ENHANCING RESEARCH WRITING SKILLS

University of Southern Philippines FoundationGraduate School

ENHANCING RESEARCH WRITING SKILLSLECTURE-WORKSHOP

Dr. Ernesto Lobiogo AlolorResource Person

8:00 AM - 5:00 PM

18 August 2018

Theater for Performing Arts

Agustin Jereza Hall

Learning Outcomes

During and after the sessions, participants should be able to:

➢Gain an overview of the thesis writing process

➢Learn some basic knowledge of thesis writing

Learning Outcomes

➢Apply APA referencing style

➢Avoid common errors in writing

➢Apply formatting conventions in thesis-dissertation writing

Outline

1. The Thesis Writing Process

1.1. The Problem and Its Setting

1.2. Review of Literature and Studies

1.3. Theory, Theoretical and Conceptual

Framework

1.4. Methodology

1.5. Results and Discussion

1.6. Summary of Findings, Conclusion and

Recommendation 4

Outline

2. Issues in Writing: Of Grammar and Other Things

3. Common Problems: Grammar, Style and Conventions

4. APA Referencing Style: Standards and Conventions

5. Headings, Tables and Figures

6. Writing Your Abstract

7. Components of a Thesis/Dissertation 5

THE THESIS WRITING PROCESS

AN OVERVIEW

What is a thesis?

•A thesis consists of an argument or a series of arguments combined with the description and discussion of research you have undertaken.

• (Phillips, E. M., & Pugh, D. S. (2000). How to get a PhD (3rd ed.). Bristol, USA: Open University Press.)

What is a thesis?

• In the case of a PhD, and to a lesser extent, a Master’s (research) thesis, the research is expected to make a ‘significant contribution to the chosen field.’

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Getting Started

Choosing a topic

•Choosing a topic is often the most difficult part of the thesis-dissertation writing process.

Begin with a question

▪ Think about which topics and theories you are interested in and what you would like to know more about.

▪ Think about the topics and theories you have studied in your program.


▪ Is there any question you feel the body of knowledge in your field does not answer adequately?


Once you have a question in mind, begin looking for information relevant to the topic and its theoretical framework.

• Read everything you can--academic research, trade literature, and information in the popular press and on the Internet.


As you become well-informed about your topic and prior research on the topic, your knowledge should suggest a purpose for your thesis/dissertation.

The Research Topic

•Sources of topics: educational system, government, homes, church, environment, advances in science and technology, curriculum revision, progress and development, educational, economic, and political issues

Criteria for Choosing a

Good Research

Topic

•Relevance and Implication –topic should be timely and practical


Good Research

Topic

• Important and Interesting –consider the significant contribution to the researcher, the school, community, church, government, environment, towns, cities and the country as a whole


Good Research

Topic

•Budgetary and time requirements

Stating the Title of the

Research

•The title of the study should serve as a frame of reference for the entire research study

•The title should be very specific

•The title should contain the main concept, variables, place/locale and time involved

Develop your instrument

❖This process can take several days or weeks

•Collecting and analyzing data

•Writing up the findings

❖You also should make sure

Chapters 1 and 2 are now

fully developed.

❖Your adviser can provide

guidance as needed at this

point but expects you to work

as independently as possible.

Composing

the final

chapter

You should be prepared to hire assistance with

coding and data entry and analysis if needed.

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Finishing

1. Do not expect your adviser or panel members

to copy edit your thesis or dissertation.

❖Before turning in any drafts, you should carefully

edit and spell check your work.

Finishing

❖Editing occurs at two levels: Micro editing and

Macro editing

Finishing

➢Micro editing involves correcting spelling and

grammatical errors, checking for proper paragraph

and sentence structure, consistent use of terms,

and variety in word choice.

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Finishing

Macro editing assesses the overall structure of

the thesis or dissertation.

❖ making sure each chapter flows logically from the

previous chapter, headings and subheadings are

used properly and consistently, and transitions are

included between major topics. 28

Finishing

❖determining whether any parts of the thesis need

to be streamlined or expanded.

❖In some cases, it may be necessary for you to

hire a professional editor.

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Finishing

2. Leave time for your adviser to read your completed thesis or dissertation before giving it to your panel members.

❖Do not expect to submit the completed thesis or dissertation for the first time to the panel and defend in the same or following week.

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Finishing

❖Also, it is customary to give the thesis or dissertation to panel members at least a week before the defense.

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Finishing

3. Prepare for your defense.

❖Prepare your defense presentation

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Finishing

4. Be prepared for revisions after the defense.

❖It is customary to provide your adviser and

panel members with a bound copy of the final

version of the thesis or dissertation.

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Finishing

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The Problem and Its Setting

WRITING

THE INTRODUCTION/BACKGROUND

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Generally, the introduction provides necessary background information to your study and provides readers with some sense of your overall research interest.

Introduction/Background

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A good introduction should:•Establish the general territory

(real world or research) in which the research is placed.

•Describe the broad foundations of your study, including some references to existing literature and/or empirically observable situations.


In other words, the introduction needs to provide sufficient background for readers to understand where your study is coming from.


• Indicate the general scope of your project, but do not go into so much detail that later sections (purpose/literature review) become irrelevant.


•Provide an overview of the sections that will appear in your proposal (optional).

•Engage the readers

Statement of the Problem

•You need to clearly identify the problem or knowledge gap that your project is responding to.

Statement of the Problem

This section should:•Answer the question: “What is

the gap that needs to be filled?” and/or “What is the problem that needs to be solved?”

•State the problem clearly early in a paragraph.

• Limit the variables you address in stating your problem or question.

Purpose/Aim/Rationale/

Research Questions

•Most proposals include a clear statement of the research objectives, including a description of the questions the research seeks to answer or the hypotheses the research advances.

Purpose/Aim/Rationale/

Research Questions

•Spend significant time brainstorming before and while you draft this section.

Purpose/Aims/Rationale/

Research Questions

•Once you begin your thesis-dissertation research, you may find that your aims change in emphasis or in number.


Research Questions

• What is essential for you at this point, though, is to specify for your readers—and for yourself—the precise focus of your research and to identify key concepts you will be studying.


Research Questions

A clear statement of purpose will:

•Explain the goals and research objectives of the study (what do you hope to find?).


Research Questions

•Show the original contributions of your study by explaining how your research questions or approach are different from previous research (what will you add to the field of knowledge?).


Research Questions

•Provide a more detailed account of the points summarized in the introduction.

• Include a rationale for the study (why should we study this?).


Research Questions

•Be clear about what your study will not address (this is especially important if you are applying for competitive funding; narrowly focused studies are more likely to win funding).


Research Questions

• In addition, this section may:•Describe the research

questions and/or hypotheses of the study.

• Include a subsection defining important terms, especially if they will be new to some readers or if you will use them in an unfamiliar way.


Research Questions

•State limitations of the research.

•Provide a rationale for the particular subjects of the study.

Review of Literature and Studies

Writing the literature Review

What is a review of literature?

A “review of the literature” is a classification and evaluation of what accredited scholars and researchers have written on a topic.

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What is a review of literature?

A review may be a self-contained unit -- an end in itself -- or a preface to and rationale for engaging in primary research.

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Review of Literature

Your purpose is to convey to your reader what

knowledge and ideas have been established on a

topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are.

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As a piece of writing, the literature review must

be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research

objective, the problem or issue you are exploring, or

your thesis).

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It is not just a descriptive list of the material

available, or a set of summaries.

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Writing the Introduction

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In the introduction, you should:

1. Define or identify the general topic, issue, or

area of concern, thus providing an appropriate

context for reviewing the literature.

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2. Point out overall trends in what has been published about the topic:

❖ conflicts in theory, methodology, evidence, and conclusions

➢ gaps in research and scholarship

➢ a single problem or new perspective of immediate interest.

3. Establish the writer's reason (point of view) for reviewing the literature:

➢ explain the criteria to be used in analyzing and comparing literature and the organization of the review (sequence); and,

➢ when necessary, state why certain literature is or is not included (scope). 62


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Writing the Body

In the body, you should:

1. Group research studies and other types of

literature (reviews, theoretical articles, case

studies, etc.) according to common

denominators such as qualitative versus

quantitative approaches, conclusions of

authors, specific purpose or objective,

chronology, etc.64


2. Summarize individual studies or articles

with as much or as little detail as each merits

according to its comparative importance in the

literature, remembering that space (length)

denotes significance.

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3. Provide the reader with strong "umbrella"

sentences at beginnings of paragraphs,

"signposts" throughout, and brief "so what"

summary sentences at intermediate points

in the review to aid in understanding

comparisons and analyses.

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Writing the Conclusion

In the conclusion, you should:

1. Summarize major contributions of

significant studies and articles to the

body of knowledge under review,

maintaining the focus established in the

introduction.

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2. Evaluate the current "state of the art" for the

body of knowledge reviewed, pointing out

major methodological flaws or gaps in

research, inconsistencies in theory and

findings, and areas or issues pertinent to

future study.69


3. Conclude by providing some insight into the

relationship between the central topic of

the literature review and a larger area of

study such as a discipline, a scientific

endeavor, or a profession.

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Tips on drafting your Literature Review


•Categorize the literature into recognizable topic clusters and begin each with a sub-heading.

•Look for trends and themes and then synthesize related information.

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•You want to •stake out the various positions that are relevant to your project, •build on conclusions that lead to your project, or •demonstrate the places where the literature is lacking, whether due to a methodology you think is incomplete or to assumptions you think are flawed.

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•Avoid “Smith says X, Jones says Y” literature reviews. You should be tying the literature you review to specific facets of your problem, not to review for the sake of reviewing.

•Avoid including all the studies on the subject or the vast array of scholarship that brought you to the subject.

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Tips on drafting your Literature Review:

•Stick to those pieces of the literature directly relevant to your narrowed subject (question or statement of a problem).

•Avoid polemics, praise, and blame. You should fight the temptation to strongly express your opinions about the previous literature. Your task is to justify your project given the known scholarship.

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Theory, Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

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What is a theory?

A theory is a set of interrelated concepts,

definitions, and propositions that explains

or predicts events or situations by

specifying relations among variables.

Source: Theory and Why It is Important. Retrieved from http://www.esourceresearch.org

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A theory must have four basic criteria:

➢Conceptual definitions

➢Domain limitations

➢Relationship-building

➢Predictions

Walker, J. G. (1998 July). Journal of Operations Management, 16m(4), 361-385. doi:10.1016/S0272-

6963(98)00019-9) 78

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0272-6963(98)00019-9

What a theory must address

A theory has four components, namely:

• definition of terms, concepts or variables

• a domain to which the theory is applicable

• a set of relationships amongst the

variables,

• specific predictive claims.

Wacker J G (1998) A definition of theory: Research guidelines for different theory-building research methods in operations management. Journal of Operations

Management, 16: 361-385 79

What Data Must Be Obtained from a Theory?

1. The name/s of author/s of the theory must be taken including the place and the time / year when he or she postulated such a principle or generalization.

Source: http://thesisadviser.blogspot.com/2013/02/thesis-writing-tips-on-how-to-develop.html

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2. Next, copy exactly the part or parts of the theory that are relevant to your study.

Make sure you will use a parenthetical reference to recognize the parts copied.

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3. Finally, you will have to make a synthesis by relating to your findings what the theory has to say about the phenomenon being studied.

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Workshop Activity 1: Finding a Theory or Theories and Finding Variables

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What is a Theoretical Framework?

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• This refers to the theory(ies) that a researcher chooses to guide him/her in his/her research.

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• It is the application of a theory, or a set of concepts drawn from one and the same theory, to offer an explanation of an event, or shed some light on a particular phenomenon or research problem

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Three major defining characteristics of a

theory:

• it is “a set of interrelated propositions,

concepts and definitions that present a

systematic point of view”

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• specifies relationships between / among

concepts

• explains and / or makes predictions about the

occurrence of events, based on the specified

relationships

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What does a Theoretical Framework do?

What does a Theoretical Framework do?

• It helps the researcher see clearly the variables of the study.

• It can provide him with a general framework for data analysis.

• It is essential in preparing a research proposal using descriptive and experimental methods.

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Formulating a Theoretical Framework


• specify the theory used as basis for the study

• mention the proponents of the theory

• cite the main points emphasized in the theory

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• support the exposition of the theory by ideas

from other experts

• illustrate the theoretical framework by means

of a diagram

• reiterate the theoretical proposition in the

study. 93

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What is a Conceptual Framework?


• This consists of concepts that are placed within

a logical and sequential design.

• It represents less formal structure and used for

studies in which existing theory is inapplicable or

insufficient. 95


• It is based on specific concepts and

propositions, derived from empirical

observation and intuition.

• It may be possible to deduce theories from a

conceptual framework.96


• It is an interconnected set of ideas (theories)

about how a particular phenomenon

functions or is related to its parts.

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• It serves as the basis for understanding the

causal or correlational patterns of

interconnections across events, ideas,

observations, concepts, knowledge,

interpretations and other components of

experience.

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Purposes of a Conceptual Framework


• To clarify concepts and propose relationships

among the concepts in a study.

• To provide a context for interpreting the study

findings.

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• To explain observations

• To encourage theory development that is

useful to practice

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DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

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Developing a conceptual framework

•Your problem statement serves as a reference in constructing the conceptual framework.

• In effect, your study will attempt to answer a question that other researchers have not explained yet.

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Developing a conceptual framework

•Your research should address a knowledge gap.

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The Conceptual Framework

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This section may summarize the major (dependent and independent) variables in your research.

The framework may be summarized in a schematic diagram that presents the major variables and their hypothesized relationships.

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It should also cover the following:

➢Existing research and its relevance for your topic

➢Key ideas or constructs in your approach

➢Identify and discuss the variables related to the problem.

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➢Conceptualized relationships between variables

▪Independent variables (presumed cause)

▪Dependent variables (presumed effect)

▪Intervening variables (other variables that

influence the effect of the independent variable)

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➢Present a schematic diagram of the

relationships between key variables and

discuss the relationship of the

elements/variables

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Conceptual Framework

School Leaders Profile

•Sex

•Age

•Number of years as school heads

•Employment status

•Present employment position

•Educational qualification

Skills Inventory of the 21st

Century School Leaders

•Organizational

Management

•Policy and Governance

•Staff Development

•Skills in Communication

and Community Relations

•Values and Ethics of

Leadership

•Visionary Leadership

Performance Standards

•Acting with integrity,

fairness, and communities

•Collaboration with

families and communities

•Facilitating a vision of learning

•Management

•School culture and Instructional program

•The political, social,

economic, legal, and cultural context

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Moderating VariableCo

nce

ptu

al F

ram

ewo

rk

DEFINITION OF TERMS

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Two Types of Definitions

•Dictionary Definitions – a concept is defined with a synonym


•Operational Definitions – stated in terms of specific testing or measurement criteria.

❖The terms must have empirical referents.

❖The definitions must specify characteristics and how they are to be observed.


Definitions provide a way of understanding and measuring concepts.

METHODOLOGY

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METHODOLOGY

•This section is essential to most good

research proposals.

•How you study a problem is often as

important as the results you collect.

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METHODOLOGY

•This section includes a description of the

general means through which the goals of

the study will be achieved: methods,

materials, procedures, tasks, etc.

Methodology

•An effective methodology section should:

•Introduce the overall methodological approachfor each problem or question.

Methodology

❖Is your study qualitative or quantitative?

❖Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or use case studies?

Methodology

•Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design.

Your methods should have a clear connection with your research questions and/or hypotheses.

MethodologyIn other words, make sure that your methods will actually answer your questions.

Methodology

•Describe the specific methods of data collectionyou are going to use—e.g. surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival or traditional library research.

Methodology

•Explain how you intend to analyze and interpret your results.• Will you use statistical analysis?

Methodology

•Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors?

Methodology

• If necessary, provide background and rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers.

Methodology

• If you propose to conduct interviews and use questionnaires, how do you intend to select the sample population?

Methodology

•Address potential limitations.

❖Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection?

Methodology❖How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors?

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results and Discussions

In general, the content of your results and discussion section should include the following elements (Annesley, 2010; Writing Development Center, 2015):


•An introductory context for understanding the results by restating the research problem underpinning your study.

•A summary of your key findings arranged in a logical sequence that generally follows your methodology section.


• Inclusion of non-textual elements, such as, figures, charts, photos, maps, tables, etc. to further illustrate key findings, if appropriate.


•A systematic description of your results, highlighting for the reader observations that are most relevant to the topic under investigation. You should remember that not all results that emerge from the methodology used to gather the data may be relevant.


•An examination of the results in relation to existing research.

•An indication of the importance of the findings.

•Generalizations that can be made from the results.


• Implications or practical application of the study.

•Use of the past tense when referring to your results.

•Focus only on findings that are important and related to addressing the research problem.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Writing the Summary of

Findings

•This section presents the significant data based on the results or outcomes revealed by the research study.


Findings

•The section should include a brief statement of the purpose of the study, the research design, the respondents or participants including the sampling design, and the research instruments used.


Findings

•These should be stated clearly and concisely without any explanation.


Findings

•In most cases, each specific question in the statement of the problem is written first, and this could be followed by the findings that would answer the question.


Findings

•The specific questions should be ordered in the manner they are presented in the statement of the problem.


Findings

•The findings should be made as textual generalizations consisting of words, numbers, or statistical measures woven into meaningful statements.


Findings

•There should be no inferences or interpretations and no new data introduced in the summary of findings.

Writing the Conclusions

•This section presents the key points emerging from the investigation drawn from the results and findings in Chapter 3.


•You should remember that your conclusion is not simply repeating what you have in your summary of findings.


•A conclusion is used to summarize what the research is all about, the nature of the arguments, how the research was undertaken, and provides an overview of the knowledge and information that have been discovered along with the significance of the findings and its contribution to new knowledge.


The University of Southern California (2017) has come up with the general rules when writing the conclusion of your thesis or dissertation:


•You need to state your conclusions in clear, simple language.

•You do not simply reiterate your results or the discussion of your results.


•You should provide a synthesis of arguments presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem and the overall objectives of your study.


•You should also indicate opportunities for future research if you have not already done so in the discussion section of your paper.

Writing the Recommendations

•The last section of the last chapter of your thesis or dissertation would be the recommendations.


•Recommendations are practical suggestions that should improve the current situation or solve the problem investigated in our study.


•Recommendations should be logical, specific and relevant based on your conclusions.


•They should be addressed to your beneficiaries indicated in your section on the significance of your study.


• In other words, they should be addressed to individuals, organizations, agencies or entities concerned directly with the issues investigated in your study, those who are able to implement the recommendations immediately.


•Simply put, recommendations are considered as something that someone needs to do.


•You should specifically state what should be done including the resources that may be required to implement the recommendation or solution suggested.


•Finally, you make a recommendation that future researchers may do as a result of your research work.

• You could present a topic related to the present study that future researchers can further investigate.

ISSUES IN WRITING: Of Grammar and Other Things

ACKNOWLEDGING RESOURCES

The art of referring to the words and ideas of other writers involves many rules and requires subtle uses of vocabulary (e.g., words of attribution and evaluation) and grammar (e.g., verb tense – past and present)

Source: Monash University (2014). Writing a Thesis in Education. Retrieved from http://www.monash.edu/education161

Categories of References

➢Author prominent - where the author’s name appears in your sentence

➢ Information prominent - where the author’s name appears only in parentheses (brackets).

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•Author prominent

➢The reader can see the ideas and discussion as clearly relating to that author’s thinking.

➢You can often give more details about a study.

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•Author prominent

➢This can make it easier for the writer to see ideas as individual and discuss important ideas, facilitating a critical approach (whether positive or negative).

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• Information prominent

➢This can sound very authoritative and can also sound like ‘truth-telling’, even though you have no idea at all whether it is the ‘truth’!

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• Information prominent

➢If the information seems to be asserting a ‘truth’ you are not sure of, try to use a different verb to shed more doubt and give a little more detail.

➢If this is the case, try not to use categorical and generalizing statements followed by a reference all the time.

Author prominent

Brie (1988) showed that the moon is made of cheese.

. The moon’s cheesy composition was established by Brie (1988).

According to Brie (1988), the moon is made of cheese.

Brie’s theory (1988) contends that the moon is made of cheese

Information prominent

Previous research has established that the moon is made of cheese (Brie, 1988).

It has been shown that the moon is made of cheese (Brie, 1988).

It is currently argued that the moon is made of cheese (Brie, 1988).

The moon may be made of cheese (Brie, 1988).

Inclusion is the fairest and most productive approach to educating children with special needs (Smith, 1999; Tollington, 2000). The visually impaired achieve high levels of social interaction and intellectual development in mainstream schools (Johnstone, 2001).

Look at the following examples:

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Smith (1999), writing about schooling in Victoria, Australia, argues that inclusion is the fairest and most productive approach to educating children with special needs (see also Tollington, 2000). In a study of 10 young adolescent students with visual impairment, Johnstone (2001) found that all participants achieved high levels of intellectual development for their year level and that they perceived improved wellbeing in social interaction.

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Verbs of Attribution


These are verbs and their synonyms for you to draw on when you want to talk about someone else’s ideas or words.

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Try to work out which verbs give:

➢ a more positive view of the ideas you are reporting others as saying

➢simply very neutral ways of restating what an author says or show that author’s positive or negative attitudes to the ideas

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Try to work out which verbs give:

➢express your own slightly negative attitudes towards the author’s ideas.

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Show: demonstrate, establish

Persuade: assure, convince, satisfy

Argue: reason, discuss, debate, consider

Support: uphold, underpin, advocate

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Examine: discuss, explore, investigate, scrutinize

Propose: advance, propound, proffer, suggest (the view that…)

Advise: suggest, recommend, advocate, exhort, encourage, urge

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Believe: hold, profess (the view that…)

Emphasize: accentuate, stress, underscore

State: express, comment, remark, declare, articulate, describe, instruct, inform, report

Evaluate: appraise, assess 176


Hypothesize: speculate, postulate

Disagree: dispute, refute, contradict, differ, object, dissent

Reject: refute, repudiate, remonstrate (against), disclaim, dismiss

Claim: allege, assert, affirm, contend, maintain177

• founded on • based on • grounded in a theory/view/set of data• embedded in • underpinned by

An argument can be:

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Neutral Verbs of Restatement

add inform (of, about) remind (of, about) clarifypresent report (on)describe remark speak / write of

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Verbs of Restatement with a Positive or Negative Connotation

apprise (someone of) explainindicate argue (about) express observe

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Verbs of opinion are used to report the content of another writer’s opinion (or conclusion or suggestions)

Positive opinions: affirm agree (with) applaud concur (with, in) praise support

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Reporting opinion (usually neutrally)

assert believe (in) claim

determine expound (on) maintain

point out think

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Verbs of uncertainty are used to report the content of another writer’s expression of doubt or uncertainty

challenge dispute question

disagree (with) doubt suspect (of) dismiss

mistrust wonder (at)

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Clanchy and Ballard (1991) propose a continuum of attitudes to knowledge and specify learning approaches and strategies that correspond to these attitudes. Drawing mainly on anecdotal evidence, they suggest that their three learning approaches, namely the “reproductive”, “analytical” and “speculative” (p.11) approaches, are characteristic of certain stages of schooling (in Australia) or of certain cultures. In their consideration of learning strategies, however, they have presented only a limited understanding of the ways in which the strategies assist learning. For example, they see memorisation as a way of retaining ”unreconstructed” (p.11) knowledge. The work of Biggs (1996) demonstrates that memorisation serves the purpose of retaining ideas so that they can be considered and understood.

Sample Excerpt

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Verb-tense, attribution and authorial stance

Verb tense in academic writing may exercise a greater influence on your reader’s interpretation of your text.

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Past tense can give more than a time perspective; it can distance the reader from the ideas being expressed.

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Present tense is often used to make generalizations – you need to be sure you wanted readers to feel this was a generalizable point.

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The present tense is used for:

➢generalization (in overviews, statements of main points)

➢a statement which is generally applicable or which seems relevant

The Present Tense

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The Present Tense

➢a statement made by you as writer

➢ to report the position of a theorist/ researcher to which you feel some proximity, either in time or allegiance (e.g.. Piaget (1969) outlines the stages…).

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➢ The past tense is used to “claim non-generality about past literature” (Ostler, 1981, cited in Swales, 1990, p.152)

➢ It is used to report or describe the content, findings or conclusions of past research. The specificity of the study is thus emphasized.

The Past Tense

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➢Past tense can be used in your methodology chapter to describe what you have done (rather than to describe reasons behind your methodological choices, which should use present tense).

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The Past Tense

The present perfect is used:

➢ to indicate that inquiry into the specified area continues

➢ to generalize about past literature

The Present Perfect

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➢ to present a view using a non-integral form of referencing (the name of the author does not appear in the text of the sentence; it appears only in the subsequent parentheses).

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The Present Perfect

The future tense is often used in the methodology section in a proposal to state intention.

The Future Tense

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When you are describing what appears in your writing, use the present tense, not the future (it’s not your intention, since you’ve already done it): e.g., “The sections below describe the process of …”, not, “the sections below will describe the process of …”

The Future Tense

195

Clanchy and Ballard (1991) proposed a continuum of attitudes to knowledge and specified learning approaches and strategies that corresponded to these attitudes. Drawing mainly on anecdotal evidence, they suggested that their three learning approaches, namely the “reproductive”, “analytical” and “speculative” (p.11) approaches, were characteristic of certain stages of schooling (in Australia) or 13 of certain cultures. In their consideration of learning strategies, however, they presented only a limited understanding of the ways in which the strategies assist learning. For example, they saw memorisation as a way of retaining ”unreconstructed” (p.11) knowledge. The work of Biggs (1996) in contrast demonstrates that memorisation serves the purpose of retaining ideas so that they can be considered and understood.

Sample Excerpt

196

Clanchy and Ballard (1991) propose a continuum of attitudes to knowledge and specify learning approaches and strategies that correspond to these attitudes. Drawing mainly on anecdotal evidence, they suggest that their three learning approaches, namely the “reproductive”, “analytical” and “speculative” (p.11) approaches, are characteristic of certain stages of schooling (in Australia) or of certain cultures. In their consideration of learning strategies, however, they have presented only a limited understanding of the ways in which the strategies assist learning. For example, they see memorisation as a way of retaining ”unreconstructed” (p.11) knowledge. The work of Biggs (1996) demonstrates that memorisation serves the purpose of retaining ideas so that they can be considered and understood.

Sample Excerpt

197

Workshop Activity 2: Verbs

198

Exercise 1: Directions: Spot the errors.

1. Collins & O'Brien (2011) also said that properly implemented self-directed learning can lead to increased motivation to learn, greater retention of knowledge, deeper understanding, and more positive attitudes towards the subject being taught.

199


1. Collins and O'Brien (2011) also said that properly implemented self-directed learning could lead to increased motivation to learn, greater retention of knowledge, deeper understanding, and more positive attitudes towards the subject being taught.

200


2. Several studies reported that occupational self-efficacy is positively related with many organizationally relevant variables, such as organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and preparedness for organizational change (Schyns, 2004; Schyns & von Collani, 2002).

201


2. Several studies reported that occupational self-efficacy was positively related with many organizationally relevant variables, such as organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and preparedness for organizational change (Schyns, 2004; Schyns & von Collani, 2002).

202


3. Table 1 showed the academic performance of students in English and Filipino. The results indicates that the students perform better in English than in Filipino.

203


3. Table 1 shows the academic performance of students in English and Filipino. The results indicate that the students performed better in English than in Filipino.

204

USEFUL MARKERS

205

Useful Markers

Ordering points or sequencing

Firstly, …; secondly, …; finally,…

Adding something

Moreover, …; Furthermore,…; In addition,…; Additionally,…

206

Comparing (similarity)

Similarly,…; … likewise,…; equally,…

Comparing (difference – establishing contrast)

However,…; in fact,…; On the other hand,…; rather,…; In contrast, …; On the contrary,…; Nevertheless,…; Nonetheless,…; …, yet …; Despite…; In spite of…; Notwithstanding…

207

Introducing a result

Consequently…; Therefore…; Hence,…; As a result,…; Thus,…; So …; Then…

Useful Markers

Exemplifying

For example,…; For instance,…; Notably,…

208

Re-statingIn other words,…; that is,…; namely,…

Generalizing In general, …; generally,…; on the whole,…

Summarizing In summary,…; In conclusion,…

Useful Markers

209

COMMON PROBLEMSGrammar, Style and Conventions

Common Errors in

Grammar

•Plurals and singulars

Datum/data (the data were categorized…)

Phenomenon/phenomena (… was understood to be a

phenomenon)

Focus/foci (or focuses) (The foci of this study were … )

Criterion/criteria

Research/information (used as non-countable nouns in the singular)

Pupil’s (possessive-singular)

Pupils’ (possessive-plural)

Plurals and Singulars

212

Child’s (possessive-singular)

Children’s (possessive-plural)

Plurals and Singulars

213

• Affect/effect

When these words mean influence, affect is used as a verb and effect is used as a noun. e.g., Chocolate affects my skin badly. The effects of chocolate on my skin are disastrous.

Often Confused Terms

214

Its/it’s

Its is used when you are talking about something belonging to the thing you have already mentioned.

It’s is a contraction or a shortened form of “It is” or “It has” - the apostrophe stands for the letter omitted.

215

Its/it’s

Example: The methodology appears in Chapter 3. Its approach is principally quantitative. (It’s a pity it couldn’t also be qualitative.)

216

Both these words introduce information that is related to a word or phrase that appeared earlier.

That or which?

217

“That” is used when you wish to specify more closely the defining characteristics of the word or phrase (the word or phrase that appeared earlier).

218

That or which?

“Which” is used to provide extra information rather than to specify or define. You need a comma before “which”, but not before “that” (“that” must stick to the word it is defining).

219

That or which?

‘As’ and ‘that’

Many writers use both ‘as’ and ‘that’ to introduce what other authors are saying. They both mean the same thing, so you must choose only ONE of these words.

Example: As Strunk and White (1959) argue in their widely read study of language that simplicity in language use is best. 220

Parallel Structures

1. With elements joined by coordinating conjunctions, especially and, but, and or.

Ex: Walking and running are good physical exercises.

221

http://www.towson.edu/ows/conjunctions.htm#COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Parallel Structures

2. Use parallel structure with elements in lists or in a series.

Ex: I don’t like coffee, chocolate and ice cream.

222

http://www.towson.edu/ows/comma.htm#In a Series

3. Use parallel structure with elements being compared.

Ex: I like swimming better than diving.

223

Parallel Structures

Parallel Structures

4. Use parallel structure with elements joined by a correlative conjunction.

Ex: We were told not only what to say but also what to do.

224

http://www.towson.edu/ows/conjunctions.htm#CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

In a sentence with two parts, the writer’s intention might be to give the reader one piece of information that can enlighten us about the other (main) part of the sentence.

Hanging (dangling) Modifiers

225

This extra information seems to remain hanging or dangling if the writer forgets to indicate clearly who is doing what in both parts of the sentence


226

Example:

Faulty: After failing the VCE test, the teacher helped the student. (Did the teacher fail the VCE test?)

Correct: After failing the VCE test, the student was helped by the teacher.

227

The rule is that if you have an –ing word at the beginning of the first part of the sentence, the action of that word must be carried out by the first word of the second part of the sentence.

228


The subject of the two parts should be the same, even if it is not explicitly stated in the first part.

229



To put it in grammatical terms, when we use a present participle (an ‘ing’ word) in an initial clause, but do not state the subject (the person doing the action), we expect the subject to be identified at the very beginning of the second clause (after the comma).

230

Et al. (and others)

Only one of these two words is abbreviated. Et is a whole word meaning and, while alii, a word meaning others, is abbreviated to al. (note the full stop/period mark).

231

Et al. (and others)

For example,

“Held et al. (1999) confront the question of whether Western capitalism and institutions are the drivers of globalisation”.

232

Use of the ‘&’ sign

The & (ampersand) sign in referencing appears only in brackets or in the reference list at the end of your thesis.

233

Use of the ‘&’ sign

Thus, you would write ‘Carver and Gaines (1987) conducted the first study’, or

‘The first study that examined stress focused on identifying one’s own emotions’ (Carver & Gaines, 1987).

234

Workshop Activity 3: Writing Issues

235

Directions: See if you can work out what the problems are.

1. There are a number of areas will be researched.

2. The data is relatively old, yet useful.

3. Differences among individual’s abilities to appraise and express their emotions are effected by their social learning.

236


1. There are a number of areas that will be researched.

2. The data are relatively old, yet useful.

3. Differences among individual’s abilities to appraise and express their emotions are affected by their social learning.

237


4. Having evaluated the curriculum, different teaching methods were introduced.

5. As Strunk and White (1959) argue in their widely read study of language that simplicity in language use is best.

6. There are many studies in inclusive education focus on socialization.

238


4. Having evaluated the curriculum, the teachers introduced different teaching methods.

5. Strunk and White (1959) argue in their widely read study of language that simplicity in language use is best.

6. There are many studies in inclusive education that focus/focusing on socialization.

239

APA REFERENCING STYLESTANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS

Writing In-Text Citations in

APA Style

241

Basic In-Text Citation Style

APA Style in-text citations include the author and

date, either both inside parentheses or with the

author names in the running text and the date in

parentheses.

242

Here are examples:

➢After the intervention, children increased in the

number of books read per week (Smith &

Wexwood, 2010).

Note: The "and" in Smith and Wexwood is written as an ampersand (&) inside parentheses and as the word and outside of parentheses, as shown in the examples above. 243

➢Smith and Wexwood (2010) reported that after

the intervention, children increased in the number

of books read per week.

244

Multiple In-Text Citations

When multiple studies support what you have to say,

you can include multiple citations inside the same set of

parentheses. Within parentheses, alphabetize the

studies as they would appear in the reference list and

separate them by semicolons. In the running text, you

can address studies in whatever order you wish.

245

http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2010/05/alphabetization-in-apa-style.html

http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2010/10/order-in-the-reference-list-or-the-case-of-the-maddening-initials.html

Here are two examples:

➢Studies of reading in childhood have produced mixed

results (Albright, Wayne, & Fortinbras, 2004; Gibson,

2011; Smith & Wexwood, 2010).

➢Smith and Wexwood (2010) reported an increase in the

number of books read, whereas Gibson (2011) reported

a decrease. Albright, Wayne, and Fortinbras (2004)

found no significant results.246

QUOTATIONS

Material quoted directly from another source (i.e.,

reproduced word for word from works by other

authors, your own previously published work,

material replicated from a test item, and/or verbatim

instructions to participants) must always provide the

author, year, and specific page(s) in the text citation

and include a complete entry in the reference list.247

Direct Quotation

If the quotation includes fewer than 40 words,

incorporate it in text and enclose it with double

quotation marks.

248

Direct Quotations

According to Palladino and Wade (2010), “a flexible

mind is a healthy mind” (p. 147).

In 2010, Palladino and Wade noted that “a flexible

mind is a healthy mind” (p. 147).

249

This idea was recently explored by Palladino and Wade (2010). They noted

that "a flexible mind is a healthy mind" (Palladino & Wade, 2010, p. 147).

Direct Quotations

In fact, “a flexible mind is a healthy mind” (Palladino

& Wade, 2010, p. 147).

“A flexible mind is a healthy mind,” according to

Palladino and Wade’s (2010, p. 147) longitudinal

study.

This idea was recently explored by Palladino and Wade (2010). They noted

that "a flexible mind is a healthy mind" (Palladino & Wade, 2010, p. 147).

Direct Quotations

Palladino and Wade’s (2010) results indicate that “a

flexible mind is a healthy mind” (p. 147).

If the quotation includes more than 40 words, it should be treated as a block quotation, meaning that it is displayed in a freestanding block of text without quotation marks.

252

Direct Quotations

BLOCK QUOTATIONS

Weston (1948) argues that:

One of the most important phases of our specialguests was to get information that would throw light ondegeneration of the facial pattern that occurs so oftenin our modern civilization. This has its expression in thenarrowing and lengthening of the face and thedevelopment of crooked teeth (p. 174).

253

Simonsen (2012) outlines the two opposing viewpoints:

Freedom of research is undoubtedly a cherished ideal inour society. In that respect research has an interest inbeing free, independent and unrestricted. Such interestsweigh against regulations. On the other hand, researchshould also be valid, verifiable, and unbiased, to attain theoverarching goal of gaining obtaining [sic] generalizableknowledge (p. 46).

BLOCK QUOTATIONS

254

INDIRECT QUOTATION/PARAPHRASING

If material is paraphrased (i.e., restated in your

own words), always provide the author and date in

the in-text citation.

Giving meaning to specific symbols such as sounds and marks is considered to be the origin of written language (Samovar & Porter, 1997).

255

Citing Sources without an Individual or Group

Author

If your source does not include an individual author or

group author, use the title (or a shortened version of

the title) in your citation.

NOTE: Always check the entire source before determining the source has no author. Especially for

online sources, sometimes the author's name can be found at the bottom of the page, in small print,

or on a home page. 256

Titles of articles, chapters, and parts of websites

are enclosed in quotation marks.

Teens with depression find it difficult to

concentrate on schoolwork or extracurricular

activities (“Teens and Depression,” 2001).

257

Citing Sources with a Group as Author

Some websites (and other sources) are authored by a group (an association, organization, government agency, corporation, etc.), rather than by anindividual author. In these cases, use the group name in your citation.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (2009) indicates that

over a third of sociologists are teachers.258

Websites

However, when you are citing a particular

document or piece of information from a

website, include both a reference list entry and

an in-text citation. The in-text citation includes

the author and date (Author, date), as with any

other APA Style citation.

259

Brody, J. E. (2007, December 11). Mental reserves keep brain agile. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com

260

Websites

How do you cite in text a web page that lists no

author?

Cite in text the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the title) and the year. Use double quotation marks around the title or abbreviated title:

("All 33 Chile Miners," 2010).

Note: Use the full title of the web page if it is short for the parenthetical citation. Articles found on theweb, like the example above, are not italicized in the reference entry and are not italicized but enclosedin quotations in the in-text citation, just like a newspaper or magazine article. 261

Websites

When there is no author for a web page, the title moves to the first position of the reference entry:

Example:

All 33 Chile miners freed in flawless rescue. (2010, October 13). Retrieved fromhttp://www.msnbc.com/id/39625809/ns/worldnews -americas

262

Websites

How do you cite website material that has no author, no year, and no page numbers?

Because there is no date and no author, your text

citation would include the title (or short title) "n.d."

for no date:

("Heuristic," n.d.). 263

Websites

The entry in the reference list might look something

like this:

Heuristic. (n.d.). In Merriam-Webster’s online

dictionary (11th ed.). Retrieved from

http:www.m-com/dictionary/heuristic

264

Use secondary sources sparingly, for instance,

when the original work is out of print, unavailable

through usual sources, or not available in English.

How do you cite a source that you found in

another source?

265

Give the secondary source in the reference list; in

text, name the original work and give a citation for

the secondary source.

How do you cite a source that you found in

another source?

266

For example:

If Allport's work is cited in Nicholson and you

did not read Allport's work, list the Nicholson

reference in the reference list. In the text, use

the following citation:

Allport's diary (as cited in Nicholson, 2003).

267

Interviews

The citation of interviews depends on the nature of

the interview.

Third-party interviews: If the interview is in a form

that is recoverable (e.g., a recording, transcript,

published Q&A), use the reference format

appropriate for the source in which the interview is

available. 268

Informational interviews: If you have interviewed

someone for information about your topic and that

person has agreed to be identified as a source, cite the

source as a personal communication (in text only):

(G. Fink-Nottle, personal communication, April 5,

2011)269

Personal communications do not have reference

list entries because they cannot be retrieved.

270

Interviews of research participants: No citation is

needed for remarks made by participants in the

research on which you’re reporting.

Do not cite these as personal communications;

this would breach the participants’ guarantee of

confidentiality.

271

Workshop Activity 4: In-text Citation

272

Directions: . See if you can work out what the problems are.

• To Pethe, Chaudhari, & Dhar (1999), this is occupational self-efficacy which refers to an individual’s own ability and competence to perform efficiently in a given occupation.

• Johnson et. al. (2003) reviewed many researches on gifted mathematical thinkers.

• Carver & Gaines (1987) did one of the first studies which examined stress.

273


• To Pethe, Chaudhari and Dhar (1999), this is occupational self-efficacy which refers to an individual’s own ability and competence to perform efficiently in a given occupation.

• Johnson et al. (2003) reviewed many researches on gifted mathematical thinkers.

• Carver and Gaines (1987) did one of the first studies which examined stress.

274


• According to Wong (2016, p.16), he states that the Internet is a useful research tool.

• Needs are particularly acute during the first 48 hours after a rapid-onset disaster; during this time, many survivors may die if not given the assistance they require (Todd and Todd, 2011.)

• Teaching requires more than a college degree and some patience. Responding to student needs and getting the class involved in the learning process would set them up for success. (Wells, R., 2012).

275


• According to Wong (2016), the Internet is a useful research tool.

• Needs are particularly acute during the first 48 hours after a rapid-onset disaster; during this time, many survivors may die if not given the assistance they require (Todd & Todd, 2011).

• Teaching requires more than a college degree and some patience. Responding to student needs and getting the class involved in the learning process would set them up for success (Wells, 2012).

276


• According to Wong (2016), the Internet is a useful research tool.

• Needs are particularly acute during the first 48 hours after a rapid-onset disaster; during this time, many survivors may die if not given the assistance they require (Todd &Todd, 2011.)

• Teaching requires more than a college degree and some patience. Responding to student needs and getting class involved in the learning process will set them up for success. (Wells, R., 2012).

277

THE REFERENCE LIST

•Begin your reference list on a new page and title it References, then center the title on the page.

Source: http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/

Reference list: General notes

279


•Double-space your reference list and have a hanging indent

• Left align the first line of each reference with subsequent lines indented to the right to a width by 5 -7 spaces or 1.25 cm.

Source: http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/ 280

•All of the references in the reference list must also be cited in the text.

•All references cited in text must also be included in the reference list (unpublished items, such as personal correspondence, are an exception).

281


•List the references in alphabetical order by author surname/family name according to the first listed author.

(Note: the order of the authors on a document is important, do not rearrange them)

282



•Where there are two articles with the same authors and date, order the references alphabetically by article title and add a letter suffix to the year of publication (e.g. 2003a, 2003b...).

283

•Provide organization names in full, unless they are obviously recognizable as abbreviations (e.g. APA for American Psychological Association).

•Do not add full stops to URLs (e.g. http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/)

284


•In an article, chapter or book title, capitalize only the first word of the title and of the subtitle, if any, and any proper nouns.

(Note: book titles should be italicized)

285



•In a periodical, journal, or serial title, give the title in full, in upper and lower case letters. The title should be italicized (e.g. Harvard Business Review)

286


•APA requires use of an en dash between pagination numbers. An en dash is longer and thinner than a hyphen.

287


Type in an en dash, or if an en dash is unavailable on the keyboard, use a single hyphen.

In either case there is no space before or after.

288

REFERENCE LIST

•AUTHORS

289

Single Author

Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social

development. Current Directions in

Psychological Science, 11, 7-10.

290

Two Authors

Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood

management across affective states: The hedonic

contingency hypothesis. Journal of Personality and

Social Psychology, 66, 1034-1048.291

Three to Seven Authors

Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., Harlow,

T., & Bach, J. S. (1993). There's more to self-esteem

than whether it is high or low: The importance of

stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and

Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204. 292

More Than Seven Authors

Miller, F. H., Choi, M. J., Angeli, L. L., Harland, A. A., Stamos,

J. A., Thomas, S. T., . . . Rubin, L. H. (2009). Web site

usability for the blind and low-vision user. Technical

Communication, 57, 323-335.

List by last names and initials; commas separate author names. After the sixth author's name,

use an ellipses in place of the author names. Then provide the final author name. There should

be no more than seven names.

Organization as Author

American Psychological Association. (2010).

Unknown Author

Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th

ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-

Webster.

294

Two or More Works by the Same Author

Berndt, T. J. (1981).

Berndt, T. J. (1999).

Note: Use the author's name for all entries and list the entries by the year(earliest comes first.)

295

Two or More Works by the Same Author

Berndt, T. J. (1999). Friends' influence on students'

adjustment to school. Educational Psychologist, 34,

15-28.

Berndt, T. J., & Keefe, K. (1995). Friends' influence on

adolescents' adjustment to school. Child

Development, 66, 1312-1329.Note: When an author appears both as a sole author and, in another citation, as thefirst author of a group, list the one-author entries first. 296

Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year

Berndt, T. J. (1981a). Age changes and changes over time in prosocial

intentions and behavior between friends. Developmental

Psychology, 17, 408-416.

Berndt, T. J. (1981b). Effects of friendship on prosocial intentions and

behavior. Child Development, 52, 636- 643.297

Introductions, Prefaces, Forewords, and Afterwords

Funk, R., & Kolln, M. (1998). Introduction. In E. W.

Ludlow (Ed.),Understanding English

grammar (pp. 1-2). Needham, MA: Allyn

and Bacon.

298

ONLINE REFERENCES

Source: Purdue OWL APA Format. https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/06/

300

Article from an Online Periodical with DOI Assigned

Brownlie, D. (2007). Toward effective poster

presentations: An annotated bibliography. European

Journal of Marketing, 41, 1245-1283.

doi:10.1108/03090560710821161

301

Article from an Online Periodical with DOI Assigned

Wooldridge, M.B., & Shapka, J. (2012). Playing with

technology: Mother-toddler interaction scores lower

during play with electronic toys. Journal of Applied

Developmental Psychology, 33(5), 211-218.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2012.05.005

Article from an Online Periodical with no DOI Assigned

Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the

nature of human rights. Journal of Buddhist

Ethics, 8. Retrieved from

http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html

302

Article from a Database

Smyth, A. M., Parker, A. L., & Pease, D. L. (2002).

A study of enjoyment of peas. Journal of

Abnormal Eating, 8(3), 120-125. Retrieved

from http://www.articlehomepage.com/full/

url/303

Abstract

Hendricks, J., Applebaum, R., & Kunkel, S. (2010). A

world apart? Bridging the gap between theory

and applied social gerontology. Gerontologist,

50(3), 284-293. Abstract retrieved from Abstracts

in Social Gerontology database. (Accession No.

50360869)304

Newspaper Article

Parker-Pope, T. (2008, May 6). Psychiatry handbook linked

to drug industry. The New York Times. Retrieved

from http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/05/06/psych

iatry-handbook-linked-to-drug-industry/?_r=0

305

Electronic Books

De Huff, E. W. (n.d.). Taytay’s tales: Traditional

Pueblo Indian tales. Retrieved from

http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/dehuff/taytay

/taytay.html

306

Electronic Books

Davis, J. (n.d.). Familiar birdsongs of the

Northwest. Available from

http://www.powells.com/cgi-bin/biblio? inkey=1-

9780931686108-0

307

Dissertation/Thesis from a Database

Biswas, S. (2008). Dopamine D3 receptor: A

neuroprotective treatment target in

Parkinson's disease. Retrieved from

ProQuest Digital Dissertations. (AAT

3295214)308

Online Encyclopedias and Dictionaries

Feminism. (n.d.). In Encyclopædia Britannica

online. Retrieved from

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/

topic/724633/feminism

309

Workshop Activity 5: Reference Entries

310


• Godfrey, Donald. (2005) Adapting Historical Citations to APA Style. Journal of broadcasting & electronic media, 49(4), pp. 544-547. DOI: 10.1207/s15506878jobem4904_15.

• Eagly, A. H., and Carli, L. L. 1981. “Sex of researchers and sex-typed communications as determinants of sex differences in influenceability: a meta-analysis of social influences studies.” Psychological Bulletin, 90, 1-20.

311


Eagly, A. H. & Carli, L. L. 1981. Sex of researchers and sex-typed

communications as determinants of sex differences in

influenceability: A meta-analysis of social influences studies.

Psychological Bulletin, 90, 1-20.

Godfrey, D. (2005). Adapting historical citations to APA style. Journal of

Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 49(4), pp. 544-547. doi:

10.1207/s15506878jobem4904_15.312

HEADINGS, TABLES AND FIGURES

Headings

There are 5 heading levels in APA.

The 6th edition of the APA manual revises and simplifies

previous heading guidelines.

Regardless of the number of levels, always use the headings in

order, beginning with level 1.

314

APA Headings

Level Format

1 Centered, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Headings

2 Left-aligned, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

3Indented, boldface, lowercase heading with a period. Begin body text after the

period.

4Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase heading with a period. Begin body text

after the period.

5Indented, italicized, lowercase heading with a period. Begin body text after the

period.

Method (Level 1)

Site of Study (Level 2)

Participant Population (Level 2)

Teachers. (Level 3)

Students. (Level 3)

Results (Level 1)

Spatial Ability (Level 2)

Test one. (Level 3)

Teachers with experience. (Level 4)

Teachers in training. (Level 4)

Test two. (Level 3)

Note: In APA Style, the Introduction section never gets a heading and headings are not indicated by letters or

numbers. Levels of headings will depend upon the length and organization of your paper. Regardless, always begin

with level one headings and proceed to level two, etc.

Sample 1

316

Chapter I

The Problem and Its Setting (Level 1)

The Research Problem (Level 2)

Statement of the Problem. (Level 3)

Hypothesis. (Level 3)

Theoretical Framework (Level 2)

Conceptual Framework (Level 2)

Review of Literature and Studies (Level 2)

Motivation. (Level 3)

Intrinsic Motivation. (Level 4)

Extrinsic Motivation. (Level 4)

Mastery of Goals. (Level 3)

Sample 2

317

Seriation

APA also allows for seriation in the body text

to help authors organize and present key

ideas.

318

On the basis of four generations of usability testing on the Purdue OWL, the Purdue OWL Usability Team recommended the following:

1. Move the navigation bar from the right to the left side of the OWL pages.

2. Integrate branded graphics (the Writing Lab and OWL logos) into the text on the OWL homepage.

3. Add a search box to every page of the OWL.

4. Develop an OWL site map.

5. Develop a three-tiered navigation system.319

For seriation within sentences, authors

may use letters:

On the basis of research conducted by the usability

team, OWL staff have completed (a) the OWL site map; (b) integrating graphics with text on the OWL homepage; (c) search boxes on all OWL pages except the orange OWL resources (that is pending; we do have a search page); (d) moving the navigation bar to the left side of pages on all OWL resources except in the orange area (that is pending); (e) piloting the first phase of the three-tiered navigation system, as illustrated in the new Engagement section.

Authors may also separate points

with bullet lists:

On the basis of the research conducted by the usability team, OWL staff have completed

• the OWL site map;

• integrating graphics with text on the OWL homepage;

• search boxes on all OWL pages except the orange OWL resources (that is

pending; we do have a search page);

• moving the navigation bar to the left side of pages on all OWL resources

except in the orange area (that is pending);

• piloting the first phase of the three-tiered navigation system, as

illustrated in the new Engagement section.321

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Formatting Tables

Source: http://psychology.about.com/od/apastyle/ig/APA-Format-Examples/apa-table.htm

Basic Rules for Tables in APA

Format

➢All tables should be numbered (e.g. Table 1, Table 2, Table 3).

➢Each table should have an individual title, italicized and presented with each word capitalized (except and, in, of, with, etc.).

For example: Correlations Between Age and Test Scores.


Format

➢Try to ensure that your title is neither too general nor too specific.

➢Each table should begin on a separate page.


Format

➢Horizontal lines can be used to separate information and make it clearer.

Do not use vertical lines in an APA format table.


Format

➢According to the new sixth-edition of the APA manual, a table can be either single-spaced or double-spaced. The key is to keep the table readable and the spacing consistent.


Format

➢All tables should be referenced in the text of the paper.


Format

➢Tables should be last, after your reference list and appendices.

➢You should use a font that is large enough to read without magnification.

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Variable X Variable

Y

Computed

r Value

Tabular Value of r Degree of Relationship Decision

Lecture

Filipino 0.27 .195 Moderate Correlation Rejected

English 0.45 .195 Moderate Correlation Rejected

Mathematics 0.32 .195 Moderate Correlation Rejected

Science 0.50 .195 Moderate Correlation Rejected

Araling Panlipunan 0.48 .195 Moderate Correlation Rejected

Group Dynamics


English 0.75 .195 Very High Correlation Rejected

Mathematics 0.33 .195 Moderate Correlation Rejected

Science 0.85 .195 Very High Correlation Rejected

Araling Panlipunan 0.21 .195 Negligible Correlation Rejected

Self-Directed Learning


English 0.22 .195 Negligible Correlation Rejected

Mathematics 0.60 .195 High Correlation Rejected

Science 0.86 .195 Very High Correlation Rejected

Araling Panlipunan 0.71 .195 High Correlation Rejected

Table 8

Significant Relationship Between the Teaching Methods used by OHSP Teacher and Academic Performance of OHSP Student

Source: Lubi, 2016.

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Table 5

Distribution of Respondents across Educational Qualification

Educational Qualification Frequency Percent

With MA units 4 9

CAR 14 33

MaEd/MAEM 8 19

Wih Ph.D. Units 8 19

PH.D/Ed.D. 9 21

Total 43 100

Source: Quiambao, 2016.

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Subject Area(s) Grade (Based on K to 12 Grading System)

Descriptive Equivalent

Filipino 80.39 Approaching Proficiency

English 79.28 Developing

3 Mathematics 82.42 Approaching Proficiency

Science 78.40 Developing

55 Araling Panlipunan 81.83 Approaching Proficiency

Overall 80.46 Approaching Proficiency

Table 6

Level of Academic Performance of OHSP Students in Filipino, English, Mathematics, Science and Araling Panlipunan

Source: Lubi, 2016.

Can you spot the error?

Source: Formatting tables. (n.d.). http://psychology.about.com/od/apastyle/ig/APA-Format-Examples/apa-table.htm 333

Can you spot the error?

Table 1

Percentage of Students Who Admitted to Each Type of Cheating Behavior

Cheating Behavior Percentage

Give another student an answer during exam 52

Place script so others can read your answer 49

Copy Continuous Assessment 35

Ask another for an answer in exam 31

Read answers on another’s script 19

Use handset to send texts with answers 1

Write notes on body parts of clothing 0

Admitted to any form of cheating 69

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Figures

Figures are to be numbered without a suffix or

indicator of the chapter in which they appear:

Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, and so on.

335

Figures

In the text, capitalize the words table or figure

when referring to them (for example: see Table

12). Refer to the specific table number, not to

the page number on which it appears or as the

table below.

336

Figures

In theses and dissertations, tables and figures are

inserted into the narrative as close to the text that

introduces them as is practical.

Do not split a table unless it is too large to fit on

one entire page.

337

Figures

In theses and dissertations, tables and figures are

inserted into the narrative as close to the text that

introduces them as is practical.

Do not split a table unless it is too large to fit on

one entire page.

338

Figures

Placing a table on its own landscape-oriented page

is permissible.

Do not place any text on a page if a table or figure

takes up 75% or more of the page.

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Sample Figure

Writing Your Abstract

Abstract

The word abstract comes from the Latin abstractum, which means a condensed form of a longer piece of writing.

There are two main types of abstract: (1) Descriptive and (2) Informative abstract.

Source: “Writing Abstracts.” (2014). The University of Adelaide. Retrieved from https://www.adelaide.edu.au/writingcentre/learning_guides/learningGuide_writingAnAbstract.pdf

342

Abstract

The type of abstract you write depends on your discipline area.

Source: “Writing Abstracts.” (2014). The University of Adelaide. Retrieved from https://www.adelaide.edu.au/writingcentre/learning_guides/learningGuide_writingAnAbstract.pdf 343

Abstract

Abstracts are important parts of reports and research papers and sometimes academic assignments.

344

Abstract

The abstract is often the last item that you write, but the first thing people read when they want to have a quick overview of the whole paper.

345

Abstract

Leave writing the abstract to the end because you will have a clearer picture of all your findings and conclusions.

346

When writing your abstract, you need to answer these questions.

1. What was done?

2. Why was it done?

3. How was it done?

4. What was found?

5. What is the significance of the findings?347

Why do we write abstracts?

How do we write an abstract?

➢First re-read your paper/report for an overview.

➢Then read each section and condense the information in each down to 1-2 sentences.

➢Next read these sentences again to ensure that they cover the major points in your paper.

348


➢Ensure you have written something for each of the key points outlined above for either the descriptive or informative abstract.

349


➢Check the word length and further reduce your words if necessary by cutting out unnecessary words or rewriting some of the sentences into a single, more succinct sentence.

350


➢Edit for flow and expression.

351

What makes a good abstract?

A good abstract:

➢uses one well-developed paragraph that is coherent and concise, and is able to stand alone as a unit of information

352


A good abstract:

➢ covers all the essential academic elements of the full-length paper, namely the background, purpose, focus, methods, results and conclusions

353


A good abstract:

➢uses one well-developed paragraph that is coherent and concise, and is able to stand alone as a unit of information

354

355

➢contains no information not included in the paper


A good abstract:

➢is written in plain English and is understandable to a wider audience, as well as to your discipline-specific audience

356


A good abstract:


A good abstract:

➢ often uses passive structures in order to report on findings, focusing on the issues rather than people

357


A good abstract:

➢uses the language of the original paper, often in a more simplified form for the more general reader

358


A good abstract:

➢usually does not include any referencing

359


A good abstract:

➢ in publications such as journals, it is found at the beginning of the text, while in academic assignments, it is placed on a separate preliminary page.

360

Two types of abstracts

➢Descriptive abstracts

➢ Informative abstracts

361

Descriptive Abstracts

Descriptive abstracts are generally used for humanities and social science papers or psychology essays.

This type of abstract is usually very short (50-100 words).

362

Descriptive Abstracts

Most descriptive abstracts have certain key parts in common.

They are: background; purpose; particular interest/focus of paper; and overview of contents (not always included)

363

Informative abstracts

Informative abstracts are generally used for science, engineering or psychology reports.

You must get the essence of what your report is about, usually in about 200 words.

Most informative abstracts also have key parts in common.

364

Abstracts

Each of these parts might consist of 1-2 sentences.

The parts include: ❖background ❖aim or purpose of research ❖method used ❖findings/results ❖Conclusion 365

Abstract (Stevenson, 2004) Key Parts

The opportunity to design and deliver short programs onreferencing and avoiding plagiarism for transnational UniSAstudents has confirmed the necessity of combating both the‘all-plagiarism-is-cheating’ reaction and the ‘just-give-them-a-referencing-guide’ response. The notion of referencing isbut the tip of a particularly large and intricate iceberg.Consequently, teaching referencing is not adequate ineducating students to avoid plagiarism. In this presentation, Iwill use the transnational teaching experience to highlightwhat educating to avoid plagiarism entails.

background

purpose and aim particular

Particular focus of paper

Model descriptive abstract


366

Abstract (Zoltan, 2005) Key Parts

Metalinguistic awareness contributes to effective writing at university. Writing is a meaning-makingprocess where linguistic, cognitive, social and creative factors are at play. University students need tomaster the skills of academic writing not only for getting their degree but also for their future career.It is also significant for lecturers to know who our students are, how they think and how we can bestassist them. This study examines first-year undergraduate Australian and international engineeringstudents as writers of academic texts in a multicultural setting at the University of Adelaide. Aquestionnaire and interviews were used to collect data about students’ level of metalinguisticawareness, their attitudes toward, expectations for, assumptions about and motivation for writing.The preliminary results of the research show that students from different cultures initially havedifferent concepts about the academic genres and handle writing with different learning and writingstyles, but those with a more developed metalanguage are more confident and motivated. Theconclusion can also be drawn that students’ level of motivation for academic writing positivelycorrelates with their opinion about themselves as writers. Following an in-depth multi-dimensionalanalysis of preliminary research results, some recommendations for writing instruction will also bepresented.

background

purpose and aim

methods

Results

conclusions


Model Informative Abstract

COMPONENTS OF A THESIS/DISSERTATION

Front Parts

• Title Page

•Approval Sheet

•Acknowledgements

•Dedication

• Table of Contents

• List of Tables,/Figures/Illustrations

•Abstract

Body of the Thesis/Dissertation: Chapter I

Chapter 1: The Problem and Its Setting

• (Background of the Study/Introduction)

• Review of Related Literature and Studies

• Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

• The Research Problem/Statement of the Problem

• Hypothesis

• Significance of the Study

• Definition of Terms

Body of the Thesis/Dissertation: Chapter II

Chapter II: Methods

• Research Design• Research Respondents/Participants• Research Instrument/s• Ethical Considerations• Data Gathering Procedure• Treatment of Data

Body of the Thesis/

Dissertation: Chapter III

Chapter III: Results and Discussions

• (Presentation of Data in Tabular Form)

• (Discussions – Analysis, Interpretation, Meaning/

Implications)

Body of the Thesis/

Dissertation: Chapter IV

Chapter IV: Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations

• Summary of Findings

• Conclusions

• Recommendations

• References

BACK PARTSAppendices

Curriculum Vitae

ReferencesFormatting Table. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://psychology.about.com/od/apastyle/ig/APA- Format-

Examples/apa-table.htm

Hon, L. C. (n.d.). Guidelines for writing a thesis or dissertation.

Retrieved from https://www.jou.ufl.edu/

Monash University. (2014). Writing a thesis in education. (2014).

Retrieved from : http://www.monash.edu/education

375

References

Phillips, E. M., & Pugh, D. S. (2000). How to get a PhD (3rd ed.).

Bristol, USA: Open University.

Purdue OWL APA Format. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/06/

Steps in writing the thesis or dissertation. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://graduate.utep.edu/

Theory and Why It is Important. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www.esourceresearch.org376

References

Wacker, J. G. (1998). A definition of theory: Research guidelines for

different theory-building research methods in operations

management. Journal of Operations Management, 16: 361-

385

Writing Abstracts.” (2014). The University of Adelaide. Retrieved

from

https://www.adelaide.edu.au/writingcentre/learning_guides/

learningGuide_writingAnAbstract.pdf377

THANK YOU !

378

Q & A

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ENHANCING RESEARCH WRITING SKILLS

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