    BiHBulgaria

    Croatia

    Cyprus

    CzechRep.

    Denmark

    Estonia

    Finland

    France

    Germany

    Georgia

    Greece

    Greenland(Dk)

    Hungary

    Iceland

    Ireland

    ItalyS.Mar.

    Kazakhstan

    Kos.

    Latvia

    Liech.

    Lithuania

    Lux.

    Mac.

    Malta

    Moldova

    Mon.Mont.

    Neth.

    Norway

    Svalbard(Nor)

    Poland

    Portugal

    Romania

    Russia

    NovayaZemlya(Rus.)

    Serbia

    Slovakia

    Slo.

    Spain

    Sweden

    Switzerland

    Turkey

    Ukraine

    UnitedKingdom

    Far.(Dk)

    Vat.AdriaticSea

    ArcticOcean

    BalticSea

    AegeanSea

    BarentsSea

    BayofBiscay

    BlackSea

    AzovSea

    CaspianSea

    CelticSea

    GreenlandSea

    BaffinBay

    GulfofCdiz

    LigurianSea

    MediterraneanSea

    NorthAtlanticOcean

    NorthSea

    NorwegianSea

    StraitofGibraltar

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Azovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novaya_Zemlyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatican_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armeniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monacohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcontinental_countryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosovohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andorrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Macedoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liechtensteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Marinohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Biscayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligurian_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maltahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baffin_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_C%C3%A1dizhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloveniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faroe_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barents_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montenegrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundaries_between_continentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_polar_stereographic_Caucasus_Urals_boundary.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbia

  • 3/19/2015 EuropeWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

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    ReconstructionofHerodotus'worldmap

    AmedievalTandOmapfrom1472showingthethreecontinentsasdomainsofthesonsofNoahAsiatoSem(Shem),EuropetoIafeth(Japheth),andAfricatoCham(Ham)

    EarlymoderndepictionofEuroparegina('QueenEurope')andthemythicalEuropaofthe8thcenturybeforeChrist.

    EuropaandthebullonaGreekvase.TarquiniaMuseum,c.480BC

    Theuseoftheterm"Europe"hasdevelopedgraduallythroughouthistory.[10][11]Inantiquity,theGreekhistorianHerodotusmentionedthattheworldhadbeendividedbyunknownpersonsintothreeparts,Europe,Asia,andLibya(Africa),withtheNileandtheRiverPhasisformingtheirboundariesthoughhealsostatesthatsomeconsideredtheRiverDon,ratherthanthePhasis,astheboundarybetweenEuropeandAsia.[12]Europe'seasternfrontierwasdefinedinthe1stcenturybygeographerStraboattheRiverDon.[13]TheBookofJubileesdescribedthecontinentsasthelandsgivenbyNoahtohisthreesonsEuropewasdefinedasstretchingfromthePillarsofHerculesattheStraitof

    Gibraltar,separatingitfromNorthAfrica,totheDon,separatingitfromAsia.[14]

    AculturaldefinitionofEuropeasthelandsofLatinChristendomcoalescedinthe8thcentury,signifyingthenewculturalcondominiumcreatedthroughtheconfluenceofGermanictraditionsandChristianLatinculture,definedpartlyincontrastwithByzantiumandIslam,andlimitedtonorthernIberia,theBritishIsles,France,ChristianizedwesternGermany,theAlpineregionsandnorthernandcentralItaly.[15]TheconceptisoneofthelastinglegaciesoftheCarolingianRenaissance:"Europa"oftenfiguresinthelettersofCharlemagne'scourtscholar,Alcuin.[16]ThisdivisionasmuchculturalasgeographicalwasuseduntiltheLateMiddleAges,whenitwaschallengedbytheAgeofDiscovery.[17][18]TheproblemofredefiningEuropewasfinallyresolvedin1730when,insteadofwaterways,theSwedishgeographerandcartographervonStrahlenbergproposedtheUralMountainsasthemostsignificanteasternboundary,asuggestionthatfoundfavourinRussiaandthroughoutEurope.[19]

    EuropeisnowgenerallydefinedbygeographersasthewesternpeninsulaofEurasia,withitsboundariesmarkedbylargebodiesofwatertothenorth,westandsouthEurope'slimitstothefareastareusuallytakentobetheUrals,theUralRiver,andtheCaspianSeatothesoutheast,includingtheCaucasusMountains,theBlackSeaandthewaterwaysconnectingtheBlackSeatotheMediterraneanSea.[20]

    Islandsaregenerallygroupedwiththenearestcontinentallandmass,henceIcelandisgenerallyconsideredtobepartofEurope,whilethenearbyislandofGreenlandisusuallyassignedtoNorthAmerica.Nevertheless,therearesomeexceptionsbasedonsociopoliticalandculturaldifferences.CyprusisclosesttoAnatolia(orAsiaMinor),butisusuallyconsideredpartofEuropebothculturallyandpoliticallyandcurrentlyisamemberstateoftheEU.MaltawasconsideredanislandofNorthAfricaforcenturies.[21]

    ThegeographicboundarydrawnbetweenEuropeandAsiain1730followsnointernationalboundaries.Asaresult,attemptstoorganizeEuropealongpoliticaloreconomiclineshaveresultedinusesofthenameinageopoliticallylimitingway[22]toreferonlytothe28memberstatesoftheEuropeanUnion,orevenmoreexclusively,toaculturallydefinedcore.Conversely,EuropehasalsobeenusedinaveryexpansivewaybytheCouncilofEuropewhichhas47membercountries,[23]someofwhichterritoriallyoverreachtheUralandBosphoruslinestoincludeallofSiberiaandTurkey.Inaddition,peopleintheBritishIslesmayreferto"continental"or"mainland"EuropeasEurope.[24]

    Etymology

    InancientGreekmythology,EuropawasaPhoenicianprincesswhomZeusabductedafterassumingtheformofadazzlingwhitebull.HetookhertotheislandofCretewhereshegavebirthtoMinos,Rhadamanthus,andSarpedon.ForHomer,Europe(AncientGreek:,EurpseealsoListofGreekplacenames)wasamythologicalqueenofCrete,notageographicaldesignation.

    TheetymologyofEuropeisuncertain.[25]OnetheorysuggeststhatitisderivedfromtheGreek(eurus),meaning"wide,broad"[26]and//(ps/p/opt),meaning"eye,face,countenance",[27]henceEurp,"widegazing","broadofaspect"(comparewithglaukpis('greyeyed')Athenaorbopis('oxeyed')Hera).BroadhasbeenanepithetofEarthitselfinthereconstructedProtoIndoEuropeanreligion.[28]AnothertheorysuggeststhatitisbasedonaSemiticwordsuchastheAkkadianerebumeaning"togodown,set"[29](inreferencetothesun),cognatetoPhoenician'ereb"eveningwest"andArabic

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Herodotus_World_Map.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_and_O_maphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenician_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japhethhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jubileeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ham,_son_of_Noahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_reginahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_place_nameshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena#Cult_and_attributeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europa_copy.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rioni_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoeniciahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhadamanthushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_River_(Russia)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_(mythology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull_(mythology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarpedonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_(mythology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:T_and_O_map_Guntherus_Ziner_1472.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rioni_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Dominihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christendomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maltahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Discoveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Johan_von_Strahlenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillars_of_Herculeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epithethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europa_Prima_Pars_Terrae_in_Forma_Virginis.jpg

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    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe 4/27

    TheLadyofVina,neolithicpotteryfromSerbia

    TheNebraskydiskfromBronzeAgeGermany

    TheParthenoninAthens

    Maghreb,Hebrewma'arav(seealsoErebus,PIE*h1regos,"darkness").However,MartinLitchfieldWeststatesthat

    "phonologically,thematchbetweenEuropa'snameandanyformoftheSemiticwordisverypoor".[30]

    Whatevertheoriginofthenameofthemythologicalfigure,isfirstusedasageographicalterminthe6thcenturyBC,byGreekgeographerssuchasAnaximanderandHecataeus.AnaximanderplacedtheboundarybetweenAsiaandEuropealongthePhasisRiver(themodernRioni)intheCaucasus,aconventionstillfollowedbyHerodotusinthe5thcenturyBC.[31]ButtheconventionreceivedbytheMiddleAgesandsurvivingintomodernusageisthatoftheRomanerausedbyRomaneraauthorssuchasPosidonius,[32]Strabo[33]andPtolemy,[34]whotooktheTanais(themodernDonRiver)astheboundary.Theterm"Europe"isfirstusedforaculturalsphereintheCarolingianRenaissanceofthe9thcentury.Fromthattime,thetermdesignatedthesphereofinfluenceoftheWesternChurch,asopposedtoboththeEasternOrthodoxchurchesandtotheIslamicworld.Themodernconvention,enlargingtheareaof"Europe"somewhattotheeastandthesoutheast,developsinthe19thcentury.

    Mostmajorworldlanguagesusewordsderivedfrom"Europa"torefertothe"continent"(peninsula).Chinese,forexample,usestheworduzhu()asimilarChinesederivedtermsh()isalsosometimesusedinJapanesesuchasintheJapanesenameoftheEuropeanUnion,shReng(),despitethekatakanaYroppa()beingmorecommonlyused.However,insomeTurkiclanguagestheoriginallyPersiannameFrangistan(landoftheFranks)isusedcasuallyinreferringtomuchofEurope,besidesofficialnamessuchasAvrupaorEvropa.[35]

    History

    Prehistory

    Homoerectusgeorgicus,whichlivedroughly1.8millionyearsagoinGeorgia,istheearliesthominidtohavebeendiscoveredinEurope.[36]Otherhominidremains,datingbackroughly1millionyears,havebeendiscoveredinAtapuerca,Spain.[37]Neanderthalman(namedaftertheNeandertalvalleyinGermany)appearedinEurope150,000yearsagoanddisappearedfromthefossilrecordabout28,000BC,withthisextinctionprobablyduetoclimatechange,andtheirfinalrefugebeingpresentdayPortugal.TheNeanderthalsweresupplantedbymodernhumans(CroMagnons),whoappearedinEuropearound43to40thousandyearsago.[38]

    TheEuropeanNeolithicperiodmarkedbythecultivationofcropsandtheraisingoflivestock,increasednumbersofsettlementsandthewidespreaduseofpotterybeganaround7000BCinGreeceandtheBalkans,probablyinfluencedbyearlierfarmingpracticesinAnatoliaandtheNearEast.[39]ItspreadfromtheBalkansalongthevalleysoftheDanubeandtheRhine(LinearPotteryculture)andalongtheMediterraneancoast(Cardialculture).Between4500and3000BC,thesecentralEuropeanneolithicculturesdevelopedfurthertothewestandthenorth,transmittingnewlyacquiredskillsinproducingcopperartefacts.InWesternEuropetheNeolithicperiodwascharacterisednotbylargeagriculturalsettlementsbutbyfieldmonuments,suchascausewayedenclosures,burialmoundsandmegalithictombs.[40]TheCordedWareculturalhorizonflourishedatthetransitionfromtheNeolithictotheChalcolithic.Duringthisperiodgiantmegalithicmonuments,suchastheMegalithicTemplesofMaltaandStonehenge,wereconstructedthroughoutWesternandSouthernEurope.[41][42]

    TheEuropeanBronzeAgebeganc.3200BCinGreece.[43]

    TheEuropeanIronAgebeganaround1200BC.[44]IronAgecolonisationbytheGreeksandPhoeniciansgaverisetoearlyMediterraneancities.EarlyIronAgeItalyandGreecefromaroundthe8thcenturyBCgraduallygaverisetohistoricalClassicalantiquity.

    Classicalantiquity

    AncientGreecewasthefoundingcultureofWesterncivilisation.WesterndemocraticandindividualisticcultureareoftenattributedtoAncientGreece.[45]TheGreeksinventedthepolis,orcitystate,whichplayedafundamentalroleintheirconceptofidentity.[46]TheseGreekpoliticalidealswererediscoveredinthelate18thcenturybyEuropeanphilosophersandidealists.Greecealsogeneratedmanyculturalcontributions:inphilosophy,humanismandrationalismunderAristotle,SocratesandPlatoinhistorywithHerodotusandThucydidesindramaticandnarrativeverse,startingwiththeepicpoemsofHomer[45]indramawithSophoclesandEuripides,inmedicinewithHippocratesandGalenandinsciencewithPythagoras,EuclidandArchimedes.[47][48][49]

    AnothermajorinfluencecameonEuropethatwouldimpactWesterncivilisationfromtheRomanEmpirewhichleftitsmarkonlaw,politics,language,engineering,architecture,governmentandmanymoreaspectsinwesterncivilisation.[50]Duringthepaxromana,theRomanEmpireexpandedtoencompasstheentireMediterraneanBasinandmuchofEurope.[51]

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanaishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardial_Warehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Litchfield_Westhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectus_georgicushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_coasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Neolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehengehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Bronze_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Parthenon_in_Athens.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frangistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophocleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghrebhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euripideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_of_Vin%C4%8Dahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greekshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Site_of_Atapuercahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causewayed_enclosurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Iron_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal_extinction_hypotheseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hominidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neandertalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corded_Warehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaic_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebra_sky_diskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaximanderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katakanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megalithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cro-Magnonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidoniushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vinca_clay_figure_02.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phasis_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megalithic_tombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal_manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burial_moundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecataeus_of_Miletushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erebushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pax_romanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centralized_governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megalithic_Temples_of_Maltahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nebra_Scheibe.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language

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    TheRomanEmpireatitsgreatestextent

    Europec.650

    Charlemagne'sempirein814:Frankia,Tributaries

    RolandpledgesfealtytoCharlemagne,HolyRomanEmperor

    DelegationsofCroatsandSerbsatByzantinecourtofBasilI

    StoicisminfluencedRomanemperorssuchasHadrian,AntoninusPius,andMarcusAurelius,whoallspenttimeontheEmpire'snorthernborderfightingGermanic,PictishandScottishtribes.[52][53]ChristianitywaseventuallylegitimisedbyConstantineIafterthreecenturiesofimperialpersecution.

    EarlyMiddleAges

    DuringthedeclineoftheRomanEmpire,Europeenteredalongperiodofchangearisingfromwhathistorianscallthe"AgeofMigrations".TherewerenumerousinvasionsandmigrationsamongsttheOstrogoths,Visigoths,Goths,Vandals,Huns,Franks,Angles,Saxons,Slavs,Avars,Bulgarsand,lateron,theVikings,Pechenegs,CumansandMagyars.[51]RenaissancethinkerssuchasPetrarchwouldlaterrefertothisasthe"DarkAges".[54]Isolatedmonasticcommunitiesweretheonlyplacestosafeguardandcompilewrittenknowledgeaccumulatedpreviouslyapartfromthisveryfewwrittenrecordssurviveandmuchliterature,philosophy,mathematics,andotherthinkingfromtheclassicalperioddisappearedfromWesternEuropethoughtheywerepreservedintheeast,intheByzantineEmpire.[55]

    Fromthe7thcenturyonwards,MuslimArabsstartedtoencroachonhistoricallyRomanterritory.OverthenextcenturiesMuslimforcestookCyprus,Malta,Crete,SicilyandpartsofsouthernItaly.[56]IntheEast,VolgaBulgariabecameanIslamicstateinthe10thcentury.[57]Between711and720,mostoftheIberianPeninsulawasbroughtunderMuslimrulesaveforsmallareasinthenorthwest(Asturias)andlargelyBasqueregionsinthePyrenees.Thisterritory,undertheArabicnameAlAndalus,becamepartoftheexpandingUmayyadempire.

    TheunsuccessfulsecondsiegeofConstantinople(717)weakenedtheUmayyaddynastyandreducedtheirprestige.TheUmayyadswerethendefeatedbytheFrankishleaderCharlesMartelattheBattleofPoitiersin732,whichendedtheirnorthwardadvance.

    DuringtheDarkAges,theWesternRomanEmpirefellunderthecontrolofvarioustribes.TheGermanicandSlavtribesestablishedtheirdomainsoverWesternandEasternEuroperespectively.[58]

    EventuallytheFrankishtribeswereunitedunderClovisI.[59]Charlemagne,aFrankishkingoftheCarolingiandynastywhohadconqueredmostofWesternEurope,wasanointed"HolyRomanEmperor"bythePopein800.Thisledin962tothefoundingoftheHolyRomanEmpire,whicheventuallybecamecentredintheGermanprincipalitiesofcentralEurope.[60]

    EastCentralEuropesawthecreationofSlavicstatesandtheadoptionofChristianity(circa1000AD).PowerfulWestSlavicstateofGreatMoraviaspreaditsterritoryallthewaysouthtotheBalkanSlavs.MoraviareacheditslargestterritorialextentunderSvatoplukIandcausedaseriesofarmedconflictswithEastFrancia.Furthersouth,placedbetweentheFrankishEmpireandtheByzantines,thefirstSouthSlavicstatesemergedinthelate7thand8thcentury:FirstBulgarianEmpire,SerbianPrincipality(laterKingdomandEmpire)andDuchyofCroatia(laterKingdomofCroatia).FurthertotheEast,theKievan

    RusexpandedfromitscapitalinKievtobecomethelargeststateinEuropebythe10thcentury.In988,VladimirtheGreatadoptedOrthodoxChristianityasthereligionofstate.

    ThepredominantlyGreekspeakingEasternRomanEmpireretroactivelybecameknownintheWestastheByzantineEmpire.ItscapitalwasConstantinople.EmperorJustinianIpresidedoverConstantinople'sfirstgoldenage:heestablishedalegalcode,fundedtheconstructionoftheHagiaSophiaandbroughttheChristianchurchunderstatecontrol.[61]Duringmostofitsexistence,theByzantineEmpirewasthemostpowerfuleconomic,cultural,andmilitaryforceinEurope.FatallyweakenedbythesackofConstantinoplein1204,duringtheFourthCrusade,[62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69][70]Byzantiumfellin1453whenitwasconqueredbytheOttomanEmpire.[71][72][73]

    MiddleAges

    TheeconomicgrowthofEuropearoundtheyear1000,togetherwiththelackofsafetyonthemainlandtradingroutes,madepossiblethedevelopmentofmajorcommercialroutesalongthecoastoftheMediterraneanSea.Inthiscontext,thegrowingindependenceacquiredbysomecoastalcitiesgavetheMaritimeRepublicsaleadingroleintheEuropeanscene.

    TheMiddleAgesonthemainlandweredominatedbythetwoupperechelonsofthesocialstructure:thenobilityandtheclergy.FeudalismdevelopedinFranceintheEarlyMiddleAgesandsoonspreadthroughoutEurope.[74]AstruggleforinfluencebetweenthenobilityandthemonarchyinEnglandledtothewritingoftheMagnaCartaandtheestablishmentofaparliament.[75]Theprimary

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pictshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rolandfealty.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Slavshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(1204)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maltahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kievan_Rushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_around_650.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Central_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_the_Greathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clovis_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrogothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volga_Bulgariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia_(medieval)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoninus_Piushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Slavshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankish_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fealtyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Franciahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Moraviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Cretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankish_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Martelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RomanEmpire_117.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frankish_Empire_481_to_814-en.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Crusadehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Croatiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kievhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Delegation_of_Croats_and_Serbs_to_Emperor_Basil_I,_Skylitzes.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_Justinianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyreneeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Cartahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%93718)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magyarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_in_the_Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aureliushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrarchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Sicilyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svatopluk_I_of_Moraviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_early_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_Republicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tourshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asturiashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pechenegshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Avarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Migrationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire

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    TancredofSicilyandPhilipIIofFrance,duringtheThirdCrusade

    ThesackingofSuzdalbyBatuKhanin1238,duringtheMongolinvasionofEurope.

    TheSchoolofAthensbyRaphael:ContemporariessuchasMichelangeloandLeonardodaVinci(centre)areportrayedasclassicalscholars

    sourceofcultureinthisperiodcamefromtheRomanCatholicChurch.Throughmonasteriesandcathedralschools,theChurchwasresponsibleforeducationinmuchofEurope.[74]

    ThePapacyreachedtheheightofitspowerduringtheHighMiddleAges.AnEastWestSchismin1054splittheformerRomanEmpirereligiously,withtheEasternOrthodoxChurchintheByzantineEmpireandtheRomanCatholicChurchintheformerWesternRomanEmpire.In1095PopeUrbanIIcalledforacrusadeagainstMuslimsoccupyingJerusalemandtheHolyLand.[76]InEuropeitself,theChurchorganisedtheInquisitionagainstheretics.InSpain,theReconquistaconcludedwiththefallofGranadain1492,endingoversevencenturiesofIslamicruleintheIberianPeninsula.[77]

    Inthe11thand12thcenturies,constantincursionsbynomadicTurkictribes,suchasthePechenegsandtheCumanKipchaks,causedamassivemigrationofSlavicpopulationstothesafer,heavilyforestedregionsofthenorthandtemporarilyhaltedtheexpansionoftheRus'statetothesouthandeast.[78]LikemanyotherpartsofEurasia,theseterritorieswereoverrunbytheMongols.[79]Theinvaders,whobecameknownasTatars,weremostlyTurkicspeakingpeoplesunder

    Mongolsuzerainty.TheyestablishedthestateoftheGoldenHordewithheadquartersinCrimea,whichlateradoptedIslamasareligionandruledovermoderndaysouthernandcentralRussiaformorethanthreecenturies.[80][81]AfterthecollapseofMongoldominions,thefirstRomanianstates(principalities)emergedinthe14thcentury:MoldovaandWalachia.Previously,theseterritorieswereunderthesuccessivecontrolofPechenegsandCumans.[82]Fromthe12thtothe15thcenturies,theGrandDuchyofMoscowgrewfromasmallprincipalityunderMongolruletothelargeststateinEurope,overthrowingtheMongolsin1480andeventuallybecomingtheTsardomofRussia.ThestatewasconsolidatedunderIvanIIItheGreatandIvantheTerrible,steadilyexpandingtotheeastandsouthoverthenextcenturies.

    TheGreatFamineof13151317wasthefirstcrisisthatwouldstrikeEuropeinthelateMiddleAges.[83]Theperiodbetween1348and1420witnessedtheheaviestloss.ThepopulationofFrancewasreducedbyhalf.[84][85]MedievalBritainwasafflictedby95famines,[86]andFrancesufferedtheeffectsof75ormoreinthesameperiod.[87]Europewasdevastatedinthemid14thcenturybytheBlackDeath,oneofthemostdeadlypandemicsinhumanhistorywhichkilledanestimated25millionpeopleinEuropealoneathirdoftheEuropeanpopulationatthetime.[88]

    TheplaguehadadevastatingeffectonEurope'ssocialstructureitinducedpeopletoliveforthemomentasillustratedbyGiovanniBoccaccioinTheDecameron(1353).ItwasaseriousblowtotheRomanCatholicChurchandledtoincreasedpersecutionofJews,foreigners,beggarsandlepers.[89]Theplagueisthoughttohavereturnedeverygenerationwithvaryingvirulenceandmortalitiesuntilthe18thcentury.[90]Duringthisperiod,morethan100plagueepidemicssweptacrossEurope.[91]

    Earlymodernperiod

    TheRenaissancewasaperiodofculturalchangeoriginatinginFlorenceandlaterspreadingtotherestofEurope.inthe14thcentury.TheriseofanewhumanismwasaccompaniedbytherecoveryofforgottenclassicalGreekandArabicknowledgefrommonasticlibraries,oftentranslatedfromArabicintoLatin.[92][93][94]TheRenaissancespreadacrossEuropebetweenthe14thand16thcenturies:itsawthefloweringofart,philosophy,music,andthesciences,underthejointpatronageofroyalty,thenobility,theRomanCatholicChurch,andanemergingmerchantclass.[95][96][97]PatronsinItaly,includingtheMedicifamilyofFlorentinebankersandthePopesinRome,fundedprolificquattrocentoandcinquecentoartistssuchasRaphael,Michelangelo,andLeonardodaVinci.[98][99]

    PoliticalintriguewithintheChurchinthemid14thcenturycausedtheWesternSchism.Duringthisfortyyearperiod,twopopesoneinAvignonandoneinRomeclaimedrulershipovertheChurch.Althoughtheschismwaseventuallyhealedin1417,thepapacy'sspiritualauthorityhadsufferedgreatly.[100]

    TheChurch'spowerwasfurtherweakenedbytheProtestantReformation(15171648),initiallysparkedbytheworksofGermantheologianMartinLuther,aresultofthelackofreformwithintheChurch.TheReformationalsodamagedtheHolyRomanEmpire'spower,asGermanprincesbecamedividedbetweenProtestantandRomanCatholicfaiths.[101]ThiseventuallyledtotheThirtyYears

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Deathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_Jewshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vincihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_the_Terriblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quattrocentohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphaelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusadeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mongols_suzdal.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_demographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuman-Kipchak_Confederationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ninety-Five_Theseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monasticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beggarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_Athenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East-West_Schismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Boccacciohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batu_Khanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslimshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Urban_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Landhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pechenegshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tancred_of_Sicilyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphaelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Philip_II_and_Tancred_meeting_in_Messina_-_British_Library_Royal_MS_16_G_vi_f350r_(detail).jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virulencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Raffael_058.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_epidemicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Hordehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Rushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_humanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Decameronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Churchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lutherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinquecentohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconquistahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Late_Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzdalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_III_the_Greathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Crusadehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vincihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Schism

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    MartinLutherinitiatedtheProtestantReformation

    Napoleon'sretreatfromRussiain1812.Napoleon'sGrandeArmehadlostabouthalfamillionmen.

    OttomanEuropein1856

    War(16181648),whichcrippledtheHolyRomanEmpireanddevastatedmuchofGermany,killingbetween25and40percentofitspopulation.[102]IntheaftermathofthePeaceofWestphalia,FrancerosetopredominancewithinEurope.[103]

    The17thcenturyinsouthern,centralandeasternEuropewasaperiodofgeneraldecline.[104]CentralandEasternEuropeexperiencedmorethan150faminesina200yearperiodbetween1501to1700.[105]Fromthe15thto18thcenturies,whenthedisintegratingkhanatesoftheGoldenHordewereconqueredbyRussia,TatarsfromtheCrimeanKhanatefrequentlyraidedEasternSlaviclandstocaptureslaves.[106]TheBattleofViennain1683broketheadvanceoftheOttomanTurksintoEurope,andmarkedthepoliticalhegemonyoftheHabsburgdynastyincentralEurope.TheNogaiHordeandKazakhKhanatehadfrequentlyraidedtheSlavicspeakingareasofRussia,UkraineandPolandforatleastahundredyearsuntiltheRussianexpansionandconquestofmostofnorthernEurasia(i.e.EasternEurope,CentralAsiaandSiberia).

    TheRenaissanceandtheNewMonarchsmarkedthestartofanAgeofDiscovery,aperiodofexploration,invention,andscientificdevelopment.[107]AmongthegreatfiguresoftheWesternscientificrevolutionofthe16thand17thcenturieswereCopernicus,Kepler,Galileo,andIsaacNewton.[108]AccordingtoPeterBarrett,"Itiswidelyacceptedthat'modernscience'aroseintheEuropeofthe17thcentury(towardstheendoftheRenaissance),introducinganewunderstandingofthenaturalworld."[92]Inthe15thcentury,PortugalandSpain,twoofthegreatestnavalpowersofthetime,tooktheleadinexploringtheworld.[109][110]ChristopherColumbusreachedtheNewWorldin1492andVascodaGamaopenedtheoceanroutetotheEastin1498,andsoonaftertheSpanishandPortuguesebeganestablishingcolonialempiresintheAmericasandAsia.[111]France,theNetherlandsandEnglandsoonfollowedinbuildinglargecolonialempireswithvastholdingsinAfrica,theAmericas,andAsia.

    18thand19thcenturies

    TheAgeofEnlightenmentwasapowerfulintellectualmovementduringthe18thcenturypromotingscientificandreasonbasedthoughts.[112][113][114]Discontentwiththearistocracyandclergy'smonopolyonpoliticalpowerinFranceresultedintheFrenchRevolutionandtheestablishmentoftheFirstRepublicasaresultofwhichthemonarchyandmanyofthenobilityperishedduringtheinitialreignofterror.[115]NapoleonBonaparterosetopowerintheaftermathoftheFrenchRevolutionandestablishedtheFirstFrenchEmpirethat,duringtheNapoleonicWars,grewtoencompasslargepartsofEuropebeforecollapsingin1815withtheBattleofWaterloo.[116][117]NapoleonicruleresultedinthefurtherdisseminationoftheidealsoftheFrenchRevolution,includingthatofthenationstate,aswellasthewidespreadadoptionoftheFrenchmodelsofadministration,law,andeducation.[118][119][120]TheCongressofVienna,convenedafterNapoleon'sdownfall,establishedanewbalanceofpowerinEuropecentredonthefive"GreatPowers":theUK,France,Prussia,Austria,andRussia.[121]ThisbalancewouldremaininplaceuntiltheRevolutionsof1848,duringwhichliberaluprisings

    affectedallofEuropeexceptforRussiaandtheUK.Theserevolutionswereeventuallyputdownbyconservativeelementsandfewreformsresulted.[122]Theyear1859sawtheunificationofRomania,asanationstate,fromsmallerprincipalities.In1867,theAustroHungarianempirewasformedand1871sawtheunificationsofbothItalyandGermanyasnationstatesfromsmallerprincipalities.[123]

    Inparallel,theEasternQuestiongrewmorecomplexeversincetheOttomandefeatintheRussoTurkishWar(17681774).AsthedissolutionoftheOttomanEmpireseemedimminent,theGreatPowersstruggledtosafeguardtheirstrategicandcommercialinterestsintheOttomandomains.TheRussianEmpirestoodtobenefitfromthedecline,whereastheHabsburgEmpireandBritainperceivedthepreservationoftheOttomanEmpiretobeintheirbestinterests.Meanwhile,theSerbianrevolutionandGreekWarofIndependencemarkedthebirthofnationalismintheBalkans.[124]FormalrecognitionofthedefactoindependentprincipalitiesofMontenegro,SerbiaandRomaniaensuedattheCongressofBerlinin1878.

    TheIndustrialRevolutionstartedinGreatBritaininthelastpartofthe18thcenturyandspreadthroughoutEurope.Theinventionandimplementationofnewtechnologiesresultedinrapidurbangrowth,massemployment,andtheriseofanewworkingclass.[125]Reformsinsocialandeconomicspheresfollowed,

    includingthefirstlawsonchildlabour,thelegalisationoftradeunions,[126]andtheabolitionofslavery.[127]InBritain,thePublicHealthActof1875waspassed,whichsignificantlyimprovedlivingconditionsinmanyBritishcities.[128]Europe'spopulationincreasedfromabout100millionin1700to400millionby1900.[129]ThelastmajorfaminerecordedinWesternEurope,theIrishPotatoFamine,causeddeathandmassemigrationofmillionsofIrishpeople.[130]Inthe19thcentury,70millionpeopleleftEuropeinmigrationstovariousEuropeancoloniesabroadandtotheUnitedStates.[131]

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    Marshall'sTempleWorks,theIndustrialRevolutionstartedinGreatBritain

    LeadersoftheCentralPowers(lefttoright):KaiserWilhelmIIofGermanyKaiserandKingFranzJosephofAustriaHungarySultanMehmedVoftheOttomanEmpireTsarFerdinandofBulgaria.

    Serbianwareffortscostedthecountryonequarterofitspopulation[132][133][134][135][136

    RuinsofGuernica(1937).TheSpanishCivilWarclaimedthelivesofover500,000people.

    20thcenturytothepresent

    TwoWorldWarsandaneconomicdepressiondominatedthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury.WorldWarIwasfoughtbetween1914and1918.ItstartedwhenArchdukeFranzFerdinandofAustriawasassassinatedbytheYugoslavnationalist[137]GavriloPrincip.[138]MostEuropeannationsweredrawnintothewar,whichwasfoughtbetweentheEntentePowers(France,Belgium,Serbia,Portugal,Russia,theUnitedKingdom,andlaterItaly,Greece,Romania,andtheUnitedStates)andtheCentralPowers(AustriaHungary,Germany,Bulgaria,andtheOttomanEmpire).TheWarleftmorethan16millionciviliansandmilitarydead.[139]Over60millionEuropeansoldiersweremobilisedfrom1914to1918.[140]

    RussiawasplungedintotheRussianRevolution,whichthrewdowntheTsaristmonarchyandreplaceditwiththecommunistSovietUnion.[141]AustriaHungaryandtheOttomanEmpirecollapsedandbrokeupintoseparatenations,andmanyothernationshadtheirbordersredrawn.TheTreatyofVersailles,whichofficiallyendedWorldWarIin1919,washarshtowardsGermany,uponwhomitplacedfullresponsibilityforthewarandimposedheavysanctions.[142]

    ExcessdeathsinRussiaoverthecourseofWorldWarIandtheRussianCivilWar(includingthepostwarfamine)amountedtoacombinedtotalof18million.[143]In19321933,underStalin'sleadership,confiscationsofgrainbytheSovietauthoritiescontributedtothesecondSovietfaminewhichcausedmillionsofdeaths[144]survivingkulakswerepersecutedandmanysenttoGulagstodoforcedlabour.StalinwasalsoresponsiblefortheGreatPurgeof193738inwhichtheNKVDexecuted681,692people[145]millionsofpeopleweredeportedandexiledtoremoteareasoftheSovietUnion.[146]

    Economicinstability,causedinpartbydebtsincurredintheFirstWorldWarand'loans'toGermanyplayedhavocinEuropeinthelate1920sand1930s.ThisandtheWallStreetCrashof1929broughtabouttheworldwideGreatDepression.Helpedbytheeconomiccrisis,socialinstabilityandthethreatofcommunism,fascistmovementsdevelopedthroughoutEuropeplacingAdolfHitlerofNaziGermany,FranciscoFrancoofSpainandBenitoMussoliniofItalyinpower.[147][148]

    In1933,HitlerbecametheleaderofGermanyandbegantoworktowardshisgoalofbuildingGreaterGermany.GermanyreexpandedandtookbacktheSaarlandandRhinelandin1935and1936.In1938,AustriabecameapartofGermanyfollowingtheAnschluss.Laterthatyear,followingtheMunichAgreementsignedbyGermany,France,theUnitedKingdomandItaly,GermanyannexedtheSudetenland,whichwasapartofCzechoslovakiainhabitedbyethnicGermans,andinearly1939,theremainderofCzechoslovakiawassplitintotheProtectorateofBohemiaandMoravia,controlledbyGermany,andtheSlovakRepublic.Atthetime,BritainandFrancepreferredapolicyofappeasement.

    WithtensionsmountingbetweenGermanyandPolandoverthefutureofDanzig,theGermansturnedtotheSoviets,andsignedtheMolotovRibbentropPact,whichallowedtheSovietstoinvadetheBalticstatesandpartsofPolandandRomania.GermanyinvadedPolandon1September1939,promptingFranceandtheUnitedKingdomtodeclarewaronGermanyon3September,openingtheEuropeanTheatreofWorldWarII.[149][150]TheSovietinvasionofPolandstartedon17SeptemberandPolandfellsoonthereafter.On24September,theSovietUnionattackedtheBalticcountriesandlater,Finland.TheBritishhopedtolandatNarvikandsendtroopstoaidFinland,buttheirprimaryobjectiveinthelandingwastoencircleGermanyandcuttheGermansofffromScandinavianresources.Aroundthesametime,GermanymovedtroopsintoDenmark.ThePhoneyWarcontinued.

    InMay1940,GermanyattackedFrancethroughtheLowCountries.FrancecapitulatedinJune1940.ByAugustGermanybeganabombingoffensiveonBritain,butfailedtoconvincetheBritonstogiveup.[151]In1941,GermanyinvadedtheSovietUnionintheOperationBarbarossa.[152]On7December1941Japan'sattackonPearlHarbordrewtheUnitedStatesintotheconflictasalliesoftheBritishEmpireandotheralliedforces.[153][154]

    AfterthestaggeringBattleofStalingradin1943,theGermanoffensiveintheSovietUnionturnedintoacontinualfallback.TheBattleofKursk,whichinvolvedthelargesttankbattleinhistory,wasthelastmajorGermanoffensiveontheEasternFront.In1944,BritishandAmericanforcesinvadedFranceintheDDaylandings,openinganewfrontagainstGermany.Berlinfinallyfellin1945,endingWorldWarIIinEurope.Thewarwasthelargestandmostdestructiveinhumanhistory,with60milliondeadacrossthe

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marshall%27s_flax-mill,_Holbeck,_Leeds_-_interior_-_c.1800.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Francohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Purgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moraviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guernicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%931945)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Serbian_retreat_WWI.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harborhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battles_of_Narvikhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulaghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anschlusshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeasementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandy_landingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saarlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Polandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualtieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kurskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian_Campaign_of_World_War_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NKVDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Civil_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danzighttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolinihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingradhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudetenlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Prokhorovkahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfree_labourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich_Agreementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_Workshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vierbund05h.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoney_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand_of_Austriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_of_Bulgariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entente_Powershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1921http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Polandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslav_nationalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Civil_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1932-1933http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25224,_Guernica,_Ruinen.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Theatre_of_World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Powershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavrilo_Princip

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    BurnedoutbuildingsinHamburg,1944or45

    The"BigThree"attheYaltaConferencein1945seated(fromtheleft):WinstonChurchill,FranklinD.Roosevelt,andJosephStalin

    TheSchumanDeclarationledtothecreationoftheEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity.ItbegantheintegrationprocessoftheEuropeanUnion.(9May1950,attheFrenchForeignMinistry)

    world.[155]Morethan40millionpeopleinEuropehaddiedasaresultofWorldWarII,[156]

    includingbetween11and17millionpeoplewhoperishedduringtheHolocaust.[157]TheSovietUnionlostaround27millionpeople(mostlycivilians)duringthewar,abouthalfofallWorldWarIIcasualties.[158]BytheendofWorldWarII,Europehadmorethan40millionrefugees.[159]SeveralpostwarexpulsionsinCentralandEasternEuropedisplacedatotalofabout20millionpeople.[160]

    WorldWarIandespeciallyWorldWarIIdiminishedtheeminenceofWesternEuropeinworldaffairs.AfterWorldWarIIthemapofEuropewasredrawnattheYaltaConferenceanddividedintotwoblocs,theWesterncountriesandthecommunistEasternbloc,separatedbywhatwaslatercalledbyWinstonChurchillan"IronCurtain".TheUnitedStatesandWestern

    EuropeestablishedtheNATOallianceandlatertheSovietUnionandCentralEuropeestablishedtheWarsawPact.[161]

    Thetwonewsuperpowers,theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion,becamelockedinafiftyyearlongColdWar,centredonnuclearproliferation.Atthesametimedecolonisation,whichhadalreadystartedafterWorldWarI,graduallyresultedintheindependenceofmostoftheEuropeancoloniesinAsiaandAfrica.[7]Inthe1980sthereformsofMikhailGorbachevandtheSolidaritymovementinPolandacceleratedthecollapseoftheEasternblocandtheendoftheColdWar.Germanywasreunited,afterthesymbolicfalloftheBerlinWallin1989,andthemapsofCentralandEasternEuropewereredrawnoncemore.[147]

    EuropeanintegrationalsogrewafterWorldWarII.TheTreatyofRomein1957establishedtheEuropeanEconomicCommunitybetweensixWesternEuropeanstateswiththegoalofaunifiedeconomicpolicyandcommonmarket.[162]In1967theEEC,EuropeanCoalandSteelCommunityandEuratomformedtheEuropeanCommunity,whichin1993becametheEuropeanUnion.TheEUestablishedaparliament,courtandcentralbankandintroducedtheeuroasaunifiedcurrency.[163]In2004and2007,moreCentralandEasternEuropeancountriesbeganjoining,expandingtheEUtoitscurrentsizeof28Europeancountries,andoncemoremakingEuropeamajoreconomicalandpoliticalcentreofpower.[164]

    Europeandevelopment

    TerritorialdevelopmentoftheRomanEmpire264BC192AD

    Europein814AD

    Europein1000AD

    Europein1430

    Europein1648

    EuropeandGermanConfederationin1820

    Europein1890

    Europein1923

    Geography

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    ReliefmapofEuropeandsurroundingregions

    LandusemapofEuropewitharablefarmland(yellow),forest(darkgreen),pasture(lightgreen),andtundraorbogsinthenorth(darkyellow)

    BiomesofEuropeandsurroundingregions:tundraalpinetundrataigamontaneforesttemperatebroadleafforestmediterraneanforesttemperatesteppedrysteppe

    MountElbrusisthehighestmountaininEurope.

    EuropeisapeninsulathatmakesupthewesternfifthoftheEurasianlandmass.[20]Ithasahigherratioofcoasttolandmassthananyothercontinentorsubcontinent.[165]ItsmaritimebordersconsistoftheArcticOceantothenorth,theAtlanticOceantothewest,andtheMediterranean,Black,andCaspianSeastothesouth.[166]LandreliefinEuropeshowsgreatvariationwithinrelativelysmallareas.Thesouthernregionsaremoremountainous,whilemovingnorththeterraindescendsfromthehighAlps,Pyrenees,andCarpathians,throughhillyuplands,intobroad,lownorthernplains,whicharevastintheeast.ThisextendedlowlandisknownastheGreatEuropeanPlain,andatitsheartliestheNorthGermanPlain.Anarcofuplandsalsoexistsalongthenorthwesternseaboard,whichbeginsinthewesternpartsoftheislandsofBritainandIreland,andthencontinuesalongthemountainous,fjordcutspineofNorway.

    Thisdescriptionissimplified.SubregionssuchastheIberianPeninsulaandtheItalianPeninsulacontaintheirowncomplexfeatures,asdoesmainlandCentralEuropeitself,wherethereliefcontainsmanyplateaus,rivervalleysandbasinsthatcomplicatethegeneraltrend.SubregionslikeIceland,Britain,andIrelandarespecialcases.TheformerisalanduntoitselfinthenorthernoceanwhichiscountedaspartofEurope,whilethelatterareuplandareasthatwereoncejoinedtothemainlanduntilrisingsealevelscutthemoff.

    Climate

    Europeliesmainlyinthetemperateclimatezones,beingsubjectedtoprevailingwesterlies.

    TheclimateismilderincomparisontootherareasofthesamelatitudearoundtheglobeduetotheinfluenceoftheGulfStream.[167]TheGulfStreamisnicknamed"Europe'scentralheating",becauseitmakesEurope'sclimatewarmerandwetterthanitwouldotherwisebe.TheGulfStreamnotonlycarrieswarmwatertoEurope'scoastbutalsowarmsuptheprevailingwesterlywindsthatblowacrossthecontinentfromtheAtlanticOcean.

    ThereforetheaveragetemperaturethroughouttheyearofNaplesis16C(60.8F),whileitisonly12C(53.6F)inNewYorkCitywhichisalmostonthesamelatitude.Berlin,GermanyCalgary,CanadaandIrkutsk,intheAsianpartofRussia,lieonaroundthesamelatitudeJanuarytemperaturesinBerlinaveragearound8C(15F)higherthanthoseinCalgary,andtheyarealmost22C(40F)higherthanaveragetemperaturesinIrkutsk.[167]

    Geology

    TheGeologyofEuropeishugelyvariedandcomplex,andgivesrisetothewidevarietyoflandscapesfoundacrossthecontinent,fromtheScottishHighlandstotherollingplainsofHungary.[168]

    Europe'smostsignificantfeatureisthedichotomybetweenhighlandandmountainousSouthernEuropeandavast,partiallyunderwater,northernplainrangingfromIrelandinthewesttotheUralMountainsintheeast.ThesetwohalvesareseparatedbythemountainchainsofthePyreneesandAlps/Carpathians.ThenorthernplainsaredelimitedinthewestbytheScandinavianMountainsandthemountainouspartsoftheBritishIsles.MajorshallowwaterbodiessubmergingpartsofthenorthernplainsaretheCelticSea,theNorthSea,theBalticSeacomplexandBarentsSea.

    ThenorthernplaincontainstheoldgeologicalcontinentofBaltica,andsomayberegardedgeologicallyasthe"maincontinent",whileperipheralhighlandsandmountainousregionsinthesouthandwestconstitutefragmentsfromvariousothergeologicalcontinents.MostoftheoldergeologyofwesternEuropeexistedaspartoftheancientmicrocontinentAvalonia.

    Geologicalhistory

    ThegeologicalhistoryofEuropetracesbacktotheformationoftheBalticShield(Fennoscandia)andtheSarmatiancraton,botharound2.25billionyearsago,followedbytheVolgoUraliashield,thethreetogetherleadingtotheEastEuropeancraton(Baltica)whichbecameapartofthesupercontinentColumbia.Around1.1billionyearsago,BalticaandArctica(aspartoftheLaurentiablock)becamejoinedtoRodinia,laterresplittingaround550millionyearsagotoreformasBaltica.Around440millionyearsagoEuramericawasformedfromBalticaandLaurentiaafurtherjoiningwithGondwanathenleadingtotheformationofPangea.Around190millionyearsago,GondwanaandLaurasiasplitapartduetothewideningoftheAtlanticOcean.Finally,andverysoon

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barents_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_Streamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mount_Elbrus_May_2008.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavian_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_(supercontinent)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taigahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontinenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vegetation_Europe.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperate_steppehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperate_broadleaf_foresthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyreneeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_topography_map_en.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurentiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpathian_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balticahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montane_foresthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_European_cratonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tundrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_tundrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpathian_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avaloniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_land_use_map.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevailing_westerlieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Volgo-Uralia&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Highlandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Shieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_foresthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balticahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodiniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_German_Plainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyreneeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangeahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarmatian_cratonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_steppehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euramericahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_European_Plainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Elbrushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biome

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    TheAdriaticSeacontainsover1300islandsandislets.

    EuropaPointasseenfromtheStraitofGibraltar.

    BiogeographicregionsofEuropeandborderingregions

    FloristicregionsofEuropeandneighbouringareas,accordingtoWolfgangFreyandRainerLsch

    afterwards,Laurasiaitselfsplitupagain,intoLaurentia(NorthAmerica)andtheEurasiancontinent.Thelandconnectionbetweenthetwopersistedforaconsiderabletime,viaGreenland,leadingtointerchangeofanimalspecies.Fromaround50millionyearsago,risingandfallingsealevelshavedeterminedtheactualshapeofEurope,anditsconnectionswithcontinentssuchasAsia.Europe'spresentshapedatestothelateTertiaryperiodaboutfivemillionyearsago.[169]

    Biodiversity

    Havinglivedsidebysidewithagriculturalpeoplesformillennia,Europe'sanimalsandplantshavebeenprofoundlyaffectedbythepresenceandactivitiesofman.WiththeexceptionofFennoscandiaandnorthernRussia,fewareasofuntouchedwildernessarecurrentlyfoundinEurope,exceptforvariousnationalparks.

    ThemainnaturalvegetationcoverinEuropeismixedforest.Theconditionsforgrowthareveryfavourable.Inthenorth,theGulfStreamandNorthAtlanticDriftwarmthecontinent.SouthernEuropecouldbedescribedashavingawarm,butmildclimate.Therearefrequentsummerdroughtsinthisregion.Mountainridgesalsoaffecttheconditions.Someofthese(Alps,Pyrenees)areorientedeastwestandallowthewindtocarrylargemassesofwaterfromtheoceanintheinterior.Othersareorientedsouthnorth(ScandinavianMountains,Dinarides,Carpathians,Apennines)andbecausetherainfallsprimarilyonthesideofmountainsthatisorientedtowardsthesea,forestsgrowwellonthisside,whileontheotherside,theconditionsaremuchlessfavourable.FewcornersofmainlandEuropehavenotbeengrazedbylivestockatsomepointintime,andthecuttingdownofthepreagriculturalforesthabitatcauseddisruptiontotheoriginalplantandanimalecosystems.

    Probably80to90percentofEuropewasoncecoveredbyforest.[170]ItstretchedfromtheMediterraneanSeatotheArcticOcean.ThoughoverhalfofEurope'soriginalforestsdisappearedthroughthecenturiesofdeforestation,Europestillhasoveronequarterofitslandareaasforest,suchasthetaigaofScandinaviaandRussia,mixedrainforestsoftheCaucasusandtheCorkoakforestsinthewesternMediterranean.Duringrecenttimes,deforestationhasbeenslowedandmanytreeshavebeenplanted.However,inmanycasesmonocultureplantationsofconifershavereplacedtheoriginalmixednaturalforest,becausethesegrowquicker.Theplantationsnowcovervastareasofland,butofferpoorerhabitatsformanyEuropeanforestdwellingspecieswhichrequireamixtureoftreespeciesanddiverseforeststructure.TheamountofnaturalforestinWesternEuropeisjust23%orless,inEuropeanRussia510%.ThecountrywiththesmallestpercentageofforestedareaisIceland(1%),whilethemostforestedcountryisFinland(77%).[171]

    IntemperateEurope,mixedforestwithbothbroadleafandconiferoustreesdominate.ThemostimportantspeciesincentralandwesternEuropearebeechandoak.Inthenorth,thetaigaisamixedsprucepinebirchforestfurthernorthwithinRussiaandextremenorthernScandinavia,thetaigagiveswaytotundraastheArcticisapproached.IntheMediterranean,manyolivetreeshavebeenplanted,whichareverywelladaptedtoitsaridclimateMediterraneanCypressisalsowidelyplantedinsouthernEurope.ThesemiaridMediterraneanregionhostsmuchscrubforest.AnarroweastwesttongueofEurasiangrassland(thesteppe)extendseastwardsfromUkraineandsouthernRussiaandendsinHungaryandtraversesintotaigatothenorth.

    GlaciationduringthemostrecenticeageandthepresenceofmanaffectedthedistributionofEuropeanfauna.Asfortheanimals,inmanypartsofEuropemostlargeanimalsandtoppredatorspecieshavebeenhuntedtoextinction.ThewoollymammothwasextinctbeforetheendoftheNeolithicperiod.Todaywolves(carnivores)andbears(omnivores)areendangered.OncetheywerefoundinmostpartsofEurope.However,deforestationandhuntingcausedtheseanimalsto

    withdrawfurtherandfurther.BytheMiddleAgesthebears'habitatswerelimitedtomoreorlessinaccessiblemountainswithsufficientforestcover.Today,thebrownbearlivesprimarilyintheBalkanpeninsula,Scandinavia,andRussiaasmallnumberalsopersistinothercountriesacrossEurope(Austria,Pyreneesetc.),butintheseareasbrownbearpopulationsarefragmentedand

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steppehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyreneeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprucehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_glaciationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livestockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_biogeography_countries.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20130604_on_the_Adriatic_sea_between_Split_and_Bra%C4%8D_11.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fennoscandiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnivorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolly_mammothhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apennine_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupressus_sempervirenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpathian_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gibraltar-Europa-Point-LH-from-the-sea.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavian_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_brown_bearhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Floristic_regions_in_Europe_(english).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Atlantic_Currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_Streamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinaric_Alpshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinophytahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tundrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cork_oakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauna_of_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beechhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainforesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grasslandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taigahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bearhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foresthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive

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    ModernpoliticalmapofEuropeandthesurroundingregion

    RegionalgroupingusedbytheUnitedNationsStatisticsDepartment,whichclassifiesAzerbaijan,Armenia,Cyprus,Georgia,Kazakhstan,andTurkeyasbeinginAsia.[176]

    OnceroamingthegreattemperateforestsofEurasia,EuropeanbisonnowliveinnaturepreservesinBiaowieaForest,ontheborderbetweenPolandandBelarus.[172][173]

    marginalisedbecauseofthedestructionoftheirhabitat.Inaddition,polarbearsmaybefoundonSvalbard,aNorwegianarchipelagofarnorthofScandinavia.Thewolf,thesecondlargestpredatorinEuropeafterthebrownbear,canbefoundprimarilyinCentralandEasternEuropeandintheBalkans,withahandfulofpacksinpocketsofWesternEurope(Scandinavia,Spain,etc.).

    Europeanwildcat,foxes(especiallytheredfox),jackalanddifferentspeciesofmartens,hedgehogs,differentspeciesofreptiles(likesnakessuchasvipersandgrasssnakes)andamphibians,differentbirds(owls,hawksandotherbirdsofprey).

    ImportantEuropeanherbivoresaresnails,larvae,fish,differentbirds,andmammals,likerodents,deerandroedeer,boars,andlivinginthemountains,marmots,steinbocks,chamoisamongothers.Anumberofinsects,suchasthesmalltortoiseshellbutterfly,addtothebiodiversity.[174]

    TheextinctionofthedwarfhipposanddwarfelephantshasbeenlinkedtotheearliestarrivalofhumansontheislandsoftheMediterranean.[175]

    SeacreaturesarealsoanimportantpartofEuropeanfloraandfauna.Theseafloraismainlyphytoplankton.ImportantanimalsthatliveinEuropeanseasarezooplankton,molluscs,echinoderms,differentcrustaceans,squidsandoctopuses,fish,dolphins,andwhales.

    BiodiversityisprotectedinEuropethroughtheCouncilofEurope'sBernConvention,whichhasalsobeensignedbytheEuropeanCommunityaswellasnonEuropeanstates.

    Politicalgeography

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_bisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_countries_map_en_2.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_subregion_map_UN_geoschme.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_tortoiseshellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octopuseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_and_Eastern_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_geoscheme_for_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_bearhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molluschttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplanktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whaleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_Dwarf_Hippopotamushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplanktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neandertal_-_Wisent.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_elephanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crustaceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Conservation_of_European_Wildlife_and_Natural_Habitatshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_wolfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterraneanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolphinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bia%C5%82owie%C5%BCa_Foresthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_map

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    RegionalgroupingaccordingtoTheWorldFactbook

    EuropeanUnionanditscandidatecountriesMapshowingCouncilofEuropemembernationsinblueandfoundernationsinyellow

    MapshowingEuropeanmembershipoftheEUandNATO SubdivisionofEuropeaccordingto

    theculturalcriteria[177][178]

    ThelistbelowincludesallentitiesfallingevenpartiallyunderanyofthevariouscommondefinitionsofEurope,geographicorpolitical.Thedatadisplayedarepersourcesincrossreferencedarticles.

    Flag Arms Name Area(km) PopulationPopulationdensity

    (perkm)Capital Name(s)inofficiallanguage(s)

    Albania 28,748 2,831,741 98.5 Tirana Shqipria

    Andorra 468 68,403 146.2 AndorralaVella Andorra

    Armenia[j] 29,800 3,229,900 101 Yerevan Hayastan

    Austria 83,858 8,169,929 97.4 Vienna sterreich

    Azerbaijan[k] 86,600 9,165,000 105.8 Baku Azrbaycan

    Belarus 207,560 9,458,000 45.6 Minsk Belarus

    Belgium 30,528 11,007,000 360.6 Brussels Belgi/Belgique/Belgien

    Bosniaand

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andorrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiranahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armeniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armeniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat_of_armshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carte_du_Conseil_de_l%27Europe.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viennahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andorrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EU_and_NATO.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_populationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_Factbookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andorra_la_Vellahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Grossgliederung_Europas-en.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerevanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EU28-candidate_countries_map.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armeniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_subregion_map_world_factbook.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brusselshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_areahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitical_divisions_of_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarajevohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andorrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flaghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium

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    Herzegovina 51,129 3,843,126 75.2 Sarajevo BosnaiHercegovina

    Bulgaria 110,910 7,621,337 68.7 Sofia Blgarija

    Croatia 56,542 4,437,460 77.7 Zagreb Hrvatska

    Cyprus[d] 9,251 788,457 85 Nicosia Kpros/Kbrs

    CzechRepublic 78,866 10,256,760 130.1 Prague eskrepublika

    Denmark 43,094 5,564,219 129 Copenhagen Danmark

    Estonia 45,226 1,340,194 29 Tallinn Eesti

    Finland 336,593 5,157,537 15.3 Helsinki Suomi/Finland

    France[g] 547,030 66,104,000 115.5 Paris France

    Georgia[l] 69,700 4,661,473 64 Tbilisi Sakartvelo

    Germany 357,021 80,716,000 233.2 Berlin Deutschland

    Greece 131,957 11,123,034 80.7 Athens Ellda

    Hungary 93,030 10,075,034 108.3 Budapest Magyarorszg

    Iceland 103,000 307,261 2.7 Reykjavk sland

    Ireland 70,280 4,234,925 60.3 Dublin ire/Ireland

    Italy 301,230 59,530,464 197.7 Rome Italia

    Kazakhstan[i] 2,724,900 15,217,711 5.6 Astana Qazaqstan/Kazahstan

    Latvia 64,589 2,067,900 34.2 Riga Latvija

    Liechtenstein 160 32,842 205.3 Vaduz Liechtenstein

    Lithuania 65,200 2,988,400 45.8 Vilnius Lietuva

    Luxembourg 2,586 448,569 173.5 Luxembourg Ltzebuerg/Luxemburg/Luxembourg

    Macedonia 25,713 2,054,800 81.1 Skopje Makedonija

    Malta 316 397,499 1,257.9 Valletta Malta

    Moldova[a] 33,843 4,434,547 131.0 Chiinu Moldova

    Monaco 1.95 31,987 16,403.6 Monaco Monaco

    Montenegro 13,812 616,258 44.6 Podgorica CrnaGora

    Netherlands[h] 41,526 16,902,103 393.0 Amsterdam Nederland

    Norway 385,178 5,018,836 15.5 Oslo Norge/Noreg

    Poland 312,685 38,625,478 123.5 Warsaw Polska

    Portugal[e] 91,568 10,409,995 110.1 Lisbon Portugal

    Romania 238,391 21,698,181 91.0 Bucharest Romnia

    Russia[b] 17,075,400 143,975,923 8.3 Moscow Rossiya

    SanMarino 61 27,730 454.6 SanMarino SanMarino

    Serbia[f] 88,361 7,120,666 91.9 Belgrade Srbija

    Slovakia 48,845 5,422,366 111.0 Bratislava Slovensko

    Slovenia 20,273 2,050,189 101 Ljubljana Slovenija

    Spain 504,851 47,059,533 93.2 Madrid Espaa

    Sweden 449,964 9,090,113 19.7 Stockholm Sverige

    Switzerland 41,290 7,507,000 176.8 Bern Schweiz/Suisse/Svizzera/Svizra

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montenegrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zagrebhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloveniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monacohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ljubljanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Marino,_San_Marinohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinkihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neth


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