FOOD CRISIS

NO DOUBT, the drought is nature-made. It is due to the failure of monsoon in more than half of India that has made the country short by 10 million tones in rice and an equal quantity of sugar. But the nation could have avoided the man-made misery, the food crisis which is because of globalization.

Massive land grabbing, displacing farmers and abnormal growth of the landless have held to a situation where those who depend on the land have been further marginalized.

Our growth rate till last year was hitting nearly 10 percent or the pt two decades. But the number of the poor, roughly 70 percent of the population, has shown no appreciable dent. There is no paradox except that the extra earned money has gone to the pockets of the right. The growing luxury crops for exports have told upon the cultivation of rice and wheat. Rice has also been exported on a large scale when India needs every grain of it. The export was some kind of an obligation under globalization but it could have been avoided if some ministers and top bureaucrats in Andhra Pradesh had not fallen prey to the temptation of making money under the table. There is a lot of concern at the Centre, but not a word about an inquiry into the scandal.

What we have to realize is that the growth rate does not reduce poverty and hunger. It aggravates both. The Manmohan Singh Government has not yet woken up to the fact that the model of industrial agriculture and globalize trade on food are responsible for the creation of hunger. Farmers have inevitably depended on debt for help, not realizing that a debt trap is also a hunger trap. Many suicides have taken place and many more would.

The poor in India are worse off be because their food and livelihoods have been destroyed. The middle classes are even worse because they are eating inferior, not better. Junk food and processed food is forced on India through globalization. The country is now the epicenter of the malnutrition of the poor who do not get enough and the malnutrition of the rich, whose diets are being degraded with the Americanized food culture.

The uncontrollable rise in food prices is clearly an outcome of the economic policies which have been framed to fit into the neo-liberal paradigm. The Government has intervened at every step to create corporate monopolies in the food  system-form steel to domestic production, trade to food process, to liberalized imports to export oriented agriculture and to corporate retail. Though the Government intervention has unleashed forces driving up food prices, it is now throwing up its hand and saying it can do nothing to control prices.

At the Global Agro-Industrial forum meeting on April 11 last year, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh said a steep rise in food prices would make inflation control more difficult and might hurt macro-economic stability. He, however, ruled out the return to an era of blind control to check prices. "We cannot react to such a situation by returning to an era of blind controls and by depressing agriculture terms of trade," said the Prime Minister. After having shaped an economy which is leading to high cost food for the poor, he has said he believes in running a 'hands off economy." This is putting the economy on autopilot for corporate control of food systems.

Imports are no longer affordable, and a model based on import dependency might be in the interest of the US Government which has always used food as a weapon. It is definitely not in the interest of India's food sovereignty, nor in the interest of the 7- per cent of India's population, already denied access to adequate food.

A decade and more of corporate globalization has divested agriculture worldwide with the promise of cheap food. Yet the very forces and process that have launched the globalization project are taking food beyond people's reach. Prices of food are rising worldwide. More than 33 countries have witnessed for riots. India has had very high increases in prices of essential commodities. All kinds of reasons are being thrown around, including population growth. These are outrageous explanations because prices have doubled over the past year, but not the population.

When India's first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru found that after pumping in thousands of crores in the economy through the First Five year Plan, there was no improvement, he immediately appointed a top economic exert to find out where the money had gone. The report showed that the extra money was pocketed by the rich. Nehru was not surprised but felt hurt that Mahatma Gandhi's advice to the industrialists and businessmen to act as trustees had made no difference. In fact, whatever Mahatma Gandhi preached on village economy and self-reliance has not been followed at all. He is not to bale but that ones running the Government are.

By

Kuldip Nayar

(Eminent Journalists, India's former High Commissioner to the UK and Former Rajya Sabha Member)

GLOBAL WARMING/GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

The age old proverb, "Everybody talks about weather, but nobody does anything about it", is not valid in this century. A world-wide study shows that the average temperatures of the earth has raised by as mush as 0.2 degree Celsius every decade. The rise in temperature is due to global warming, which has now become an imminent threat.

Our earth daily absorbs large quantity of solar energy from the sun. Most of this energy is radiated back to atmosphere by the earth, and this process maintains the balance of heat an energy on the earth. There are many gases present in the atmosphere, but only carbon dioxide and water vapor absorb this infrared radiation of the earth strongly and effectively block the radiation of energy back to the atmosphere. However a considerable part of it is re-emitted to the earth's surface and consequently the earth's surface gets heated up. This increase in temperature of the earth is called the Green-house effect.

The temperature effects of carbon dioxide and water vapor combine together to have a long range impact on the global climate. As the surface temperature increase, the evaporation of surface water increase, thereby raising the temperature further. It is estimated that this combined effect of rise of temperature will bring about 30 degree Celsius in surface temperature, if the carbon dioxide concentration is doubled in the atmosphere. The most alarming fact is that a slight increase in surface temperature say around 1 degree Celsius can adversely affect the world food production. As a result the wheat growing zones in the northern latitude will be shifted from USSR and Canada to the northern poles, that means from the fertile solids to the poor soils. The biological productivity will also decrease due to warming of the surface layer, which in turn reduces the transport of nutrients from deeper layers to the surface by vertical circulation.

Carbon dioxide gas, although a relatively insignificant non-pollutant gas in the atmosphere, is of serious environmental concerns. It has the potential to be compared with the nuclear wars in terms of massive irreversible damage to the environment. Increase of carbon-dioxide gas in the atmosphere is constantly occurring. Primarily through natural causes but mostly by man himself. Volcanic eruptions and forest-fire are some of the natural causes which cannot be checked. But the current global trend in deforestation, along with increase in carbon dioxide content. Forest are the areas where the green leaves efficiently utilize carbon-dioxide to make their on food. Deforestation reduces this utilization of carbon-dioxide. Consumption of fossil fuels and house-hold fuels like coal, firewood also gives off considerable amount of carbon-dioxide.

Rise in global temperatures causes many climatic changes also, but the most drastic change will be the increase in sea-level. Already, the rise in global temperatures have resulted in cracks in the Antartic ice shelf. Melting of even

fraction of the volume of polar ice can result in flooding of many low lying areas around the earth. Other climate changes include floods, droughts, storms and exceptionally warm summers. Europe and American have already witnessed these changes considerably. The summer of 1998 predicted to be the warmest in the century.

Prevention is always better than cure. Human contribution and efforts can certainly prevent and control this global warming. It can be best carried out by checking atmospheric pollution. Deforestation should be stopped. Wood should be used as little as possible, because wood maintains vast reservoirs of fixed but readily oxidizable carbon. Bricks houses should be encouraged as they retain less heat. Thus they are well suited to Indian climate.

Unnecessary combustion of fuel should be checked. In houses, combustion of fuels like wood, coal, kerosene should be controlled. Instead LPG stove should be used which results in greater efficiency in fuel, utilization and less atmospheric pollution. Encouraging bio-gas plants in village communities has Multifood effect. It decreases the use of firewood, is less atmospheric pollutant and is a by-production of manure. Development of more efficient vehicles would also result in less consumption of fuel and therefore less atmospheric pollution.

Renewable sources of energy should be used as it is non-polluting and very efficient. These renewable sources of energy are solar energy and wind energy. Hydro-electricity is also of considerable use. Lastly, treatment appliances should be applied on the sources of green house gases which are carbon dioxide and methane, so that they may not violate the atmospheric balance.

AIR POLLUTION

This essay is about Air Pollution, Sources of Air Pollution and Effects of Air Pollution

Air pollution is the presence of abnormal concentration and abnormal constituents in air. We know that Fresh air is needed for a healthy life. That is why people go out for morning walks so that they can breathe as much fresh air as possible. But the quality of the air has been deteriorating in urban areas. It is being polluted by smoke, harmful gasses, dust articles and other matters.

The burning of petrol and diesel in running vehicles emits carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and unburnt hydrocarbon particles. These pollutants are released in the air breathe. They are very harmful for out health.

The burning of various fuels in factories and power plants emit carbon monoxide carbon dioxide and other poisonous gases that are left off in the atmosphere. Yet without burning fuel, the production of goods in industries is not possible. So the growth of industrial production is at the cost of polluting air.

Various chemical industries such as those manufacturing acids, plastics, dyes and paint, paper, pesticides, petrochemical emit hazardous fumes and gases such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and fluorocarbons.

Industrial dust also causes air pollution. Dust coming out from the cement kilns, lime kilns, stone crushing and asbestos factories are the main causes of breathing problems and lung diseases in our country.

Smoking of cigarettes and bedis is very injurious to health. It causes heart diseases, various respiratory problems and cancer. Tobacco smoke is a pollutant particularly in closed spaces such as buses, trains, cinema halls and restaurants. Smoke emitted by a smoker but inhaled by a non-smoker is known as secondary or they are in the vicinity of a smoker. That is why smoking is banned in public places.

Air pollution affects the health of people adversely. The presence of carbon monoxide in the air we breathe causes headache nausea and suffocation. Various other respiratory diseases such as tuberculosis, bronchitis and asthma are

common in our country due to poor air quality. Dust in air causes asthma and allergies. In winter days fogs containing particulate matter causes bronchitis and cough.

A different dimension of air pollution is the problem of ozone depletion. The presence of pollutants like fluorocarbons and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) in the air has depleted ozone in the atmosphere. This has created a hole in the ozone layer of the atmosphere. CFC is chemicals used in refrigerators and air-conditioners and cooking agents. The ozone layer protects life on earth by preventing harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun from entering the atmosphere. This layer has now become too thin and has developed a hole exposing human life to the dangerous ultraviolet rays of sun. Long exposure to ultra-violet rays of sun causes cancer and other genetic disorders in human beings.

Gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides and methane in the atmosphere trap the heat waves of the sun and cause melting of polar ice has increased the water level in oceans and seas causing frequent floods and droughts across the world. The global climatic change has mostly affected the agriculture. This increase in the average temperature of the atmosphere is known as the ‘green-house effect.

Often the easiest solution to an air pollution problem is to stop the quality process. Once the decision has been made that the process is necessary, the engineer must consider the possibility of controlling the emissions by changing the process. In addition a change of raw material and modification of the process might also be used to achieve a desired result.

DEFORESTATION

The tropical rainforests are falling at human hands. The world’s oldest living ecosystem is under threat in our conquest for farmland, timber, minerals, and other resources (Grainger 17). These forests cover 2% of the Earth’s surface, or 6% of its landmass, yet they house over half the plant and animal species on Earth (“Rainforests”). Rainforests originally covered twice that area. Deforestation is occurring on such a scale that if it were to continue “at present rates the forests could disappear within the next one to two hundred years” (Grainger 17).

Why should we be concerned? Deforestation poses a threat to the rich biological diversity of tropical rainforests, hinders the advancement of medicinal discoveries, and contributes largely to the greenhouse effect. Because if the forests go, then so will many of the species that they support. This greatly reduces the biological diversity of the whole planet. Secondly, deforestation curtails “our future options to exploit other plants for medicines,” (Grainger 17). Finally, it will contribute to the impending global climate change through the greenhouse effect (Grainger 18). For these reasons it is imperative to control deforestation so that a large area of tropical rainforest will remain.

Tropical rainforests are defined by two primary factors: location (in the tropics) and amount of rainfall they receive (“Rainforests”). Rainforests receive from 4 to 8 meters of rain a year (“Rainforests”). Most of the rainfall is blocked by the heavy vegetation, and water reaches the forest floor by rolling down branches and trunks. Another distinctive characteristic is that the rainforests have no “seasonality”—no dry or cold season of slower growth (“Rainforests”). In addition, they are the Earth’s oldest living ecosystems. The Rainforests are a “priceless part of our natural heritage” and their removal through deforestation would mean the loss of one of the planet’s most valuable ecosystems (Grainger 146).

Rainforests are being destroyed at an astounding rate. According to the National Academy of Science, at least 50 million acres a year are lost, “an area the size of England, Wales, and Scotland combined,” (“Rainforests”). “All the primary rainforests in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Haiti have been destroyed already” (“Rainforests”). In addition, the rainforests of the Ivory Coast have almost been completely logged. Areas such as the Philippines and

Thailand lost over 50% of their rainforests by 1985 (“Rainforests”). These statistics prove that there is no more powerful reason for wanting to preserve the tropical rainforests.

Biological diversity, often shortened to “biodiversity,” has three main components: ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity. So the biodiversity of a given area is characterized by the presence of different kinds of ecosystems; its species diversity; and its contribution to the genetic diversity of particular species (Grainger 147). According to the National Academy of Sciences, a typical four square mile patch of rainforest contains as many as 1500 species of flowering plants, 750 species of trees, 125 mammal species, 400 species of birds, 100 of reptiles, 60 of amphibians, and 150 species of butterflies (“Rainforests”). In particular, deforestation threatens to reduce these numbers of species, degrade the genetic diversity of individual species, and hinder the survival rate of species already exploited in their wild form in the forests.

Major consequences arise for plant and animal species as a result of deforestation. All forms of disturbance displace animals from part or all of their territories. The more extensive the disturbance, the more likely animals in an area will become overcrowded and their populations will decline due to social pressures, limitations on food, and impaired reproductive activity (Grainger 150). Even by just removing a few plants, the complex annual calendars of food sources could be disrupted. These annual food source schedules enable many rainforest animals, like the orangutan, to cope with the “low density and irregular flowering and fruiting regimes of the plants they eat” (Grainger 150). Moreover, other plants may be affected “if animals on which they rely for pollination or dispersal leave to search for food elsewhere” (150).

Furthermore, genetic diversity of individual species is also being degraded. This is a concern to plant breeders because several of these species are commercially valuable crops (Grainger 147). Their degradation will “threaten our ability to continue breeding new varieties to keep ahead of pests and diseases that threaten products.” Several key economic crops that originate in the humid tropics and still grow there today are brazil nut, cashew nut, cocoa, passion fruit, pineapple, rubber, papaya, bamboo, banana, ginger, rice and yam (Grainger 152). Crops that grow on the outskirts of the forests have been bred from wild plants to give the best yields under particular environmental conditions. Extracts from the wild plants have been taken in order to make use of specific genetic characteristics from the entire population. “It is vital to retain a wide genetic diversity of wild plants so that plant breeders can counter threats to crop productivity caused by new pests and diseases and changing climate.” For example, in the Amazon huge sums of money are spent in breeding new groundnut varieties resistant to diseases such as leafspot (Caufield). Also, some high yielding rice varieties last only two years before being attacked by a new insect pest and needing replacement (Grainger 152).

Deforestation is increasing the rate of species extinction so that the plants we are using will disappear along with many animals also. “Extinction is an irreversible change and once a species is gone it is lost for good” (Grainger 150). It occurs naturally at a rate of about one species every two years (150). Species are put at much risk early on when their numbers drop so low that they could be eliminated by drought, disease or other random events. There are many endangered species found in the tropical rainforests that risk extinction if the present conditions continue. Some examples are the koupray or wild cow of Southeast Asia, of which only 100 individuals remain, the broad-nosed lemur from Madagascar, which is down to just two colonies, and the southern bearded saki, a monkey living in the forests of the northeast Amazonia (150).

Many medical advances have come from the abundant botanical resources of the tropical rainforests. Half of the Earth’s plant species live there and only 1% have been thoroughly examined for medicinal potentials (“Rainforests”). Extracts from organisms are used directly as drugs for many maladies ranging from headaches to lethal diseases such as malaria. An aid in the cure of malaria, quinine, is an alkaloid extracted from the bark of the cinchona tree found in Latin America and Africa (“Rainforests”). Also, the alkaloid d-turbocuarine found in the “deadly poisonous bark of curare lianas is used to treat diseases such as multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, and other muscular disorders.” Lastly, two important anti-tumor agents are found in periwinkle from Madagascar. “One

provides for a 99% chance of remission in cases of lymphatic leukemia. The other offers a life remission in 58% of Hodgkin’s Disease sufferers.”

In addition, chemical structures from organisms serve as templates for which scientists can chemically synthesize drug compounds. Approximately 7,000 medical compounds prescribed by Western doctors are derived from plants that reside in the rainforests (“Rainforests”). The blueprint for aspirin is found in extracts from willow trees in the rainforest for example. And ninety percent of prescription drugs that are based on higher plants from the rainforest include direct extractions from those plants (“Rainforests”).

Finally, the plants of the rainforest provide aids for research. Some plants provide testing agents for potentially harmful food or drug products while other plant compounds allow scientists to understand how cancer cells grow (“Rainforests”). Also, tropical forests “offer hope to safer contraceptives.” “Approximately 4,000 plant species have been shown to offer contraceptive possibilities.” This is a notable fact since the exponential growth of the world’s population is in need of more effective birth control methods.

Deforestation also contributes significantly to the greenhouse effect and global warming. The greenhouse effect describes how Earth’s atmosphere functions. To begin, the sun emits short wave radiation through the atmosphere to the Earth. In return, the Earth radiates some of the sun’s energy back into the atmosphere in the form of long-wave infrared radiation. Certain trace gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and nitrous oxide retain heat by trapping some of the infrared radiation. Without these “greenhouse gases” the Earth would be 33C cooler than it is now (“Rainforests”). Clearing and burning rainforests releases considerable amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. “Each year, deforestation contributes 23-30 percent of all carbon dioxide in the atmosphere” (“Rainforests”). Deforestation is also responsible for destroying our means of absorbing and storing the substance. This leads to global warming because the Earth has lost one of its only ways to absorb excess atmospheric carbon. Through photosynthesis the rainforests absorb the carbon dioxide and emit oxygen. Yet, with deforestation there is “more and more carbon released into the atmosphere” due to the burning of the plants, and “less and less forests to remove the carbon from the atmosphere” (“Rainforests”).

Rapid warming of the atmosphere can have tremendous consequences. First, many species will not be able to survive the climate change or may not be able to continue life in another habitat. Secondly, the sea level will rise approximately 1.5 meters which will cause coastal flooding (“Rainforests”). Also, an impact can occur on agriculture in food exporting nations such as the United States, Canada and France as a result of drought and drier soil conditions (“Rainforests”). And lastly, there will be increases in severe storms such as hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons (“Rainforests”).

Tropical deforestation has many significant environmental impacts. It threatens the biodiversity of our planet, deters medicinal discoveries plant species may offer and contributes to potential global warming resulting from the greenhouse effect. In conclusion, conservation of the tropical rainforests is imperative in order to preserve one of the Earth’s oldest, most rich and valuable ecosystems.

BIOTECHNOLOGY

Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living things in engineering, technology, medicine, and other useful applications. Modern use of the term includes genetic engineering as well as cell and tissue culture technologies. The concept encompasses a wide range of procedures for modifying living organisms according to human purposes.

The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity defines biotechnology as "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use".

Biotechnology draws on the pure biological sciences like genetics, microbiology, animal cell culture, molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology, cell biology, etc. In many instances, it is also dependent on knowledge and methods from outside the sphere of biology such as chemical engineering, bioprocess engineering, information technology, and bio robotics. Conversely, modern biological sciences including molecular ecology are intimately entwined and dependent on the methods developed through biotechnology.

Due to rapid progress in research, biotechnology is being widely applied in medicine and agriculture. Its application in medicine includes pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical products, genetic testing, gene therapy, human genome project and even cloning. In agriculture it is applied to increase crop yield; reduce vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses; increase nutritional qualities; improve taste, texture or appearance of food; reduce dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals; and to produce novel substances in crop plants.

The field of modern biotechnology is thought to have largely begun on June 16, 1980, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that a genetically modified microorganism could be patented in the case of Diamond vs. Chakrabarty. Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty, working for General Electric, had developed a bacterium, derived from the Pseudomonas genus, capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills.

Today, besides healthcare and agriculture, biotechnology has applications in non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses. For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, cleanup sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons.

Biotechnology as a subject has become so vast that several branches have cropped up and a series of derived terms have been coined to identify them. Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.

While blue biotechnology refers to the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, green biotechnology is applied to agricultural processes, red biotechnology is applied to medical processes, and white biotechnology is applied to industrial processes. The investment and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies is termed as bio economy.

In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications and is often associated with the use of genetically altered microorganisms such as E. coli or yeast for the production of substances like synthetic insulin or antibiotics. It can also refer to transgenic animals or transgenic Plants, such as corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells, are also used to manufacture certain pharmaceuticals. Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cancers, arthritis, haemophilia, bone fractures, multiple sclerosis, and cardiovascular disorders.

The biotechnology industry has also been instrumental in developing molecular diagnostic devices that can be used to define the target patient population for a given biopharmaceutical. Another promising new biotechnology application is the development of plant-made pharmaceuticals.

An advantage of modern biotechnology is that it can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. Modern biotechnology has evolved, making it possible to produce more easily and relatively cheaply human growth hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs. Genomic knowledge of the genes involved in diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response sites are expected to lead to the discovery of thousands more new targets.

In agriculture, using the techniques of modern biotechnology, one or two genes may be transferred to a highly developed crop variety to impart a new character that would increase its yield. However, while increases in crop yield are the most obvious applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture, it is also the most difficult one. Current genetic engineering techniques work best for effects that are controlled by a single gene.

Many of the genetic characteristics associated with yield (e.g., enhanced growth) are controlled by a large number of genes, each of which has a minimal effect on the overall yield. There is, therefore, much scientific work to be done in this area.

Another application of biotechnology involves developing crops that contain genes that enable them to withstand biotic and abiotic stresses. Biotechnologists are studying plants that can cope with extreme conditions like drought and excessively salty soil in the hope of finding the genes that enable them to do so and eventually transferring these genes to the more desirable crops.

Biotechnology would also help in modifying proteins in foods to increase their nutritional qualities. Proteins in legumes and cereals may be transformed to provide the amino acids needed by human beings for a balanced diet. Modern biotechnology can be used to slow down the process of spoilage so that fruit can ripen longer on the plant and then be transported to the consumer with a still reasonable shelf life. This alters the taste, texture and appearance of the fruit. More importantly, networked cameras that enable governments to watch our every move, rapid invention of wondrous products, or weapons development fast enough to destabilize any arms race.

The whole concept of advanced nanotechnology and MM is so complex, unfamiliar, and staggering in its implications, that a few scientists and engineers have flatly declared it to be impossible. The debate is further confused by science-fictional hype and media misconceptions. However, in spite of such criticism, if nanotechnologists are to be believed, the technology will come about offering great potential for benefit to humankind, and also bringing severe dangers. While it is appropriate to examine carefully the risks and possible toxicity of nanoparticles and other products of Nano scale technology, the greatest hazards are posed by malicious or unwise use of molecular manufacturing.

Viewed with pessimism, MM could appear far too risky to be allowed to develop to anywhere near its full potential. However, a naive approach to limiting R&D, such as relinquishment, is flawed for at least two reasons. First, it will almost certainly be impossible to prevent the development of MM somewhere in the world. China, Japan, and other Asian nations have thriving nanotechnology programs, and the rapid advance of enabling technologies such as biotechnology, MEMS, and scanning-probe microscopy ensures that R&D efforts will be far easier in the near future than they are today.

Second, MM will provide benefits that are simply too good to pass up, including environmental repair; clean, cheap, and efficient manufacturing; medical breakthroughs; immensely powerful computers; and easier access to space. So preparing ourselves and the world for this technology acquires urgency.

SPACE EXPLORATION AND THE UNIVERSE

Man's curiosity for knowledge has led him to explore space. Space contains the planets, countless galaxies and milky ways. Man has been able to go to space and collect pictures of the sun, the planets and the moon. The first man made satellite Sputnik-1 was sent into space by Russia in 1957.

Yuri Gagarin of Russia became the first man to go into space. Man has landed on the moon and he is trying to find out the existence of life on other planets. Telecommunication, weather forecasting, radio and television programmes etc. are all monitored by satellites in space. There are also military stations and spy satellites in space which pose a threat of a nuclear war. This should be avoided and scientists should work for the benefit of mankind.

Man is God's best creation. His intelligence and thirst for knowledge has led him to explore even the impossible. The exploration of space by man is an example of his thirst for knowledge and desire for adventure. This is also one of the greatest achievements of man. Space contains the whole universe including all the planets, the sun, the moon and the stars. The limit where the earth's atmosphere ends is called outer space.

Yuri Gagarin of Russia in 1961, became the first man to go into space. He circled the earth in 108 minutes and returned safely. Later, in 1963, Valentina Tereshkova became the first women to go into space. She stayed in orbit for 5 days and returned safely to the earth. In 1969, Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin of America became the first men to land on the moon. They reached the moon on board the spaceship Apollo-11 and spent 21 hours on its surface. They collected rock and soil samples and returned safely to the earth. As time went on, many successful attempts were undertaken. Rakesh Sharma was the first Indian to be sent to space.

Satellites and spacecrafts have been launched for various purposes. The atmosphere in space is used for television programmes, radio broadcasts, telecommunication, etc. Satellites provide advanced disaster warning and help to forecast the weather. Distance educational programmes, natural resources management, etc. are controlled by satellites. Space research can help us to find the origin of the universe, the age of our earth and other planets. Information has already been gathered about Mars. It will help us to find out whether life exists on planets of the universe other than the earth.

With the conquest of the moon, fight to other planets began. The Americans launched Pioneer-1 in 1972 on a 21 month long mission into space past Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto.

The American Skylab Mission orbited the earth at a distance of about 480km. In its lifetime, astronauts aboard observed the sun and returned with around 1,75,000 solar pictures. Columbia, the first space shuttle was launched by America in 1981. it was a multipurpose reusable spacecraft which took off like a satellite and a glider. It was used to lauch satellites, repair spacecrafts etc. in orbit. Unfortunately, it exploded in 2003 in the earth's atmosphere.

In 2006, NASA replaced Columbia with the space shuttle Discovery. On December 9, 2006, Discovery lifted off its 12-day ISS (International Space Station) repair mission from the Kennedy Space Centre, Florida. It carried a crew of seven including Indian-American astronaut Sunita Williams among others. She is the second woman of India origin to go into space after Kalpana Chawala.

In 1986, Russsia launched Mir, a space laboratory, where astronauts stayed on board in space for 366 days. From 1964 to 1976, Mariner IV, V, VII and IX studied Mars and gathered various details about the planet, Later, spacecrafts were sent to Venus, Jupiter, Saturn and Neptune, In January 2006, NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) launched a spacecraft New Horizon to visit Pluto and its moon Charan. NASA's robotcraft 'Pathfinder' and 'Mars Global Surveyor' collected more data about Mars. Efforts are on to find traces of life which might have existed on it. In December 2006, European space scientists successfully launched COROT satellite telescope. It will help to discover earth-like planets located beyond our solar system. In April 2007, European astronomers declared that they have found the first earth-like planet beyond our solar system. It is named as GL 581c.

The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) was formed in 1969. The first Indian satellite Aryabhatta, was launched from a Soviet cosmodrame in 1975. India launched in INSAT (Indian National Satellite) system for the expansion of television, radio, telecommunications and meteorological services. INSAT system is one of the largest domestic communication satellite systems in the Asia-Pacific region. in 1999, the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite was launched successfully by PSLV (Polar Satellite Lauch Vehicle). Thereafter, there have been many successful launches of both INSAT and PSLV.

On January 10, 2007 India launched PSLV-C7 successfully. India's communication satellite INSAT-4B was launched successfully on March 12, 2007. On April 23, 2007, India's first commercial space launch. PSLV-C8 carried an Italian Space Agencies AGILE Satellite in the space and placed it in orbit 550 Km above the earth. In May 2008, ISRO launched PSLV-C9 successfully. It is the first time in India that PSLV took off from spaceport to place 10 satellites into their orbits. India became the second country to achieve this difficult feat after Russia. In 2008, PSLV-10 was launched successfully, its satellite is known as Israeli Spy Satellite.

On October 22, 2008 India launched PSLV-11 Chandrayan 1 successfully. On November 14, 2008 the Indian tricolor landed on the Moon. The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLYV-C12) of the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) successfully placed two satellites-Rader Imaging Satellite (RISAT-2) and ANUSAT-in the desired orbit on April 20, 2009.

The third successful test of the Ballistic Missile Defence (MBD) system on 6th March, 2009 has put India into an exclusive club of counties such as US, Russia and Israel which are developing Star War kind of capabilities. The test was carried out from wheeler Island in Orissa.

Space research has many advantages. It may help scientists to find out useful metals and substances like radioactive metals and minerals on the moon and other planets. This will help to make progress in the field of medical science, business and commerce. Inter planetary travel may help in the field of researches related to pressure, lack of oxygen, weightlessness, etc. Navigation and communication may be improved. Space tourism has also become a reality.

Space travel and research also habits negative side. The spy satellites, the nuclear aircraft, the bombers, the orbiting military stations create, grave danger to mankind. The next world war, it is said would be fought in space. The havoc to mankind then can be well imagined.

The negative aspects should be avoided. Advanced space technologies should be sued for benefit of mankind. Co-operation among the counties in this field can further boost the exploration of the unknown.

MONETARY FUNDS AND FINANCE

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has a part in shaping the global economy since the end of World War II. It is an organization of 18( countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world It provides policy advice and financing to members in economy difficulties and also works with developing nations to help them achieve macroeconomic stability and reduce poverty.

During the cooperation and reconstruction phase after the end c Second World War, the IMF was assigned the task of overseeing the international monetary system to ensure exchange rate stability and encouraging members to eliminate exchange restrictions that hinder trade. When the system of fixed exchange rates collapsed in 1971 as well as during the oil shocks of 1973-74 and 1979, the IMF stepped in to help countries deal with the consequences.

It assisted in coordinating the global response to the international debt crisis caused due to oil shocks. It played a central role in helping the countries of the former Soviet bloc transition from central planning to market-driven economies.

During the recent economic crisis too, the IMF has been on the front lines of lending to countries to help boost the global economy. The founders of the Bretton Woods system had taken it for granted that private capital flows would never again resume the prominent role they had in the nineteenth and early twentieth century’s, and the IMF had traditionally lent to members facing current account difficulties.

However, the fragility in the advanced financial markets was uncovered by the latest global crisis and the IMF was inundated with requests for stand-by arrangements and other forms of financial and policy support.

The international community recognized that the IMF's financial resources were as important as ever and were likely to be stretched thin before the crisis was over. With broad support from creditor countries, the Fund's lending capacity was tripled to around $ 750 billion. To use those funds effectively, the IMF overhauled its lending policies.

It created a flexible credit line for countries with strong economic fundamentals and a track record of successful policy implementation. Other reforms, including ones tailored to help low-income countries, enabled the IMF to disburse very large sums quickly, based on the needs of borrowing countries and not tightly constrained by quotas, as in the past.

The IMF supports its member countries by providing policy advice to governments and central banks based on analysis of economic trends and cross-country experiences; research, statistics, forecasts, and analysis based on tracking of global, regional, and individual economies and markets; loans to help countries overcome economic difficulties; concessional loans to help fight poverty in developing countries; and technical assistance and training to help countries improve the management of their economies.

The world has changed dramatically since the IMF was founded, bringing extensive prosperity and lifting millions out of poverty, especially in Asia. In many ways the IMF's main purpose to provide the global public good of financial stability is the same today as it was when the organization was established. More specifically, the IMF continues to provide a forum for cooperation on international monetary problems; facilitate the growth of international trade, thus promoting job creation, economic growth, and poverty reduction; promote exchange rate stability and an open system of international payments; and lend countries foreign exchange when needed, on a temporary basis and under adequate safeguards, to help them address balance of payments problems.

The IMF's way of operating has also changed over the years. It has undergone rapid change since the beginning of the 1990s to meet the changing needs of its expanding membership in a globalized world economy. Most recently, it has launched an ambitious reform agenda, aimed at making sure the IMF continues to deliver the economic analysis and multilateral consultation that is at the core of its mission ensuring the stability of the global monetary system.

The turbulence in advanced economy credit markets in 2007-08 has demonstrated that domestic and international financial stability cannot be taken for granted, even in the world's wealthiest countries. The spike in food and fuel prices, which has hit import-dependent poor and middle- income countries particularly hard, is another aspect of the globalized economy. The IMF has responded by enhancing its lending facilities by creating a new Short-Term Liquidity Facility and a new Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust. It has taken several steps to improve economic and financial surveillance and strengthen the monitoring of global, regional, and country economies.

In order to help resolve global economic imbalances, in its World Economic Outlook, the IMF has provided finance ministers and central bank governors with a common framework for discussing the global economy. The IMF now also has the ability to call for multilateral consultations to discuss specific problems facing the global economy with

a select group of countries an innovative way of facilitating collective action among key players in the global economy.

The IMF is devoting more resources to the analysis of global financial markets and their linkages with macroeconomic policy. Twice a year, it publishes the Global Financial Stability Report, which provides up-to-date analysis of developments in global financial markets. The IMF also offers training to country officials on how to manage their financial systems, monetary and exchange regimes, and capital markets.

The IMF is currently facilitating the drafting of voluntary guidelines for Sovereign Wealth Funds and works closely with the Financial Stability Board to promote international financial stability. The IMF and the World Bank jointly run the Financial Sector Assessment Program, aimed at alerting countries to vulnerabilities and risks in their financial sectors.

The IMF's helps resolve crises, and works with its member countries to promote growth and alleviate poverty. It has three main tools at its disposal to carry out this mandate surveillance, technical assistance and training, and lending. These functions are underpinned by the IMF's research and statistics. On a regular basis usually once each year the IMF conducts an in depth bilateral surveillance and appraisals of each member country's economic situation.

It discusses with the country's authorities the policies that are most conducive to a stable and prosperous economy. The main focus of the discussions is whether there are risks to the economy's domestic and external stability that would argue for adjustments in economic or financial policies.

IMF offers technical assistance and training to help member countries strengthen their capacity to design and implement effective policies. The main areas in which it provides technical assistance and training are: monetary and financial policies; fiscal policy and management; compilation, management, dissemination, and improvement of statistical data; and economic and financial legislation.

In the event that member countries experience difficulties financing their balance of payments, the IMF is also a fund that can be tapped to facilitate recovery. The IMF cooperates with the national authorities in designing a policy program supported by financing. Continued financial support is conditional on the effective implementation of this program. The IMF also provides low-income countries with loans at a concessional interest rate through the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) and the Exogenous Shocks Facility (ESF).

In recent years, the IMF has applied both its surveillance and technical assistance work to the development of standards and codes of good practice in its areas of responsibility, and to the strengthening of financial sectors. Besides collaborating with the World Bank, the regional development banks, the World Trade Organization (WTO), UN agencies, and other international bodies, the IMF also interacts with think tanks, civil society, and the media on a daily basis.

With its near-global membership, the IMF is uniquely placed to help member governments take advantage of the opportunities and manage the challenges posed by globalization and economic development more generally. The IMF tracks global economic trends and performance, alerts its member countries when it sees problems on the horizon, provides a forum for policy dialogue, and passes on know-how to governments on how to tackle economic difficulties. It also provides policy advice and financing to members in economic difficulties and also works with developing nations to help them achieve macroeconomic stability and reduce poverty.

BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

Introduction

The media industry is a fast growing industry especially since it is being facilitated by the evolution of technology. Looking specifically at the film industry, there have been a lot of changes over the past years as the modifications are made according to the changes in the society as well as development of technology. Since the films and media industry operate like other working organizations, they are affected by similar factors based on their environments.  The film making industry is very large and the level of competition is very high therefore, the level of innovation is very high as well (Baker, 1991, pp. 280). The success of an industry will depend on the reception it receives from the viewers and the public. Hence, the industry works hard at trying to engage in activities that will closely relate to the lifestyle of the audience so as to attract their attention. The management of the films produced is determined by the various analyses that are conducted.  Therefore, this paper aims to look at how the PESTLE and Life Cycle analyses are relevant theoretical models in reflection to some of the films.

Overview

The application of the PESTLE and life cycle analysis application in the film industry are considered to be quite theoretical. However, they are very important as facts collected from the analysis can be used to improve the quality of the material and make certain adjustments that will be favorable to the audience (Miller, 2001, pp. 730). The latest films that are being released to the society have a close connection to the current activities taking place. One of the latest films that has stirred some controversies and attracted a lot of attention is the Social Network film.  The film is based on the creation of the largest social networking site, facebook. Facebook has attracted a lot of attention and its popularity is growing on a daily basis making it the most appreciated social networking site.  The fact that the site was created by a college student is very attractive and creates a story that needs to be shared internationally through the film industry. 

The film industry creates the Social Network based on the true story of Mark Zuckerberg and how he founded the network making him change from a student in college to a millionaire. The release of the film stirred missed reaction from the viewers and a lot of skepticism. Most of the viewers looked at it based on the fact that it was based on the inception of facebook rather than the fact it narrated the story of Mark Zuckerberg and what he went through in order to create the site. However, with time the reaction changed and the film was received very well in the market making it win many awards due to the nature of the content. The application of the PESTLE and life cycle analysis are relevant in the release of such a film as there may be certain factors that the film industry have to consider in order to ensure the success of the film.  The creation of these films takes a lot of money and investment of time as well, it is very important that it is successful once released despite the tough competition in order to make sure there are profits earned in the process.

The PESTLE analysis provides an opportunity for the industry to review the possible factors that may affect the success of the film either positively or negatively once it is released to the public.

PESTLE analysis on Social Network and its relevance

Political factors

Filmmaking is not an easy process as it involves a lot of consideration based on money, time and personnel so as to ensure the motion picture produced is of high quality.  The same aspects were considered in the production of the social network.  The similar amount of attention is giving to the legal issues that should be observed in the process such as the signing of contracts, taking care of the taxes charged and other related activities. The production of the Social Network involved a lot of contract signing and negotiations between the actors, producers, directors and other people that were involved in the process. The film producers also had to observe other factors such as the content of the material to make sure that it would be acceptable politically and that it is not offensive. These are factors that may affect the viewers and the perception of the film in other countries. The relations that the country has with other countries politically may also be considered in the process as it will determine how well the product will be

marketed. However, the main political factors that are likely to affect the production of the film are the restriction of producing certain features as they may be termed as explicit or offensive.

Conducting this analysis on the film is very important as it helps the individuals involved in its production are observing all the legal factors necessary. The signing of the contracts is also very important since there may certain misunderstandings in the process but the individuals have to adhere strictly to the contents of the contract (Baker, 1990, pp. 281). The taxation policies will also have to be followed making sure that the film production group is observing the law.

Economic factors

Economic factors affecting the production of the film are mainly positive since the film industry is known to make a lot of profits. The strength of the consumer spending is very high especially if the film is interesting.  In this case, the production of the Social Network attracted a lot of attention and the work that was invested in its production guaranteed its success. The film reflects on activity that the viewers are accustomed to and learning of the life of its founder adds on to their interest.  The makers of the film had made a budget of $40 million dollars to produce the film and the gross revenue that the producers have received is $221,105,307. The current issues facing the consumers such as unemployment and inflation have not affected the revenue being earned by the production group (Berkhout & Howess, 1997, pp. 82). The film industry is affected by such factors but not as much as the other industries since it is considered as entertainment.  Consumers will always budget for entertainment since purchasing or viewing the film in the cinemas is not expensive and most people can be able to afford the charges. 

Relevance:  the economic factors are viewed before the production of the film and after it has been released to the public. Looking at the economic issues enables the industry to budget accordingly and the more money spent on the production of the film, the better the content and it leads to the viewers appreciating what they view.  The production group is able to tax according to the level of revenue earned by the film.

Sociological factors

The lifestyle patterns that are displayed in the film highly reflect to the current culture being observed by the young generation.  The culture revolves around university life and education, relationships and entertainment lifestyle as well. Watching the film, the characters are involved in relationships and drinking habits, there is also intimacy exhibited in the film but all this is in reflection to the lifestyle adopted by the young generation (Shugan, 1997, 69). The attitude given towards education is not very serious but it was quite positive as it reflects on the students' lives at Harvard and how they relate with each other on a social level as well as academically. The film is as reflection of the social network which helps people relate with each other socially hence, the film plays a big role in reflecting the social lives of the individuals.

The film looks at the social lives of the students and how they related with each other.  Mark Zuckerberg decides to create the social network based on the fact that people needed o relate with each socially at all times. The connection of people through technology is established in the film and it highly relates to its title which is the social network. The media views and perceptions of the people were mixed at first as people had not understood the real meaning behind the film but looking at the reaction now, the response is mainly positive with a few skeptics (Shugan, 1997, pp. 72). The content in the film has also not drawn out any negative views from the religious sects.

The PESTLE analysis is very important in reflecting the social factors associated with the film in the industry as they depend on the response from the public in order to market their product.  Entertainment is not a necessity and the industry has to make it very attractive and interesting for the customers. Considering factors that are likely to stir controversies regarding cultural and religious aspects.

Technological factors

As mentioned earlier the film industry is facilitated by the application of the latest technology in order to make the product look very unique. The visuals of the film appear to be very sharp n well edited; the application of the sound is also in accordance with the latest technology.  The expenses of the film were mainly to incorporate the technology in the film so as to connect with the audience as they are also using the latest technology in their lives. The technological features used in the film are used to enhance innovation in the as a competitive edge in the industry (Baker, 1991, pp. 285). Being accustomed with the latest technology is able to help the film producers to understand what the viewers want and the films presented to them will be engaging. Communication between the viewers and the producers can be conducted through using the latest technology such as the social network site facebook and other related features. However, it is quite interesting that most of the criticism on the movie is from the technology experts who were not pleased with the release of the movie. 

Legal factors

The legal factors that surround the film industry mainly revolve around the signing of contracts, rights of intellectual property and other related features,  analyzing such factors in the film industry is important in that they will be able to cover all legal issues and avoid any future problems that may interfere with their work. Any changes occurring in the law will be covered if the analysis is conducted.

Environmental factors

The film industry is not directly related to the pollution of the environment hence, recycling o products is not applicable in their industry.  However, the film industry can use their product to create awareness of environment sustenance and the famous celebrities can attract a lot of attention on the matter.

Application of Life Cycle in the film industry

When a product is introduced in the market it has to make some progress and the growth in the market is monitored in stages. The product life cycle is monitored in a sequence of four stages. These are; the introduction stage, growth, maturity and decline. The product life cycle is also important in the film industry as the film produced is a product and its growth in the industry has to be progressive. However, the film industry may look at the life cycle of their product quite differently from other products are normally looked at.

The cycle of a film is introduced where there are pans to produce the movie in the future but there.  This is a very young stage and it is referred to as 'in the future.' The script being written is usually not complete but the plans on the film are very promising. The Social Network experienced some problems while it was still in this early stage as part of the script was leaked online the year before its release (Berkhout & Howess, 1997, pp. 76). Criticism based on the film begun at this stage but at the same time stirred anxiety in some of the people as they could not wait for its release. This is the first stage in the process and its very important as it is the beginning of a the creation of a product that is bound to be successful

Development is the second stage where the script is finally completed and the producer is looking for funds to facilitate the filming process. For the movies made in Hollywood and other related areas rising the funds is an easy aspect but for other film makers it is near impossible. The film distributor is also located at an early stage to ensure that the distribution of the film is secured. The actors are located during this stage as well where they are able to sign the contract before the actual filming begins.

The pre production is the next stage where the strategies are set in motion. Any introductions are made at this point and the plans are set well together making sure that the scenes will be shot perfectly. The budget is also synchronized with the activities and the actors are given their various roles (Berkhout & Howess, 1997, pp. 76). At the end of this stage most of the factors are already considered and dealt with ready for the next stage.

The production stage is when the movie is filmed as the actors take on their roles. The reviews of what has been filmed are conducted on a daily basis at the end of the day and any additions are made in the process.

Post production is the stage where everything is being put into order. The production is turned to a movie with all the extra additions and special features that mainly attract the viewers. The sounds are carefully selected to make sure they are in line with the actions and the music selected for the film should be able to relate with the audience.

The distribution stage is very sensitive as the product has to make a positive impact in the market.  The release of the Social Network was introduced by the marketing process where a poster was first released then a trailer that prepared the audience for the release of the film. The trailers were released separately leaving the audience more anxious than before (Miller, 2001, pp. 740).  What made the trailers attract the attention of the viewers is that they were shown to the audience before they viewed movies that had already made a stand in the market. Hence, when the product was finally released, the public was anxious to watch the film and the product had already created its brand name and had already conducted its promotion through the release of the trailers. The attention that he film had attracted on its release was able to market the film further.

The film industry has to market its product as well so that it may be able to survive the cycle in the market.  The marketing is mainly done through the release of the trailers.  Choosing the movies that attract attention to preview the trailer is very important as well (Miller, 2001, 732). This is relevant in that the initial reception of the trailer by the audience will give an insight on how the film will be received when it is released.

The life cycle is relevant in the film making industry as the production team is able to go over the basics of the film and every detail is accounted for. While the life cycle of other products is reflected in the market after production, the life cycle of the film is determined before it is released in the market.

Therefore, the PESTLE and life cycle analysis are very important in the film making industry despite the fact that it is quite different from other industries. Their relevance is quite similar as applied in the other products as the film makers are able to deal with factors that may appear rather simple but may affect the industry negatively.

Conclusion

In general, the application of PESTLE and the life cycle are important as they reflect on many factors that may bear positive results for the industry. The film industry is very wide and it is still growing at a fast rate globally; therefore, innovation has to be applied in order for a film to stand out. However, the film industry has to be careful to since the materials produced should observe the cultural aspects of the people.  The production of the Social Network film stirred a lot of controversies since it was based on the creation of technology that is already making billions in the market. The film itself is about the foundation of the network and the life of the young founder.  The application of PESTLE and the Life cycle analysis on the film added to its positive impact and success.

 Endangered Species

When we hear of the term species, a class of individuals having common attributes and designated by a common name comes to mind. However, when the term endangered is used in conjunction with species, this gives us a different perspective, as well as negative. Thus, anendangered species is a species threatened by extinction. The Puerto Rican Parrot falls under this category. This parrot has seen an extravagant population decrease over the last five hundred years. However, there stands a great chance for its recovery through captive breeding programs.

Before the invasion of the Columbus and other Europeans in 1493, the Puerto Rican Parrot was once a flourishing species throughout the forested regions of Puerto Rico, as well as its surrounding islands of Culebra, Vieques, and Mona (Pasquier 134). Around 1493, there were an estimated 100,000 parrots that existed (N. Snyder, et al., eds. 117). As a result to the European invasion, man hunted the Puerto Rican Parrot as food, and settled farmers shot the

birds in order to protect their crops. The wild population for nestlings was in great demand. Thus, the Puerto Rican Parrot was indeed a popular pet. Above all, the most pressing factor that contributed to the decline of the Puerto Rican Parrot was the near island-wide removal of its original habitat (Pasquier 134-135).

Today, the Puerto Rican Parrot is critically endangered and is undoubtedly one of the rarest birds in the world. Efforts to prevent extinction of the Puerto Rican Parrot began when it was officially deemed endangered on March 11, 1967 (Velasquez 17).

Representative Acevedo-Vila (D-Puerto Rico) holds high regard for the Puerto Rican Parrot:“The Puerto Rican parrot is one of the most important cultural symbols in Puerto Rico, representing our environmental and wildlife richness. Unfortunately, in 1967, the Puerto Rican parrot was placed on the list of endangered species, and since then, great efforts have been underway to ensure that it does not cease to exist.” (Pombo)

In 1975, within all of the rainforest of the Luquillo Mountains, only thirteen wild parrots were recorded to be in existence. In addition, only eight parrots were in captivity for breeding purposes. By 1989, the wild parrot population had since increased to 48 birds. However, on September 18, 1989, Hurricane Hugo swept across Puerto Rico, reducing the wild parrot population to approximately 20-22 birds. Seven years later, by August of 1996, the wild parrot population had again increased to 48, with the captive population at 87 (N. Snyder, et al., eds. 117).

The most recent population survey of the Puerto Rican Parrot took place at the end of March 2002. According to the survey, 144 captive parrots including 16 nestlings were held in aviaries. The remainder consisted of 21-24 wild parrots. The wild parrot population is very low and suggests that either the population is declining rapidly, or the parrots are dispersing within or outside of undetermined sites of the Caribbean National Forest (United States).

Fortunately, the Puerto Rican Parrot population does seem capable of recovering (Revkin F1). The House of Representatives approved $1.7 million for its recovery. The funds have been put forth toward the construction of a new aviary facility in Puerto Rico (Pombo). The Parrot’s habitat, now entirely confined within the boundaries of the Caribbean National Forest, is protected from most threats. This is made possible by an intensive program of research and conservation that began in 1968. This untitled program was founded by the World Wildlife Fund for Nature, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the U.S. Forest Service.

A captive breeding program began in 1970. Currently, the parrots involved in captive breeding are comprised of good genetic diversity and genetically represent the wild population. The first captive produced nestling was born in 1979. This nestling, along with several other captive-produced parrots, has been used to bolster wild production.

This is done by transporting nestlings from aviaries to wild nests or releasing mature parrots into the wild. As a result to the efforts of captive breeding, the Puerto Rican Parrot populace has significantly increased since 1970 (N. Snyder, et al., eds. 118).

In order for the Puerto Rican Parrot populace to increase steadily, not only does the general public need to support captive breeding, but our political leaders must do so as well. “Captive breeding works. It is critical that we support programs that will succeed in the recovery of endangered species,” says Representative Pombo of the U.S. House of Representatives (Pombo). Therefore, the ability of the Puerto Rican parrot to expand its population in a variety of natural and human-altered environments should not be underestimated and may be the key to its recovery.