ENVIR NMENT

The World Bank

ENVIR NMENTCambodia

MONITOR 2003

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ENVIR NMENTCambodia

MONITOR 2003

The World Bank

�� Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

The views expressed in the Cambodia Environment Monitor are entirely those of the authors and should not be cited without permission.They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank Group, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. The materialcontained herein has been obtained from sources believed reliable, but may not necessarily be complete and cannot be guaranteed.

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK1818 H Street, NWWashington, DC 20433

World Bank Phnom Penh Office113 Norodom BoulevardPhnom Penh, Cambodia

All rights reserved.First printing April 2003

This document was prepared by a World Bank Team led by Glenn Morgan and comprised of Giovanna Dore and KirstenFehrenkamp. The team gratefully acknowledges assistance from His Excellency Dr. Mok Mareth, Minister of Environment,and staff of his Ministry including Mr. Khieu Muth, Director General; Sam Chamroeun, Director of Planning and LegalAffairs; and Chrin Sokha, Chief of Water and Soil Quality Management Office. The team also acknowledges valuable inputfrom Rob Crooks. Jeffrey Lecksell was responsible for map design. Photos were taken by Glenn Morgan. Cover and layoutdesign were done by Jim Cantrell.

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PREFACE iv

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS v

MAP OF REGIONAL ISSUES 1

ENVIRONMENTAL SCORECARD 2

THE GREEN AGENDA

FOREST RESOURCES 3

FOREST RESOURCES POLICY RESPONSES 6

BIODIVERSITY AND PROTECTED AREAS 8

LAND 13

LAND POLICY RESPONSES 18

THE BLUE AGENDA

FRESHWATER AND MARINE RESOURCES 20

THE BROWN AGENDA

WATER QUALITY 24

WATER QUALITY POLICY RESPONSES 25

SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE 27

ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS, LEGISLATIONS, AND BUDGET ALLOCATIONS 29

GLOSSARY OF ENVIRONMENTAL TERMS 32

NOTES 34

REFERENCES 35

CAMBODIA AT A GLANCE 37


The Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003 is onein a series of environmental reports prepared for EastAsian countries under an initiativesponsored by theWorld Bank. The objective of this report is to present

a snapshot of environmental trends across a range of issues.Its purpose is to engage and inform interested stakeholdersof key environmental changes as they occur. The format isintended to be easy to understand and accessible to a wideaudience. Subsequent monitor reports will focus on specificthemes and will highlight critical and emerging problems.

The Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003 is the outcome of acollaborative effort involving the World Bank and theCambodia Ministry of Environment (MoE). The informationpresented in this report has been compiled from a varietyof previously published materials, available from domesticand international sources, including government, researchinstitute, donor organizations, and nongovernmentalorganizations (NGOs).

The MoE has been a key counterpart agency during thepreparation of the report. In addition to sponsoring aworkshop of key government and NGO agencies, the MoEhelped facilitate an inter-agency dialog and wasinstrumental in the review and validation of the findingsand data presented in the report.

Information on environmental trends and status is not welldeveloped in the Cambodian context. Much of theinformation is held throughout multiple agencies andagencies, and data are often not immediately comparablein terms of timeliness, accuracy, and level of detail.Environmental changes vary with respect to the time frameand urgency of issues. Unlike other statistical measures,annual variations are not easy to assess. Still, the end resultof this compilation of trends and statistics creates a

compelling story of environmental challenges andconstraints to sustainable growth and development.

Like many of its South East Asian neighbors, Cambodia isconfronted with a dynamic situation with regard toenvironmental challenges. Forest management policy, landaccessibility and productivity, water resource management,air and water quality issues, and sustainable developmentof basic infrastructure such as energy alternatives, roads,and growth of cities and towns are among the mostimportant environmental challenges faced by Cambodiatoday.

This report aims at broadening the understanding andappreciation of the extent to which these problems affectnational development.

Ian C. PorterCountry Director for Cambodia

East Asia and Pacific RegionWorld Bank

Maria Teresa SerraSector Director

Environment and Social Development UnitEast Asia and Pacific Region

World Bank

H. E. Mok MarethMinister

Ministry of EnvironmentRoyal Government of Cambodia

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ADB Asian Development Bank

BOD biochemical oxygen demand

CEDAC Cambodia Center for Study and

Development in Agriculture

CIAP Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project

CITES Convention on Trade in Endangered

Species of Wild Flora and Fauna

DDT dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane

DFW Department of Forest and Wildlife

DO Dissolved Oxygen

DoF Department of Fisheries

EEPSEA Economy and Environment Program for

Southeast Asia

EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone

EJF Environmental Justice Foundation

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FCMRP Forest Crimes Monitoring and Reporting

Project

GEF Global Environmental Facility

GDP Gross Domestic Product

ha Hectare (1 ha = 10,000 m²)

IMSCEE Inter-Ministerial Steering Committee for

Environmental Education

IPM integrated pest management

IRRI International Rice Research Institute

IUCN World Conservation Union

kg kilogram

km kilometer (1 km² = 100 hectares)

LAMP Land Administration and Management

Project

m³ cubic meter

MAFF Ministry of Agriculture Forest and

Fisheries

mg/m³ milligram per cubic meter

MoE Ministry of Environment

MRC Mekong River Commission

MT metric tons

NEAP National Environmental Action Plan

NGO nongovernmental organization

NO2 nitrogen dioxide

NTFP non-timber forest products

PA protected area

POPs persistent organic pollutants

PPM Phnom Penh Municipality

SO2 sulfur dioxide

TCB total coliform bacteria

UNDP United Nations Development Program

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization

VAT value added tax

WCS World Conservation Society

WHO World Health Organization

WWF World Wildlife Fund

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� Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

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This scorecard represents the first attempt at benchmarking key environmental trends and values from the availability of credible data. The values are classifiedunder Green, Blue, and Brown Agendas. The Green Agenda describes environmental impacts caused by agriculture, deforestation, land use changes, and destructionof protected species and related protection measures. The Blue Agenda refers to all forms of water resources management. The Brown Agenda is a term commonlyused to address pollution caused by industrial, urban, transport, and energy sources and their single or collective impacts and protection measures. TheEnvironmental Scorecard will be the basis to record future improvement or deterioration of environmental quality.

Issues Trends/Values Causes

GreenDeclining forest cover Between 70,000 and 100,000

ha of forests are lost every year• Incorrect policies•

•

•

Poor technical andinfrastructure support forsustainable logging regimes

• Increasing domestic demandfor fuel-wood and timber

• Land clearing for agricultureand human settlements

Loss of criticalhabitats/biodiversity

Bamboo forests and savannahincreasingly replacing diptero-carp and evergreen forests

• Land use changes• Deforestation

Land degradation • Increasing soil infertility• Shortened rotation in swidden

agriculture• Decreasing agricultural

holdings (ha/household)

• Inappropriate land usepractices

• Land clearing• Natural disasters

BlueWater supply unable tokeep up with demand

Increasing sedimentation

Overfishing

• Increasing seasonal variationsin water flows

• Falling groundwater table• Growing fishing lot operations• Rising seasonal migration to

the Tonle Sap areas

• Fragmented water resourcesmanagement

• Limited and worn outinfrastructure

• Urbanization• Migration

BrownDeclining air quality inPhnom Penh and otherurban centers

• Steadily increasing levels ofSO2 and NO2

• Increasing number of childrensuffering from respiratorydiseases

• Industry• Transportation sources• Garbage burning

Declining water quality inmajor rivers

• Rising pollution from small andmedium enterprises

• Growing toxic and hazardouswaste

• Percentage of population withaccess to sanitation—17.7% oftotal population, 5% urban,and 10% rural

• Industrial effluents• Domestic sewage• Solid waste

Increasing solid andhazardous wastegeneration

• Increased generation of solidwaste over the last 10 years

• Increased generation of toxicand hazardous waste

• Average annual urban solidwaste generation—650 tonnes

• Urbanization• Lack of an integrated solid

waste management system• Limited public awareness• Absence of toxic and

hazardous waste disposalfacilities

• Improper management

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OVERVIEW

The forests of Cambodia are diverse and comprise avariety of evergreen, deciduous, mixed, andmangrove forest types. A forest inventory of half ahectare of forest in Ratanakiri Province revealed some

200 tree species and 300 species of ground flora and saplings.The condition of these forests is not uniform and variesthroughout the country. The forests of Cambodia are underdirect threat from internal factors as well as from pressuresfor wood demand created from outside the country.Unsustainable harvesting, selective logging of high-valuespecies, permanent conversion of forest to agricultural lands,creation of new settlements, demand from neighboringcountries, and shifting cultivation all contribute to thesyndrome of the dwindling resource base.

STATE OF THE RESOURCE

Current estimates of remaining natural forest cover varyconsiderably, since no formal inventory has been carriedout since 1969. Estimates of current forest cover range from30–35 to around 60%. The National Environmental ActionPlan (NEAP) of 1998 estimated total forest cover at 62%,and in 1997 the Cambodia Department of Forests andWildlife (DFW) estimated forest cover to be approximately58% of the country’s land area (DFW, 1997). Currentconsensus suggest that about 50% of Cambodia has someform of forest cover.

Estimates of the rate of forest loss per year also differconsiderably. The frequently cited statistic from the DFWestimates that forest loss during the period 1973–1997 hasdeclined from 13 million hectares to 10.58 million hectaresor about 100,000 ha per year during that period. Annualrates of deforestation are estimated to be in the range of 1–2% of forest area per year. Stock and yield tables are notgenerally available for different forest types.

The environmental implications of poor forest managementhave been well articulated in many publications. Theyinclude increased soil erosion and subsequent loss of fertiletopsoil, sedimentation in rivers and subsequent impacts onaquatic life, changes to river flow, flooding changes, andforest habitat loss.

FORESTS IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY

Forests are among the most important of Cambodia’s naturalresources, and forestry has traditionally been a leadingeconomic sector. If properly managed, the country’s forestscould be a significant element of any national povertyalleviation strategy. Forests not only have the potential forgenerating significant government revenues but, perhapsmore important, they provide sustainable livelihoods formany rural communities through provision of essential

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1989

2000

LANDSAT images taken near Virachey National Park in RatanakiriProvince depict rapid land use conversion that has taken place from1989 to 2000. In general, forested areas are green and agriculturallands are pink.Source: Finnmap.


timber as well as non-timber forest products (NTFP). Inmany areas, forests are also an essential element of localculture and spiritual beliefs and thus underpin any sociallyacceptable long-term sustainability strategies.

Regardless of differences in forest cover estimates, theadverse effects of poor forest management on the local andnational economy can be substantial. Demand for forestresources comes from Cambodia’s internal demand as wellas its regional neighbors such as Thailand, Taiwan, Malaysia,and Vietnam, among others. Internal population growthrates of 2.4 to 3% during the decade of the 1990s, coupledwith increasing economic, social, and political stability, haveled to a period of reconstruction and consequent increasein demands for forest products. Growth in regional demandfor forest products has also fueled demand for Cambodiantimber.

CONCESSION MANAGEMENT

The management of Cambodia’s forest concessions has, forsome time, been the subject of intense domestic andinternational scrutiny. By the mid-1990s the number of bothforeign and domestic concessionaires increased to 32. By1995 more than 6.4 million hectares (35%) of Cambodia’sland area was under forest concession control (GlobalWitness, 2002). Today there are approximately 21concessions controlling about 26% of the nation’s land area(Global Witness, 2002). Concerns over forest concessionsrelate to a range of issues such as transparency in the systemof granting concessions; need for improved concessionsmanagement planning; security of land tenure forcommunities living within concessions; and the scale, pace,and nature of forest exploitation.

The international donor community and the Governmentof Cambodia have agreed on the need for fundamentalreforms of what is widely seen as a systemic failure of thecountry’s concession management practices and subsequentimplications for forest royalties and revenue managementsystems. Some observers and analysts remain critical of theunderlying rationale of the national concessions system andquestion whether the country could ever achieve sustainedresults on the ground. The country’s forest practices havegenerated considerable criticism from human rights and

environmental advocacy groups who are concerned aboutthe effects of illegal and poorly planned logging onindigenous ethnic minority people.

Change in Area Under Concessions

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Forest Agriculture Fishing

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This chart shows that while the area under concessions has decreasedin the forestry sector, it has rather suddenly increased in the fishingsector and minimally increased in the agricultural sector.Source: Sovannarith, Sophal, and Acharya, 2001.

Often, forest communities lack basic land tenure securityand frequently find themselves in conflict with loggingconcessionaires who have historically logged with littleconsideration of the social or environmental context of theiroperations. Particular concerns have been raised overlogging operations that adversely affect the access of localcommunities to non-timber forest products.

NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS

For many rural Cambodians the value of the forests lies notin the timber but in the wide array of non-timber productson which they depend for survival. Foods from a variety ofplant and animal products from the forests are majorcomponents of the daily diet for many rural inhabitants.Bamboo, rattan, and resins are used for housing, agriculturaltools, and hunting equipment. Most rural families relyheavily on traditional medicines derived from forest plantsas well as on forest plants for animal feed.

Historically, forest planners and forest managers haveoverlooked the importance of non-timber forest resources.Much of the inertia in developing more meaningful NTFPinitiatives is due to lack of knowledge, as well as the

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overwhelming short-term incentives for timber harvesting.Access to NTFP has become a key source of conflict overthe use of the forests. In Ratanakiri, conflicts between localcommunities and outside logging interests are directlyrelated to both land tenure security and access to traditionaluse areas.

Experiences from studies such as the 1997 Economy andEnvironment Program for Southeast Asia (EEPSEA)evaluation of Ratanakiri Province have shown that thepromotion of forest conservation and sustainable use offorest products is enhanced through programs targetingimproved management of NTFP (Bann, 1997). In addition,it has been shown that local people have the knowledgeand understanding to assess the forests and determine whattypes of management regimes are most appropriate. Whilethe value of these products is difficult to measure, theEEPSEA study from Ratanakiri estimates that annual returnsfrom NTFP collection could match returns for timberharvesting alone.

Cambodia’s ethnic minorities typically use the forest forswidden agriculture. Under the rotational system ofswidden, forests are cleared to establish crops. Areas arefarmed for varying periods interspersed with periods offallow. According to some estimates swidden practitionerscultivate dozens of crop varieties, and when well maintainedthese systems can remain productive for many years. Clearlythe secure access and use of forests is critical for thesustainability of village economies.

FUELWOOD

It is estimated that approximately 90–95% of Cambodia’spopulation relies on fuelwood as a major energy source

(Phat et al., 1998), typically in the form of wood or charcoal.Firewood and charcoal are the main fuels for cooking anddomestic household usage, but are also use extensively byindustry (Burgess, 2000). Biomass from agricultural residuesis also a significant source of fuel energy. Burgess suggeststhat about 80% of the national energy supply comes fromfirewood or charcoal. It is estimated that the annual percapita consumption of fuel-wood is on the order of 207 kg.While consumption is crucial in rural areas, cities also havean important role. For example, the volume of fuel-woodarriving in Phnom Penh annually was estimated by the Foodand Agriculture Organization (FAO) to be 23,802,000 kg.

As a result of population growth, demand for fuel-woodgrew almost four times from 1.6 m3 to some 6 m3 from the1960s to the 1990s. Complicating the growth in fuel-woodconsumption are the uneven distribution of wood fuel andaffordability of resources, which have led to fuelwoodscarcities in some parts of the country. Studies indicate thatthere are significant differences in fuel choice amonghouseholds with various income levels, and that poorerfamilies commonly use wood for fuel. Since the use of fuel-wood is linked to poor indoor air quality, economicdisparities may affect fuelwood consumption and air quality.Fuel switching is possible, but for the medium term it islikely that alternative fuels will only supplement wood fuelrather than replace it. Nevertheless, in spite of its nationalimportance, fuel-wood energy policy is not generallyviewed as a national priority, and the Forestry Department,to which responsibility for fuel-wood has been assigned,has yet to develop a formal policy or strategy on this issue.

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FOREST LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS

Forest policy reform is essential to Cambodia’s future.The importance of forests to the nation’s futureeconomic and social welfare prospectsis beingincreasingly recognized by senior officials. The

highest levels of government have established their

commitment to forest sector reform. Nevertheless, the

regulatory framework for forest management remains

incomplete and does not provide sufficient legal backing

for strong sanctions. National leaders have taken strong

public positions on a range of issues such as restrictions on

log harvesting and transport. The 1999 crackdown on illegal

logging has had a tangible impact. This was followed up

with a moratorium on logging in early 2002. The

government, with donor support, has implemented a Forest

Crimes Monitoring and Reporting Project (FCMRP), part

of which involves the use of independent monitors.

The Royal Government, through its Sub-Decree on Forest

Concession Management, has proposed strict sanctions on

concessionaires who do not follow new procedures for

concession management, including implementation of

environmental and social impact assessment as part of

initiatives to prepare Sustainable Forest Management Plans.

A 1996 strategy paper prepared by the World Bank, United

Nations Development Program (UNDP), and the FAO

identified a range of economic, social, and environmental

issues in the forest sector. The donor community has worked

with the Cambodian Government to recommended

strategies addressing improved regulatory and legal

frameworks, the examination of the concession system, and

reform of log and forest products trade policy. Since that

time, the country’s strategic focus has been on trying to put

sustainable forest management principles into operational

practice. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has supported

the Government through the preparation of a technical

evaluation report on the nation’s forest concession

management system.

While Government has made efforts to curb illegal logging

and to introduce more sustainable forest management

approaches, there are still mixed results on the ground. There

have been important efforts such as the drafting of the

national Forest Law and the drafting of codes of practice

for concession management, but sustained success on the

ground has been harder to achieve in practice. In 2001,

Government drafted the new Forest Law, which spells out

in a much clearer manner the nation’s objectives and policy

commitments in the management of the resource. This law

has been passed by the National Assembly and is currently

in force. Without a doubt, the extent of illegal logging has

been reduced through government efforts; unfortunately,

there are still numerous reports of continued illegal logging

and conflicts between concessionaires and local

communities.

Recently, Government announced a moratorium on all

logging in the absence of a government-approved

concession management plan. The overall effectiveness or

sustainability of this moratorium has not been fully

demonstrated at this time. In addition, Cambodia issued a

Forest Concession Management Sub-Decree in February

2000 and continues with initiatives aimed at monitoring

forest crime. Government has to varying degrees accepted

the participation of independent monitoring groups to verify

that its commitments are being followed up with ground

activities.

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Many Cambodianvillages rely on theforests of protectedareas for theirsubsistence andspiritual needs.

Government is beginning to address rural energy needs and

specifically the role of fuel-wood in its national development

strategies. However, there is a long way to go to clear up

misconceptions, and there is a great need for filling

information gaps to formulate a sound policy in this area.

Another challenge will be finding an institutional home to

deal with the wood fuels issues. With energy policy focusing

on the provision of electricity and the fact that this issue

crosses institutional boundaries of the Department of Energy

and the Forest Department, it will likely be some time before

clear institutional responsibilities are developed for the fuel-

wood concerns.

One area where Government seems to have made relatively

little progress is in the field of illegal wildlife trade. While

wildlife is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of

Agriculture Forest and Fisheries (MAFF), efforts to control

hunting and wildlife trade do not enjoy much financial

support and there seems to be little political will to enforce

commitments in this regard. In addition, there are

institutional constraints to effective wildlife law

enforcement. Since protected areas (PAs) are under the

jurisdiction of the Ministry of Environment (MoE) but

wildlife is under the MAFF, there is often confusion in the

respective roles of the ministries with regard to illegal

wildlife trade within PAs.

One promising area of future development could be in the

field of community based agro-forestry. Government has

recently issued a Sub-Decree on Community Forestry.

Community forestry initiatives are underway in an

estimated 110 sites around the country that are testing

alternative technologies and tenure arrangements.

Historically, community forestry has been implemented

with considerable assistance from the community of NGOs.

A number of training programs aimed at sensitizing

government staff to community forest issues have had some

measure of success in influencing government strategy.Collecting firewood.

Forest area felled and burned in preparation for agriculture planting.

Land prepared for “Chamkar”— Khmer word that refers to shiftingcultivation field.

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Cambodia Environment Monitor 2003

OVERVIEW

Cambodia contains diverse plant and animal life andhas a range of ecosystems. Major bioclimatic regionsinclude a short coastline and the isolated Elephantand Cardamom mountains to the southwest, central

plains surrounding the Tonle Sap Lake and the MekongRiver, and upland and lowland forests in the north andnortheast. Many of these areas are relatively intact, butpressures, such as land clearing for agricultural purposesand forest resources, are increasingly encroaching on theland and its biodiversity.

Although comprehensive inventories are not available, it isestimated that Cambodia has 15,000 species of plants, 720bird species, 240 reptile species, and 212 species ofmammals, (NEAP, 1998). Cambodia appears to be one ofthe world’s richest countries in terms of plant familydiversity, with representatives of nearly 54% of all familiesof seed plants. The World Conservation Monitoring Centreestimates that there are 15,000 species of plants, with at leastone third being endemic. Moreover, UNDP and the WorldConservation Union (IUCN) have described some 2,300species of vascular plants (NEAP, 1998). The diversity ofhabitat types and the relatively intact nature of many of thesehabitats means that Cambodia still has significant areas thatare worth protecting and conserving. Cambodia’ fauna hasonly moderate levels of endemism and is generally believedto be less diverse than that of its neighbors.

FORESTS

The various types of forest cover that exist in Cambodia aremangrove, evergreen, and deciduous dry dipterocarp,Mangrove forest are located along the southern coast andnearby islands. Freshwater swamps are located in theflooded zones of the Tonle Sap Lake are an extremelyimportant forest resource for rural livelihoods. Evergreenforests grow on the mountains in the southwest and are themost valuable biodiversity resource (MacKinnon, 1997).Once evergreen forests are degraded, the original vegetationis replaced by bamboo. The most extensive forest type isthe deciduous dry dipterocarp forests They occupy the openplains and are widespread east of the Mekong River andnorth of the Tonle Sap Lake at altitudes below 500 meters.Dipterocarp forests are known for their two-winged fruit

and as a valuable source of timber, resins, and oils. Whendisturbed by logging or burning, the original vegetation isreplaced by savanna and bamboo forests.

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Imperata cylindrica is a tenacious grass that becomes established inmany agricultural areas disturbed by repeated clearing and burning.Once established it is difficult to eradicate and renders land virtuallyuseless to farmers. In many places, farmers are forced to open newareas to agriculture production further exacerbating the problem.

Vast area of established Imperata cylindrica. It has been reported thatone plant of Imperata can produce as many as 3,000 seeds, of which95% can germinate within one week of harvest and can remain viablefor at least one year. Seeds can also be dispersed over long distances bythe wind.

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COASTAL AND MARINE

In comparison to neighboring countries, Cambodia’scoastline and mangroves are much smaller in size. Its diversemarine habitats support 435 fish species, 24 hard coralspecies, 14 soft coral species, seagrass beds, and mangroveforests. It is also known that the globally endangered dugongand marine dolphin inhabit the waters off Cambodia. Thereare several islands along the coastline which have beenreported to have coral reefs, but no systematic surveys havebeen done so little is known about the distribution,composition or health of the coral reefs. Threats to the coralreefs in Cambodia include dynamite fishing, coral collecting,anchoring, push netting, and trawling. The areas mostaffected by dynamite fishing are Koh Tang, Koh Prins andKohhmey in the waters off Sihanoukville (O’Brien, 1999, p.102).

WETLANDS

Environmentally, Cambodia is most significant and famousfor its wetlands. The largest wetlands are the Tonle Sap Lakeand the Mekong River system. The country is centeredaround the Tonle Sap, and 86% of Cambodia lies within thecatchment of the Mekong River (O’Brien, 1999, p. 85). TonleSap is the largest permanent freshwater lake in SoutheastAsia and is an important nesting and feeding site for largewaterbirds, including several globally threatened species.

Wetlands are the most critical habitat type in Cambodia,and are internationally recognized for their biodiversity andbiological importance. Cambodia’s wetlands are home toat least 57 species of animals listed on the IUCN Red List ofglobally threatened species, including 23 globally threatenedor near threatened birds (Fisheries Action Coalition Team,2001, p. 14). Three sites are listed in the Ramsar Conventionon Wetlands of International Importance and total 54,600ha. These sites are the Koh Kapik and associated islets onthe coast, the Boeng Chmar and associated river system inthe Tonle Sap floodplain, and the middle stretches of theMekong River north of Stoeng Treng in the northeast.

The Tonle Sap Lake provides habitat for 500 species offreshwater fish, including many endemics and severalglobally endangered species (Fisheries Action CoalitionTeam, 2001, p. 14). One of these globally endangered species

is the Mekong giant catfish (Pangasianodom gigas). It is theworld’s largest freshwater fish and can grow up to 3 m longand weigh 300 kg. It has suffered serious declines becauseof overfishing. Information and research on migratory fishspecies and on the feeding, breeding and migration ecologyof rare waterbirds is urgently needed. The importance ofTonle Sap’s biodiversity cannot be overstated. It isrecognized internationally as a United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) BiosphereReserve.

Threats to the biodiversity of the Tonle Sap and MekongRiver system include overfishing, illegal fishing practices,the increasing use of highly hazardous pesticides,unsustainable hunting, deforestation, conversion of floodedforests, and future dam and water resource projects of theMekong.

Cutting of forests around and near the Tonle Sap has causedaccelerated soil erosion and increased siltation. Increasedsiltation of the Tonle Sap is a serious problem. Silt depositsin the main river channels are negatively affecting fishmigration and spawning. Moreover, increased siltation inthe Tonle Sap is rapidly decreasing the lake’s depth andcausing rising water temperatures and fish mortalities.There are various estimates of when the lake will be full ofsilt, but there is a lack of long-term data to draw anyconclusions. However, it is known that siltation is occurringat a rapid rate, and if it is not controlled, it will threaten fishspawning and reduce fish productivity and freshwaterbiodiversity, as well as result in a loss of important proteinsources and livelihoods.

Since the seasonal flooding and dynamic spatial changesare particularly important to the Tonle Sap and MekongRiver system, any upstream dam or water resource projecton the Mekong will have significant impacts. AlthoughCambodia does not currently have any mainstreamhydropower projects or plans in its current energydevelopment, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Thailand, and China haveall either built dams or have plans for future water resourceprojects along the Mekong. In light of the floods of 2000,impacts downstream to Cambodia could be considerable,and transnational water development schemes should notbe dismissed lightly.

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MANGROVES

Mangroves grow along most of Cambodia’s coastline andcover 85,000 ha. In Cambodia, mangroves are cut andharvested for firewood, charcoal, and building materials andburned to repel mosquitoes and other insects. Impacts ofunsustainable harvesting include loss of habitat and shelterfor marine stocks, reduced shoreline protection from stormsand erosion, increased siltation, and acid soils. It has beenestimated that marine fisheries catch from mangrove areasis in excess of 30,000 tonnes per year, and if mangrovehabitats are destroyed this could be greatly reduced(O’Brien, 1999, p. 110).

Mangrove forests in Cambodia are relatively intact, butrecent activities may harm their habitat and if left uncheckedcould undercut local livelihoods and food security. In KohKong Province, mangroves are cut predominantly forcharcoal production and intensive shrimp farming, and inKampot Province trees are felled for fuelwood andconversion to salt farms. Charcoal production is increasingin scale, and charcoal is illegally exported. In 1992, therewere 300 charcoal kilns that produced 24,000 tonnes ofcharcoal. Ninety-five percent of this was illegally exported(O’Brien, 1999, p. 112). Intensive shrimp farming is a recentpractice. There were no intensive shrimp farms before 1985,but by 1994 840 ha ofshrimp farm licenses hadbeen issued (O’Brien,1999, p. 112). Althoughmangrove destruction isminimal, this trend ofmangrove felling willaccelerate if controllingmeasures are not taken,and rich biodiversehabitats and locallivelihoods will bethreatened.

PROTECTED AREAS

Cambodia has set ambi-tious targets for its nation-al protected areas system.In 1925, Cambodia was

the first country in Southeast Asia to declare a protectedarea and establish a 10,800-ha national park around theAngkor Temple complex (NEAP, 1998). In recent times, thecountry has identified 23 protected areas, including 7national parks, 10 wildlife sanctuaries, 3 protectedlandscapes, and 3 multiple use zones. In total about 3.3million ha, representing close to 18% of the total land area,is declared protected.

In spite of this, numerous threats to Cambodia’s biodiversityexist within its PAs. Common to many developing nations,land conversion for agriculture, urban, and industrialpurposes; poorly planned forest management; illegallogging; hunting; illegal wildlife trade (see box); and forestfires all contribute to the increased pressure on the country’sprotected areas.

Cambodia’s ability to counteract these threats is limited dueto poor law enforcement capability; weak capacity to plan,manage, and implement a national system of protectedareas; and low public awareness and political commitment.As a result, there are few examples of sustained efforts toprotect a single national park. Government capacity isconstrained by the lack of a well-developed legal

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Floweringvine in

RatanakiriProvince.

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framework, poor staff incentives, and lack of financialresources to implement necessary programs.The challenges to establishing an effective system of nationalparks also include the great diversity of social contexts inwhich the parks are set. The human pressures varyconsiderably from one area to another and in areas like thenortheast are complicated by the presence of indigenousethnic minorities who depend on the forests for theirsubsistence and many spiritual needs.

For the most part, effective conservation of biologicaldiversity is not so much an issue of managing natural areasas managing the people who inhabit and utilize these areas.Cambodia currently lacks clear rules and guidelines on whatis allowable and what is not with regard to hunting and

utilization of natural resources within protected areas.Public education and awareness raising are thus criticalelements of any national strategy.

For the most part the country lacks good systematicallycollected and evaluated data on the distribution,populations and dynamics of major species. The dearth ofscientific information has created problems for reachingagreement on national priorities.

The effective management of protected areas will requirethe collaboration of numerous institutions nationally. Oftenthese national bodies have conflicting interests, as betweengovernment, private business, military, and provincial andcentral government authorities.

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ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE

Ongoing surveys and trade research reveal that wildlife populations throughout Cambodia are being poached at an alarming rate. Few PAs

are patrolled on any consistent basis and there is, at present, no national system in place to identify and arrest illegal wildlife traders.

Institutional responsibility for controlling wildlife hunting rests with the MAFF Forest Department and the Ministry of Environment.

One of the most difficult challenges in controlling wildlife hunting is that the same people who use the forest for subsistence needs are

often the ones laying traps and snares to service the wildlife trade. In Bokor National Park, rangers estimate that thousands of traps have

been set to snare deer, wild pig, monitor lizards, and pheasants. Hunters are often creative in the use of tools. Dogs are often a preferred

hunting tool in the forests of Bokor National Park. In some parts of the country, tigers are hunted using landmines.

In spite of the pressures, many wildlife specialists believe the populations of threatened animals could recover given sufficient protection.

However, with no data on the scale of wildlife trade, the effect on biodiversity is currently unknown. Despite the presence of illegal wildlife

trade, Cambodia is a signatory to and has ratified the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

(CITES).

Source: Authors’ assessment.


AMBITIOUS NATIONAL GOALS

To meet its ambitious conservation goals, theGovernment of Cambodia, through the MoE, hastaken a number of important steps. First, it hasdeclared its intention to establish a national parks and

protected areas system through the Royal Decree of 1993.Cambodia has ratified the Convention on BiologicalDiversity, and the MoE has recently undertaken aBiodiversity Enabling Activity. Cambodia has sought toclarify its national strategy through a new NationalBiodiversity Action Plan. It has also established a nationalBiodiversity Steering Committee. Moreover, the MoE isleading the way on the development of new protected areaslegislation which would complement the recently passedLand and Forest Laws.

In addition, Government is actively seeking to developworking partnerships with leading conservation groupssuch as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), WildlifeConservation Society (WCS), Wild Aid, and others todevelop more effective working relationships and to buildon the limited staff skills and resources available forconservation purposes.

OPERATIONAL CHALLENGES

The jurisdiction for managing the country’s biological assetsis currently split between the MAFF and the MoE. The MoEis responsible for administering the system of protectedareas. The MoE’s Department of Nature Conservation is thenodal agency department responsible for biodiversityconservation. The Department of Forests within the MAFF,on the other hand, is responsible for enforcing wildlifeprotection regulations. In some cases, split jurisdiction isnecessary because there are many parts of the country thathave significant habitat value but are not within formallyestablished protected areas.

This split jurisdiction has caused some confusion on rolesand responsibilities and has led to institutional rivalries inthe past. Greater inter-agency collaboration is highlydesirable, and a recent example is the Forest CrimesMonitoring Program. The country’s conservation goals areclosely related to forest management, and the MoE is seekingto work in partnership with the MAFF and the ForestDepartment to monitor and deter forest crime—particularlyillegal logging.

For the foreseeable future, Cambodia’s national programsfor biodiversity conservation will need substantial donorassistance. The MoE is aggressively seeking external donorsupport for biodiversity conservation. The MoE has secureda World Bank loan and a Global Environmental Facility(GEF) to help develop its national system and to implementan working plan for Virachey National Park in Ratanakiri.The MoE is also seeking additional GEF resources to supportother priority national conservation programs.

One of the biggest impediments to successful managementof a national system of PAs is the fact that the MoE isessentially bankrupt and does not have sufficient fundingto carry out its mandated functions. Securing sustainablefinancing for the country’s PA system will remain a majorproblem. Virtually all operational budgets for PA work inthe MoE come from external donors in the form of grantsand loans.

Ecologically based tourism is one area where there is greatpromise, although, with the exception of the Temples ofAngkor Wat, this has not yet been explored in anysubstantial way. While eco-tourism holds some promise,there are many inherent dangers to be avoided, such asadverse effects on indigenous communities, dispro-portionate benefits flowing to external individuals andbusinesses, and ensuring equitable benefits sharing.

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OVERVIEW

The land resources of Cambodia are an integralelement of the country’s future developmentpotential.Approximately 75–80% of the country’spopulation is directly engaged in agriculture and is

directly dependent upon the continued productivity of theland for daily subsistence needs. Agriculture is the largesteconomic sector accounting for about 40% of the grossdomestic product (GDP) (National Institute of Statistics,1999).

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES

There are more than 1.2 million farming households inCambodia. Agriculture is dominated by lowland riceproduction. More than 88% of the country’s developedagricultural land is used for rice production. Rice is thestaple food of Cambodia, providing 75% of the daily caloricintake. Its role in the national economy cannot beunderestimated. Rice alone accounts for about 17% ofnational GDP (Nesbitt, 1998). Other important crops includemaize, soybean, mung bean, and sweet potato; rubber isthe country’s biggest export earner.

Crop diversification and intensification (especially riceproduction) is the central focus of Cambodia’s agriculturalpolicy. Although there have been recent increases in riceproduction, food security and malnutrition are seriousissues in several parts of the country. The FAO estimatesthat 50% of children under five are stunted and up to 20%suffer severe malnutrition (Environmental JusticeFoundation (EJF), 2002).

Despite the importance of rice in the national economy,yields are low compared with other countries in the region.Rice production has stabilized over the last few years, butregional inequalities persist. Rice is grown throughout thecountry including, many areas with poor soils andinadequate access to water. Although irrigated rice yieldsare higher than wet-season rain-fed rice, irrigated riceaccounts for only 15–20% of total production (EJF, 2002).

Cambodia’s percentage of irrigated agricultural land is oneof the lowest in the region. While rainfall may be plentifulin aggregate terms, the unpredictable nature of rainfall

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Source: FAOSTAT Database, 2001.

Paddy Rice Production (Mt)

Source: World Bank, 2002.

Percentage of Irrigated Land

0

1,000,000

2,000,000

3,000,000

4,000,000

5,000,000

1985

1991

1997

38.740.8

26.418

15.515.4

7.1

0 10 20 30 40 50

RegionVietnamThailandLao PDR

IndonesiaPhilippines

Cambodia

Percent

39,350

42,565

42,479

31,866

30,606

25,714

0 20,000

40,000

60,000

Yield (Hg/Ha)

Thailand

Lao PDR

Philipppines

Indonesia

Vietnam

Region

Source: FAOSTAT Database, 2001.

Comparison of Rice Paddy Fields

2001


complicates farming in Cambodia. The FAO World FoodProgram estimates that major crop losses (of rice and othercrops) occur every three to four years because of droughtsor floods (EJF, 2002). The floods of 2000 were the worst inrecent history, causing several hundred deaths anddestroying crops and infrastructure. It is estimated that400,000 ha of wet-season rice were affected.

Exacerbating floods are deforestation and soil erosion.Causes of deforestation are unsustainable logging, increaseddemand for wood and charcoal, and expansion ofagricultural land. In the northeast, upland rice is producedusing traditional swidden agricultural practices, whichinclude slash and burn of forests with long-rotation croppingsystems. With increasing demands for agricultural land,fallow periods that allow land to rejuvenate have decreasedfrom 10–15 years to 3–5 years, thereby increasing soildegradation and erosion (O’Brien, 1999, p. 255).

LAND DEGRADATION

General indications are that many of Cambodia’s soils areprone to drought. They tend to have low moisture-holdingcapacity and physical characteristics, such as low organicmatter content, which restrict effective rooting depth andsubsequent yields (Nesbitt, 1998). Unfertilized rice yieldsvary widely depending onsoil type. On poorer soils,such as in Prey Khmer andPrateah Lang, yields are aslow as 600 to 900 kg/ha.Some good soils do existin the active floodplain ofthe Mekong, but it is inthese areas where deve-lopment pressures are alsomost intense. Unfertilizedyields on better soil typescan reach as high as 2,000–2,500 kg/ha (Nesbitt,1998). In addition, Cam-bodia’s fertilizer use is oneof the lowest in the region.

Source: Cambodia Statistical Yearbook, 2000.

Crop type Planted area (ha)

Rice 2,079,440

Maize 59,740

Rubber 36,720

Soybean 34,950

Vegetables—other 31,240

Mung bean 26,750

Sesame 16,410

Cassava 14,000

Peanut 10,560

Sweet potato 9,320

Sugar cane 8,370

Tobacco 8,290

Jute 260

Total Crop 2,336,050

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Indigenousfarmers use

shiftingcultivation

techniques to clear forest land

for cultivation.

PLANTED AREA PER CROP TYPE

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2,464

3,365

1,482 1,336 1,226

93 210

1,0002,0003,0004,000

R egion

Vietn

am

Indones ia

Philippin

es

Thailand

LaoPDR

Cambodia

There have been relatively few studies on the soil resourcesof the country. There is growing concern in Cambodia overland degradation. Land clearing for agriculture and otherdevelopment initiatives is increasingly exposingCambodia’s sandy soils to erosional forces, leading tosignificant problems in some areas. Of particular concern,there appears to be low potential for yield increases acrossapproximately 50% of Cambodia’s cultivated areas due tosevere soil quality problems (McKenney and Prom Tola,forthcoming). Soil infertility has been recognized as one ofthe most serious constraints to crop yield improvement inCambodia (Desbarats and Boreak, 2000). The Cambodia-IRRI-Australia-Project has made significant contributionsto the soil knowledge base, but much remains to be done toimprove the understanding and productivity of soilmanagement.

Further limiting arable land for agriculture is the presenceof an estimated 4 to 6 million landmines (EJF, 2002). It isestimated that landmines limit access to approximately 40%of arable land (O’Brien, 1999, p. 257). The CambodiaLandmine Impact Survey completed in 2002 determinedthat all 24 provinces have areas affected by mines, and thatnearly half of all villages are either known or suspected ofbeing contaminated by mines (International Campaign toBan Landmines, 2002). The marking of mine areas is still inprogress.

LAND ADMINISTRATION

Land remains a contentious issue nationally. Conflicts overland are commonplace in Cambodia. A number of factorscontribute to the emergence of land as a predominant

environmental and social issue. Among the most importantland issues are:� Population growth places high demographic pressure

on land.� Land tenure is not secure for many of the country’s

rural poor.� Repatriation of refugees and military demobilization

place increased demand on land.� Land speculation is uncontrolled and ownership is

driven by outside interests.� Large areas of potentially productive land are still

affected by landmines.� Natural hazards, especially flooding, affect sustained

land productivity.� Land allocation for agricultural, forestry, industrial,

and other purposes still lacks transparency.� There are competing land claims, even between

government ministries.� There is uncertainty over land boundaries under

control by various entities.� Information and understanding of laws and proce-

dures governing land is inadequate.

Demand for land, especially agricultural land, is increasingand is expected to continue. The baby boom that followedthe Khmer Rouge regime is now reaching marriageable ageand is escalating the demand for rural arable land. AnOxfam study concluded that the expanding rural populationis the largest single cause of landlessness (Desbarats andBoreak, 2000). Landlessness is increasingly becoming aproblem, and the same Oxfam study recently estimated thatapproximately 13% of rural households in Cambodia arelandless. Consequently, the search for land is resulting inmigrations to the northwest or northeast “frontiers,” andfamily landholdings are being divided into smaller parcels.The average size of agricultural holdings in Cambodia isquite small, only one ha per family (Boreak, 2000). This ishighly unequally distributed, with female-headedhouseholds and marginal groups having much less. The1999 Socio-economic Survey found that 48% of ruralpopulations had less than .75 ha of land, and the FAOrecently estimated that food security becomes a problemwhen households have less than .75 ha of land (Desbaratsand Boreak, 2000).

Source: World Bank, 2002.

Fetilizer Consumption

(100 g/ha arable land)

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The problems are exacerbated by the lack of rigorous,transparent, and credible dispute resolution mechanisms.The dispute resolution system is laboring under a largebacklog of cases that can often take years to resolve.

PESTICIDES AND AGRICULTURE CHEMICALS

It is difficult to determine the level of agricultural chemicaluse in Cambodia. Cambodia does not produce pesticidesand all agricultural chemicals must be imported, and thereare no important agrochemical distributors in the country.It is claimed that a value added tax (VAT) of 10% on allauthorized imports is a disincentive for establishing aresponsible distribution system; consequently, there are highlevels of illegal imports from neighboring countries. It isestimated that as little as 40% and possibly as low as 20% ofpesticides used are official authorized imports (Morton,unpublished 1999).

There is growing evidence that agricultural chemical usehas increased over the last few years. The Cambodia Centerfor Study and Development in Agriculture (CEDAC)interviewed 933 farmers in the Tonle Sap region and foundthat 67% used pesticides; of those, 44% started usingpesticides in the 80s and 55% in the 90s (CEDAC, 2001). In1994, there were 30 types of pesticides in the market, but by1998 this grew to 63 types (CEDAC, 2000).

However, it is not so much the level of pesticides use that isof concern but rather the inappropriate and highly toxicagricultural chemical use that is increasingly recognized asproblematic. All pesticides used in Cambodia aremanufactured outside of the country and imported, mostlythrough Thailand or Vietnam. Up to 97.5% of chemical labelsare written in non-Khmer languages such as Thai andVietnamese (CEDAC, 2000). Thus, even the minority ofliterate farmers find most labels in a foreign language orscript. Consequently, frequent inappropriate pesticide useoccurs, such as fungicides being used for insects. A CEDACstudy further discovered that only 5% of farmers surveyedin the Tonle Sap region had received advice on pesticideuse from extension workers, and that 95% learned throughneighbors, their own experience, or from pesticide traders.Moreover, it was revealed that only 8 out of 77 pesticidetraders, whom farmers frequently rely on for advice, could

read the foreign labels. In addition, it was found that amajority of farmers (63%) mix one to two pesticide productstogether, while 30% mix three to four pesticides together,and 7% mix five to six different products together beforespraying (CEDAC, 2001). Therefore, users frequently do notknow what chemicals they are using, what the applicationrates are, and what dangers exist.

A significant portion of pesticides used in Cambodia areclassified as extremely to highly hazardous (Class I) by theWorld Health Organization (WHO). These toxic chemicalsare being used and traded despite their prohibition underthe Sub-Decree on Standards and Management ofAgricultural Materials issued by the CambodianGovernment in 1998. Moreover, persistent organic pesticidessuch as DDT and chlordane are also available and still usedin spite of Cambodia being a signatory to the StockholmConvention banning persistent organic pollutants (POPs).In addition, a study of the pesticide market in the Tonle Sapregion found that 42 out of 241 pesticide products availableare banned in Vietnam and that another 16 are banned inThailand (CEDAC, 2001). Some fear that Cambodia isbecoming a dumping ground for unwanted and dangerouspesticides banned in other countries, while others believethat because of the absence of any significant localdistribution system, pesticides from neighboring countriestake several years to move down through the longdistribution chain and are either near or beyond their expirydates when they reach Cambodia.

Because of the absence of a top-down distribution system,there is a lack of control over what is sold, and the qualityof some pesticides has been found to be poor. There arereports of adulteration, dilution, false labeling, andrepackaging in unsuitable containers. Many challenges faceCambodian farmers in this regard: poor product quality,poor enforcement of existing regulations, lack of awarenessof pesticide dangers, and poor understanding of the use andapplication of pesticides.

Pesticides, particularly persistent and highly toxiccompounds, pose both human and ecological dangers. Withlimited knowledge of the chemicals they are using and littleor no safety gear, farmers are at risk from pesticidepoisonings through inhalation and dermal contact. There is

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also a risk of pesticide residues on foods consumed byCambodians. These residues could ultimately limitCambodia’s future export potential of agricultural productsto countries that have residue limits. Extremely hazardouspesticides are increasingly used in the Tonle Sap catchment,which endangers fish and other aquatic life in the lake, aswell as migratory waterbirds that feed on contaminated fishand water. Pesticides are also used in the Tonle Sap toillegally catch and kill fish and to protect dried fish frominsects. Pesticide pollution, especially in the Tonle Sap

region, could severely disrupt the ecosystem and diminishfish populations and protein consumption of the ruralpopulation.

Without any actions or controls, pesticide use in Cambodiawill almost assuredly continue rapidly upward. Since thegreatest intensity of pesticide use in Cambodia is onvegetables and dry-season rice, the national goals of cropintensification and diversification will more than likely leadto increased agro-chemical use.

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Women from localethnic groups sellingproduce at the BanLung market inRatanakiri.


AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES

The Cambodian Government through the MAFF hasoutlined its major agricultural goals in its current five-year Agricultural Development Plan (2001–2005).Among other objectives, high on the list of priorities

are ensuring food security, increasing the value of agriculturalproducts, and practicing sustainable resource management.

Government hopes to achieve these goals by implementingpolicies to increase the productivity of existing land throughinvestments in infrastructure (irrigation), expand cultivatedareas, improve water policy, and increase private sectorinvolvement across a range of sub-sectors. Significant effortshave been made to promote technical packages, whichinclude increased agro-chemical use and introduction ofimproved seed varieties.

The MAFF strategy also aims at curbing unsustainable,illegal activities, particularly in the areas of fisheries andforest management. However, the Government’s promotionof large-scale agricultural concessions deserves closerscrutiny to determine potential benefits and costs to rurallivelihoods. Recent information suggests that 64% (16 outof 25) of the concessions with contracts are currently havingproblems with protests and/or land encroachment fromlocal people (McKenney and Tola, forthcoming).

A key element of any successful strategy will be increasingfarmer self-reliance and promoting community participationin rural development initiatives. There is growing evidencethat consultative processes are being used to a far greaterextent, such as EEPSEA’s community program and otheremerging types of community-driven rural developmentinitiatives. By utilizing and building upon communityinterests, rural program delivery can be better targeted, morerelevant, and better sustained.

In the area of pest management, Government, with the helpof two organizations—International Rice Research Institute(IRRI) and FAO—has recognized the importance ofintegrated pest management (IPM) approaches. An IPMprogram in rice was started in 1993, and a vegetable IPMprogram was begun in 1997. The programs are working toincrease farmer awareness and to build the capacity of

agricultural extension workers by providing training in IPMtechniques.

However, without the enforcement of the Sub-Decree onStandards and Management of Agricultural Materials (1998)and the Stockholm Convention banning POPS, the extremelyto highly hazardous and persistent chemicals will still bereadily available in Cambodia. In addition, the lack of acentral distribution system for pesticides will mean thatchemicals will continue to filter into the mass market at thebottom through porous borders and will go unregulated.

LAND ADMINISTRATION

An important element in Government’s overall landmanagement strategy is the provision of improved tenuresecurity. Government is focusing on accelerating theprovision of private land title in the hopes that secure titlewill lead to improved management of natural resources,improved land husbandry, and poverty alleviation. Theassumption is that farmers will be more likely to invest inland improvements in a situation where secure tenure isensured, and that land improvements will contribute toincreased yields and reduced poverty.

However, caution will need to be exercised to ensure thatefforts to promote private land titling do not haveunintended effects. For example, Oxfam has reported thatnumerous cases of land expropriation of large tracts bypowerful individuals and institutional interests have beenobserved, even in cases where private title has been issuedin the past (Oxfam, 1998). According to Oxfam, fertile landsuitable for commercial production is especially at risk ofexpropriation.

In addition, the issuance of private titles will need to beexecuted carefully in situations where customarycommunity land use by ethnic minorities may beundermined. Significant problems can also emerge whenGovernment declares large tracts of land as protected areas.Care will need to be taken when declaring the managementrights, responsibilities, and obligations with the country’sPA system.

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A significant challenge to government policy makers is thatof landlessness. Government will need to address issues thatexacerbate the poverty trap (such as illnesses, successiveyears of flooding, and indebtedness) whereby poor ruralhouseholds find it necessary to sell off their land assets tomake ends meet. Indications are that landlessness is rapidlyemerging in many parts of the country. Future land demandswill depend on the growth of the rural population

Some significant reforms are emerging in Cambodia,including the establishment of the Council for Land Policy,which is responsible for developing a comprehensive landpolicy framework; the emergence of a National Settlementof Land Disputes Program; increased commitment toconsultations between Government, civil society, and theprivate sector; support for raising awareness about the newland law and the drafting of implementing sub-decrees; andassistance to Government from donors such as the WorldBank in supporting land administration project (NGOStatement to 2001 Consultative Group Meeting). In addition,in August 2001, Government passed a new Land Law.

Government will also need to improve its overallcoordination of land use planning and land allocation. Thisincludes improving the land inventory system and thenational classification system and developing land use plansfor forests, agricultural development areas, key urban areas,and road corridors. To help ensure that land allocations aredone in an environmentally sustainable way, Government

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will also need to take steps to improve its overallEnvironmental and Social Assessment procedures.

LAND ADMINISTRATION PROJECT

When the Khmer Rouge came into power in 1975, they

collectivized land and destroyed land records such as cadastral

maps and land titles. Under this regime, hundreds of thousands

of people were forced to move from cities into the countryside.

Rights to private ownership were reintroduced in 1989, but the

situation has been chaotic.

Administration of the country’s property rights is spread across

several government agencies. Land tenure security remains a

major national issue affecting private landholders as well as the

administration of the public land estate. It is estimated that by

mid-2001, only 15% of the estimated 4 million individual

applications for land tenure certificates had been processed.

In an effort to accelerate provision of private land titling and

modernization of the country’s land administration systems, the

World Bank is supporting a major land administration initiative.

Under the Bank-financed Land Administration and Management

Project (LAMP), Government will develop national land policies

and regulatory and institutional frameworks for land

administration. The project aims to issue title in urban and rural

areas and to establish a more transparent system of land

administration.



OVERVIEW

Cambodia possesses abundant water resources. TheMekong River, the Tonle Sap River, and the Tonle SapLake are the most important sources of freshwater,which supports agriculture, fisheries, and trans-

portation.

THE MEKONG RIVER

The Mekong is the sixth largest river in the world, and itflows from southwest China to the Mekong Delta inVietnam. The Cambodia portion of the Mekong River Basinis still relatively untouched; however, regional developmentis leading to increased water usage for urban and industrialdevelopment and irrigation schemes as well as intensifiedpressure on the river ecosystem.

Wild fish production takes place in a wetland ecosystemthat is driven by the annual flooding of the Mekong underthe influence of the southwest monsoon (June–October).Large and medium-scale fisheries, located along the river,are designed to intercept fish migrations taking place whenthe flood start receding.

THE TONLE SAP RIVER AND LAKE

The Tonle Sap River and Lake are important symbols ofnational identity. About 3 million people, in six provinces,depend on the lake and its floodplain for their livelihood.The unique hydrology of the lake allows it to act as a naturalflood retention basin, regulating floodwater from the

Mekong River. During the dry season, the lake is about 120km long, 35 km wide, and 1 to 2 meters deep; in the rainyseason it enlarges to about 250 km long and 100 km wide,and the depth reaches 8 to 10 meters, to become the largestfreshwater lake in Asia.

The lake is surrounded by a floodplain 20–40 km wide,dominated by inundated forests and rice fields. The areasperiodically flooded play a key role in maintaining andreviewing the lake’s productivity, which is one of the highestin the world, as the inundated forests provide the breedingand feeding habitat for fish and other forms of life. The lakealone contributes 53 to 68% of the total fish catch of the TonleSap area, and has a potential reported fish production of 65kg/ha/year (based in the dry season area), which is morethan five times that of most tropical freshwater bodies.1

The annual total value of the fish catch ranges between US$44 and 58 million, and amounts to about 5% of GDP.

The lake, however, provides much more than fish; it hassignificant potential for eco-tourism because it complementsthe Angkor complex; it is a reservoir of biological diversity,which includes birds—with many migratory birds movingback and forth within the Tonle Sap floodplain—and wildanimals, besides fish species. This makes the managementof the lake an issue of both national and regional importance,and has resulted in the Tonle Sap area been given the statusof international biosphere reserve.

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CountryTotal Resources

(km³)1995

(m³/person)World 30,712 22,544Asia 13,207 3,680Thailand 110 1,845Cambodia 88 8,195Lao PDR 270 50,392Indonesia 2,530 12,251Malaysia 456 21,259Myanmar 1,082 22,719Philippines 323 4,476Vietnam 376 4,827

Annual Renewable Water Resources

Source: The State of the Environment in Thailand in a Decade of Change, TDRI,2000.

Life’s activities along the water’s edge.

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Despite its international and protected status, the Tonle Saphas come under increasing threats, among which the mostpressing ones include:� Increasing demand for fuel-wood and briquette

production;� Crescent marginalization of the riparian communities,

traditionally dependent on fishing, as areas of openaccess have diminished at the expense of fishing-lotoperations;

� Growing seasonal migration toward the lake andconversion of inundated forest to farming due to lackof alternative income earning opportunities;

� Rising risk of fertilizer and pesticide runoff that coulddevastate the lake’s fishing potential;

� Increasing occurrence of illegal fishing practices(Fisheries Action Coalition, 2001); and

� Sedimentation.

COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES

Cambodia’s 435-km coastline is shared by the provinces ofKoh Kong, Kampong Som, Kamot, and Kep City, whereabout 5% of the population lives, and an Exclusive EconomicZone (EEZ) covering 55,600 square km.

Cambodia’s coastal zone supports diverse habitats andspecies significant to biodiversity, including mangroveforests, coral reefs, and seagrass beds. The mangroves areestimated to cover 85,100 ha, with the largest undistributedarea (63,000 ha) being in the Koh Kong coast and its offshoreislands. Charcoal making, shrimp aquaculture, and offshoreoil and gas development are regarded as growing threats tothe well-being of coastal resources.

MARINE FISH STOCKS

The EEZ is an important fishing ground, although theparticipation of Cambodian fishermen is limited becauseof the population’s preference for freshwater fish. In 1996,the reported annual catch from marine fisheries was about30,000 tonnes; the actual catch, however, may be higher asthis figure does not include the harvest of foreign fleets thatland their catch outside Cambodia, illegal commercial boats,and subsistence fisheries.

Limited information is currently available on the status ofmarine fish stocks as no extensive research, on the fishpopulation, has been carried out since 1986.2 Catch statisticsindicate that total annual harvests grew between 1980 and1990 (going from 1,200 to 39,000 tonnes), then declined toabout 30,000 tonnes in 1994.

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Note: * The total figure includes an estimated 43,000 to 100,000 tonnesfrom ricefields fisheries.

Source: Adapted from Olesen, 2001.

Cambodia Annual Inland Fishery Harvest, 2001

IRRIGATION AND CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT

Water resources planning and utilization has always been a main national concern. In 1993 there were 920 irrigation schemes throughout

the country, covering 310,000 ha. While a few projects have been implemented in selected areas of the country (Stung Mongkol, Borey,

Stung Chinit, and Prek Thnot), rehabilitation of existing systems remains preferable and more economically viable. As a result, low-lift

pumps and shallow tube wells, and individual rather than collective management of irrigation schemes, are seen as the most suitable

options for Cambodia for the years to come. In a number of cases, however, the legacy of technically unsound irrigation structures built

between 1975 to 1979 has increased the cost of rehabilitation of irrigation schemes.

To strengthen the long-term sustainability of these rehabilitation efforts, Government is working with local communities to ensure proper

management and maintenance of these facilities by identifying explicit targets for financial management and creating viable user groups.

Source: Adapted from Environment in Transition, Asia Development Bank, Manila 2000.

Type of fisheryEstimated catch

(tonnes)

Large-scale fisheries• Floodplain lots• Dais (bag nets)

75,000–125,00010,000–16,000

Open access• Middle scale• Family scale

85,000–100,000165,000–240,000

Total 290,000–430,000*


The effectiveness of the Department of Fisheries (DoF) inmanaging the marine fisheries has been limited so far dueto lack of skilled personnel and budget constraints, whichfurther weaken the DoF’s capacity to enforce existing lawsand regulations. Though the DoF generates substantialrevenues from the national treasury and the issuing offishing permits, fines, and other fees (US$ 4 million in 1995),its current budget remains insufficient to meet its operationalrequirements (US$ 200,000 in 1995).

The 1987 Fisheries Law is aimed at conserving the fisheriesresources and regulating the exploitation of Cambodia’sfreshwater and marine resources. The law addresses accesscontrol, gear restrictions, closed season, and the designationof fish sanctuaries and/or protected areas.

The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, throughthe DoF, is responsible for the use, management, andprotection of marine and freshwater resources. However,the Ministry of Tourism, the Ministry of Industry, Miningand Energy, the Ministry of Environment, and the Ministryof Rural Development also participate in some aspects ofmanagement and protection of coastal and freshwaterresources.

The Coastal Coordination Unit, formed in 1996 as part ofthe MoE, coordinates the activities relating to coastal andmarine environmental management with other members ofthe international marine community, such as theCoordinating Body of the Seas of East Asia, theSoutheast Asian Progamme in Ocean Law, Policy andManagement, the International Maritime Organization, andthe International Development Research Centre.

The National Coastal Steering Committee, created in 1997,is responsible for the overall direction of coastal projectsand activities, and seeks cooperation among line ministriesand provincial authorities in matters related to coastal andfreshwater resources management.

The Cambodian Government has developed integratedapproaches to manage the Tonle Sap area. Notable amongthem is the creation of the Coordination Unit within the MoEand the formulation of the National Wetlands Action Planby the MAFF and the MoE. In addition, several initiativesassisted by international organizations and NGOs haveaimed at safeguarding the inundated forests by acombination of measures that include forest regeneration,controlled farming, and a more secure access for thelakeshore communities to fishing.

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Net fishing. Preparing for the day’s fishing activities.

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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MEKONG RIVER BASIN

In 1995, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Vietnam signed an agreement on Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong

River Basin. This agreement acknowledges the life-sustaining links that transcend the boundaries between the countries’ tributaries of the

Mekong River, and that the future management of the Mekong river basin has to consider these important transnational issues and address

them in a cooperation framework. China and Myanmar, also sharing Mekong waters, have so far declined to join the agreement. The

Mekong River Commission (MRC) coordinates and promotes the sustainable management of the river basin and its resources to avoid

potential conflicts that are likely to arise with increasing water and food needs.

In 1998, the MRC established the contribution of each country to the average river flow as follows: Cambodia 19%; China 16%; Lao PDR 35%;

Myanmar 2%; Thailand 17%; and Vietnam 11%. With the establishment of the percentage contribution, the MRC started advocating the

need for national natural resources policies, which would reflect the implications of a shared vision of the objectives for water management

and regional cooperation, and an institutional framework to strengthen the knowledge base, hydrological modeling, benchmark survey,

and community awareness and participation in river basin management.

Source: Adapted from Project for Management of the Freshwater Capture Fisheries of Cambodia.


01234567

Bassac Mekong -Upper

Reaches

Mekong -Lower

Reaches

Tonle Sap

DO Standard Value (lower bound)

OVERVIEW

Domestic sewage, industrial effluents, agriculturalrunoff, and untreated solid waste are pollutingsurface and groundwater in Cambodia. In addition,improper storage of chemicals and fertilizers and

violations of regulations to protect sanitary zones furtherexacerbate the problem.

As of 2000, 29.4% of total population had access to safe water(53% of urban and 25% of rural population); 17.6% tosanitation facilities (58% of urban and 10% of ruralpopulation).3

WATER QUALITY

In 2001, a water quality survey conducted by theDepartment of Environmental Pollution Control of the MoEreported that water quality is declining, especially in thelower reaches of the Bassac, Mekong, and Tonle Sap rivers,owing to the concentration of economic activity around thenation’s capital.

The annual average level of dissolved oxygen (DO) in theBassac, the upper and lower reaches of the Mekong, andthe Tonle Sap rivers was better (higher) than the standardlevels. Concentration of biological oxygen demand (BOD)consistently exceeded the standard lower bound value forwater quality standard; overall BOD concentrations,however, remained below the upper bound of the waterquality standard.4 Increasing concentrations of total coliformbacteria (TCB) represent a significant health risk. Between

April and July, the standard was often exceed by a factor ofat least 2 (Ministry of Environment of Cambodia—Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Water andSoil Management Office, 2002).

In addition to increased levels of agricultural herbicides,fertilizers, and pesticides, sedimentation, resulting fromland clearing for agricultural purposes (both large-scalecommercial plantation and small-scale subsistence farming)is contributing to the overall decrease in water quality.

The expansion of marine-based activities, especially oil/gasexploration, shipping, and hotel business, represents anincreasing threat to coastal water quality. Important touristsites, such as Sihanoukville, report TCB levels over thestandards for swimming.

The quantity and quality of groundwater have also beenadversely affected by pollution; increasing groundwater usehas led to pollution from domestic sewage, factory waste,and agricultural chemicals.

SANITATION

Throughout the country, sewerage coverage is limited and/or no longer functioning (Asia Development Bank, 2000),with Phnom Penh covered for only about 10%. Noinvestments solely dedicated to upgrade and/or expand theexisting sewage network have been made over the past 10years.

The lack of appropriate sewage treatment becomes evidentduring the dry season, when untreated sewage is directly

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Source: Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Ministry of Environment, 2002.

Source: Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Ministry of Environment, 2002.

0

2

4

6

8

Bassac Mekong -Upper

Reaches

Mekong -Lower

Reaches

Tonle Sap

BOD Standard Value (lower bound)

DO Annual Average 1999–2001

BOD Annual Average 1999–2001

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discharged into the rivers. In addition, during the wetseason, a mixture of sewage and stormwater backs up intohouses in low-lying areas, posing a significant health threat.The cost of connecting private houses to the seweragesystem is high; this prevents the poor from connecting theirhouses’ sewers to the public system, and is resulting inhuman waste being discharged indiscriminately nearresidential areas, tensions between neighbors, andhazardous health conditions. Under such circumstances,diarrhea and cholera have become endemic in the country.In 1998, some 1,200 cases of both diseases were registered,with 66 of them resulting in death. In 1999, a choleraoutbreak in the province of Rottanankiri claimed 56 lives ofthe 874 people infected (Ministry of Environment ofCambodia—Department of Environmental PollutionControl, Water and Soil Management Office, 2002).

In addition, continuing migration to urban centers andunplanned settlement outside the main levee of Phnom Penhare increasing pressure on the existing wastewaterinfrastructure and the system of natural drainage, whichhas served as the traditional environmental safeguardagainst floods until now. Sections of flood protection sleevesin fact have been occupied by squatters, many of themmigrants; land over natural drainage paths and canals isrestricting water flows and creating sanitation problems

INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION

The industrial sector has been identified as one of thepriority areas deputed to support the socioeconomicdevelopment of the country.

As a result of the accelerating pace of industrialdevelopment, since 1996, factories throughout Cambodiaare required to have a wastewater discharge permit thatcertifies that the pollution levels of their effluent dischargesare within the limits stated by the Effluent Ambient LevelStandards. Particular attention is currently given to thetextile, dyeing, manufacturing, and extractive industries,which are seen as the most problematic ones in terms ofimpact on water quality (Ministry of Environment ofCambodia—Department of Environmental PollutionControl, Water and Soil Management Office, 2002).

Gemstone mining, especially in the Northwestern provinces,has been identified as the main cause of the overall lowering

of water quality, increased turbidity and presence of silt andheavy metal in the Stung Sangker River (Ministry ofEnvironment of Cambodia—Department of EnvironmentalPollution Control, Water and Soil Management Office, 2002).

Cambodia is a signatory of the 1995 Agreement on theCooperation for the Sustainable Development of theMekong River Basin, together with Lao PDR, Thailand, andVietnam. Member countries agree to cooperate in all fieldsof sustainable development, utilization, management andconservation of the water and related resources of theMekong River Basin, such as navigation, flood control,fisheries, agriculture, hydropower, and environmentalprotection.

In 1996, the MoE set the Surface Water Quality Standardsand Wastewater Effluent Standards, and the requirementof a effluent discharge permit, to be issued by the MoE, forthe industrial sector. To date, however, only 11 factories outof 365 have complied with the discharge permitrequirements and thus received the permit. In 1999,Government passed the Sub-Decree on Water PollutionControl, whose enforcement, however, is still weak.

The MoE is also taking the necessary steps to addresspeople’s complaints against allegedly improper disposal ofliquid industrial waste. To date, several cases are beinginvestigated, and in eight cases, where the pollution levelswere above standards, violators have been fined for a totalamount of 3.5 million riel. In addition, in 2001, the MoE

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Washing along the water’s edge.


developed a national and local training program to updateand strengthen staff skills for water pollution preventionand abatement.

After the reestablishment of government control over thegem mining area around Pailin, Government has started anassessment of the environmental dimensions of the miningoperations in terms of modification of existing practices and

land rehabilitation, in addition to the analysis of revenueand employment potential of the mining areas. Governmentintends to use the findings of this assessment to strengthenthe environmental provisions of the current Law on MineralResources as well as to clarify the roles the MoE and Ministryof Industry, Mines and Energy should play in regulatingand supervising the mining industry.

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�

OVERVIEW

Waste generation has increased significantly overthe past five years; its dispersion to theenvironment is seen as a growing threat to thequality of water, air, and land, which is

compounded by the lack of environmentally sound wastedisposal and treatment facilities.

In 1999, an average of 650 tonnes of waste were generateddaily in the main urban centers across the country; PhnomPenh Municipality (PPM) alone generates some 465 tonnesper day, and it is projected to triple by 2010 (Ministry ofEnvironment of Cambodia—Department of EnvironmentalPollution Control, Water and Soil Management Office, 2002).Of the total solid waste generated in PPM, householdsaccount for 66%, and markets, restaurants, and hotelscombined account for 25%. Solid waste generation in SiemReap and Sihanoukville ranges between 17 and 15 tonnesper day (Ministry of Environment of Cambodia—Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Water andSoil Management Office, 2002).

Despite an increase in the total volume of waste generation,the amount of recyclable material, which was generally soldto neighboring countries, has shrunk significantly and/ordisappeared with the exception of very high-value materials(aluminum and other selected metals). The introduction ofexport duties on recyclable material has further reduced theprofitability of the existing market for recyclable waste, andis resulting in an increase in the amount of solid waste notproperly disposed.5

Local authorities are responsible for the collection of solidwaste; to improve this service, local authorities in severalurban centers across the country have started contracting itto small, private companies. In 1996, Phnom Penh citygovernment granted a 50-year franchise to Phnom PenhClearing to collect solid waste for a yearly fee. Neighborhoodleaders assist franchised companies and receive acommission on the user fees collected in theirneighborhoods.

The franchising scheme has led to some improvement insolid waste collection in Phnom Penh, as nearly 70% of allthe waste generated in the city is collected. This scheme,however, appears to be cost-effective for the city governmentbut not for the private companies,6 which tend to withdrawearly from the franchise agreement. As a result, the citygovernments of Siem Reap and Sihanoukville continue tomanage solid waste collection and disposal.

There are no special dump sites or other treatment facilitiesfor toxic and hazardous waste, and only a few hospitalshave onsite incinerators (Office of Solid and HazardousSubstance Management, 1999, 2001). Thus, toxic, hazardous,and hospital waste is burned at the open dump sites,together with solid waste. This practice is generatingincreasing concerns as it represents a health hazard andcould result in groundwater pollution and soilcontamination (Ministry of Environment of Cambodia—Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Water andSoil Management Office, 2002). The disposal of hazardouswaste, mostly industrial waste, is mostly a issue of concernin Phnom Penh, due to the 200 large-scale and 4,000 small-scale industries, mostly involved in food processing andtextile manufacturing, located in the PPM.

The overall level of service remains low due to a shortageof skilled staff, lack of appropriate equipment, andinefficient revenue generation. In addition, thetransportation of solid waste from temporary storage areasto the dump sites is not well organized and rather inefficient,as access to these areas is not easy for garbage trucks.

There have been cases of illegal smuggling of toxic andhazardous waste into the country; Government is concernedthat the lack of proper enforcement of existing regulations

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Source: Waste Management Program in Cambodia 2002-2006; Department of Environ-mental Pollution Control, Ministry of Environment; January 2002.

Residential66%

Hospital2%

Agriculture1%

Industry6%

Commerce25%

Solid Waste Generation by Sector


for the disposal of toxic and hazardous waste could makeCambodia a “preferred” illegal dumping ground for toxicand hazardous waste coming from foreign countries(Ministry of Environment of Cambodia—Department ofEnvironmental Pollution Control, Water and SoilManagement Office, 2002).

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Refuse from Ban Lung Central Market, Ratanakiri Province.

THE CHILDREN SCAVENGERS OF THESTUNG MEANCHEY DUMP

The garbage dump at Stung Meanchey, in Phnom Penh is a

favorite haunt for children scavengers. More than a hundred

children come to the dump site every day to sift the garbage to

find recycling material to be sold in the market. The majority of

the children work in the dump through the evening to midnight,

as the evening is when many garbage trucks arrive at Meanchey.

A good day at the dump can be worth up to 2,000 riel (0.52 US$);

however, children on average do not make more than 500–1000

riel (0.13–0.25 US$) per day. Generally, children scavengers come

from poor or broken families in the rural areas of the country

who have migrated to the slums of Phnom Penh. A few of these

children go to school in the afternoon; however, the majority of

them have dropped out of school completely because their

families cannot afford to pay the enrollment fees. Several local

NGOs have joined forces to organize an informal education

program to give these children have an opportunity to continue

their schooling, and also to provide drinking water supplies, first

aid care, and counseling for them and their families

In 2000, a two-year Japanese study confirmed serious levels of

dioxin (1,700 picograms; the WHO maximum allowed

concentration of dioxin in soil is 1,000 picograms) in the soil as

a result of garbage containing plastic being burned. In addition,

high levels of mercury, cesium, and cadmium have been found

in the metabolism of the children scavenging the dump. Dioxin

is unsafe to humans in any concdentration, regardless how small,

and heavy metals have detrimental effects on the nervous,

endocrine, and immune systems.

The Japanese government, in collaboration with the Ehime

University Center for Marine Environmental Studies (which

conducted the study), is lobbying for international support to

remove the dioxin-laced topsoil at the dump site, and urging

Government to devise a garbage separation and recycling

program to ensure that toxic wastes are properly handled and

disposed.

Source: Adapted from Phnom Penh Post, 2000.

The 1998–2002 NEAP identifies urban waste managementas one of the emerging environmental challenges forCambodia. The NEAP focuses on the problems relatedmainly to the collection, management, and disposal ofindustrial, domestic, and toxic and hazardous waste. TheNEAP’s action plan includes (i) the development of aneffective policy and regulatory framework on environmentaland sanitation standards for waste disposal andprivatization of waste collection and disposal and (ii) theimprovement of disposal of residential and commercial solidwaste to minimize adverse public health and environmentalimpacts.

In 1999, Government approved the Sub-Decree on SolidWaste Management, and in 2002, the Department ofEnvironmental Pollution Control of the MoE drafted theCambodia Waste Management Program for 2002–2006. Thisprogram is meant to help translate into action the NEAPand Sub-Decree on Solid Waste Management guidelines andrecommendations.

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POLICIES AND LAWS

Article 58 of the 1993 Constitution states that naturalresources are the property of the State, and that theircontrol, use, and management should be determinedby law. Article 59 emphasizes that the State should

protect the environment and prepare a plan for theprotection of natural resources.

Between 1993 and 1996, Government drafted and passedseveral key pieces of environmental legislation to establishthe legal framework to be able to translate into actionArticles 58 and 59 of the Constitution. The Law onEnvironmental Protection and Natural ResourcesManagement, the Royal Decree on the Creation andDesignation of Protected Areas, the Sub-Decree on theOrganization and Function of Ministry of Environment, andSub-Decree on Environmental Impact Assessment areconsidered the cornerstones of this framework.

In 1995, the MoE drafted the first NEAP for the 1998–2002period. The NEAP was designed to develop and implementguidelines to assist policy makers and the private and publicsectors to integrate environmental consideration intonational and local development policies, economic decision-making, and investment planning. The NEAP focuses onthe following priority themes: Forest Policy, Fisheries andFloodplain Agriculture in the Tonle Sap Region, CoastalFisheries Management, Biodiversity and Protected Areas,Energy Development and the Environment, and UrbanWaste Management.

The NEAP was prepared through an extensive consultativeand participatory process involving government and non-government stakeholders.

INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS

At the beginning of 1998, Cambodia acceded to theConventions on Wetlands of International Importance,Biodiversity, Climate Change, Marine Pollution and the Lawof the Sea. In addition, RGC is working toward fulfillingthe policy requirements to become a party to the Basel andDesertification Conventions and the Montreal Protocol.

INSTITUTIONS

The MoE was created in July 1993; since its inception, it hasdeveloped and strengthened a policy system and legal

framework to strengthen environmental protection andnatural resources conservation. Within the MoE, the GeneralTechnical Directorate is responsible for coordinating andmanaging the activities of the ministry’s line departments:Department of Planning and Legal Affairs, NatureConservation and Protection, Pollution Control, NaturalResources Assessment and Environmental DataManagement, Environmental Impact Assessment. Theprovincial environmental department and districtenvironmental offices are responsible for theimplementation and coordination of the MoE’s activities atthe local level. Currently, the MoE employs 1,301 staff. About428 (32.9%) employees work in MoE headquarters in PhnomPenh, while 873 (67.1%) are employed in the provincial anddistrict offices.

Overall, coordination among ministries and governmentagencies remains limited, with no systematic dialogue norformal communication or feedback on sectoral issues.Human and financial capacity is inadequate to performimplementation, monitoring, and enforcementresponsibilities properly. The continuing loss of professionalstaff to the private sector and bilateral and multilateraldonor agencies further exacerbates this problem.Environmental agencies at the local level are weak, and

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KEY ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

� Petroleum Regulation, 1991

� Creation and Designation of Protected Areas, 1993

� Annulment of the Existing Procedure for Timber Export,

1994

� Forestry Administration and Management, 1994

� Land Management of Urbanization and Construction,

1994

� Protection of Natural Areas, 1994

� Regulation of Industrial Solid and Liquid Waste

Management, 1994

� Environmental Impact Assessment, 1995–1997

� Environmental Protection and Natural Resource

Management, 1996

� Prohibition of Hunting and Catching of Wildlife Animals,

1996

� Land Law, 1992/2001

� Water Pollution Control, 1997


coordination with the national authorities on overall policydirection is done on an ad hoc basis.

The MoE shares some environmental and natural resourcesmanagement responsibilities with other branches ofGovernment such as the Ministry of Agriculture, the

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ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS

The citizens of Cambodia are becoming increasingly aware of the deteriorating environmental conditions in their country. However, the

knowledge and understanding of the root causes of the current environmental degradation are still limited, thus preventing the public

from playing a more active role in managing and protecting natural resources.

In 1993, with the financial and technical support of the UNDP, the Cambodian Government established the Inter-Ministerial Steering

Committee for Environmental Education (IMSCEE) to organize and coordinate environmental education programs for primary, secondary,

and monk schools. Since then, other international organizations have been providing direct and/or indirect assistance to Government

with environmental education and awareness-raising initiatives. Between 1994 and 1999, IMSCEE organized capacity-building workshops

and training seminars for teachers to strengthen and advance environmental education and awareness. In addition, IMSCEE began preparing

the first Manual for Environmental Education for Primary School Teachers, which was finally distributed in schools at the beginning of the

1998/1999 academic year.

The international donor community and international NGOs are concentrating their efforts to raise environmental awareness at the

grassroots and community levels through literacy and vocational skills training. Initiatives such as the FAO-supported education program

on Integrated Pest Management and the UNDP and UNESCO initiative promoting community-based environmental learning and activities

through the Buddhist wat communities in the country are ongoing success stories, whose replication is currently being considered by

Government.


Ministry of Water Resources Management, and the Ministryof Health.

BUDGET ALLOCATION

In 2001, Government allocated 4,800,000 riel (US$1,251,841.8)7; about 66.5% of the total budget allocation

Source: Strategic Plan, 2001–2003; Strategic Plan Office, Department of Planning and Legal Affairs, Ministry of Environment, RoyalGovernment of Cambodia, 2001.

MoE Budget for 2001 (Riel millions)

Budget expenditureBudget expenditure as

% of alloaction

Expense Classification Total

MoECentralOffice

MoEProvincial

/Municipal

Office

MoECentralOffice

MoEProvincial

/Municipal

OfficeTotal allocation 4,800 3,200 1,600 66.5 33.5Total expenses 4,800 3,200 1,600 - -Salary payment 1,220 670 550 20.94 34.37Outlay for running theadministration and smallrepairs

3,400 2,390 1,010 74.69 63.13

Outlay for social andcultural expenses

150 110 40 3.44 2.44

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(3,200,000,000 riel or US$ 834,561) went to MoEheadquarters and 33.5% (1,600,000,000 riel or US$ 417,280)to provincial and district offices. Government’s allocationis used to cover the administrative costs related to themanagement of the MoE’s offices at the national and locallevels.

The MoE contributes in kind (generally office space,electricity, and water charges) to the management andimplementation of environmental and natural resourcesmanagement projects financed by internationalorganizations and bilateral donors.

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Air quality standards: The level of pollutants prescribedby regulations that is not to be exceeded during a giventime in a defined area.

Biochemical oxygen demand: The amount of oxygenconsumed in the biological processes that break downorganic matter in water. The greater the BOD, thegreater the degree of organic pollution.

Biodiversity: Refers to the variety and variability amongliving organisms and the ecological complexes inwhich they occur. It encompasses different ecosystems,species, and genes.

Blue Agenda: Refers to all forms of aquatic and waterresources.

Brown Agenda: Describes the pollution caused byindustrial, urban, transport, and energy sources andtheir single or collective impacts and protectionmeasures.

Climate change: Used to imply a significant change fromone climatic condition to another. In some cases,“climate change” has been used synonymously withthe term “global warming”; scientists, however, tend touse the term in the wider sense to include naturalchanges in climate.

Dissolved oxygen: The oxygen freely available in water,vital to fish and other aquatic life and for the preven-tion of odors. DO levels are considered a most impor-tant indicator of a water body’s ability to supportdesirable aquatic life. Secondary and advanced wastetreatment are generally designed to ensure adequateDO in waste-receiving waters.

Drought: The naturally occurring phenomenon that existswhen precipitation has been significantly belownormal recorded levels, causing serious hydrologicalimbalances that adversely affect land resource produc-tion systems.

Effluent: Wastewater—treated or untreated—that flowsout of a treatment plant, sewer, or industrial outfall.Generally refers to wastes discharged into surfacewaters.

Endangered species: Animals, birds, fish, plants, or otherliving organisms threatened with extinction by anthro-pogenic (human-caused) or other natural changes intheir environment.

Green Agenda: Describes environmental impacts caused

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by agriculture, deforestation, land conversion, anddestruction of protected species.

Habitat: The place where a population (e.g., human,animal, plant, microorganism) lives and its sur-roundings, both living and non-living.

Hazardous waste: Byproducts of society that can posea substantial or potential hazard to human health orto the environment when improperly managed.

Landfill: Disposal site for non-hazardous solid wastesspread in layers, compacted to the smallest practicalvolume, and covered by material applied at the endof each operating day.

Nitrogen dioxide: The result of nitric oxide combiningwith oxygen in the atmosphere; major component ofphotochemical smog.

Pesticide: Substance or mixture thereof intended forpreventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating anypest. Also, any substance or mixture intended foruse as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant.

Pollutant: Generally, any substance introduced intothe environment that adversely affects the useful-ness of a resource or the health of humans, animals,or ecosystems.

Protected area: An area of land and/or sea especiallydedicated to the protection and maintenance ofbiological diversity, and of natural and associatedcultural resources, and managed through legal orother effective means.

Runoff: That part of precipitation, snowmelt, orirrigation water that runs off the land into streamsor other surface water. It can carry pollutants fromthe air and land into receiving waters.

Salinization/saline intrusion: The invasion of freshsurface or groundwater by saltwater.

Sewage: The waste and wastewater produced byresidential and commercial sources and dischargedinto sewers.

Soil erosion: The wearing away of land surface bywater, intensified by land-clearing practices relatedto farming, residential or industrial development,road building, or logging.

Solid waste: Non-liquid, non-soluble materialsranging from municipal garbage to industrialwastes that contain complex and sometimes hazard-

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ous substances. Solid wastes also include sewagesludge, agricultural refuse, demolition wastes, andmining residues.

Species: 1. A reproductively isolated aggregate of inter-breeding organisms having common attributes andusually designated by a common name. 2. An organismbelonging to such a category.

Sulfur dioxide: A heavy, pungent, colorless, gaseous airpollutant formed primarily by processes involvingfossil fuel combustion.

Total coliform bacteria: A collection of relatively harm-less microorganisms that live in large numbers in the

intestines of humans and warm- and cold-bloodedanimals. A specific subgroup of this collection is thefecal coliform bacteria, whose presence in aquaticenvironments indicates that the water has been con-taminated with the fecal material of man or otheranimals.

Water quality standards: Standards that prescribe the useof the water body and establish the water qualitycriteria that must be met to protect designated uses.

Source: Adapted from the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s Terms of theEnvironment, revised December 1997.


1. The total figure includes an estimated 43,000 to 100,000tonnes from ricefields fisheries.

2. In 1986, more than 400 fish and crustaceans speciesfrom 94 families had been identified in the EEZ;estimated annual maximum sustainable yield wasabout 20,000 tonnes.

3. Total population of Cambodia is 12,491,501; Urbanpopulation is 1,998,640 (=16 %t of total population);Rural population is 10,492862 (=84 % of total popula-tion).

4. The standard value for BOD is between 1 to 10 mg/l.The lower bound ranges from 1 to 2, while the upperbound from 8 to 10 mg/l.

5. IMF data indicate that in 1999, total revenue fromexport duties amounted to 16.5 billion riel (12.7 billion

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from timber, 2.6 billion from rubber, 1.2 from other); in2000, 15.9 billion riel (10.1 billion from timber, 4.0billion from rubber, 1.8 from other); in 2001, 10 billionriel (6 billion from timber, 2.1 billion from rubber, 1.9from other); and in 2002 (up to July) 6.8 billion riel (3.4billion from timber, 2.2 from rubber, 1.2 from other).Export revenues from recyclable material are includedin the “Other” sub-category, which overall has suffereda 35% decrease between 2000 and 2002.

6. There are no current data on the actual cost of wastedisposal and collection in Phnom Penh and other cities;in many developing countries it constitutes about 30%of municipal revenues.

7. US$ 1 = 3,834.35 Cambodia riel in 2001/2002.

��

Environmental Justice Foundation.

Global Witness. 2002. Deforestation without Limits. London.

International Commission to Ban Landmines. 2002.Landmine Monitor Report. Washington, DC.

MacKinnon, John (ed.). 1997. Protected Areas SystemsReview of the Indo-Malayan Realm. Canterbury, UnitedKingdom: World Bank.

McKenney, B., and Prom Tola. Forthcoming. NaturalResources and Rural Livelihoods in Cambodia: A BaselineAssessment. Cambodia Development Research Institute.

Ministry of Environment of Cambodia. 2002. WasteManagement Program in Cambodia 2002–2006. PhnomPenh.

Morton, Neil. 1999. Agrochemical Usage in East Asia(World Bank, unpublished).

National Environmental Action Plan. 1998. Cambodia:National Environmental Action Plan 1998–2002. NEAPSecretariat, Ministry of Environment.

National Institute of Statistics. 1999.

Nesbitt, H. (ed.). 1998. Rice Production in Cambodia.Manila, Philippines: International Rice ResearchInstitute.

NGO Statement to 2001 Consultative Group Meeting.

O’Brien, Noelle (ed.). 1999. Concepts and Issues: A Focus onCambodia. UNDP/ETAP Reference Guide Book.

Office of Solid and Hazardous Substance Management.1999, 2001. Annual reports. Phnom Penh.

Olesen. 2001. Management Trends and Related Conflicts inthe Cambodian Fishing Lot System.

Oxfam. 1998.

Asia Development Bank. 2002. Environment in Transition.Manila.

Bann, Camille. 1997. An Economic Analysis of Tropical landuse Options, Ratakiri Province, Cambodia. Ottawa,Canada: Economic and Environment Program forSoutheast Asia, International Development ResearchCentre.

Boreak, Sik. 2002. Land Ownership, Sales and Concentrationin Cambodia. Working Paper 16. Cambodia Develop-ment Resource Institute.

Burgess, Sarah. 2002. An Overview of Wood Energy Develop-ment in Cambodia and Appropriate Policy Options. FAORegional Wood Energy Development Program in Asia.

Cambodia Center for Study and Development in Agricul-ture. 2000. Pesticide Market in Cambodia.

Cambodia Center for Study and Development in Agricul-ture. 2001. The Situation of Pesticide Use in the Tonle SapCatchment.

Cambodia Statistical Yearbook, 2000. Phnom Penh: NationalInstitute of Statistics.

Department of Forest and Wildlife. 1997. Forest ResourceAssessment in Cambodia. Forest Report: 1-18. PhnomPenh.

Desbarats, Jacqueline, and Sik Boreak. 2000. People andLand in Rural Cambodia. Cambodia DevelopmentResource Institute, Cambodia Development Review. Vol. 4,Issue 3 (September).

Environmental Justice Foundation. 2002. Death in SmallDoses: Cambodia’s Pesticides Problems and Solutions.London.

FAOSTAT Database. 2001.

Fisheries Action Coalition Team. 2001. Feast or Famine?Solutions to Cambodia’s Fisheries Conflicts. London:

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Phat Nophea Kim, Yuji Uozumi, Tatsuhito Ueki, andWayne Drury. 1998. Analysis of the Demand forCambodia’s Forest Products. Proceedings of InternationalSymposium on Global Concerns for Forest Resource Utiliza-tion, October 5–8, SEAGAIA, Miyazaki, Japan.

Project for Management of the Freshwater Capture Fisheries ofCambodia. Phnom Penh: Mekong River Commission/Danish Agency for Development Assistance, 1999/2000.

Sovannarith, So, Chan Sophal, and Sarthi Acharya. 2001.An Assessment of Land Tenure in Rural Cambodia.Cambodia Development Resource Institute, CambodiaDevelopment Review, Vol. 5, Issue 4 (October–Decem-ber).

World Bank. 2002. The Little Green Data Book, WorldDevelopment Indicators. Washington, DC.

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Location: Southeastern Asia between Thailand, Vietnam, and

Laos

Land Boundaries

Total: 2,572 km

Border countries: Laos 541 km, Thailand 803 km, Vietnam 1,228

km 8,161.9 Km

Total Area: 181,040 sq km

Land 176,520 sq km

Water 4,520 sq km

Land Use:

arable land: 13%

permanent pastures: 11%

forests and woodland: 66% (1993 est.)

Irrigated land: 920 sq km (1993 est.)

Mineral Resources:

timber, gemstones, some iron ore, manganese, phosphates,

hydropower potential

Climate: tropical; monsoon season (May to November); dry

season (December to April);

National Capital: Phom Pehn

Administrative Divisions: 20 provinces (khett) and 4

municipalities (krong)

Independence: 9 November 1953 (from France)

Currency: riel (KHR)

Fiscal year: January 1st – December 31st

GDP: US$ 16.1 billion (2000 est.)

GDP growth rate: 4 percent (2000 est.)

GDP Composition by Sector:

Agriculture: 43 percent

Industry: 20 percent

Services: 37 percent (1998 est.)

Industries: garments, tourism, rice milling, fishing, wood and

wood products, rubber, cement, gem mining, textiles

Agriculture Products: rice, rubber, corn, vegetables

Unemployment rate 2.8 % (1999 est.)

Inflation rate: 1.6 percent (1999)

Economic Aid Recipient: $548 million (2001 est.)

Exports: Total Value: $942 million (f.o.b., 2000)

Exports Partners: Vietnam 18%, Thailand 15%, US 10%,

Singapore 8%, China 5% (1997 est.)

Imports: Total Value: $1.3 billion (c.i.f., 2000)

Import Partners: Thailand 16%, Vietnam 9%, Japan 7%, Hong

Kong 5% (1997 est)

GEOGRAPHY ECONOMY

SOCIETY

Population, mid-year: 12,491,501 (July 2001 est.)

Population Growth Rate: 2.25 % (2001 est.)

Poverty (percent below poverty line): 36 (1997 est.)

Birth Rate: 33.16 births/1,000 population (2001 est.)

Death Rate: 10.65 deaths/1,000 population (2001 est.)

Infant Mortality Rate: 65.41 deaths/1,000 live births (2001 est.)

Life Expectancy at birth: 56.82 years (total population)

Access to Safe Water: 13% of total population

Literacy (at age 15) Total population: 35%

The World Bank1818 H Street, NW

Washington, D.C. 20433 U.S.A.

Tel: 202-477-1234

Fax: 202-477-6391

Telex: MCI 64145 WORLDBANK

MCI 248423 WORLDBANK

Internet: http://worldbank.org

The World Bank

Phnom Penh Office113 Norodom Boulevard

Phnom Penh, Cambodia

Tel: (855-23) 213-538

Fax: (855-23) 210373

Internet: http://www.worldbank.org/kh

Ministry of EnvironmentRoyal Government of CambodiaNo. 48 Phreah Sihanouk

Tonle Bassac, Chamkarmon

Phnom Penh, Cambodia

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