Env Quality Mgmt

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UNIT 8 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITYMANAGEMENT

Structure

IntroductionObjectivesStudy Guide

Concept of Environmental QualityQuality Parameters, Standards, and MeasurementAirWaterSoil/ LandNoiseRadiation

Environmental Quality ManagementEnvironmental Management PlanningEnvironmental Impact AssessmentEnvironmental AuditingLife Cycle Assessment and Management

Quality Assurance and ControlI S 0 14000 StandardsEnvironmental Labelling

ActivitiesLet Us Sum UpFurther Reading and Web-Surfing

8.1 INTRODUCTION

'Quality' is the essence ofa11environment for healthy and happy living, andthis is both the theme and motto of this unit. As you know the environment hasseveral c&nponents that are interlinked in a complex manner. Each componenthas a large number of parameters; the change in any one of them swings thequality of environment either way. The quality of the total environment canoilly be understood and appreciated ifwe understand about the importance ofeach of the constituent components. Always remember, each componentis asimportantas the total environment.

The purpose of this unit, just as the whole course is to draw your attention tothe necessity of taking a holistic, and objective view about the various issuespertaining to the maintenancelenhancementof environmental quality, explorenewer ways for addressing the various quality related issues, and think of theways of your individuallcollectivecontributions to the cause. We hope, aftercompletion of your study, you would not only be fairly well informed aboutthe basics, but would be sufficiently motivated to make your contributionsceaselessly towards the cause of building a quality environment.

Objectives

After going through this unit you should be able to:discuss the different parameters of environmental components thatdetermine environmental quality;

outline the standards, and quality measurement criteria of the different

52environmental components;


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Environment

Management Many ofus use words, t e r m a l ~ dphrases often, without really understanding themeaning. Let me define some of the words often used in the context of air-pollution.Dirtyair - Smog is the general term used to describe a variety of air pollutants,includillg ground-level ozone (this is smog's main ingredient), particulate matter,carbon ~nonoxidegas, nitrogen oxides. Stnog is fonned when the above mentionedgases from various sources listed earlier in this article are released into the atmospliericair, and there these che~nicallyreact with each other to fortn smog, which blockssui~light.Ocean breezes sweep the smog inland towards mountains wliere an inversionlayer ofwarm ail-pushes it down, trapping the smog close to the ground where we liveand breathe.

Particulate Matter (PM)-

This is th e term used for a mixture of solid particles andliquid droplets found in the air. It originates from a variety of soul-ces,including motorvehicles, power plants, construction activities, soil dust, soot , and industrial processes.

When inhaled, these fine particulate matters get into the innermost cavities of theI u ~ ~ g s .Over a period oftime, they reduce the power of breathing, which directly affects'the blood flow to the heart and through it to the rest of the body.Carbon mol~oxideThis is a colourless, odourless gas which is the by-productemitted primarily by motor vehicles. Burned wood also eniits carbon monoxicle. InIndia, one of the major source of polluting gases age: motel. vehicles, which arethrowing up un-burnt fuel as a result of adulteration, over-crowdi~~gat traffic junctions,use ofnon-roadworthy buses and trucks, and over use of oil in two wheelers andaut&ickshaws.While in the US, tho government and citizens' groups are undertaking many measuresto make the ear tl~a 'purer' place to live @, whereas in India, efforts are confined to anoccasional ruling form the Supreme Court. While the onus is on vehicle manufacturersto ensure reduced emissions, they in tun1 blame the oil colnpa~i iesfor supplyingadulterated and poor quality fuel.As industries trade accusations 011 one hand, we as consulners must remember that theyare laughing all the way to the bank and the costs that we are coughing up does notjustend with the huge amounts spent on purchasing a vehicle and ~.unningit, but on th evariety of health hazards we are exposing ourselves and our progeny to.

Air Outdoors

The parameters affecting ambient air quality are: i) air composi tion, ii)temperature, iii) pathogen load, and iv) noise.

i) Air composition

The atmosphere i s .comprised of a mixture of gases o c c u r r i ~ l gin definiteproportion. The atmosphere with this proportion is foun d to be life supporting,as all the life forms have evolved and thrived in their ambient atmosphere.Whenever there are any marked variations, particularly fo r long dura tions, thelife forms are variously affected- the effects being dependent on a number of

variables. We shall now discuss the major atmospheric componen ts, anychanges in which have a telling effect o n the living beings, The componentstaken up here include:

carbon dioxide;

carbon monoxide;

oxides of sulfur;


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EnvironmentManagement

Size of particulatesinmicrons -

MistswBacteriaM

Rain Virusesu#5 DU known as theDobson unit, is used formeasuring the ozone layer.It is measured with Dobsonspectrophotometer. OneDobson unit is equivalentto d.0mln of compressedgas at B pressure of760mm mercury at O'C. Theaverage thickness ofozonelayer is 300 DU, however,it varies with the latitude

and the season.

SmokesK ll

Fig. 8.1: The relative size ofcommon atmospheric particles; adapted from Sethi & Sethi,1991.

Ozone- In the atmospheric it is found in two layers- in the Troposphere and

the Stratosphere. Being a strong oxidant, ozone has a harmful effect on humanhealth and can reduce the crop yield and damage foresis. It is also acomponent of thephotochemicalsmog-which is a hazy mixture of gasesfrequently formed-in urban areas at low temperature. Its role in Stratosphere,where about 90%of the atmospheric ozone is present, is just the opposite ofthat in the Troposphere. In Stratosphere it acts as a shield of average 300" DUthat prevents the harmful ultraviolet radiations from reaching the earth.

It has been reported that the ozone concentration has dropped from 320DU in1957-64 to about 200 DU in the late 1990s over a portion of Antarctica. Thisthinning of ozone shield over Antarctica-is also referred to as the 'ozone hole'.From recent studies, it is found that the Antaictic springtime ozone hole is asbig as was reported earlier, that is, about twice the size of Europe. Even at theArctic, the ozone depletion continues to be severe. The estimated rate ofozone depletion is reported to be 1% per 10 years in other parts of the globe.However, in north'em Europe, the decrease is estimated to be 3.5% per 10years'during winter (CPCB, 1995). Even in India, variations have beenobserved with regard to locations and seasons. Kodaikanal has ozone layer Ithickness between 240- 280 DU, in New Delhi it is 230- 270 DU, and in I,Srinagar'it is 290- 360DU (CSE, 1992). ,

Nitiogen oxides-These are amongst the most toxic substances.formed in theatmosphere. Of these nitric oxide (NO) is a primary product of combustion ofnitrogen, which can further combine with oxygen to produce highly poisonousnitrogen dioxide (NOz). It is dark brown in colour and causes atn~ospheric Idiscoloration during smog days in metropolitan areas. Power plants, chemical

i

processing industries and vehicles emit NO 2 into the atmosphere, The gas isI

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deadly poisonoys and breathing air containing 20 ppm ofNOz for a brief timecould be fatal.

Various pollutants-Hydrocarbons, and lead#6are other pollutants, whosein increased concentratiol~schanges the atmospheric profile for the

worse. I-Iydrocarbons get mostly added to the atmosphere due to inco~npletecombustion of fuel-both in automobiles and industries. Ofthese methane is acolourless greenhouse gas, which is a dangerousasphyxiant. In addition,polychlorinatedaromatic hydrocarbons are highly toxic. Besideshydrocarbons, automobiles also add lead into the atmosphere due to use oftetraethyl lead as an antiknock agent. The lead halides produced are blown outwith exhaust as particulate aerosols.

ii) Temperature

Various life forms have evolved and developed adaptations for seasonal andaltitudinalvariations of temperature. But sudde11temperature fluctuations,mostly towards the higher temperature ranges are deleterious to living formsand their biological activities. Heat radiating from power plants and industriesaffect thequality of the nearby atmosphere.

iii) Pathogen laadThe air quality in and around hospitals, sanatoria, durnpsites, where organicwastes abound, and tlie degradingm d pathogenic microbes are abundant, isreferred to as bad or infectious.

iv) Noise

Noise from diverse sources, is also a pollutant that traverses through themedium of air. This topic has been dealt in detail in Subsection 8.3.4,

Air Indoors

Indoor air is often considered s d e and free from pollutants. But mostpeople have the greatest contact with toxic pollutants not outside but insidetheir homes and offices. The modern consumerpl-oductslike air fresheners,cleaning compounds, moth repellents, cigarettes, toilet disinfectants ordeodorizers are the most comnlon sources that laden the indoor air withtoxic pollutants without anyone even suspecting them or their potential.Further, daily routine chores expose people to many potentially harmfilinaterials like volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, benzene,ozone, pesticides, or dangerous particles (smaller than 2 . 5 ~in diameter),and radiation. Poor sanitation and ill ventilation enhances the build up ofthese pollutants, as the air exchange rates are very low. We shall nowpresent a quick run-through account about the various materials or practicesthat lower indoor air quality. So watch out for the main culprits of indoorair pollution in your indoor,

Does anyofie suspect the dry-cleaned clothes to be causing pollution? But theyare! They are laden with tetrachloroethylene that is known to cause cancer inrats. Moth repellents and toilet disinfectants contain a t~zicchemical-paradichlorobenzene that is also carcinogenic, Similwly, cloth washers,detergents containing bleaching agents are harmful too. Passing water througha good quality charcoal filter, or leaving it overnight can minimize the intake

EnvironmentalQualityManagemeutnh As vehicularpollution

control measures, unleadedpetrol Tor new vehicleshasbeen introduced initially infour metro cities from April1995; and leaded petrol hasbeen totally phased out inDelhi fiom September1998, and the entire countryfiom 1st ofFebruary, 2000.


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ofchloriae in drinking water taken from tap. The b a t l ~ o s m sand the laundryrooms should be well ventilated.

The kitchen is another potential source of foul indoor air. Poor sanitation,burning of dirty solid fuels such as coal, wood or biomass for cooking andheating in poorly ventilated houses are causes of indoor air pollution. One

study repoi-ts that women working in smoky and improperly ventilatedkitchens inhale carbon monoxide equivalent to that received from a pack ofcigarettes every day.

Another dist~rbingfeature is the presence of highly toxic pesticides in theindoor air. These harnlful chelnicals slowly creep indoors through the soil, orsornetinles are applied by people to ward off insects or termites, withoutrealizing that they are causing their own exposures. These chemicals whenpresent outdoors can break readily due to exposure to sunshine and weathering.

However, indoors these chemicals can last for yews in carpets or upholsterybecause they are protected from degradation. Presence af formaIdehydevapours in synthetic carpets, synthetic wood-particle board, plywood, and falseceiling materials is another cause of concern. Formaldehyde is a highly toxic

material and is known to be a mutagen.Another aspect of concern regarding indoor air is fine particles of the range of10 p or less indiameter. These are formed as the result of cooling, smoking,burning candles or firewood. These particles can keep on floating for days andweeks in air and are small enough to penetrate into lungs. House dust -oncarpets, floors, upholstery, curtains and other objects is highly toxic and isparticularly harmful for children who crawl over the floor, an d even put theirfingers in their mouths. Children are prone to more damage because theirbreathing rate is higher, their intake is higher, and have a small fraction ofbody weight as compared to that of an adult. The house dust has also beenfound to have toxic heavy metals like cadmium, lead, mercury, and manyothers. Most of these pollutants enter the house through shoes. Therefore, byusing doormats before entering the house can prevent many pollutants beingcarried inside the house.

Another common, yet unhealthy practice is the use ofinosquito repellants likecoils, mats, and so on, When these are burntheated, toxic chen~icalsandcarbon monoxide are released which can cause harm over prolongedexposure.

Radiation is another potential cause of indoor pollution. Radiation emanatefrom household appliances like microwave and infiared oven, especially ifthey are old and leaky, televisions, computers, and even electrical fittings.These radiations are particularlyharmful for eyes and reproductive organs.

Did reading about so many possible agents affecting indoors ai r quality alarmyou? If we make 'prevention is better than cure' our motto, the possibilitiesofharm can be better managed by making some alterations in life style and bytaking informed decisions to try reducing the pollutants to zero level. For this

we need to know the various air quality standards.


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Environrne~~tManagement

' Planktons aremicroscopic life forms,theseare eitherghytaplanktons belongingto the plant kingdom, orzooplankton belonging tothe animal kingdom.

i) Physical elmaracteristicsColour-Although pure or the drinking water is colourless, the water innatural sources like riversand oceans, appears blue, greenish, or muddy. Thevariant colour of water may be due to the presence of natural metallic ionssuch as iron and manganese, humus and peat materials,planktons'lO, weedsand industrial wastes.

Odour-Many a times the presence of certain substances (inadvertently) inwater results in its unpleasant odour. Sometimes, due to the blending oforganic and inorganic chemicals originating fiom municipal and industrialwaste discharges, the taste or odour of water changes accordingly. Th e odouraffects acceptability of drinking water.

Temperature-Changes in water temperature affect other p

r

operties of water.For instance, difference in water temperature affects dissolved oxygen, whichin turn alters the photosynthesis and metabolic rates of the aquatic life. Th esensitivity of many organisms to toxic wastes is also influenced by the degreeof change in water temperature. Most aquatic life forms need specifictemperature ranges to thrive, and they die if this range exceeds or recedes.Abrupt changes in temperatureca n be noticed in the rivers wherein water fiomcooling towers, boilers, and process wastes are discharged, consequentlyaffecting the aquatic life that it harbours.

Turbidity-Turbidity refers to the relative clarity of water. It is caused bysuspended matter such as clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter,coloured but soluble organic compounds, planktons and other life fonns. Thepenetration of sunlight is reduced considerably in turbid water, which reducesthe photosynthetic activity of life, and consequently their growlh anddevelopment. Lower productivity of plants that occupy the beginning point inthe food chain has a direct bearing on other small and large animals down thefood chain. They may suffer growth retardation or even death in extremesituations. Another repercussion of turbidity can be seen on the fishes. If thereis large amount of suspended silt or organic matter in water, their gills often getclogged by them and they die.

Foam or ftoth - It is formed as a result of suspension or dispel-sion of gas or airbubbles in water. Many natural compounds, synthetic detergents, andindustrial wastes cause foam. It can be hazardous as it can carry suspendedsolids including pathogenic bacteria.

Radioactivity-Radioactive substances near water bodies cause radioactive

pollution. This is a peculiar kind of pollution, as it can neither be seen nortasted or smelt, but is detected by specific instiurnenis,or their presence onlycomes to be known because of a number of health related problems.

Iii) Chemical characteristics IpH-The pH of pure water is 7, and in healthy rivers it varies between 6.5 -8.5. In the catchment areas, the type of geography, i.e., the rocks and minerals Idetermine the pH of water. i'he pH of rainwater is slightly acidic, and a imention of acid rain due to atmospheric pollutants has also been made earlier ,(see 'Oxides ofsulfbr', in 'Air Outdoors').

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Alkalinity- It is usually due to the presence of bicarbonates, carbonates, and EnvironmentalQualityhydroxide compounds of calcium, magnesium,sodium, and potassium. ManagementBorates, phosphates and silicates also contribute to alkalinity of water. IDissolved oxygen (DO)-Oxygen gets dissolved in water due to turbule~iceofwaves. Most aquatic plants and animals get their oxygen from the oxygenthusdissolved in water. Rivers having a DO of4mg/l or more are considered to behealthy and such waters supporl many kinds of life forms. Slow moving orstagnant water usually consists of low concentration of dissolved oxygen.Factors like climate, weather, and ambient temperature affect the DO levels inany of the water source. During the day oxygen level is maximum at noon dueto photosynthesis by aquatic plants and it falls to minimum at night. Thedischarge of sewage, industrial efflueilts, and decaying plants and animalslower the DO value of water, as oxygen is consumed by microorganisinsduring the breakdown of organic matter. DO is thus an important parameter toassess quality of raw water and keep a check on pollution of water bodies.

Hardness-Hardness of water refers to the capacity of water to give lather withsoap. It is mainly due to calcium and magnesium ions. Such waters cause scalefarmation in boilers and are not considered suitable for laundry and domesticpurposes, as they consume large amount of soap.

Chloride-Natural waters generally contain chloride ions due to dissolution ofsalt deposits, discharge ofeflluents from industries, irrigation dr.ainage andseawater intrusion in coastal regions.

Fluoride-This may occur naturally in water. Fluoride concentration of about1.0 mg/l in water effectively reduces dental caries without harmful effects onhealth. However, if the level exceeds the recommended limits fluorosis mayoccur.Nitrogen content-Nitrogen in waste water occurs in various forms such asnitrite, ammonia, and organic nitrogen. Sewage contaminationand fertilizerrunoff water from crop fields are the main sources of nitrogen contamination.The desirable limit of drinking water. standard for nitrate (NOs)is 45 mg/l.Excessive intake of water with highernitrate content leads tomethaemaglobinaemia disease in children, also knownas the 'blue baby'disease. Ammonia in water is present due to decayingplants, sewage, andindustrial discharge and fertilizers containing ammonia. It is toxic lo fish andplants.

Total iron-Iron concentration is generally low in surfitce wa ta, but itsconcentrationcan increase due to effluent dischargefromiron and steelindustries. High amount of iron in water givesa reddishand turbid appearanceand is harmful to aquatic system,Residual chlorine-Since ch1orination.i~a widely employed method ofdisinfection, the presence of some amount of chlorine is common in potablewaters. It may also be present in some surfacewaters where chlorinatedindustrial effluent or sewerage wastes are discharged

Total solids (TS)-These are thesumtotal ofsolids whether in suspended form(TSS) or the ones that settle at the bottom of,t@ewater body after floating for

..


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Table 8.2: Primary water quality criteria for designated-best-use-classes; source : Environmental Quality

CPCB, 2002. Management

" 'Soil is the upper portionof earth's crust ranging inthickness from afilmtosoil'" is a unique, and a complex medium that supports an amazing and three meters or more. ~tis

diverse variety of life, including the human civilization. Soils being a subset of composed ofminerals, air,land'12, these two terms are used interchangeably here. water, organic matter andvarious kinds of living

Criteria

1 . Total Coliforms Organisms MPN1100mlshall be 50 or less

2. pH between 6.5 an d 8.53. Dissolved oxygen 6 mg/L or more4. Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days2 0 ' ~ mg/l or less1. Total Coliforin Organisms MPN11001nl

shall be 500 or less

2. pH between 6.5 and 8.53. Dissolved oxygen 51ngIlor more4. Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days2 0 ' ~ mg/l or lesspp1. Total Coliforms Organisms MPN1100ml

shall be 5000 or less2. pH between 6 and 9.3 . Dissolved oxygen 4 m d l or more4. Biocheinical Oxygen Demand 5 days2 0 ' ~ 1ngIlor less1. pH between 6.5 and 8.52. Dissolved oxygen 41ngIl or more3 . Free Ammonia (as N) 1.2 mg/l or less1. pHbetween 6.0 and 8.5

2 . Electrical conductivity at 25'C micromhos/cm Max 22503. Sodiurn absorption ratio max. 264. Boron inax. 2 mgll

S.No.1.

2.

organisms. It providesLand is used by man in multiple, and overlapping ways, the most essential ones mechanicalanchorage tobeing for food production, supporting water resources (including irrigation plants, besides being achannels), and forests as pastures and grasslands, settlements, for industrial and reservoir of water andcommercial purposes, and in transportation. Land use usually depends upon plant nutrients.

the type of soil in an area, e.g., loamy soils support agricultural activities, "'Land is the fundamentalwhereas areas, which are sandy and rocky, are used for other purposes. Before basis of most of the humantaking up the major parameters of soil quality, your attention is drawn to two or natural activities, and is

points. One, specific soil quality parameters are considered for particular use, one of the major naturale.g., a soil with loamy texture, good aeration, and high humus and moisture resources on this planet,Primary production of

content is fit for agricultural purposes. Two, the 'quality ofsoil' is relative. A mineral and agriculturalgood quality soil for making road may be a poor quality soil for growing crops. products depends entirelyHaving said that, we shall now discuss the main properties of soil that are taken on the avaihbility and useinto account for determining the quality of soil at A given place. of suitable land.

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Designated-best-use

Drinking water sourcewithout conventionaltreatment but afterdisinfection

Outdoor bat l~ing(organized)

Class

of water

A

B

3

4

5

D1.inlting water source afterconventional treatment anddisinfection

Propagation ofwildlifean d fisheries

Irrigation, industrial

cooling, c o ~ ~ t r o l l e dwastedisposal

C

D

E


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I Environment i) Soil particle sizeManagement

Table 8.3: Size ofdifferenttypes ofsoilparticles.

I

Type of SizeSoil Particle (diameter

in mm )Clay (colloids) 0.002Silt . 0.002-0.02Fine sand 0.02

-0.2

Coarse sand 0.20-2.0

Stone and gravel 2.0 andabove

Soil is made up of particles of varying sizes, mixed in different proportions.Based on diameter, the soil particles have been classified as clay, silt, fine sand,coarse sand, and gravel (see Table8.3).

ii) Soil Texture and Structure

Depending on the relative proportion of soil particles of different sizes, twelvetextural classes are recognized, and these are:

clay,silty-clay,

clay-loam,silty-clay-loam,loam,silty-loam,

silt,

sandy-loam,sandy-clay-loam,

loamy-sand,sand, and

sandy-clay.

A soil is said to be heavy if it contains more of clay and silt. It is difficult todraw agricultural inlplements through such soils. On the other hand, soil shaving higher proportion of sand and gravel are termed as light, as agriculturalimplements can be easily drawn through them.

Arrangement of soil particles into aggregates refers to as soil s tructure. Thecommon structural types are: granular, crumb, platy, blocky, subangular,prismatic, and columnar.

'

iii) Soil moisture

Fig. 8.2: Schematicrepresentation of aclay or humusparticle withhydrogen ions andmineral ionsattracted by .negative charges atits surface.

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Moisture or water in soil occurs in different forms. Gravitational water seepsthrough the soil under the influence of gravity, and is not available t o plants.Capillary wateris held in the soil pores and is utilized by the plants and othersoil organisms. Hygroscopic waterrefers to the small amount o f water that i stightly held on the surface of soil colloids, and thus remains unavailable toplants.

iv) Aeration

This is an. important property, which influences the availability o f gases. Thegrowth of plants, particularly their roots is adversely affected in poorly aeratedsoils. Poor soil aeration retards absorption of water and autrients by roots andleads to the build up of toxic substances in the soil.

v) Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

It refers to the exchangeable cation sites (Fig. 8.2) per unit weight of dry soil. Itis measured in centimoles of cations per kilogram of dry soil (cmole/Kg). It isby this property of soil that nutrients such as Ca, Mg, K, Na, Cu, Mn, Zn, and ,NH4 that are present in the soil are made available to the plants and otherorganisms of the soil. These exchangeable sites are present on the soil colloids


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which includes humus and clay particles. The release of a particular nutrient in Environmental Qualitythe soil depends on a number of factors such as the cation exchange site(s) Managementoccupied by a given cation, the influence of associated ions; the tenacity withwhich the colloid micelle holds the cation; and the soil pH. A cation exchangereaction is de icted in Fig. 8.3. The cation exchange sites adsorb many metals,Pce.g., cd2+,Zn , ~ i ~ + ,and pb2+ rom waste waters. Adsorption in this mannerrenloves most ofthem from the percolation water that drains into ground wateror surface waters. These sites also hold theK+and N H ~ +ions from thefertilizers applied to the soil.

I

Fig. 8.3: Depictionofcation exchange in a colloidal micellc.

vi) Soil biota

Diverse lcinds ofliving organisms inhabit soil. A large number of themcontribute i ~ n ~ n e n s e l yin soil fertility in different ways. Soil microbes carry outdecomposition of organic matter, help in nutrient cycling, produce growthsubstances, an d participate in nitrogen fixation. Soil biota, particularly theearthworms improve aeration, and the various life forms in and on the soilcontribute organic matter through their death and decay.After having discussed about the parameters determining the quality of soil, we

shall now talce up in brief the conlmon instances of lowering of the soil quality,also referred to as soil degradation.

Soil Degradation

Populatio~l rowth, rapid urbanization, industrializsltionand variousdevelop~lle~ltalactivities have contributed directly or indirectly in affecting thequality of this very slow generating, precious natural resource. Not only thedemand for land area for various human activities is increasing by the day, thisresource is also not spared of abuse. All kind of solid wastes- domestic,industrial, agricultural, construction, engineering, commercial, and biomedicalwastes find land particularly the soil as their ultimate destination. It is true fortlie municipal wastes. Would you like to quickly jot down the names of thestuff entering into the municipal wastes? You may use the margin space for thispurpose. Our list of the same includes -kitchen wastes including fruit andvegetable peels, and food leftovers, house sweepings, glass, paper, plastics,metals, rags, paclung materials (of gifts, medicines, and other articles). Haveyou ever thought where all these wastes end up? These are often dumped in thelow-lying areas or at the municipal solid waste disposal sites, which make thesesites extrenlely unhygienic and hazardous. This is one aspectoflowering thequality ofsoillland.The other aspect of solid degradation refers to any unnatural loss or alterationsin soil that make it less productive or usable than what it was before thechange. This includes reduction in soil humus due to non-replenishment of soilwith organic matter, salt-accumulation on the soil surface due t o irrigation, and


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Environment water logging- all these degrade the soil. Soil erosion often removes the soilManagement surface, which is the most fertile portion of any block of soil. In addition,

deposition of sediments like clays, sands, or rocky materials on good soil alsolowers the quality of that soil. Soil erosioil often results in the formation ofgullies and ravines, which inake the land unsuitable for agricultural production.Yet another dimension of soil degradation is anomalous building up ofconcentration of certain chemical elements in soil, particularly the toxic ones. ,

Some of the most toxic are mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), copper(Cu), nickel (Ni), and cobalt (Co). The first three are particularly toxic tohigher animals. The last three are more toxic to plants than animals and aretermed as phytotoxic. From the standpoint ofpotei~tialhazard to human health,an extended list of"priority metals"has been established. This list consists of:

As, Hg , Sb, Se, Cr, Tl, Pb, Be, Ni, Cd, Ag, Cu, Zn.Another critical aspect of1andJsoildegradation is loss of biodiversity. Land-cover change has led to, and is still leading to, significant losses in speciesnumbers and varieties worldwide. Ecosystem structure and function, long-termecological processes, and genetic diversity we also at the risk of biodiversityloss. Land-cover change has also an important influence on water and energybalance.

Standards and guidelines

Some of the guidelines relevant for tlie quality ofsoil/land are listed below.Their details can be accessed from the Ministry of Environment and Forestswebsite - http://envfor.nic.in/e Siting Guidelines for Industries

e Ei~vironmentalGuidelines for Industriese Guidelines for Clearance of Forest based industriesltradee Hazardous waste management guidelines

To ascertain the quality ofsoil/land, itis desirable that the main properties ofsoil to be testedmonthly, metal levels periodically, and soil texture annually.

8.3.4 NoiseThe term 'noise' refers to the 'unwanted sound' in the atmosphere, and theterm sound is usually used for pleasing to easily tolerable sound. Sometimes asound may bepleasant for some and nuisance to others. For example, musicmay be considered as pleasing sound in most circumstances, but as noise when

it interferes with co~lversationor rest of other people.The intensity of sound is measured in decibels (db). T h i s is on a logarithmscale which means 50db sound would be ten times louder than 40db. Humanear is receptive or sensitive to an extremely wide range of intensity from 0 to180db;zero db being the threshold of hearing, whereas 140db marks thethreshold ofpain. You would be interested to know th e db value of variouskinds of sound, and these sye given in Table 8.4.

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Table 8.4: The db value ofsou~ldat different places. Source: Jerath, N. 1998. Emironmental QualityManagement

Noise at higher db values, and for longer period of time is also referred to asnoise pollution. This is an interesting form of pollution, in the sense it is neithervisible, nor it leaves any residues after the source of noise is switched off.

Very quiet place

Living room conversatiollCar, motorcycle, 11ouse11old machines

Jet planes at 300 m height

Truck horn

Rocket

The source of noise pollution is divided into two categories: (i) industrial and

20 db

40 db

70 db

100 d bI10 db180 db

commercial places --by running of machines and and as a result oflarge nuinbers of people conversing; and (ii) non-industrial sources- ncludeaircrafts, a~ltomobiles,trains, coilstruction works, radios, microphones,loudspeakers and household gadgets.

'Before we proceed f~u-ther,you could make a quick run-through of the Table, (8.5) given in the adjacent margin and see whether the various db values go Table 8.5: Noise pollution

with your perception. caused by householdgadgets (source

It is only in the recent years that the concern for noise pollution has beengrowing. A largely accepted view is that it is an offshoot of development.

Jerath,N.1998).

Depending upon th e noise level and duration of exposure, an individual's.hearing can either be impaired or lost completely and permanently leading todeafness: The damage occurs in the inner ear, and is neither reversible noramenable to medical treatment. A study indicates that in people who areexposed to lifetime of excessive noise, hearing damage appears to be maximumafter 10-15 years of exposure. Loud andcontilzuous noise also causes rapidbeating of heart, raises the cholesterol level resulting in perinanent constrictionof blood vessels causing high blood pressure and problems of blood circulationand even cardiac disturbances. Loud noise causes peptic ulcers, gastroiiltestinalproblems, allergy, nervousness in adults, whereas in children noise not onlycauses hearing problems but also neurological reactions that make the childirritable and hyperactive. This slows down the process of development ofchild's mental faculties.

It has been established that there is an increased incidence of birth defects,

stillbirths and unusually low weight among children born to mothers livingnear the airports. Also foetal development is affected i f the expectant wother issubject to continuous noise stress during pregnancy.

Noise creates communication disruption, frustration, and sleepiness. People innoisy environments easily get tired and become irritable, The number ofaccidents in noisy factories is higher than those in quiet ones. Many socialconflicts have been attributed to high noise levers, wlii~h-keep ndividt~zlsirritated, upset, imbalanced and fearful. At a more serious level, noise has

Air conditioner

Washing machine

Pressure cooker

Lawn mower

Flush toilet

Door slamming

61

61

65

75-80

76-80

70-90


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negative mental consequeilces such as suicidal and homicidal tendencies, andeven psychotic behaviour.

Standards and guidelines

Th e Central Pollution Control Board's recommended noise standards forambient air and for automobiles, domestic appliances and constructionequ ipments were notified i n Environment (Protection) Rules, 19 86 m d ar egiven below in Tables 8.6 - 8.8. The standards pertaining to the work zone areaare given i n Tables 8.9 and 8.10.

#I31 Note: Table 8.6: Noise standaids for ambient ailftI3.

1. Day time is reckonedin between 6 a.m.and 9 p.m.

2. Night time isreckoned in between9 p.m. and 6 a.m.

3. Silence Zone isreferred as areas upto 100 metersaround such premisesas hospitals,educationalinstitutionsand courts. TheSilence Zones are tobe declared by theCompetent

Authority. Use ofvehicular horns,loudspeakers andbursting ofcrackersshalI be banned inthese zones.

4. Mixed categoriesofareas should bedeclared as one ofthe four above-mentionedcategoriesby the CompetentAuthority and thecorrespondingstandards shall apply.

I Area Code 1 Category of Area I Limits in dB(A) I

Noi se standards for automobiles, domestic appliances and constructionequipments have been notified in Part 'E', Schedule-VI of Environment(Protection)Rules,1986, and were amended on 19th May,1993 . These aregiven in t he Tables 8.7 and 8.8 below.

:

Ai

B

C

D

Tables 8.7: Noise standards for automobiles.

[ C a t e g o r yof Vehicle Noise limit in 1

Industrial area

Colnrnercial areaResidential area

Silence zone

( (b) Passenger cars 1 82 I

Day time Night time

(a) Motorcycle, scooters and three-wheelers

I (c) Passenger or com~nercialvehicles up to 4 MT 1 85 1

75

6 5

55

50

dB(A)80

70

55

45

40

I ( e ) Passenger or comlnercial vehicles exceeding 12 MT I 91 It

(d) Passenger or co~ainercialvehicles above 4 MT and up to12MT

Tables 8.8: Noise standards for domestic appliances and construction equ ipm ent~.

89

(b ) Air coolers . I 60 1Ca;tegoryof Domestic Appliances/Construction

(c) Refrigerators 1

Noise limits .Equipments i n db (A) .(a) Window air collditionersof1 tonne to 1.5 tonnes 68 -

(d) Diesel generator for domestic purposes

(e) Compactors (rollers), Front-loaders, Co~icrete85-90

-7c

mixers, Cranes(movable),Vibratorsand Saws 1 3


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Code of practice for controlling noise Environmental QualityManagement

The Noise Pollution Control Committee also prescribed code of practice forcontrolling noise from sources other than industries and automobiles. Theseare given below.

Code of practice for controlling noise from sources other than industries

and automobiles

1. Public Address System

License must be obtained by all parties intending to use loudspeakers orpublic address system for any occasion.Public address system and loudspeakers should not be used at nightbetween 9 p.m. to 6 a.m, except in closed premises.

0 Loudspeakers should be directed at the audiences and not away fromaudience (i.e,, not towards the neighbourhood).Loudspeakers should not be allowed for advertisement and commercialactivities.The pernlitted strength of power amplifier should be just adequate tocover the audience, and noise level beyond the boundary limit of thenoise source premises should not be increased by more than 5 dB(A)above the ambient noise level.

2. Aircraft Operations

Aerodrome should be located away from the city and growth of the cityshould not be allowed to extend up to the Aerodrome.Aeroplanes should take off in direction radially away fi-om the city.During boarding and unboarding operations the should besufficiently away from the airport buildings.Night-time operations should be minimised.During maintenance and repairs of the aeroplane, workers should useearmuffs.Portable silencers should be used in the plane intake as well as exhaustduring idling period at the airport.

3. Railway Operations

Erection of acoustic barrier, reducing speed and avoiding whistlingwithin and along the municipal limits and habitation zones arerecommeiided for adoption to the extent possible.

4. Construction Activities

Acoustic barriers should be placed near construction sites.Th e maximum noise levels near the construction site should be limitedto 75 dB(A) Leq (5 min.) in industrial areas and to 65 dB(A) Leq (5min.) in other areas.There should be fencing around the construction site to prevent peoplecoming near the site.Materials need not be stockpiled and unused equipment to be placedbetween noisy operating equipments and other areas.Constructing temporary earth bund around the site using soil etc., whichnormally is hauled away from the construction site.*


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I . No exposure i n excessof'140 dB peak sound

pressure level ispermitted.

2. For any peak soundpressure level fallingin between any figureand the next higher orlower tigure asindicated in column I ,the permitted numberofimpulses or impactsper day is to bedetermined byextrapolatio~lon aproportionate basis.

#15 Notes:

1. No exposure in excessof115 dB(A) is to bepermitted.

2. For any period ofexposure falling inbetween any tigureand ttie next higher orlower tigul-easindicated in coluinnt ,the permissiblesound pressure level isto be determined byextrapolation on apl*oportionatebasis.

5. Burning ofCraclcersManufacture and sale of crackers having an i~npulsivenoise of morethan 90 dB at 5 meters distance from the site of bursting should bebanned.

. Manufacture and bursting ofjoined crackers should be banned.Bursting of crackers during night between 9 p.m. and 6 a.m. should bebanned.Bursting of crackers may be permitted only during public festivals.

Table 8.9: The permissible levels for noise exposure for work z one area have beenprescribed under the Model Rules oftheFactories Act 1948, as bc~ow' ' '~ .

Table 8.10: The permissible levels for noise exposure for work zone area"'".

-Peak sound pressure

level in dB

140

135

Permitted number of

impulses or impacts/day- 100

315

of short term exposures)per day, in hr

Total time of exposure(continuous or a number

8.3.5 Radiation

Sound pressure level in

dB(A)

Th e word 'radiation' is illvariably linked wit11 those em ana ting from aradioactive o r nuclear source (also see Box 8.3). It is rightly so, because fromtime to time one hears about news and issues pertaining to this area t h o u g h t hemedia. The above mentioned are not the only kinds of radiation. The benigndaylight is also a form of radiation. In addition, the inhared (IR), ultraviolet(UV), radio waves, X-rays and g a m i a rays are the radiation that we comeacross in our lives. Natural background terrestrial radiation is equallyimportant. One such case is presented inBox 8.4. , f


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EqvironmentManagement These people are estimated to be receving'a biologically effective Fadiatioh dbse 106mes greateq than the worldwide average.

Tlie effect s of sucli sustained expasurq to the high natural background radiatibn, andthat too ovagenkrat ions, have been the subject ofmucl?scientific interest.Many scientific studies have been conducted over tlie years, but nolie has yetu~iequivocallyestablished that sucli higli levels of background radiation are res ponsiblefor the Iiigher incidence of diseases such as cancer.Tlie latest study being publislied in the proceedjngs ofthe National Academy ofSciences, U.S., has looked at tlie DNA from mitochondria, the tiny energy fa cto rie swliich power the cells. :Unlike tlie long strands ofDNA making up the chrornoso~nes il tlie cell nucleus,~ni tocl lo~idr ialDNA are small and contain just a few genes.While the chromosomes are inherited from both parents, the mitrocliondrial DNA isprovided only by the' ~noftier'segg cell. By studying initocllo~ldrialDNA acrossge~~eratio'lis,it is possible to establish whether a mutation in the mother is being passed011 to her descendants.

The study foulid that those living in the higli radiation belt had Iliglier levels of" p o i n tmutation" in their mitochondria1 DNA than those living nearby in areas with a lowbackground radiation.

A "point mutation" happens when a single "base" (the genetic code is made up offourbases) along a DNA strand gets changed. Moreover, these point mutations were beinginherited by the succeeding generations.

But more point n~utationsdo not automatically translate into higher riskofdisease.Where the mutations occur is all important. Long stretches of DNA making up t h echroinosornes contain no genes and a point mutation here will have no impact."The question whether such point mutations also affect genes which are implicated, forexample, in cancer, needs to be explored in further genetic studies," Peter Porster ofthe Ulliversity ofCambridge, one of the authors of the study, told The Hindu.But the study's finding of greater inheritable DNA ~nuta t io~ i sassociated with exposureto higher radiation levels has important implications for radiologists, lie points ou t ,Radiation workers are allowed to receive up to 50 times tlie normal level ofradiation.

"Perhaps it would be sensible to rqconsi'der th6'lqgaIgzif liqits C,y W Q ~ & S ~ ~ - $$&~r&hMtive$ge," says Dr. Forster.4

The study also found that ttlk.~:qidtmut$tidds!ca~seedbyaai"atipn i n ~& $ . $ t p ~ f i d ~ d ~.. +.n$a& f $$b$a("iil &vkvo~~iiondtyt ihge: Radirlwq.;tbi$$&"ksk,i$=*a&ch&g~welve-fold.Possibly, radiation was indirectly increasing the cell's norilia1 mutation mectlanism,speculate the authors.

Characteristicsofradiation

We shall now consider the genericproperties ofradiation.I

i) Radiation in its various forms is present everywhere and at any point oftime. They have natural or cosmic origin, and are also produced due to

Ii


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several anthropogenic activities. Luckily, most of the incoming radiationthat could be liarinful to life are blocked by the atmospheric layers. It isonly the harnlfu1 radiation generated by various activities that are ourconcern here.

ii) These are neither visible nor is their effect felt immediately, except in lethaldoses. But their effect is cumulative in most life-foi~ns,that in humans inextreme cases is painful and even fatal.

iii) Once generated they persist in active form for decades.iv) They coiltaminate all the componeilts of the ecosystein- air, water, and soil

at the macrolevel. And at the microlevel they enter and traverse down thefood chain, and to the cells of organisms.

Generation and human exposureThe common sources, and ways whereby radiation are generated are discussedbelow.

i) Nuclear power plants - There are evidences to show that low levels ofradiation froill nuclear power plants enter their nearby environment. This isdespite all the cautions and all the inodern approaches in their siting, andoperational aspects. People who are unaware of the consequences/do nothave alterilatives, living closer to the nuclear power plants get longexposures to radiation.

ii) The other source ofradiation is occupational exposure, that is, tlie'radiation workers' choose to work in 'radiation environments' within thepermissible dose (also see Tables 8.11 and 8.12). And their radiation doseis moilitored on regular basis, e.g., as in the radiation sector of medicine;radioactive chemical processing plants such as for the extraction of

uranium; research establishments carrying out a wide variety ofinvestigatioils and using a broad and varying selection of nuclides indifferent cllemical forms. In addition, a number of other users such asresearch institutions, university research laboratories, and industry toolrandle fairly large quantities of materials, and have no elaborate wastetreatnleilt methods.

iii) Another potent, yet impoi-tantsource is the nuclear weapons, which somany nations have developed and piled-up to exhibit their might. Godforbid, if even a single one is ever targeted to any human population whatcould be the magnitude of their grief, can never be put in words. Theinstance ofHiroslima and Nagasaki are exemplars of the situation.

The nuclear plants also contribute in discharging radiation in the environmentthrough the radioact.ive effluents or wastes and by way of 'accidents' - chancesof which are described 'remote', but tlie outcome of Chernobyl disaster (alsosee Box 8.5) is still fresh in OL K mind.How radiation affect human health?

The release of radioactive inaterial into the environment may result insignificant exposure to man. The exposure modes are classified into twogroups. One, direct exposure- when the radiation source is outside the body,that is, immersion in contaminated air, submersion in contaminated water, andexposure to contaminated surface. Two, internal exposure-when the radiationsource gets inside the body, that is, by inhalation and ingestion.

Environmental QualityManagement


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Radiation have two kinds of effects on human body: i) somatic effects, and ii)genetic effects.

i) Somatic effects-Those radiation effects that manifest in the exposedindividual are known as somatic effects. A dose of 500-2000 rad of total60 body irradiation, results in death within about a week. Doses of 100-500rad can result i n damage and death, depending on the proportion of theindividual exposed. At the end of the latent period (after expos~u-e),theeffects become detectable. Some of the effects are destruction of bonemarrow, dermatitis, and sterility. Ifsmaller doses up to 10 0 rad arereceived over a long period of time, a variable response can be seen. Thereis variation of sensitivity with age, and the smaller doses spread over a

period of time has lesser effect than one large single dose. Estimates havebeen made ofthe.annua1 risk under continuous exposure to 1 radlyr or tothe lifetime risk from a single exposure of1 rad. The study projected thatthe total number of radiation induced leukemia would be about 20 cases permillion exposed to 1 rad. For those getting larger doses in a single go, as inthose exposed occupationally to ionizing radiation, the chances of reduced

life expectancy were high. Also see Tables 8.11 and 8.12.ii) Genetic effects -Radiation effects are said to be genetic, i f they affect the

descendents of the exposed individual. These show their effect in th e nextor may be the subsequent generation of the exposed individual. Therefore,these are difficult to assess. These cause damage to germ cells either by

causing lethal mutations resulting in premature death or reduced fertility,and non-lethal mutations that lead to an increased rate of genet ic disordersin the subsequent generations. Many of these mutations are recessive i ncharacter.

Box 8.5: A brief account ofChernobyl Disaster highlighting its fallout onthe quality of the atmosphere.

The Chernobyl Disaster and after; source: Green business, Wheatley, M. 1993...... ... ..........The nuclear industry has been saying for years that the odds of a seriousincident were so remote that they could effectively be discounted. There was, it wasalleged, only a fifty per cent chance of such an event once every 23,000 years.

"On April 26, 1986, two massive explosioilsrocked one ofthe four reactors in theChernobyl nuclear complex, eighty miles to the north of Kiev. Radioactivs:debrirg:sqi~ rLT i@y> # a " * < * " - *'V + +7,~~m;lj$*infb@$$, and it took ten days to bring the burning reactor core undercontrol. A pall of radiation drifted over Europe, tl~roughScandinavia and into Scotlandand Wales. Within two weeks, Geiger Counters throughout the northern hemispherewere ticking away registering the heightened levels of background radioactivity, evenas far as Washington and Tokyo.

Thirty-two died in the explosion and its immediate aftermath, most of them whilstheroically attempting to put out the fires whilst wearing little more than mackintoshesfor rotection. gG$@H$fgp@$18B$i,fijiGts$ti@[$z.@$~"8x~&;q4ih&B&@g@&ggtd@#$i.One US study has estimated that Chernobyl will eventually claim12,000 Soviet citizens and 21,000 Europeans through radiatfon-inducedcancers. Butthere is considerable uncertainty about figures like this: worldwide, as many as onemillion people may &entually fall victim. Even five years later, British sheep in certainparts ofthe UK were still being declared unfit for human consumption because of thelevels of radioactive dust on the moors and pasturelands on which they grazed". .......


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Table 8.11: Radiological dose limit for individuals#16.source: InternationalCommission on Radiological Protection, 1966.

Table 8.12: The permissible dose limits of radiation in radiation workers,introduced by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AEM) 19.Source: International Commission on Radiological Protection.

Organ or tissue

Gonads, red bone m arro wSkin, bone, thyroid

Hands and forearms; f eet

an d anklesOther single organs

Category

Radiation worker

M e m b e r o fpublic 1 O

8.4 ENVIRONMENTALQUALITYMANAGEMENT

Maximum permissible

doses for adults exposed intlie course of their work5 rem in a yea? l7

30 rem s in a year'I775 rems i n a year"'

15 relns in a year#17

So far you have read about the concepts, parameters, and st&ldards of variouselements of environmental quality. We now discuss about the tools availableand the actions required for managing environmental quality.

Dose limits for themembers of the

public

0.5 reln in a year3 rems in a year#I87.5 reins in a year

1 :5 rems in a year

8.4.1 Environmental Management Planning

A holistic environmental planning taking into account the existing socialrealities is crucial for environmental quality management. The ensuingdiscussion reflects the salient issues and concerns, to be considered andincorporated in the enviroimental management planning.Human population

As human population continues to increase on a regional and global level,careful planning has become even more important to ensure that iYemake wisedecisions coilcerning where we live, ho w we conserve and preserveeczosystems, and how we Eonstruct our urban environment.Sustainability

Sound environmental planning is central to sustainable development. Planning

decisions we make today and in the near future will greatly impact the qualityof environment we leave for OLW future generations. Concepts ofenvironmental impact analysis, mitigation of adverse environmental impact,and environmentally compatible land-use planning methods if made integralparts ofthe various projects and activities would bring in both the immediatebenefits and sustainability.Global perspective

The fact that we are becoming a global community, all our environmentalplanning therefore must have a global perspective. Developm entof


' Note:

' Subject to the limitationsgiven in the ICRP, 1966publication, up to one-half of theannual dose limit, or one-halfof the annual permissible dosecommitment, may beaccuinulated at any period of aquarter ofa year.

' 1.5 rems in a year the thyroidof children up to 16 years of age.

1. The above dose limits aregiven in the unit ofmilli-S i ev e~ tmSv).

2. Radiation worker means anyperson who is occupationallyexposed to radiation includingX-ray technicians working inhospitals.

3 . Members of public are thosewho get exposed to radiationdue to effluent releases fiomnuclear installations.

4. Radiation absorbed dose meansthe energy deposited byradiation in the human tissue.Its unit is Gray. It is equivalent

to absorption of1 Joule ofenergy in IK g of tissue or anyother medium.

5. Different radiation havedifferent effectiveness incausiilg damage to tissue. Thisis tenned as Radiationweighing factor (WR). ForX-ray and Gamma rays theRadiation weiglling factor isone.

6. Different tissues in humanbody have different sensitivityto radiation. This aspect isexpressed in terms of Tissue

weighing factor (W,).7. Effective dose = Absorbed

dose x WRx Wy .8. The unit of effective dose isSeivert.


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international environmental agreements despite the conflicting interests, isbecoming increasingly important, so are the continuing efforts in globalenvironmental forecasting,

Urbanization

In view ofthk large-scale migration toward cities and urban areas, ihese areasthus need more attention when it comes to environmental issues. One of ourmost pressing environmental needs is to ensure that our urban environments arecarefully planned to maximize human well-being and minimize effects ofnatural hazards and pollution of our life-sustaining environmental elementsnamely- air, water, and land.

Newer and emerging technologies

In the light of the residual damaging effects of Industrial Revolution on theenvironment, i t is important to use the newer and emerging technologies withutmost caution, and afterweighing their benefits vis-A-vis the environmentalcostsincurred by them.Values and knowledge

Since we value our environment both at local levels to global systems, it isessential to develop new and relevant knowledge, tools and technologies toassist in the environmental planning process. It is important that we know as towhere knowledge is lacking in the solving particular environmental problemsso that we might focus on those areas. Wemust also recognize that people'svalues with respect to resource-use and land-use are variable, resulting in .

periodic conflicts between those who wish to use the environment and thosewho wish to preserve it. Enviro~unentalmediation can help resolve conflictswhen values colli'de.

We hope that the aspects discussed above would continue to roll on as a part ofyour thought-process, and you could add and use many more dimensions to theones discussed above from your experiences.8.4.2 Environmental Impact Assessment

Many-a-times the results of the human-produced changes due to projects oractions are not totally beneficial, and they leave the surrounding environmentin a state that was neither wished for nor expected. Although the proposedproject or action has good intent and the potential to solve or address anidentified problem, but the resultant,ramificationscause degradation of theenvironment. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an analysis of

changes produced by a developmental activityor prbject or actioiz. Tliis is theunderlying priilciple and purpose of EIA.EIA Studies '

The EIA studies which arecarried out at the conceptual and planning phase ofany proposed developmental activity (see Box 8.6), project, or action consists of

. i4 literature research,4 field studies, and4 impact assessment.


28/50

The areas of study are: Environmental QualityManagement

land-use,

water-use,

SOC~O-economics,soil,

hydrology,

water quality,

meteorology,

air quality,

terrestrial and aquatic ecology, and

noise.

With the involvement of so many fields and disciplines of study, aninterdisciplinary approach and expertise is but necessary. A team of people indisciplines like Planning, Geography, Geology, Biology, Civil Engineering,Architecture, Law, Sociology, and Meteorology pool-in their knowledge andexperiences to consider the pros and cons of the proposed project, giverecommendations and suggest ways and means to make the project beneficialto both humans, and the environment. This analysis considers potentialconsequences, which are long-term and short-term; direct and indirect; primaryor secondary; individual and cumulative; and beneficial and adverse.

Box 8.6: A news report about an EIA study to be undertaken for aproposed project. Such EIA studies that involve substantial inputsboth of finances and time are carried out to understand the likelyimpacts o n the environment and the living species including thehuman population in that area.

Assessing marine threatSource: Down to Earth; May 15,2002; p.17.The Union Ministry of Shipping has asked the Nagpur-based National EngineeringE~lvi ron~nentResearch Institute (NEEN) to conduct a detailed Environmental ImpactAssessment (EIA) of the Sethusa~nudranship canal project in Tamil Nadu.The @$&$9p.id@ ~ d $ ~ d f $ ~ i i ; ~ $ s ; ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ @ ~and is to be@r$$@ga@mfio@R;$.The canal project involves the widening bfPsunban channel to facilitate themovement of coastal ships of the size of3,000 tonnes. The project runs through theGulfofMannar National Park and there has been opposition to the project that it willadversely impact the marine environment ofthe region.

Methodology ofEIA

There is no one methodology for assessing the environmental impact thatresults from a part icular action or project. No single method of impactassessment is appropriate for the broad spectrum of developmental projects andactivities, which range from construction of large reservoirs, highwayconstruction, laying out infrastructure for mass rapid transport system in a city,and so on. The main principle of any method is that it is objective, and istechnically and legally defensible (see also Box 8.7).


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lnvironmentManagement

Box 8.7: A news clip reporting the alterationsmade in the environmentalimpact assessment clearance procedure recently. It is importantto be aware of such changes. Not only this, it is also expected fromthe enlightened citizens to bring to the notice of the concernedauthorities the oversights, ifany, or any constructive comments orsuggestions.

- - - --Environment clearance being streamlined. Source: The Hindu, July 25, 2002.

The Union Environment Minister, T.R. Baalu, has said that his ministry had takenseveralPblicy ifiitiatiyes'to.$trem'1in&the pr&oced~resfor environmentmb f&kstrjd62ali"ce.Tlzese had been done with a view to promoting time-bound and transparent decision-making.

The salient featuresofthe reforms includea decision to raise the investment limit fromRs 50 crores to Rs 100 crores for new projects with regard to the requirement ofenvironment impact assessment (EM)clearance and another to set a time limit of 60days for completion of public hearings under EIA rules, 11esaid here on Wednesday.In addition, thkcie(uhementofpubli?~ea$nghas been dispensed with in>respectof{iveral categoiiis O$ developm$&t pp jects.These are: SSI units located in designated industrial estates and areas; industrial units tobe set up in export processing zones and special economic zones; mining projects withlease area less than 25 hectares, and projects aimed at modernization ofirrigationsystems and expansion and strengthening of highways.

In any methodology the basic stages of study are invariably similar, and theseare described below.

O Baseline conditions, O Scoping, O EIA report (Draft), @ Mitigatingmeasures, O Review ofdrafi EIA report, @ Iinpact monitoring, andO Evaluation.O Baseline conditions-This involves studying the existing totalenvironmental conditions in the area where the proposed project is to be

, undertaken. The general practice is that an area falling within a 10 Krnradius of the project is studied in detail, while the area fal ling within a 25Kmradius is examined for the major features. Some of the parameters thatare examined are: ,

land-use; I

water-use;

socio-economic;* soil; .* hydrology;@ water quality;* meteorology;* air quality;

ecology; and

noise.


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(i.vi) Review of policy and legal framework(i.vii) Monitoring mechanism(i.viii) Auditing designii) EIA Report Annexes

e Mapse Aerial photographse Other devices such as questionnaires, figures,

drawings; climatological, meteorological andhydrological data; Data on flora and fauna;Information on air, water, and noise quality;Audio-video aids, slides, transparencies, recordings

(video, films)

iii) EIAReport referencesPublications consulted(Author, date of publication, title of cited reference, name ofpublication or journal, volume, pages)

@ Mitigating measures-Mitigating measures are actions, which reduce,avoid or offset the potential adverse environmental consequences ofdevelopment activities. The objective of mitigation measures is tomaximize the project benefits, and keep the undesirable impacts to theminimum. Some common aspects of development proposals for whichalternatives need to be considered include: technology, location, fuel, rawmaterials, mitigation measures, design, time schedule, and economic Ifactors. A word of caution here, building-in mitigation to reduce or

compensate for environmental degradation is a useh l endeavor in manyinstances, but it must not be considered a standard operating procedure to iIcircumvent the adverse environmental impacts associated with a particular

,

project. j1I

The main kinds of mitigation measures are the following. 1Compensatory measures-These compensate for adverse impacts that

are unavoidable. Possible compensatory measures include:

- Restoration of damaged resources;- Rehabilitation of displaced settlements; and- Compensation of affected people.

e Correctives measures-These are adopted to reduce adverse impacts to

acceptable levels. Following are some examples of the types of

corrective measures'that can be used.- Installation of pollution control devises.- Construction of effluent treatment plant.

Introduction of preventive measures- Some iotential adverse impactsmaybe reduced or eliminated before occurrence by introducingpreventive measures. Examples of such measures are:

- Implementation of health education programmes.- Initiation of public awarenessprograrnrnes,


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9

Implementation of mitigation measures requires finding. Therefore, itshould be estimated, included in the EIA report. All the project mitigationmeasures should be integrated in the project design so that these measuresmay automatically form part of the construction and operation phases of theproject. This is more cost-effective approach than adding mitigatingmeasures to an existing report.

EnvironmentalQualityManagement

O Review of draft EIA report-To make the EIA a fruitfbl exercise, it isnecessary to review it (see Box .8,8),not only by the project proponentalone, but also by an independent body, and very necessarily by the public.The purpose ofthe review is to once again examine that the key areas andissues are addressed or not (also see Box 8.8).

The key points that should be kept in mind at the time of review are, thefollowing.

The EIA report responds fully to the TOR outlined in the beginning ofthe project.

The EIA report is in concurrence with the national EIA Guidelines.

The report addresses the key environmental issues, which need to beanswered prior to decision-making,Has attention been paid to off-site effects, including trans-boundaryeffects?

Are results in I l ~ eeport scientifically and technically sound, andcoherently organized so that the people and the bodies reviewing iteasily understand them?

The study identifies all the major adverse environmental impacts likelyto arise through project implementation, with mitigation measures foreach impact.

The methodology adopted, techniques to be used, assumptions made,and the limitations faced are h l l y described, and are feasible.Reasonable alternatives have been suggested to the proposed action.

The source ofinforination cited in the report is relevant.Are the iilstitutional a&angementsadequate to implement recommendedmitigation measures.Does the EIA report specify who will be responsible for monitoring thestandard enforcement programme?

Have environmental protection measures been costed and are therefunds and technical capacity to implement them'?

8 Impact monitoring-Environmental monitoring is one of.the mostimportant components ofanEIA. It is essential for:

-

ensuring that the impacts do not exceed the legal standards;- checking the implementation of mitigation measures in the manner

described in the EM report; and- providing early warning of potential environmental damage.

It may not be always possible to monitor all the aspects covered by theimpact identification process. In such instances, selection or 'scoping' ofthe most important and critical parameters that could influence the projectand its surrounding environment, couldmake it a realistic proposition. Inaddition to this, if the EIA monitoring process is to generate meaningful


33/50


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O Evaluation -EIA evaluation i s a continuous process through which project EnvironmentalQualityimpacts can be objectively assessed. An EIA evaluation is primarily Management

employed to assess the performance of environmental protectionprogrammes undertaken by responsible public or private sector agencies.While implementing agencies may claim that mitigatiig measures havebeen adopted, EIA evaluation determines if such measures have beenimplemented with the requirements of the EIA report. Monitoring andevaluation are thus two complemeiltary processes o f th e EIA report. It isonly that th e information generated by EIA monitoring, on regular basis,that is the ltey aid for the regular review meetings held at key decisionmakiilg poiilts in the EIA process. The role of EIA evaluation is tostrengthen EIA implementation on a nation wide level. Now we shall ta lk

briefly about ihe determinants of effective evaluation. Monitoring datashould be analyzed to determine the actual impact of projectimplementation, against impact predictions made at the time of EIApreparation. These analyses will indicate whether new or revised remedialmeasures are necessary.

8.4.3 Environmental Auditing

The term auditing refers to the examination and assessment ofperformance. Incontext of EIA, an audit assesses actual environmental impact, the accuracy ofprediction, the effectiveness of environmental impact mitigation measures, andthe functioning ofinonitoring mechanisms. The audit is undertaken after theproject has been operational for some time. To make auditing a meaningfulexercise, the following aspects are important. To'begin with, it should bethought off clearly as to what areas should be focused on. An outline beprepared, and time limits set to enable the process go on in a structured an dcontrolled manner. An audit carried ou t by one individual iuns the risk ofbringing some sort of bias, affecting th e credibility of the exercise. A teameffort rather a multidisciplinary team not only broadens in constituency, butadds to th e quality of findings. To handle an d process various kinds of data,and to get some tangible output, the use of computers would be of mmensehelp and value.The corninoil types of audits carried out for diffgient aspects ofEIA process are:1. Decision point audit - examines the effectiveness of EIA as a decision

malting tool.2. Implementation audit- ensures that consented conditions have been met.3. Performance audit- xamines the responses of agencies concerned with

project management.4. Project impact audit - xalllines environmental changes arising from

project implementation.'

5. Predictioi~technique audit-

examines the accuracy and utility of predictivetechniques by comparing actual against predicte environmental effects.

6. EIA procedure audit - ritical1.yexamines the methods and approachadopted during the EIA study.

Audit is invariably carried out by the agency, which approves the project, wi thassistance from the other relevant organization, if required. The audit is acrucial stage of project implementation, that may show a need to alter th eimplementation o fa project, to prevent or reduce any unwanted consequences.The above mentioned formal part of audit if coupled with the inputs fro m


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Environment

Management

#?O Reference :Environmental impacts -Biased assessments, byII

I 1Waterborne

I I ' wastesManufacturing

Solidmaterials wastes

UselReuselMaintenance.-.

Coproducts, 1bI Recycle/Wastemanagement 1

System boundary

Fig. 8.4: The stages and boundaries for Life Cycle Assessment; source: Curran, 1996.Methodology

The LCA methodology has four stages:

i) Goal definition and scoping,ii) Life cycle inventory (LCI),iii) Impact assessment (IA), andiw) Improvement assessment,A full LCA includes each of these coinponents. Goal definition and scoping atstage one of LCA defines the purpose of the study, the expected product of thestudy, the boundary conditions, and the assumptions.

The second stage of the LCA process is the preparationofLCI. The LC1quantifies the resource and energy use, and the environmental releasesassociated with a particular life cycle system are evaluated. The concept of onesuch system is illustrated in Fig. 8.5. For a 'Product Life Cycle', the analysisinvolves all the steps in the life cycle of each component of the product'. Thisincludes the acquisition of raw materials and the acquisition of energyresources from the earth, processing of raw materials into usable components;


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of products and intermediates; transportation of materials toeach processing step; distribution of the product; use of the product; and thedisposition aspect oftl1e components, the intermediates, and the product.These include recycling, reuse, incineration, or landfill.

Environmental QualityManagement-ature1resources activities andprocesses Dlspos* product

(as raw materials)

the life cycle system air emissionsandforwater emissions)

ernisslons . wastes emlsslons

Fig. 8.5: Outline diagram ofthe Life Cycle System concept (source: Curran, 1996).Once the inputs mid outputs of a system have been quantified by the LCI,

assessment (IA)- th e third stage of LCA can be performed.Conceptually IA consists of three stages:

) Classification,i) Cliaracterization,and

Valuation

) Classification is the assignment ofLC1 inputs and outputs to impactgrouping. For example, the use of fossil fuels may be assigned to theimpact group 'depletion of finite resources'.

i) Cliaracterization is the process to develop conversion models, to translatethe LC1 and the supplemental data to impact descriptors. Fox example,carbon dioxide and methane LC1 outputs may be converted to units ofglobal warming potential.Valuation is the assignment of relative values or weights to differentimpacts, allowing integration across all impact categories.

The fourth stage-

improvement assessment, like goal definition and scoping,has always been a part ofLC1and LCA studies. The desire to reduce burdenson the environment by altering a product or process is often the driver for anyuch study. Another driver of LCA studies is to benchmark a product against its

competitive products or to prove that one product is environmentally preferableover another. This is alsoa type of improvement assessment, It assistsndividuals ox companies in making more environmentally sound choices.

n LCA huge data recording, processing, and record keeping are involved.Appropriate software for data management can make the task both easier and fruitful.


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EnvironmentMarlagement ImportanceThe LCA is mostly used to gather information to make comparisons eitherbetween competing products performing the same function or in evaluatingmodifications to a product to malte it more 'environmental-friendly'. LCA isimportant for making the selection ofone product over another. It is alsoimportant when modifications are made to any part of the system, they have thedesired end result of decreasing environmental impacts from all the l ife cyclestages, that is, from cradle-to-grave and not cradle-to-gate. Many timesapparent iillprovementsare made in the operations or activities without anyondary effects. Potentially, m y change to my

system ca n result in an unwanted shifting ofburdens to allot stem, unless a I$? ~yc le~ f rau lzeor k is

anted shifts between life cycle.stages, as wellair, water, solid wastes) is th e ltey concept

behind LCA. . .

Pollution is another area which can be viewed with life cycle impacts in mind.Many success stories have been reported in the field of pollution prevention in

which source reduction of hazardous waste streams and increased recyclingoppol-tmlitieshave been achieved.Applications

'Life cycle concepts' and 'LCAs' have been used in a variety of applications inboth the private and public sectors. In private sector, it is applied for productimprovement, product comparison, and strategic planning. El~vironmentallabelling, and the use of LCAs in drafting regulations are among the mainpublic sector applications. You will study in detail about environmentallabelling in Subsection 8.5.2.

Management

Life cycle managen~entincludes all decisions and actions talten by multiplestalteholders which ultimately determine the environmental profile andsustainability ofthe product system. Each stalteholder has an iinpoi-tant role inguiding improvement as indicated below. A inajor challenge for the productmai~ufacturerslies in coordinating the diverse interests of these stalteholder groups.Key stakeholders and their role in Life Cycle Management

Users and Public- Understanding and values through education.a Modify behaviour and demand toward more sustainalAe lifestyle.Policynlaltersand Regulators- Develop policies to promote sustai~lableeconomies and ecological systems. Apply new regulatory iilstruments ornlodify existing regulations.Suppliers, Manufacturers, End-of-life Management- Research anddevelop more sustainable teclmologies, + Design cleaner products andprocesses. + Produce sustainableproducts. * Improve the effectiveness ofeilvironmentalmanagement systems.Investors and Shareholders- + Support cleaner product system developmeilt.Service Industry- Maintain and repair products.

Insurance Industry- Assess risk and cover losses.


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8.5 QUALITY ASSUMNCE ANDCONTROL Environmental QualityManagementThe different management tools help us to assess the impact of activities or actionson environment, and evaluate whether the measures adopted and correctives put in

place are turning out to be effective or not. Thus in this way the process ofnlinimizing environmental impacts goes on. All these aspects conlprisehalf thestory ofeilvironmeiltal quality management. For assuring and controlling theer~vironmentalquality, the above discussed environmental management tools needto be coinpleinented with certain planned and systematic actions that could provideadequate confidence that a product or senrice will satisfy given requirements forenvironmental quality. I S0 14000 Standards, and enviro~lrnentallabelling areamongst the quality assuarance and control devices with international acceptance.

These are regulated and inonitored by the governments in their respective countries.The details about these two are given in the following subsections. Its going to be

interesting, that's our assuarance to you.

8.5.1 I S 0 14000 StandardsWe use 'standards' all the time without giving so much a thought. We cancommunicate because of standardization of English language. A litre ofmilkin New Delhi is the same as a litre of milk in Mumbai, because we havestandards ofweights and measures. Likewise a computerdisk manufacturer'sproduct is con~patiblewith any computer regardless of the brand. A system ofaccepted standards is esseiltial for the widespread marketability, efficientproduction, and use of products- rom complex mechanical devices like theautomobiles, the nuts and bolts that hold them together, and even the purelyintellectual products such as computerprogrammes.IS0 9000 and IS0 14000 Standards are inter~lationallyaccepted series ofstandards. You might have seen a whole lot of products andservices taggedwith either of these series of standards. Let us now see what are 'thesestandards about'? The IS0 9000 series pertains to quality management andquality assurance, and the latter series is about enviroilmental managementstandards. The I S0 14000 Standards being relevant to the present topic of theunit, are being discussed below.

Genesis

The IS0 14000 Standards had their origin in the 1960s when worldwideconcern for enviroilmeilt began. In 1992, the United Natioils.conferenceonEnviroimlent and Developineiltalso called 'Earth Sununit', took place in Riode Janeiro. Preparation for this conference and subsequent related activities ledto the developinent ofiilter~lational.environinentalmanagement standards, andthe developineilt of the accoinpanyiilg implementation and auditing tools wereassigned to IS0 (International Organization for Standardization). The IS0created Technical Committee 207 (TC 207) to develop these standards.

IS0 is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies, at presentcomprising 127 members, with its headquai-tersat Geneva, Switzerl=d. It wasestablished in 1947 to promote the development of standardizationand relatedactiGities in the tvorld, with a view to facilitate exchange of goods and services,and to develop cooperation in the sphere of intellectual, scientific,technological and economic activity. The results of IS0 technical works arepublished as Internatio~zalStandards. 89


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Environment

Management

Bureau ofIndian Standards,Manak Bhavan,9, Balladur Shah Zafar Marg,Ne w Delhi

-

110002

Website:l~ttp://www.bis.or~.in/

I S 0 membership has three categories. AFullMember is a national bodydesignated by its respective country as the"most representative ofstandardization". Most nations are represented by full members. A nation thatdoes not have standardization bodies may be represented by a CorrespondentMember. A small nation with a very small economy may become a SubscriberMember at a reduced membership rate. Although only full members participatein the development of standards, IS 0 keeps the correspondent and subscribermembers illformed about activities of their interest. India has a full IS0membership. The contact details of the national standards organization -Bureau of Indian Standards, abbreviated as BIS are as given in #* '

Inside I S 0 14000You may recall that the IS 0 14000 series is about Environmental ManagementStandards in which basics of how to establish, document, implement, andmaintain an effective environmental system are defined. These standards areintended to achieve improved environmental results by a management processrather than by coercion from regulations. International acceptance of thesestandards reduces duplication of efforts, besides creating a level playing field.Therefore, these standards 'improve international lrade by reducing trade barriers.I S 0 14000 Standards can be applied to any organization-public or private,large or small, that might have any kind of impact on the environment.Compliance to IS 0 14000 is not mandatory but the trends indicate thatcustomers will mandate in the near future compliance with I S 0 14000 and evennow compliahce offers a competitive advantage to the suppliers. Neverthebssan organization with commitment to IS 0 14000, indicates that it is dedicated tothe principles and elements ofthe environmental management standards, with

an eye on sustainable developmentand an efficient environmental performance.This means that the organization is making sure that their activities, products,and services are good for themankind and the world on the wl~ole.The I S 0 14000 series consists of:i) Organization ancYProcessStandards (Fig. 8.6,see the left-hand column)-

Environmental Management System (EMS), environmental performanceevaluation, and environmental auditing;

ii) Product-oriented Standards (Fig.8.6,see the right-hand column) - LifeCycle Assessment (LCA), environmental labelling, environmental aspectsin product standards;and

iii) Terms anddefinitions (Fig. 8.6, see the lower most box).Two types ofIS 0 14000series documents include S'eciJication Standards and.Guidance Standards. ASpeciJicationStandarddescribes requirements againstwhich a facility will be audited for registration-certification purposes. AGuidance Standardoffers in ihct ions to implement EMS and its relationshipwith other systems. Although documents concerning IS 0 14000 series areseveral, a11applicant is audited only against the requirements of I S 0 14001,for EMS to be certified. The other documents guide implementation of systemor the analysis of product attributes..


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Fig. 8.6: An overview ofIS0 14000 Environmental Management System (source: Goetscl~& Davis, 2001).

,' ~nvironmantal ,~erforma~ge,Evaluatian,IS 0 14031 * '

Environmental Management System (EMS)

- Product Standards

An environmental management system (EMS) isa

systematic approach todealing with the environmentalaspects ofnn organization, It is a 'tool' thatenables an organization of any size or type to control the impacts of itsactivities, products or services on natural environment. The IS0 14001Standard 'Environmental Management Systems-Specifications with guidancefor use' is the standard within IS0 14000 series that specifies the requirementsofan environmentalmanagement system. It provides a framework based onwhich an organization performs its environmental management functions,including allocation of resources, assignment of tasks, and improvement ofprocedures and processes. TheEMS elements include environmental policy,planning, implementation and operation, checking and corrective action,management review, and continual improvement (see Fig.8.7).IS0 14010, I S 0 14011, and IS0 14012describegeneral principlesofenvironmental auditing, guidelines to audit EMS, and qualificationrequirements for environmental auditors. Auditingis required to find outwhether processes put in place to improve compliance are working, and verifythe efficacy of the management reviews in capturing the effectivenessofEMS.


Performance evaluation is a key feature ofEMS. The management monitorsthe performance from time to time to ensure that policy goals, objectives, andtargets aremet,The Performance indicatorsare presented in IS0 14031.The environmental labefling and LCA focus on product characteristics thstimpact the environment, You have studied about LCA in Subsection 8.4.4,andyou would be knowing about environmental labellinginthe followingsubsection. 91

I


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0 Environmc?ntalaspects0 Compliance requirements

Canada Objectives and targets(Environmental Choice) Programs

West Germany(Blue Angel)

UnltedStates(Sclentlflc CertificationSystem)

NordlcCountries(White Swan)

..- 0 Measuring and monitoring0 Corrective actions

iRecordsEnvironmental audits

m Management structure

0 Communication

operation Documentation

Operating procedures

IEnergency preparedness

I

Fig. 8.7: An IS 0 14001 Environmental Management SystemModel (source: Goetsch &Davis, 2001).

I S 0 14050 pertains toEnvironmental Management terms andDefinitions usedJapan

in various IS0 14000 environmental standards. This is to avoid any(EcoMark) ambiguities in their use, and ensure uniform understanding of technical terms

throughout the world.

8.5.2 EnvironmentalLabelling0 .2a Manufacturers communicate environmental attributes of their products throughUnlted States environmental labelling. This is also referred by names like 'green labelling 7(GreenSeal)

or 'eco-lab

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