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DOCTORAL TRAINING DOCTORAL TRAINING PROGRAMPROGRAM

The Philosophy of Science The Philosophy of Science Research: Epistemology and Research: Epistemology and Research ParadigmsResearch Paradigms

AP Dr Haji Abdullah Haji Abdul GhaniAP Dr Haji Abdullah Haji Abdul GhaniCOBCOBBilik Msyuarat Utama, Jabatan KomunikasiBilik Msyuarat Utama, Jabatan KomunikasiCASCAS22 February 201022 February 2010

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What is a PhD?What is a PhD?

• UK UK • USUS• Nordics countriesNordics countries• MalaysiaMalaysia

mattersmattersTimes and financeTimes and finance

A PhD is not merely a vague title but actually A PhD is not merely a vague title but actually means what it implies: it is an award to an means what it implies: it is an award to an expert who has proven their scientific worth expert who has proven their scientific worth and not to someone who stayed in a tolerant and not to someone who stayed in a tolerant group for long enough group for long enough

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PhilosophyPhilosophy

• PhilosophyPhilosophy derives from a combination of the derives from a combination of the Greek words words philosphilos meaning meaning love and and sophiasophia meaning wisdom. What philosophy is, or should meaning wisdom. What philosophy is, or should be, is itself a philosophical question that be, is itself a philosophical question that philosophers have understood and treated philosophers have understood and treated differently through the ages.differently through the ages.

• PhilosophyPhilosophy can mean the academic can mean the academic exploration of various questions raised by exploration of various questions raised by philosophers; or to the collective works of philosophers; or to the collective works of major philosophers; it can also mean a certain major philosophers; it can also mean a certain critical, creative way of thinking. critical, creative way of thinking.

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ScienceScience

• Knowledge; knowledge of principles and Knowledge; knowledge of principles and causes; ascertained truth of facts.causes; ascertained truth of facts.

• Accumulated and established knowledge, Accumulated and established knowledge, which has been systematized and formulated which has been systematized and formulated with reference to the discovery of general with reference to the discovery of general truths or the operation of general laws; truths or the operation of general laws; knowledge classified and made available in knowledge classified and made available in work, life, or the search for truth; work, life, or the search for truth; comprehensive, profound, or philosophical comprehensive, profound, or philosophical knowledge. knowledge.

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What is research ?What is research ?

• Re-search: The art of dis-coveryRe-search: The art of dis-covery• organized study:organized study:  methodical methodical

investigation into a subject in order investigation into a subject in order to discover facts, to establish or to discover facts, to establish or revise a theory, or to develop a revise a theory, or to develop a plan of action based on the facts plan of action based on the facts discovereddiscovered

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Qualitative Research vs. Quantitative Research

"The word qualitative implies an emphasis on the qualities of entities and on processes and meanings that are not experimentally examined or measured (if measured at all) in terms of quantity, amount, intensity, or frequency. Qualitative researchers stress the socially constructed nature of reality, the intimate relationship between the researcher and what is studied, and the situational constraints that shape inquiry. Such researchers emphasize the value-laden nature of inquiry. They seek answers to questions that stress how social experience is created and given meaning. In contrast, quantitative studies emphasize the measurement and analysis of causal relationships between variables, not processes. Proponents of such studies claim that their work is done from within a value-free framework" (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000, p. 8).

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Qualitative Research vs. Quantitative Research

Said of variables or research that can behandled numerically. Usually contrasted (too sharply) with qualitative variables and research. Many research designs lend themselves well to collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, and many variables can be handled either qualitatively or quantitatively. For example, naturalistic observations can give rise to either or both kinds of data. Interactions can be counted and timed with a stopwatch or they can be interpreted more holistically.

When speaking of kinds of research, qualitative refers to studies of subjects that are hard to quantify, such as art history. The term qualitative research tends to be a residual category for almost any kind of non-quantitative research. […]

The qualitative-quantitative distinction is often overdrawn. It is difficult to avoid quantitative elements in the most qualitative subject matter. For examples, "The painter entered his 'blue period' in the 1890s." And qualitative components are crucial to most good quantitative research, which begins with theories, concepts, and constructs.

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EpistemologyEpistemology

• Theories of knowledge or studies of knowledgeTheories of knowledge or studies of knowledge• Branch of philosophy that asks whether we Branch of philosophy that asks whether we

know things and, if so, howknow things and, if so, how• The study of source, nature, varieties and The study of source, nature, varieties and

limitations of knowledgelimitations of knowledge• It attempts to answer the basic questionIt attempts to answer the basic question

– True (adequate) vs false (inadequate) True (adequate) vs false (inadequate) knowledgeknowledge

• The above Q lead to sc.fic methodology: to The above Q lead to sc.fic methodology: to improve existing theories or modelsimprove existing theories or models

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Some typical problemss classical Some typical problemss classical epistemology addressesepistemology addresses

• What can we knowWhat can we know• How do we knowHow do we know• What, if anything, does the subject contribute What, if anything, does the subject contribute

to his knowledgeto his knowledge• What is truthWhat is truth• How can we recognize truthHow can we recognize truth• What is probable knowledge as opposed to What is probable knowledge as opposed to

certain knowledgecertain knowledge• Is there a priori knowledge, and if so whatIs there a priori knowledge, and if so what• How action and language are related to How action and language are related to

knowledgeknowledge• What is the status of concepts and propositionsWhat is the status of concepts and propositions

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KnowledgeKnowledge

• The act or state of knowing; clear perception of The act or state of knowing; clear perception of fact, truth, or duty; certain apprehension; fact, truth, or duty; certain apprehension; familiar cognizance; cognition.familiar cognizance; cognition.

• That which is or may be known; the object of an That which is or may be known; the object of an act of knowing; a cognition; -- chiefly used in act of knowing; a cognition; -- chiefly used in the plural.the plural.

• That which is gained and preserved by knowing; That which is gained and preserved by knowing; instruction; acquaintance; enlightenment; instruction; acquaintance; enlightenment; learning; scholarship; erudition.learning; scholarship; erudition.

• That familiarity which is gained by actual That familiarity which is gained by actual experience; practical skill; as, a knowledge of experience; practical skill; as, a knowledge of life. life.

Postulation

Selfevident truth

Method of authority Scienctific method

Literary

Untested opinion

Rationalism (Formal structural proof)

Empiricism(observableconcrete data)

Idealism(highlyinterpretiveideas)

Existentialism (informalprocess)

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KNOWLEDGE TRADITIONKNOWLEDGE TRADITION

•The history of knowledge and science not begins from West but from The history of knowledge and science not begins from West but from East.East.

•The most important area are Egypt and Mesopotamia (Babylon) The most important area are Egypt and Mesopotamia (Babylon) which located at Nil Valley and Tigris-Euphrates River Valley which located at Nil Valley and Tigris-Euphrates River Valley

•These area are so special because of the knowledge heritage and These area are so special because of the knowledge heritage and development of science and technologydevelopment of science and technology

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Estern TraditionEstern Tradition

• Egypt & MesapotamiaEgypt & Mesapotamia– Archeology, mathematic, geometry, Archeology, mathematic, geometry,

medicine, architecturemedicine, architecture

• IndiaIndia– mathematic, medicine, astronomymathematic, medicine, astronomy

• ChinaChina– natural sciencenatural science

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WHAT ARE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF KNOWLEDGE CIVILIZATION IN EGYPT AND BABYLON?

1. Knowledge tradition or civilization begins from East not West

2. Holistic knowledge activities was parallel with religious activities. In other word, knowledge scholar at the same time also religious scholar.

3. The founder of knowledge in Egypt and Babylon were the prophet and messenger of God.

4. In Islamic tradition, Adam not only the first man, but also pioneer of all knowledge. He taught his children with technical knowledge, especially Syith.

5. Syith was the teacher of Idris, who born in Babylon. He was the founder of geometry, astronomy, medicine, and continued by Daniel.

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INTEGRATED KNOWLEDGE CIVILIZATION1. The development of knowledge that started from East had flow to

West. But the development was just for a few decades, before conquered back by East.

2. Along the middle age (10 centuries), Islamic world was in the knowledge brightness, but in the West was in the Dark Ages.

3. Islamic knowledge civilization are Ilmu Naqliah or Syar’iyyah (revealed science) and Ilmu Aqliyah (rational science).

4. Ilmu Naqliah : Ulum Quran, Ulum Hadith, Ilmu Tauhid, Ilmu Fiqh and Ilmu Akhlak, the history of prophet, and Arabic Language.

5. Ilmu Aqliyah: philosophy, history, geography, science, mathematic, and astronomy.

6. Famous scholars: al-Khindi, al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, Ibn Tufail Ibn Rusyd, al Khawarizmi, al Ghazali.

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Epistemology of Epistemology of knowledgeknowledge

• Ontology-root and divisionOntology-root and division• Epistemology-method of getting Epistemology-method of getting

knowledgeknowledge– Inductive, deductive, falsification & Inductive, deductive, falsification &

hypothetical-deductive method.

• Axiology Axiology – value & responsibilityvalue & responsibility

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ONTOLOGY DEFINITIONSONTOLOGY DEFINITIONS

• Concerned with the Concerned with the study of beingstudy of being, of reality in , of reality in its most fundamental and comprehensive its most fundamental and comprehensive forms. forms.

• The theory of objects and their tiesThe theory of objects and their ties. The . The unfolding of ontology provides criteria for unfolding of ontology provides criteria for distinguishing various types of objects distinguishing various types of objects (concrete and abstract, existent and non-(concrete and abstract, existent and non-existent, real and ideal, independent and existent, real and ideal, independent and dependent) and their ties (relations, dependent) and their ties (relations, dependences and predication).dependences and predication).

Ref: www.formalontology.it/

Ref: www.atf.org.au/papers/glossary.asp

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REALITY OF REALITY OF KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE (continued)(continued)

• At least 3 well established At least 3 well established paradigms in the development of paradigms in the development of science:science:– Classical paradigm: knowledge-Classical paradigm: knowledge-

curiosity-driven.curiosity-driven.– 22ndnd paradigm: Technology-military- paradigm: Technology-military-

power-driven.power-driven.– 33rdrd paradigm: Market-wealth-driven paradigm: Market-wealth-driven

paradigm.paradigm.(Shaharir Mohd Zin, 1998, Towards A Quantum Leap in the Development Of Islamic Science in Malaysia)

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Types Of OntologyTypes Of Ontology

• There four different types of ontology. There There four different types of ontology. There are:are:Domain ontologiesDomain ontologies, representing a target , representing a target

domain, as engineering, medicine etc.domain, as engineering, medicine etc.Generic or Common Sense ontologies,Generic or Common Sense ontologies,

capturing general knowledge about time. capturing general knowledge about time. Space, events, etc.Space, events, etc.

Method ontologies, Method ontologies, describing specifiec task, describing specifiec task, as diagnosis.as diagnosis.

Metadata ontologies, Metadata ontologies, describing the content describing the content of on-line information sources.of on-line information sources.

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EpistemologyEpistemologyTHEORY & SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGETHEORY & SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE

• In epistemology a common definition of In epistemology a common definition of knowledge is that it consist of justified true knowledge is that it consist of justified true belief. For most philosophical history, belief. For most philosophical history, knowledge was taken to mean a belief that was knowledge was taken to mean a belief that was justified as true to an absolute certainty. Any justified as true to an absolute certainty. Any less justified beliefs were called mere less justified beliefs were called mere ““probable opinionprobable opinion””. To be a knowledge, a belief . To be a knowledge, a belief has to have some positive epistemic feature; it has to have some positive epistemic feature; it cancan’’t be arbitrary or random or irrational. t be arbitrary or random or irrational.

• (source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/knowledge)(source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/knowledge)

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RATIONALISMRATIONALISM

• The human reason, or The human reason, or understanding, is the sole source understanding, is the sole source and final test of all truth.and final test of all truth.

• Renes Descartes (1596-1650) using Renes Descartes (1596-1650) using mathematical and geometrical mathematical and geometrical analytical method.analytical method.

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EMPIRICISMEMPIRICISM

• Is the philosophical doctrine that all Is the philosophical doctrine that all human knowledge comes at first human knowledge comes at first from sense and experience. from sense and experience. Empiricism denies that human Empiricism denies that human have innate ideas that anything is have innate ideas that anything is knowable prior to any experience. knowable prior to any experience.

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EMPIRICISMEMPIRICISM

• Classical EmpiricismClassical Empiricism : Aristotle argued that all form of knowing : Aristotle argued that all form of knowing come from induction. come from induction.

• Modern EmpiricismModern Empiricism : All knowledge must be attained by our : All knowledge must be attained by our consciousness through internal and external sensations. (David consciousness through internal and external sensations. (David Hume, John Locke and George Berkeley)Hume, John Locke and George Berkeley)

• Radical EmpiricismRadical Empiricism : All human knowledge is purely empirical. : All human knowledge is purely empirical. (William James)(William James)

• NaNaïïve Empiricismve Empiricism : Our ideas and theories need to be tested : Our ideas and theories need to be tested against reality and not be affected by preconseived notions.against reality and not be affected by preconseived notions.

• Constructive EmpiricismConstructive Empiricism : According to this view of science : According to this view of science coined by Bas Van Fraassen (The Scientific Image, 1980), we coined by Bas Van Fraassen (The Scientific Image, 1980), we should only ask that theories accurately describe observable should only ask that theories accurately describe observable parts of the world. Theories that meet these requirements are parts of the world. Theories that meet these requirements are considered considered ““empirically adequateempirically adequate””. If a theory become . If a theory become established, it should be accepted. What that means is the theory established, it should be accepted. What that means is the theory is believed to be empirically accurate, use to solve further is believed to be empirically accurate, use to solve further problem, and use to extend or refine the theory. problem, and use to extend or refine the theory.

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CONFORMISMCONFORMISM

• Term used to describe a state of Term used to describe a state of orthodoxy, the suspension of actions or orthodoxy, the suspension of actions or opinions in favor of obedience to the opinions in favor of obedience to the mandate or conventions of onemandate or conventions of one’’s peer s peer group. The old saying expresses this group. The old saying expresses this well : When in Rome, do as the Roman well : When in Rome, do as the Roman do. By definition, conformism present do. By definition, conformism present the antithesis both of creativity and of the antithesis both of creativity and of innovative leadership and hence oppose innovative leadership and hence oppose change or progresschange or progress

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INTUITISMINTUITISM

• Immediate apprehension by mind without Immediate apprehension by mind without reasoning. The belief that primary truths and reasoning. The belief that primary truths and principles especially of ethics and metaphysics principles especially of ethics and metaphysics are known directly by intuition.are known directly by intuition.

• The knowing of something without prior The knowing of something without prior knowledge or the use of reason. All stands knowledge or the use of reason. All stands revealed the hearts, the motives, the causes all revealed the hearts, the motives, the causes all events. Able to sense the invisible and the events. Able to sense the invisible and the impalatable. Prophets are often intuitive. impalatable. Prophets are often intuitive. Acquire through Spiritual Intelligence (SQ) Acquire through Spiritual Intelligence (SQ)

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REVELATIONREVELATION

• The kind of knowledge that is given by God to The kind of knowledge that is given by God to man through direct revelation. Unveils the man through direct revelation. Unveils the mystery of Being and Existence and reveals the mystery of Being and Existence and reveals the true relationship between mantrue relationship between man’’s self and his s self and his Lord, and since for man such knowledge Lord, and since for man such knowledge pertains to the ultimate purpose of knowing, it pertains to the ultimate purpose of knowing, it follows that knowledge of its prerequisites follows that knowledge of its prerequisites become the basis and essential foundation for become the basis and essential foundation for the knowledge of the second kind (knowledge the knowledge of the second kind (knowledge of science).of science).

• (source : Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas)(source : Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas)

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Types of MethodologyLogical Thinking -- The Source of Methodology

LogicalKnowledge

Validation

Conceptual

(Tasdiq)

(Tasawur)

Argumentation

Proposition(Al-Qadiayah)

(Muhajjah)

Comparison/Deduction

Conclusion/Induction

(Al-Qias)

(Al-Istiqra’)

Conditional

Unconditional

Complete Induction

Limited Induction

(Al-syartiah)

(Al-hamliah)

(Al-Istiqra’ al-Tamn)

(Al-Istiqra’ Naqis)

Overview of Logical KnowledgeOverview of Logical Knowledge

(Al-Istiqra’ Riyadi)

(Al-Istiqra’ ilmii)

PreciseDefinition

(Ta’rif bil hadd)

ConnotativeDefinition

(Ta’rif bil Rasm)

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Types of MethodologyOverview of Methodology

Types of Methodology• Deductive• Inductive• Hypothetical Deductive• Rabbani

Observations

General Understanding/ Conclusion

Observed phenomenon

Conclusion/ Understandingfrom specific observation

Conclusion/ UnderstandingBased on general rules/ understanding

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Deductive Methodology – What is it?

Types of Methodology

Definition: Make an inference to explain specific observed phenomenon based on existing general understanding, rules or knowledge

Originated from the Latin words “de” ( From) and “decere” (Lead towards)

Syllogism (Al-qias) – Introduced by Aristotle (384~322BC) Classic logical Knowledge

General Understanding/ Conclusion

Observed phenomenon

Conclusion/ UnderstandingBased on general rules/ understanding

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Types of Methodology

Deductive Methodology – Process

Move from General understanding (postulate & Axiom) as Premise Specifics phenomenon

Postulate – Something that believe to be true but not proven

(without empirical study or observation)

Axiom – Formal rule or principle that generally to be true, dominated in Mathematics

Minor Premise + Major Premise Conclusion

Example:

(Muqaddimah al-Sughra) (Muqaddimah al Kubra) (Natijah)

All vegetables is nutritious

Nutrition is good for health

All Vegetables is good for health

(Muqaddimah al-Sughra

(Muqaddimah al Kubra)

(Natijah)

+

=

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Inductive Methodology - Definition

Types of Methodology

Definition: Generalizing a knowledge, understanding, conclusion from the understanding of specifics observation to a general rules or knowledge with the elements of probability

Modern Logical Knowledge based on empirical study Types of Induction: Completed(al-istiqra’ tamn)& Limited (al-Istiqra’ Naqis)

Observations

General Understanding/ Conclusion

Conclusion/ Understandingfrom specific observation

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Falsifiability as a criterion for Falsifiability as a criterion for theories theories

• Theories shown to be false through observation Theories shown to be false through observation and experiment. Example: Proton cars never and experiment. Example: Proton cars never breakdown or Ice will not melt if room breakdown or Ice will not melt if room temperature is 0 Celciustemperature is 0 Celcius

• To be part of science, any hypothesis must be To be part of science, any hypothesis must be falsifiable; logically possible observation of any falsifiable; logically possible observation of any hypothesishypothesis

• Thus statements which is vaguely form and is Thus statements which is vaguely form and is not falsifiable is not scientific. Example: Proton not falsifiable is not scientific. Example: Proton Savvy may be better than MyVI but it may not Savvy may be better than MyVI but it may not be as good. be as good.

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Degree of falsifiability, clarity Degree of falsifiability, clarity and precisionand precision

• Any theories which can be proven in terms Any theories which can be proven in terms of falsifiability is a good scientific law. of falsifiability is a good scientific law. Example, NewtonExample, Newton’’s theory proven to be s theory proven to be more resistant to falsifying than Keplermore resistant to falsifying than Kepler’’s s theory. theory.

• Science progresses by trial and error; Science progresses by trial and error; theories which were not falsified yet meant theories which were not falsified yet meant they are the currently most accurate ones they are the currently most accurate ones and not guaranteed to be true foreverand not guaranteed to be true forever

• Thus, any theories should be clearly stated Thus, any theories should be clearly stated and not vagueand not vague

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Falsificationism and Falsificationism and progressprogress

• Science starts from problems. Hypotheses are formed as Science starts from problems. Hypotheses are formed as solution to problems. solution to problems.

• Falsificationist seeks ways to continue rigorous tests to Falsificationist seeks ways to continue rigorous tests to falsify a certain theory after which a stronger theory falsify a certain theory after which a stronger theory emerges. emerges.

• AristotleAristotle’’s theory being taken over by Newtons theory being taken over by Newton’’s theory. s theory. NewtonNewton’’s theory was able to account for more issues s theory was able to account for more issues which Aristotlewhich Aristotle’’s theories did not mention. This was s theories did not mention. This was followed by Einsteinfollowed by Einstein’’s theory which proved to be a s theory which proved to be a challenge to falsify for current modern physicists. challenge to falsify for current modern physicists.

• There is no truth, only the current most correct answer. There is no truth, only the current most correct answer.

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Limitations of Limitations of falsificationismfalsificationism

• Theory-dependence of observation and Theory-dependence of observation and the fallibility of falsificationsthe fallibility of falsifications

• Theory acceptance is always tentative Theory acceptance is always tentative (for now)(for now)

• Theory rejection is decisive (forever) Theory rejection is decisive (forever) • Note that observation might be wrong! Note that observation might be wrong! • Thus many instances whereby rejections Thus many instances whereby rejections

of observation statements and the of observation statements and the retention of the theories they clash retention of the theories they clash

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Falsificationism inadequate on Falsificationism inadequate on historial groundshistorial grounds

• Theories may have been rejected Theories may have been rejected due to historical grounds. Example: due to historical grounds. Example: NewtonNewton’’s gravitational theory was s gravitational theory was falsified by observation of the falsified by observation of the moonmoon’’s orbit. Only after 50 years s orbit. Only after 50 years that this is deflected to other that this is deflected to other causes than Newtoncauses than Newton’’s theory. s theory.

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HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE

1. Philosopher Karl Popper suggested that it is impossible to prove a scientific theory true by means of induction, because no amount of evidence assures us that contrary evidence will not be found.

2. Instead, Karl Popper proposed that proper science is accomplished by deduction. Deduction involves the process of falsification.

3. Falsification is a particular specialized aspect of hypothesis testing. It involves stating some output from theory in specific and then finding contrary cases using experiments or observations.

4. The methodology proposed by Popper is commonly known as the hypothetico -deductive method.

5.5. Popper's version of scientific method first begins with the postulation of a Popper's version of scientific method first begins with the postulation of a hypothesishypothesis..

6.6. A hypothesis is an educated guess or a theory that explains some A hypothesis is an educated guess or a theory that explains some phenomenon. The researcher then tries to prove or test this scientific phenomenon. The researcher then tries to prove or test this scientific theory false through theory false through predictionprediction or or experimentationexperimentation

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SCOPE OF KNOWLEDGE

RATIONAL EMPIRICAL GOD KNOWLEDGE

INTUITION REVELATION

RABBANI METHOD

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Axiology- The valueAxiology- The valueof TRUTHof TRUTH

• In everyday life, people distinguish In everyday life, people distinguish between truth and falsehood as a matter between truth and falsehood as a matter of survival. People who are unable to of survival. People who are unable to recognize lies, mistakes or inaccuracies, recognize lies, mistakes or inaccuracies, at least most of the time, suffer greatly.at least most of the time, suffer greatly.

• The philosophical problem of truth has The philosophical problem of truth has been described as the search for the been described as the search for the nature of truth. It applied to a statement nature of truth. It applied to a statement or belief. or belief.

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THEORIES ABOUT TRUTHTHEORIES ABOUT TRUTH

• Correspondence Theory Of TruthCorrespondence Theory Of Truth : Truth is correspondence : Truth is correspondence with objective reality. Thus, a sentence is said to be true just in with objective reality. Thus, a sentence is said to be true just in case it express a state of affair in the world. Eg. case it express a state of affair in the world. Eg. ““Snow is white Snow is white is trueis true””..

• The Coherence TheoryThe Coherence Theory : Truth is coherence with some : Truth is coherence with some specified set of sentences or, more often, of beliefs. For specified set of sentences or, more often, of beliefs. For example, one of a personexample, one of a person’’s belief is true just in case it is s belief is true just in case it is coherent with all or most of her other beliefs. coherent with all or most of her other beliefs.

• Pragmatic Theory Of TruthPragmatic Theory Of Truth : Based on the foundation of the : Based on the foundation of the principle of evolutionism. An idea can only be considered true principle of evolutionism. An idea can only be considered true if posses practical value or vital benefits. Pragmatism believed if posses practical value or vital benefits. Pragmatism believed ““absolute truth do not existabsolute truth do not exist”” (Charles Sanders Pierce, William (Charles Sanders Pierce, William James). Nature of truth statement by working hypothesis, focus James). Nature of truth statement by working hypothesis, focus on similarities and differences.on similarities and differences.

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TYPE OF TRUTHTYPE OF TRUTH

• Subjective vs ObjectiveSubjective vs Objective• Subjective truthSubjective truth are those with which we are most are those with which we are most

intimately acquainted. Metaphysical subjectivism holds intimately acquainted. Metaphysical subjectivism holds that all we have are such truths. That is, that all we can that all we have are such truths. That is, that all we can know about are one way or another, our own subjective know about are one way or another, our own subjective experiences. This view does not reject realism. But at experiences. This view does not reject realism. But at least it claim that we cannot have direct knowledge of least it claim that we cannot have direct knowledge of the real world.the real world.

• Objective truthObjective truth are suppose to be one way to be are suppose to be one way to be independent of our subjective beliefs and tastes. Such independent of our subjective beliefs and tastes. Such truth would subsist not in the mind but in the external truth would subsist not in the mind but in the external object.object.

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Relative vs AbsoluteRelative vs Absolute• Relative truthsRelative truths are statements or propositions that are true are statements or propositions that are true

only relative to some standard or convention or point-of-view. only relative to some standard or convention or point-of-view. Everyone agrees that the truth or falsify of some statements is Everyone agrees that the truth or falsify of some statements is relative: The fork is to the left of the spoon depends on where relative: The fork is to the left of the spoon depends on where one stands. Relativism entails that what is true varies across one stands. Relativism entails that what is true varies across cultures and eras.cultures and eras.

• Absolute truthsAbsolute truths are statement or propositions that are taken are statement or propositions that are taken to be true for all cultures and eras. Example: for Muslim, Allah to be true for all cultures and eras. Example: for Muslim, Allah is great expression an absolute truth; for economist, that the is great expression an absolute truth; for economist, that the law of supply and demand determine the value of any law of supply and demand determine the value of any consumable in the market economy is true in all situations.consumable in the market economy is true in all situations.

• AbsolutismAbsolutism in particular domain of thought is the view that all in particular domain of thought is the view that all statements in that domain are either absolute true or absolute statements in that domain are either absolute true or absolute false: none is true for some cultures or eras while false for false: none is true for some cultures or eras while false for other cultures or eras. Example other cultures or eras. Example ““Abortion is wrongAbortion is wrong”” or or ““Charity Charity is goodis good””..

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THE CONCEPT OF DOUBT FROM ISLAM THE CONCEPT OF DOUBT FROM ISLAM VIEWPOINTVIEWPOINT

• The doubt (shakk), conjecture and guess disputation and The doubt (shakk), conjecture and guess disputation and contention, inclination of mind or soul towards natural desire contention, inclination of mind or soul towards natural desire (hawa), are all generally considered blameworthy-the more so (hawa), are all generally considered blameworthy-the more so when applied to an masquerading as knowledge. We must take when applied to an masquerading as knowledge. We must take note of the significance that, in the case of Western culture note of the significance that, in the case of Western culture and civilisation, and with reference to sociology of knowledge, and civilisation, and with reference to sociology of knowledge, the West defined knowledge in terms of the effort of science as the West defined knowledge in terms of the effort of science as control of nature and society. (control of nature and society. (Syed Naquib Al-AttasSyed Naquib Al-Attas) )

• There are situations and issues which do not require thinking. There are situations and issues which do not require thinking. One does not need to conduct lengthy experiment and engage One does not need to conduct lengthy experiment and engage in extensive study to prove something that is plainly obvious in extensive study to prove something that is plainly obvious from every day experience. from every day experience.

• According to Al-Ghazali, doubt is the first stage of certainty According to Al-Ghazali, doubt is the first stage of certainty (yaqin). His concept of doubt is not based on scepticism but (yaqin). His concept of doubt is not based on scepticism but more on methodological. When the doubt is clear, certainty more on methodological. When the doubt is clear, certainty will emerge. will emerge.