Ethics and Policy issues in Computing Carnegie Mellon University Spring 2008 Tongia...
-
date post
19-Dec-2015 -
Category
Documents
-
view
218 -
download
0
Transcript of Ethics and Policy issues in Computing Carnegie Mellon University Spring 2008 Tongia...
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 1
Internet Overview – Internet Overview – Accessing Information; Digital Accessing Information; Digital
DivideDivide
March 6, 2008
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 2
Design and History of the Design and History of the InternetInternet
Layperson misconceptions
WWW = Internet = Email = online = broadband
Some questions to think about• Who owns the Internet?• Who controls the Internet?• Is the current system OK?
Security Scalability Usability
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 3
Structures of the Telecom Structures of the Telecom IndustryIndustry
Government Dept.
Government company (PTT)
Regulated Monopoly
Competition• Splits within sectors
IXC – InterExchange Carrier (Long Distance) ILECs – Incumbent Local Exchange Carrier (“Baby
Bells”) CLECs – Competitive Local Exchange Carrier
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 4
Government DepartmentsGovernment DepartmentsLosing ground
Privatization big push• Type 1
Public Assets privatized and then regulated
• Type 2 Government carrier becomes one of many players
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 5
PTTPTTPTT: Abbreviation for postal, telegraph, and
telephone (organization). In countries having nationalized telephone and telegraph services, the organization, usually a governmental department, which acts as its nation's common carrier.
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 6
““Call/Transaction” Completion Call/Transaction” Completion ChargesCharges
Mail• Flat Rate
Telephony•Usage based or flat rate
Internet?•Depends on what user (residential,
commercial, bulk, etc.)
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 7
What is the Internet?What is the Internet?
The global (public) network built from hundreds and thousands of internetworking independent networks.
No single entity “runs” the Internet
Operates on standards
Built on a modified hierarchical structure
Packet Switching
Tier 1
a.k.a. Backbone Providers
Tier 2
Users
• There are often more layers• There can be interconnections other
than at a backbone
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 8
What makes the Internet the What makes the Internet the Internet?Internet?
Open architecture• Standards and protocols allow applications and
communications without caring of the underlying infrastructure or system “The Cloud”
• Anyone can access anything (is public)
Resiliency (mesh design)
End to end system
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 9
How big is the Internet?How big is the Internet?
Many metrics•Number of Service Providers•Number of Hosts•Number of Subscribers• Size of Interconnections
• (see outside sources such as CAIDA, Hobbes Internet Timeline, etc.)
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 10
Brief History of Internet Brief History of Internet EvolutionEvolution
1969 ARPANET 50 kbps UCLA, UCSB, SRI,
and Utah
1970 56 kbps transcontinental adding BBN, MIT,
RAND
1972 50 kbps 23 hosts
1973 75% of traffic on ARPANET is email
1981 CSNET (in parallel) 56 kbps 213 hosts
1983 TCP/IP mandatory, DNS created 562 hosts
1985 NSFNET initiated 1.544 Mbps 1961 hosts
1987 UUNET created for commercial access
1990 ARPANET disbanded in favor of NSFNET 313,000 hosts
1992 NSFNET 45 Mbps upgrade complete 1,136,000 hosts
(+ a few pvt. Backbones)
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 11
Brief History of Internet Brief History of Internet Evolution (cont.)Evolution (cont.)
1994 NSFNET145 Mbps ATM 3,864,000 hosts(+ a few pvt. Backbones of 56 kbps, 1.5 Mbps, and 45 Mbps)
1995 NSFNET privatized to 4 players 6,642,000 hosts
1996 MCI 622 Mbps
1996 - Now upgrading to 2.5 and 10 Gbps IP links
This history has helped shape US Internet architecture in terms of competition
and layout (peering)
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 12
PeeringPeering Where backbones come together
• Major design issue (relates to cross-connection)
Public Peering• Network Access Points (NAPs)
Started with 4, but now there are more Usually done by equals
– Give as much traffic as receive
Private Peering• Commercial (private)
International peering is more limited (links are much more expensive)
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 13
Open Systems Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) ModelInterconnection (OSI) Model
Pins, Wires, Repeaters, RS-232, Volts, etc : BITSDeals with the medium
Hardware Address, Bridges, Intelligenthubs, NICs, Error Checking : FRAMESnode-to-node validity
Software Address, Routers : DATAGRAMSestablishes routes (extends nodes…)
Interface : MESSAGESUser Interacts with these
Translation and encryption : MESSAGES
Remote Procedural Calls (RPCs), Error Checking : MESSAGES
Reliability, Error-checking : SEGMENTSend-to-end validity
SONET/SDH
Ethernet, ATM
IP
FTP, Ping, HTTP, etc.
TCP
examples
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 14
EthernetEthernet A standard for networking at Layer 2
• Based on physical hardware address (12 Hex numbers)
First started within the LAN
Started of as a shared bus (from the Aloha Packet Radio network – Bob Metcalf)
New versions are full-duplex, switched• Amenable for optical, longer reach
Graceful evolution (backwards compatible) between 10/100/1000 Mbps
Ethernet Frames are between 64 and 1518 bytes in size
IEEE is the standards body (802.xx working groups)
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 15
Ethernet Operation Ethernet Operation (traditional)(traditional)
Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detect (CSMA/CD)• All machines wait to see if medium is free• If so, they transmit• Sometime, packets can collide• In that case, the transmitters wait a random period
of time, and re-transmit• If yet another collision, will wait longer period of
time (“exponential back-off”)
Limitations• Effective bandwidth was modest• Distances were limited• Non-duplex
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 16
TCP/IPTCP/IP Suite of protocols for networking
Based on logical address for devices
Most popular standard worldwide – built into most OS
Like most other packet switching, is• Connectionless• Statistical (non-deterministic)
No inherent Quality of Service (QoS)
• Most of IP routing is unicast
Packets carry lots of information• Source Address, Destination Address, etc.• Special instructions such as priority• Port number (meaning application ID)
E.g., Port 80 - http
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 17
IP AddressesIP Addresses
Each device connected needs a unique IP address• Exception is “private” IP addresses used within non-global
networks Home gateways can use this Gateway “router” translates between public and private IP
addresses
32 bit addresses in current version (IPv4)
4 8-bit portions • Dotted decimal is popular for convenience• 128.2.72.44 is same as 10000000.00000010.01001000.
00101100
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 18
IP Addresses (cont.)IP Addresses (cont.)
IP addresses have 2 portions, network and host• Networks are uniquely controlled. e.g, 128.2.x.y. is CMU’s network
Earlier, IP addresses were class-based to differentiate
Newer system is classless; can arbitrarily demarcate network and host• A.B.C.D/24 implies first 24 bits are for network portion
• More efficient
• “Subnet Mask” is used to identify network portion
Most people don’t own their own network; they take a portion from their service provider
Class First Octet Network/Host [octets]
# of Networks # of Hosts per Network
A 1 – 127 1/3 126 16,777,214 B 128 – 191 2/2 16,384 65,534 C 192 – 223 3/1 2,097,152 254
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 19
Network boundariesNetwork boundaries LANs used to predominate
• Old rule of thumb: 80% traffic inside 20% outside• Often were Layer 2 networks• “Intranet”• Can make an outside, non-global network
“Extranet” Often using private (leased lines)
Outside world• Layer 3 connections (IP)
Many types of interconnections, e.g., varying by• Speed
Dial-up Dedicated connection – Just a pipe to the “cloud”
• Protocol IP, IPX, Appletalk, etc.
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 20
RoutersRouters Forward packets based on destination address
They know the route to every network• Once the packet gets to the network gateway, it internally finishes the
routing
Today’s Internet is roughly ~200,000+ routes in size (advertised prefixes [2006 estimate])
Routing is done on a hop-by-hop basis• A routing table is built up in each router• Incoming packet’s destination address is looked up• A match is made, and the packet is forwarded to the appropriate port
which gets it one step closer to the destination
Router
Incoming packetfor 128.2.x.y
A
B
C
D128.2.x.y 128.3.x.y
128.4.x.yRouting table knows which port (interface) is most closely connected to a particular network(s)
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 21
IP RoutingIP Routing Core Routing
• Internet-sized routing tables
• Optical interfaces
Edge Routing• Traditional edge players (aggregators)
• Metropolitan Area Network/GigE edge players
• Wide Area Networking is different from LAN, even though many protocols are the same
Access (Customer Edge)• Often the bottleneck
• Earlier, relied on the ILEC (e.g., Verizon)
• Now, new carriers want to bypass the ILECs Often use new technologies and standards
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 22
Communications ComponentsCommunications Components
Transport•Now, typically optical, except the “last mile”
Termination•Different devices (typically) for different layers
Phones, Video-conf. phones, routers, modems, etc.
Switching•Cross Connects / Add-drop Multiplexers (ADMs)•Class 4/5 switches• IP switches (Routers)
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 23
Network IntelligenceNetwork Intelligence
Quality-of-Service (QoS)• Today’s Internet is “best-effort”
Need to differentiate different packets
• Issues of identification, authentication, and billing
• Critics content some schemes amount to violation of Net Neutrality
Moving Intelligence to the Edge• Filtering, monitoring, and “differentiating”
• Lets the core be super-fast
Security• Today’s internet is inherently insecure
• Higher layers are used for security E.g., SSL in browswers
• New designs are being worked on for more security
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 24
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 25
What do People Access in the What do People Access in the “Last Mile?”“Last Mile?”
Voice
Video• Broadcast• Switched
Even On Demand
Broadband Internet Access
These are the TRIPLE PLAY
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 26
What do People Access?What do People Access?(Mid 2000s)
Predictions were p2p would only grow
Something changed…
…VIDEO (e.g., YouTube)
Source: CacheLogic
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 27
IPTV Bit RatesIPTV Bit Rates
Source: http://www.dslprime.com/pix/cbrrates.jpg
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 28
Broadband Access…The “Last Broadband Access…The “Last Mile”Mile”
Different technologies are available• Cable• DSL• Fiber• Wireless
Fixed Mobile Satellite
• Powerline
They differ in• Reach• Speeds• Costs• Regulation (?)
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 29
Cable: Hybrid Fiber Coax (HFC)Cable: Hybrid Fiber Coax (HFC)
Headend
Home
Drop Loop
Node
Feeder (Fiber)
Active
FROMBROADCASTSOURCES
Source: Marvin Sirbu
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 30
Advanced Hybrid Fiber Coax Advanced Hybrid Fiber Coax
Headend
Home
Drop Loop
Node
Feeder (Fiber)
Active
HDT
PSTN
ATMNETWORK
Coaxial Termination Unit
FROMBROADCASTSOURCES
Source: Marvin Sirbu
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 31
CABLE MODEMSCABLE MODEMS
O/EO/EVideoVideo
Head EndHead End
O/EO/E
fiber nodefiber node
TapTapTT2-way amplifier2-way amplifieroptoelectronicsoptoelectronicsO/EO/E
Internet Internet
BackboneBackbone
IAPIAPCable ModemCable Modem
CMTSCMTS
TT
PCPC
10 BaseT10 BaseT
set topset top
TT
Source: Stagg Newman
Frequency
Spectral Use
0 50M
UP
TV
900M
TV
TV
TV
750M
DOWN
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 32
DSL from Central OfficeDSL from Central Office
ADSLModem
Splitter
Telephone
PC
DSLAM
Voice Switch
Data Switch
Subscriber Premises
Central Office
Data carried above4KHz voice frequencies
This simplification ignores the use of remote terminals and digital loop carrier (DLC)
Source: Marvin Sirbu
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/
Fiber to the NeighborhoodFiber to the Neighborhood
Fiber OpticFeeder Plant
DistributionPlant:
ADSL
Inter-Office Trunking
Local Access Network
DropPlant
Manhole
CentralOffice
CentralOffice
RDU
RDU
Source: Marvin Sirbu
• Can go all the way to the home (FTTH)• Fiber can easily provide Gigabit speeds
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 34
VDSL vs ADSLVDSL vs ADSL
Source: http://www.comsoc.org/comsig/Slides/Oct2003_DSL_BernardDebbasch.pdf, Oct 2003
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 35
Distance vs Bit Rate and Video Distance vs Bit Rate and Video DeliveryDelivery
Source: http://www.aware.com/products/dsl/bonded.htm
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 36
Challenges with Wireless…Challenges with Wireless…What prevents us from more wireless
broadband?• Spectrum•Reach
Related to power levels Line of Sight
•Costs• Evolving standards and technologies
WiFi– Mesh, MIMO, etc.
WiMax– Fixed and Mobile
3G, 4G, etc.
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 37
Fixed Wireless Access– Inherently Fixed Wireless Access– Inherently SharedShared
Base station• Point to Multipoint
Receivers• Rooftop• Indoors• Mobile/Portable
Shared bandwidth depends on technology• 25-40 Mbps downstream (might be)• 15-25 Mbps upstream • Spectrum matters
Unlicensed (UNI – 5 GHz) Licensed (e.g., MMDS - 2.5 GHz)
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 38
MMDS Fixed Wireless MMDS Fixed Wireless Architecture: Architecture:
Base Station and CPEBase Station and CPE
Small Business
Wireless Modem Unit
Ethernet LAN
Transceiver/Antenna
VoIP Adapter
Adapter
Transceiver/Antenna
Wireless Modem Unit
Fiber Backhaul To Distribution Hub
Transmitter
Receiver
Channel Combiner
Wireless Modem Termination System
Router/ ATM switch
Other MMDS channels Tower and
Antenna
(Base Station Outdoor Unit)
Base Station Indoor Unit
Sprint and MCI have purchased extensive MMDS licenses and will roll out in 40-60 markets over the next year.
Source: Marvin Sirbu
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 39
Customer Fixed Wireless UnitsCustomer Fixed Wireless Units Typically, requires
clearLine of Sight (LOS)• Except in small
radius• This requires costly
site visit to install antenna, run wiring to computer
Newer alternatives emerging (non-LOS)Source: Sprint (Hybrid Networks)
(antenna/transceiver only)
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 40
Base Station EquipmentBase Station EquipmentA single tower can
cover up to 20 mile radius•Depends on terrain
As subscribers increase, may need additional base stations/cells for frequency reuse
Source: Sprint (Hybrid Networks-Phoenix)
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 41
Wireless ISPsWireless ISPsThere are several thousand Wireless ISPs
(WISPs) in the U.S. • Easy because of light touch regulation
Spectrum Antennae
Majority of WISPs use souped up wireless LAN technology•Normal WLAN coverage ~ few hundred feet•With directional antennas, coverage can reach
several miles
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 42
Wireless Mesh NetworksWireless Mesh NetworksPopular for many city networks
• Philadelphia, San Francisco, etc.
Major advantage• Issues of backhaul
Challenge• Shared throughput
Business model questions• Free vs. subsidized vs. at cost
Q: Can one share connectivity?•Open Access Points (mesh or non-mesh)?
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 43
Antennas for Long Range Antennas for Long Range WLANsWLANs
Source: Cisco
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 44
Broadband Policy IssuesBroadband Policy Issues Unanswered questions
• Is there a “natural monopoly” in broadband? Very low marginal costs in telecom
• How can one support competition over broadband infrastructure?
• Who should build broadband networks? Public/Private Market/Regulated
• How do we define and pay for “Universal Service?
Thinking of layers or boundaries becomes important• Wholesale vs. retail• Physical vs. logical• Content vs. carriage
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 45
What is changing?What is changing?Applications
Protocols• Peer2Peer – why is it popular
Size of files
New Killer apps
Where we access information•On the move
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 46
Sometimes, it’s all About the $Sometimes, it’s all About the $$$
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 47
Components of ConnectivityComponents of Connectivity
Hardware / Installation
Marketing /
Advertising
O&M Uplinking (transit fees)TechnicalCRM
• One-time capital costs are amortized over time• Cost depends on:- Interest rates- Churn- Re-usability of components
• One time costs• Depends on competition
• Varies by technology
• Vary by location• Oversubscription ratios are an ISP choice• Speeds offered determine what applications can be run
• Also depends on competition
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 48
What does it Cost to use up What does it Cost to use up Bandwidth?Bandwidth?
$/Mbpstransit
StatisticalMultiplexing
(oversubscription)
Mbpsuplinked
Number of userssharing a link
RatedBandwidth
$/month costper user to ISPfor uplinking
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 49
Different Bits are DifferentDifferent Bits are Different
Voice• Fixed
23 $/month, 1 month/1923 min. ~ 3,100 p$/bit
• LD $0.10/minute 26,000 p$/bit
– Incl. International charges (FCC numbers)
Web (broadband user) 35 $/month, 2 hours per day usage, 30 kbps average usage ~ 5,400 p$/bit
TV (cable/satellite, excl. PPV) 225 $/year/person, 2.58 persons/household, 850 hours/year watched ~ 36 p$/bit A good fraction of their revenues comes from advertising
BUT, we don’t know what demand will look from 5 years from now, or, say, under 100 Mbps conditions
p$ = picodollars = 10-12
2002 or 2003 US Statistical Abstract Average Numbers except in
Italics
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 50
Digital DivideDigital Divide
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 51
The 4C FrameworkThe 4C FrameworkInformation and Communications
Technology (ICT) can be thought of as the 4Cs•Computers
Devices
•Connectivity Analog/digital; packet/circuit
•Content Centralized/decentralized
• (human) Capacity Literacy, language, etc.
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 52
US Broadband PenetrationUS Broadband Penetration
Why is this misleading?
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 53
Global BroadbandGlobal Broadband
Why could such information be misleading?
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 54
Truer Picture of Global Truer Picture of Global BroadbandBroadband
Issues of speeds or price are not shown
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 55
Digital DivideDigital Divide
Source: CAIDA
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 56
What is the Digital Divide?What is the Digital Divide?“Digital Divides are not just the result of economic differences in access to technologies (Have’s vs. Have-Not’s), but also in cultural capacity and political will to apply these technologies for development impact (Do’s vs. Do- Not’s).”
– Markle Foundation Report (2003)
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 57
What is the Digital Divide?What is the Digital Divide?The divide is a manifestation of underlying
divides, a symptom rather than a cause• Economic, social, gender, age, geographic, etc.
divides
It is a moving target•Dial-up, broadband, “real broadband”, etc.
Information fuels the present (Knowledge) Revolution• Enables the Drivers of Growth
Access Information Knowledge Opportunity
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 58
There are other Metrics and There are other Metrics and DividesDivides
0
5
10
15
20
25
Hon
g K
ong
Sw
eden
Japa
n
Nor
way
Fin
land
Sin
gapo
re
Fra
nce
Ger
man
y
Den
mar
k
Sw
itzer
land
Aus
tria
Aus
tral
ia
Net
herla
nds
Cze
ch R
epub
lic
Can
ada
Italy
Sco
tland
New
Zea
land
Bel
gium
Nor
ther
n Ir
elan
d
Eng
land
and
Wal
es
Gre
ece
Isra
el
Spa
in
Por
tuga
l
Irel
and
Cub
a
UN
ITE
D S
TA
TE
S
Slo
vaki
a
Kuw
ait2
Pol
and
Hun
gary
Pue
rto
Ric
o
Chi
le
Cos
ta R
ica
Bul
garia
Rus
sian
Fed
erat
ion
Rom
ania
Infa
nt
Mo
rtal
ity
(per
1,0
00 b
irth
s)
1999 Data; Source: March of Dimes Perinatal Data Center, Aug 2002
US is 28th
Here's another international ranking...
US may rank 19th in broadband (2005), but…
Newer data indicate the US is now 53rd!
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 59
4 Dimensions of the Digital 4 Dimensions of the Digital DivideDivide Awareness
• What is it, and what can one do with it?
Availability• Is it offered to me?
Accessibility• Can I realistically use it (including issues of literacy and
language)?
Affordability• Globally, ICT is 6.6% of GDP (telecom, hardware, and
software)• What percentage of income does access cost
worldwide?
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 60
Improvements are needed in Improvements are needed in all Dimensions of ICTall Dimensions of ICT
Computers• Life cycle analyses• Interface
Connectivity• Broadband?
Content• Locally relevant information
(human) Capacity• Literacy• e-Literacy
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 61
Why is Connectivity so Why is Connectivity so Expensive in Developing Expensive in Developing
Countries?Countries?Issues of scale – few users
International Gateway bottlenecks
Licensing fees and duties
Monopoly carrier (de-facto, often)
Poor design
And many more reasons…
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 62
Mobile PhonesMobile PhonesDominant connectivity in much of the world
~10% penetration in Africa!
Largest market in the world today is…?
BUT, the Avg. Rev. Per User (ARPU) can be high (=expensive)• Africa (2004) $28• India was only $11 (and under $8 today)
Do mobiles have data capabilities?
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 63
$100 Laptop – Pros and Cons$100 Laptop – Pros and Cons Pros
• Creates awareness• Might have some innovation• In some cases, may fulfill a latent need
Cons• Top-down• Robustness unknown• Energy• Connectivity• Won’t share easily• Buy-in is expensive• Content?• Role of teachers
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 64
Idea: FiberAfrica ConceptIdea: FiberAfrica Concept A revolutionary design to provide the majority of the
population nearby access to broadband for a one-time capital expenditure of ~$1/capita• Can be cheaper by harnessing any existing infrastructure• Includes optical fiber of virtually unlimited capacity between major
population centers, and broadband wireless hubs for wide-spread access over large areas
Excludes PCs and end-user equipment
Revolutionary business model could allow virtually free access to schools, hospitals and rural community centers
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 65
FiberAfrica FiberAfrica Backbone Backbone NetworkNetwork
• Almost 70,000 km core backbone (shown)
• DWDM Technology for scalability and cost-effectiveness
• 35,000 km fiber spurs (not shown)
• Routing chosen to provide maximum coverage
• Can leverage existing fibers and rights of way (along highways
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 66
Additional optical amplifiers
. . .
Inline Optical Amplifier (with add/drop capabilities)
80 km 80 km 80 km 80 km
Major Cities (hundreds of km apart)
MajorCity
MajorCity
Wireless Transmission Central Hubs (10s of Mbps)
Upto 50 km
Wireless Receiving Hubs(can resell access nearby using 802.11 or other shorter-range wireless)
FiberAfrica DesignFiberAfrica Design
Detailed design undertaken, for all capital and operating expenses
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 67
Business Model(s)Business Model(s) Many options available, but requirements include
• Operational costs must be covered Our calculations show it can be done, affordably
• Capital costs can be grant-based (only ~$1B)• There must be end-user and community empowerment• Public core, competitive edge
Won’t create a new government (or other) bureaucracy• Consortium or partnership models have worked, e.g.,
IntelSat• Allows role for AfricaUnion/NEPAD as appropriate• Maintains individual governmental sovereignty
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 68
Why This Model?Why This Model? Appropriate scale – into the rural areas
Optical fibers make it “future-proof”• One time cost leads to fiber infrastructure that can last decades• Capital costs of fiber much lower than conventional wisdom
Few thousand $/km maximum
Increases access and domestic usage – not addressed merely by having an international fiber link (e.g., EASSY proposal)• “Closed Club” arrangements of such fiber systems make them
unaffordable
Business model is sustainable• Public-Private partnership• Synergistic with mobile providers – who lack such capacity for
broadband• Almost no barrier to entry for casual users (through schools and
community access points)
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 69
Open Access / FiberAfrica Open Access / FiberAfrica UnderpinningsUnderpinnings
Overcoming the infrastructure disconnect• Fiber lasts 30+ years, electronics need to be amortized in 5-
7 years Today, carriers often charge more (short-term business models) Higher cost models are inherently a niche solution
No conflict with competition• Focus on rural and “uneconomic” areas• ISPs would also benefit
Can justify “special regulation” only for the public good• Could also attract grants and soft loans
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 70
More info on FiberAfricaMore info on FiberAfrica
For more information, see:
http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/FiberAfrica--ending_a_digital_divide.pdf
OR
http://tinyurl.com/dttga
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 71
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 72
Internet is built on: Internet is built on: Principles, not LawsPrinciples, not Laws
Registration (databases) are believed because people think they are correct• Domain Name System
Handles names for humans vs. binary for machines Root names are the last .xxx, e.g., .com, .edu, .org, .mil, .ca, .tv Just 13 root servers in the world
– Many copies made for practical purposes
Borders define responsibilities
Best effort (democratic)
Robustness"Be liberal in what you accept, and conservative in what you send.“
- Jon Postel
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 73
Standards and RegulationStandards and Regulation
Many bodies, sometimes with overlap• IETF handles the engineering of the network• W3C handles web standards such as html, xml, etc.• IEEE handles some standards
Requests for Comments (RFCs) are how things get standardized• Draft is circulated• Modified, debated, etc. (many versions often)• Becomes a standard by vote.
Companies often try and tilt emerging standards
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 74
Registries and Domain NamesRegistries and Domain Names
Numeric address space is coordinated
Domain Names initially managed by ISI (Jon Postel)
National Science Foundation (NSF) hired contractor to administer• Network Solutions Inc (NSI)
NSF stopped paying NSI, allowed NSI to charge for .com, .net, .org• $70 for two years
NSI becomes enormously profitable
NSF responsibilities passed to Commerce Dept.• The US government controlled key element of the Internet (!) so
NSF establishes ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers)
* Based on information from Jon Peha
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 75
Domain Names (cont.)Domain Names (cont.)
ICANN decisions• Protect trademark owners• Oppose cybersquatting• Do not create more top level domains• Divide NSI responsibilities
Registry: manage database, NSI monopoly Registrar: consumer interface, competition
NSI claims to own the .com, .net, .org database• Do they have to give it up or share it?
ICANN says that NSI must be accredited• NSI refuses to sign agreement with ICANN• NSI does not recognize ICANN's authority• NSI protects its revenue stream
What happened in the end?• NSI was acquired by VeriSign, then spun off
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 76
Domain Names (cont.)Domain Names (cont.)
ICANN critics• NSI and friends, many academics • ICANN is the evil face of governance in the Internet, which needs no governance• ICANN is an unrepresentative, unelected group with unlimited power
Rest of World (especially developing countries) particularly dislike the entire process (not just ICANN)
• Meet behind closed doors, create taxes ...
ICANN supporters• ICANN, many high-tech companies, trademark owners.• NSI is an unregulated monopoly that must be stopped.• Engineers seeking consensus, do not address policy.• A neutral group of experts making necessary decisions.• ICANN people are just "plumbers“
Remains a major issue: Internet Governance• What is the debate about?
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 77
Issues in the InternetIssues in the Internet Scalability
• Internet is growing* at 75-300%• Running out of IP addresses
Long term solution: IPv6– 128 bit addresses (millions per square meter)
• Protocols and equipment are straining
Security• Distributed Denial of Service are an example• Viruses
Quality of Service• Voice
Usability
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 78
Issues in the Internet (cont.)Issues in the Internet (cont.)Privacy
Anonymity
Identity
Regulation•Universal Service Obligation• Taxation• Encryption (and it’s a technology issue)•Digital signatures
Digital Divide
Ethics and Policy issues in Computing • Carnegie Mellon University • Spring 2008 • Tongia • http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~tongia/sp08/08-200/ 79
Policy Issues (Discussion)Policy Issues (Discussion)Are “Terms of Service” sufficient to disallow
Domain resolution?• E.g., GoDaddy vs. Seclists.org [dispute over
MySpace complaint]
How do we do CALEA on the Internet?•Can we?• Should we?•What about Skype?
Is not a phone service, but a “voice IM” (?)