UVODNO PREDAVANJE

03.10.2012. – vježbe –

The bed has been slept in by Napoleon.

= Napoleon slept in this bed.

Genitive case opisuje imenicu umjesto da joj određuje pripadnost.

Future uvijek ima modalnost.

Middle Verbs (fit, suite, have,etc.) ne dozvoljavaju pasivizaciju.

You must abide by the contract.

As a result , he applied himself even less in the second half of the course, so by the

time he caught the flue, all was lost.

The answer (S) lies (V) in solving the problem of how they can live their own culture

and interact with ours.

Despite their apparent intransitivity, the last pair of verbs we considered also occured

in the passive voice.

Pro – form is any word or phrase that refers to another expression without repeating it.

the beautiful flower in the vase

NP = determiner + premodifier + noun head + postmodifier

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OBRAZAC ZA PREDSTAVLJANJE SINTAGME

X (Y) = noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition

Spec = specifier

Adjunct je dodatni opis, informacija o head-u. Nije vezan za upravnu riječ na način da head

ne može da funkcioniše bez nje. Oni su optional.

Complement je obavezan dodatak head – a. Komplementacija u engleskom je s desna.

Srednji bar nivo je recursive, može da se ponavlja onoliko puta koliko je potrebno.

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XP

Spec X'

YP(adjunct) X'

X'(head)

ZP(complement)

16.10.2012.

Phrase is a group of words which has a meaning when standing on its own.

Syntax deals with the inner structure of a sentence. Sentence is a complete thought usually

starting with a capital letter and ending with punctuation sign – fulstop, exclamation mark or

question mark. Sentence is a string of words in linear order. Constituents are parts of a

sentence. Predicate contains a verb phrase. We can divide sentence into meaningful units

called constituents which consist of specific string of words and must be arranged in specific

order (SPO).

Engleski se gradi iz sintakse i stoga je taj red riječi. U engleskom se moramo pouzdati u red

riječi u rečenici da bismo odredili sintaksičke funkcije. SVO je uvijek obligatory čak i kada je

neki od konstituenata izostavljen, on je zero jer postoji nešto što se zove trace. Adverbijal nije

uvijek obligatory.

Prelazni glagoli mogu da vrše prelaz u pasiv tj. kada zahtijevaju objekat. Postoji malo veća

grupa prelaznih glagola koji ipak ne mogu u pasiv poput have.

Mary is beautiful (SC).

This type of predicate is copular because of the verb 'to be' which is copular.

Tree diagram

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TP (S)

NP VP

SUBJECT

Semantic Roles of Subject

Subjects play a number of different semantic roles in English and doer of the action is one of

them. Subject can also be an agent. It is the classic doer of the action. An agent subject is an

animate being that acts deliberately, with intent.

My sister washed the car.

An agent subject can occur with or without a direct object. A causer subject is either an

animate being who acts without volition or an inanimate entity. We distinguish causer from

agent because the semantic of the two roles are quite different. A sentence like:

Rob tripped Joy.

is potentially ambiguous. If Rob tripped Joy just to see Rob fall Rob is an agent, but if Rob

tripped Joy accidentally then Rob is a causer. It is not always easy to tell whether an animate

subject is an agent or a causer. Out of context we don't know whether the following subject is

acting deliberately or not.

The child amused the adult.

Inanimate entities lack intention or volition by their very nature. Causers can be things like

rocks, forces like tornadoes or abstract qualities like love.

Love hurts.

Instrument Subject

An instrument subject as the label implies an inanimate entity which acts on someone or

something because it is being used as an instrument. In a sentece like:

The key opened the safe.

we can assume that some unnamed agent is wielding the key because keys don't operate by

themselves. Sometimes an instrument subject allows a speaker to avoid taking responsibility.

Instrument subjects are fairly unusual in English. We most often find instruments in adverbial

prepositional phrases:

Mary opened the safe with the key.

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Experiencer Subject

Experiencer subjects are always animate, usually human. An experiencer experiences a

sensory perception or a psychological state, in other words, an experiencer is not doing

anything but is instead experiencing something through the senses or the mental faculties. The

verbs that cooccure with experiencer subjects relate to conciousness. They are verbs that

reflect private internal states:

Mary tasted some vine.

Mary tasted some pepper in the vine.

Ako perceptivne glagole stavimo u progressive oni mjenjaju značenje.

Patient Subject

A patient is never volitional, never exercises control, it is an entity to which things happen.

The water boiled.

There can be only one patient in a simple sentence and if there is a direct object it, not the

subject, will carry the semantic role.

Described and Located Subject

Some subjects are simply being characterized or described by the information in the

predicate. These subjects always cooccur with copulas, verbs that have little independent

meaning but relate the information in the predicate back to the subject.

The food is French.

Empty ' It'

Whenever a pronoun refers back to an item that has already been introduced into the

discourse the pronoun is making anaphoric reference:

Nataly bought a new dress. It is red.

There are however contexts in which 'it' does not have anaphoric reference:

It is hot.

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In such cases 'it' is acceptably neutral because there exists no semantically meaningful

subject.

Cataphoric Subject

When a complex clause functions as the semantic subject of a sentence, a speaker will often

put that clause at the end of the sentence and replace it with the pronoun 'it'. In this case 'it' is

not semantically empty. Its semantic content is the subsequent clause.

It was obvious she was boring us.

Locative Subject

Locative subjects name a location.

Banjaluka is sunny.

Temporal Subject

Temporal subjects are subjects that express time.

Weekends are the best days of the week.

23.10.2012.

Subject is the most important part of the sentence. It has a theme.

Mary sings beautifully.

(Constituency tests:

1. Subject doesn't change the form in interrogative

2. Ask 'wh' or 'yes/no' question)

Indirektni objekat obično stoji prije direktnog.

John saved me a seat.

She (S) is (V) beautiful (SC). – Značenje kopuli daje upravo komplement.

I (S) name (V) the ship (O) Victoria (OC). – Objašnjava, proširuje objekat.

Inače je red riječi u engleskom okamenjen, ne smije se micati ni jedna riječ ako za to nema

jako dobar razlog koji se sintaksički mora vidjeti.

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DIRECT OBJECT

Semantic Roles of the Direct Object

Traditional school grammars often describe the direct object as the receiver of the action but

it also reflects a variety of other semantic relationships.

Patient

Patients are always affected by the action of the verb to a greater or lesser degree.

I smashed my car.

Experiencer

If the verb causes the direct object to achieve a new psycological state then the object is an

experiencer. It doesn't matter weather the subject is an agent (volitional and animate) or a

causer (non-volitional, animate and inanimate). In a sentence experiencer is a sub-cathegory

of a patient in that the direct object is affected by the action of the verb in a very particular

way.

My lessons utterly bore my students.

Created

If the object is actually brought into existance by the action of the verb it is called created.

This actually means that occasionally a transitive verb creates a direct object rather than

affecting an already existing entity.

Agatha C. written a novel.

Locative

Sometimes a noun phrase expresses location.

S.M. climbed the Mount Everest.

Empty 'It'

Let's call it a day.

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SIMPLE SENTENCE

It is a type of sentence that consists of subject and predicate. According to the sentence

structure it can be:

1. Declarative

2. Interrogative

3. Imperative

4. Exclamative

Semantically we divide them in these groups:

1. Statements

2. Questions

3. Directive

4. Exclamation

Declarative sentence is the one which in which the NP precedes the VP:

The sun is shining. (NP + VP)

In every interrogative operator precedes the subject. The predicator splits in two parts: an

oprator and the main verb.

How are you?

How do you do?

Imperative nema sva lica, tense, agreement. Nema subjekat, a osnovna razlika od uzvičnih

rečenica je u tom što uzvične uglavnom imaju subjekat.

Be quiet!

Types of questions:

1. Alternative – strukturalno liče na 'yes/no' pitanja , ali daju dva izbora

2. Yes/No

3. WH

4. Question tags

5. Rhetorical – the answer is in a way entailed in the question

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30.10.2012.

Imperatives

Pay no attention at all to all my classes.

- Zero subject, it doesn't have an overt subject

Hodam.

I'm walking. – prop-drop

- It always has 2nd person singular and 2nd person plural

- It is possible to have an overt subject for emphasis

You pay attention...

- na taj način mjenjamo fokus

What a bunch of crap!

izuzetno negativna konotacija, 'wh' element jeste 'wh clause' ali bez interrogative

meaning

Bugger it!

Damn it! – Imprecative (nekome na neljubazan način pokušavamo narediti da uradi

nešto)

COMPLEMENTATION

S Vintr

S Vcop SC

S Vcop A

S Vmonotr DO (monotransitive complementation – usually the verbs that can be passivized)

S Vditrans IO DO

S Vcomplextr DO OC

S Vcomplextr DO A

- Većina glagola ne pripada samo jednoj grupi već od zavisnosti od upotrebe u rečenici.

Intransitive Complementation

A verb doesn't require a complementation – intransitive.

- Pure intransitive verbs: go, die, etc.

- Verbs which can be both transitive and intransitive without any change in meaning:

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He smokes a pipe.

- Verbs which can be both transitive and intransitive with semantic change:

- When they are intransitive they have participan subject

- When they are transitive they have agent subject

Copular Complementation

1. Jedni zahtjevaju komplementaciju

2. Drugi zahtjevaju adverbijal

Predication adjuncts are types of adjuncts which are obligatory. Complement can be

adjectival if it's an adjective phrase or nominal if it's a noun phrase or predication adjunct if

it's adverbial, most often of place.

There are two types of copular verbs: current (be) and resulting (become). Verbs of seeming,

becoming, being, remaining also belong to copulas.

I feel like a cup of coffee.

Verbs can be stative or dinamic which means they can be progressive or not.

06.12.2012.

Monotransitive Complementation

1. NP as DO (with passive)

He caught the ball.

The ball was caught by him.

2. NP as DO (without passive)

I have the book.

3. 'that' clause as DO

4. 'wh' clause as DO

Can you guess what I said?

5. 'wh' infinitive clause

6. 'to' infinitive clause (without subject)

We decided to study syntax.

7. 'to' infinitive clause (with subject)

Željka wants us to help her.

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8. 'ing' clause (without subject)

He enjoys seeing him around.

9. 'ing' clause (with subject)

I hate kids quarelling.

Middle Verbs: have, cost, weigh, resemble, wave,etc.

13.11.2012.

1. živi subjekat + neživi subjekat (kolektivna imenica)

2. živi subjekat + živi objekat

3. živi + neživi objekat (apstraktna imenica ili kolektivna)

4. živi/neživi subjekat + živi objekat

Prepozicioni objekat:

1. They agreed on it.

2. I hope to see you.

Frazno prepozicioni: get down to, keep up with, put up with,etc.

I look forward to our encounter.

THAT komplementacija unutar monotranzitivne komplementacije

1. putative should

2. subjunctive

Verbs:

1. indicative

2. subjunctive (AmE)

3. they take putative should (BrE)

Which types of verbs go with putative should? Glagoli koji izražavaju mišljenje, osjećanja,

nešto naše lično. Ako koristimo indikativ to je opšta istina.

Major: Minor:

Type 1: Factual (claim) Type 3: Emotive (regret)

Type 2: Suasive (suggest) Type 4: Hypothesis (wish)

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A (indicative verb) Type 1

B (putative should) Type 2

C (mandative subjunctive verb) Type 3

D (hypothetical post or 'were' subjunctive) Type 4

Type 1: Factual verbs

We subdivide them into public and private types. The public consists of speach act verbs

introducing indirect statements (agree, admit, claim,etc.). The private type of factual verbs

expresses intelectual states such as belief and intelectual acts such as discovery. These states

and acts are private in the sense that they are not observable (assume, accept, believe, etc.).

Type 2: Suasive verbs

They can be followed by a 'that' clause either with 'putative should' or with the subjunctive. A

third posibility, a 'that' clause with an indicative verb is largely restricted to British English

(leaved, should leave, leaves). It is more difficult in the case of suasive verbs to make a

subdivision between public and private verbs. Nevertheless, generally it is useful to see a

distinction between the public verbs which describe indirect directives (request) and the

private verbs which describe states of volition or desire (intent).

Type 3: Emotive verbs

It is a small group of verbs such as regret, marvel, rejoice, and wonder which can occur with

the indicative or putative should construction but not with the subjunctive construction.

I regret that she should worry about it.

Type 4: Hypothesis

The two verbs 'wish' and 'suppose' in the imperative may be followed by a 'that' clause

containing of verb in the hypothetical past of the 'were' subjunctive.

I wish you were here.

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20.11.2012.

Extraposed subject

It appears that all of you like syntax.

In sentences with verbs like 'appear' 'that' clause is not an object of the verb, but rather an

extraposed subject. Nevertheless, it resembles other 'that' clauses in having a deletable 'that'

and in being semantically associated with the preceding word. The main verbs occuring in

this pattern form two groups of synonims – seem and appear, chance, happen and transpire.

The phrasal verbs 'come about' (happen) and 'turn out' (transpire) also belong here.

Many of the verbs which take a 'that' clause as object can also take a 'wh' interrogative

clause (confirm, consider). The use of the 'wh' interrogative clause, which generally implies

lack of knowledge on depart of the speaker is particularly common where the superordinate

clause is interrogative or negative, so the verbs like 'confirm' are used in what can be called

non-assertive context.

These are the criteria for a non-finite clause to function as DO:

1. The non-finite clause can be replaced by pronoun 'it', coreffering to a clause by a

noun phrase nominalizing the meaning of a clause

2. The non-finite clause can be made the focus of a pseudo-cleft sentence:

a. What I hate is to...

3. There is an introductory 'FOR' which appears as a marker of the construction

4. A subject pronoun in the objective case can often be replaced in formal style by a

posessive pronoun

'wh' infinitive as an object

a. I remembered to fill up the form.

I remembered filling up the form.

b. I tried to turn the key another way.

I tried turning the key another way.

c. My father taught me to ride.

My father taught me riding. (ne znam dobro jahati)

d. You deserve to shoot first.

You deserve shooting first. (= Zaslužuješ da te prvog ubijem.)

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e. I forgot to wake you up this morning.

I forgot about waking you up this morning.

f. I regret to tell you this story.

I regret telling you this story.

g. He had us all empty our pockets.

He had us all emptying our pockets. (Razlog pražnjenja je nešto što je rekao.)

h. That boy wants to watch.

That boy wants watching. (Njega treba nadgledati)

27.11.2012.

Ditransitive Complementation

1. Imamo direktni i indirektni objekat

2. Direct object is usually a NP which is inanimate and indirect object is usually a NP

which is animate.

3. Indirektni – dativ

Direktni – akuzativ

4. DO – usually a concrete noun

a. He gave his girlfriend a doll.

1. His girlfriend was given a doll.

2. A doll was given to his girlfriend.

b. He gave a doll to his girlfriend. (prepositional object)

In the ditransitive category prepositional verbs form an important group with its own

subdvisions alongside the ordinary IO pattern two main prepositional patterns may be

distinguished:

1. DO + Prepositional Object

2. IO + Prepositional Object

c. Mary told Philip her secret.

1. Mary told her secret to Philip.

2. Mary told Philip about her secret.

d. John blamed Peter for his divorce.

1. John blamed the divorce on Peter.

e. John convinced Mary (IO) that she was right (DO as 'that' clause).

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f. He promised me the car would be repaired.

04.12.2012.

1. NP as DO and IO

They offered her some money.

2. Prepositional object

Please say sometning to us.

3. IO + 'that' clause

They told me that I was ill.

4. IO + 'wh' clause

They told me what time it was.

5. IO + 'wh' infinitive clause

Mary showed us what to do.

6. IO + 'to' infinitive clause

I advised Mary to see a doctor.

7. PO + 'that' clause

He promised to me that the debt would be repaired.

!!! Potrebno je znati koja vrsta komplementa postoji, ali nije potrebno znati vrste glagola kod

ditransitive complementation.

Adjectival OC

1. Current verbs of general meaning – hold, keep, leave

2. Current factual speech act verbs – call, confess, profess, pronounce, report

3. Current volitional verbs – like, prefer, want, wish

4. Current verb of intelectual state – suppose, think, reckon, believe, consider, imagine

5. General resulting verbs – stir, send, get, make

6. Resulting verbs refering to speech act which have performative force of declarations –

declare, proclaim, certify

The best way to see whether the verb is mono or complex transitive is to passivize it. They can

also function in DO + infinitive structure.

I wish the teacher to leave me alone.

NP as OC

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All the verbs from adjectival OC group can also be used in this type of complementation.

OC following prepositional verbs

- make into, consider as, certify as, crown as (preposition not obligatory)

- intend as, take as, treat as, accept as (preposition obligatory)

Causative verb of motion (get, send):

He got his car repaired.

Ako je glagol causative onda adverbijal prati objekat (SVOA).

Object + 'to' infinitive

1. Factual verbs – Public verbs refering to speach acts (pronounce, proclaim, declare,

say, tip,etc.)

2. Factual verbs – Private verbs expressing belief (believe, consider, expect, know,

presume, think, understand,etc.)

3. Verbs of intention (intend, mean, etc.)

4. Causative verbs (get, appoint, elect, name, etc.)

5. Verbs with a modal character (allow, compel, authorise, enable, oblige, permit,

require,etc.)

6. Verbs of influencing (bribe, condemn, induce, press, encourage,etc.)

Modalnost – lični odnos prema radnji koja se vrši.

Object + Infinitive

1. Verbs of coercive meaning (let, make)

2. Perceptual verbs (feel, hear, notice)

3. Verbs 'to help' and 'to know'

Object + 'v-ing' (participial complement)

1. Verbs of perception (overhear, spy)

2. Verbs of encounter (find, leave, discover)

3. Verbs of coercive meaning

Object + 'v-ed'

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1. Causative verbs

2. Volitional verbs (want, need, like)

3. Perceptual verbs

4. Verbs for which the 'ed' participle describes a resulting state (find, discover, leave)

18.12.2012.

Adverbials

The functions of adverbials are realised by:

1. Adverb Phrase i.e. phrases with adverbs as head or sole realisation

2. NP (less common)

3. PP

4. Finite verb clause

5. Non-finite verb clauses in which the verb is infinitive; 'ing' participle, 'ed' participle

6. Verbless clauses

Adverbials may be integrated to some extent into the structures of the clause or they may be

periferal to it. If integrated they are turned adjuncts. If periferal they are turned disjuncts and

conjuncts. The distinction between the two being that conjuncts have primarily a connective

function.

An adverbial is integrated to some extent in clause structure if it is affected by such clausal

processes as negation and interrogation e.g. it is an adjunct if either it cannot appear initially

in a negative declarative clause or if it can be the focus of a question or of clause negation. In

contrast, a disjuncter and conjunct are not affected by either of these clausal processes. We

distinguish 4 positions of adverbials for the declarative form of the clause:

1. Initial position – before the subject

2. Medial position –

a. Immidiately before the first auxiliary or lexical 'be' or between two auxiliaries

or an auxiliary and lexical verb

b. Immidiately before the lexical verb or in the case of lexical 'be' before the

complement

3. Final position – after an intransitive verb or after any object or complement.

If there are no auxiliaries present 2a and 2b are neutralised.

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Adjuncts

Certain syntactic features are general to adjuncts:

1. They can come within the scope of predication – predication pro-forms or predication

elipsis

2. They can be the focus of limiter adverbials, such as 'only'

3. They can be the focus of additive adverbials such as 'also'

4. They can be the focus of the cleft sentence

Disjuncts

Most distjuncts are prepositional phrases or clauses, disjuncts may be divided into two main

classes: style and attitudional.

Style disjuncts convey the speakers comment on the form of what she is saying, defining in

some way under what conditions she is speaking:

Very frankly, I'm tired.

Attitudional disjuncts comment on the content of the communication:

Obviously, everybody adores syntax.

Conjuncts

Most conjuncts are Adverb Phrases or PPs.

Alternatively, I'll skip the class tomorow.

Subjuncts

If adverbials have, to a greater or lesser degree, a subordinate role in comparisson to other

clause elements they are called subjuncts. This is made manifest by the fact that they cannot

usually be treated grammatically in any of the four ways stated as being applicable to

adjuncts. The subordinate role may apply to the whole clause in which the subjunct operates.

Such subjuncts are called wide orientation. Alternatively, the subjunct may be subordinated

to an individual clause element (usually subject) or even to an item forming part of the clause

element (verb). These subjuncts are called narrow orientation.

Expanding the Sentence

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A simple sentence can be expanded in various ways so that it contains more than one finite

clause. English grammar provides 3 main methods of putting clauses together:

1. Coordination

2. Subordination

3. Adverbial link

Coordination is often a looser connection than others, because it is more vague. It is more

characteristic of speech than of writing. Subordination tends to give one clause (the

subordinate clause) a less important part in the information given by a sentence. Thus, an

adverbial subordinate clause is often used when the information in the clause is already

wholy or partly known or expected by the hearer. In coordination a string of 2 or more simple

sentences may be linked into a compound sentence and in subordination a string of simple

sentences can be linked into a complex sentence in which at least one of the clauses is

subordinate to a main clause. An adverbial link is often used to connect longer streches of

language, perhaps whole sentences which themselves contain coordinate and subordinate

clauses. A sentence cannot only be expanded, it can also be condensed. The non-finite forms

of the verb play an important role in making a sentence as compact as possible.

Coordination

A grammatical device which involves linking of clauses in such a way that they remain

constituents of the same level i.e. they are units of equal rank. Two or more clauses may be

joined coordinately into one sentence by:

1. Coordinate conjunction

2. Punctuation and conjunctive adverbs

3. Punctuation alone

1. Coordination conjunctions are: and, but, or, nor, yet, so, for.

'And' is a central coordinating conjunction. The only restriction in the use of 'and' is

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the semantic one. The contents of the clauses should have sufficient in common to

justify their combination.

’Or' usually denotes an alternative and is normally interpreted as exclusive.

'For' and 'So' are half way between the pure coordinating conjunction and the pure

subordinating conjunction.

'But' denotes a contrast which may be in the unexpectedness of what is said in the

second clause in view of the content of the first clause.

'Yet' is not a pure coordinator, but it shows some resemblance to them. It can be

replaced by 'and' or 'but'.

2. Conjunctive adverbials may occupy three positions: initial, medial and final. The most

commonly used are: otherwise, nevertheless, however, still, then, therefore, moreover,

likewise, etc.

3. A semi-colen replaces the fullstop which separates the independent clauses.

Sometimes short parallel clauses may be joined by a coma, especially when the second

clause is abridged.

Semantic relations between coordinate clauses:

1. Addition – traditionally known as copulative coordination. The idea expressed in the

second clause is merely added to the idea expressed in the first clause. Conjunctinos

are: and, or, neither, besides,etc.

2. Disjunctive/Alternative Coordination – in it the idea expressed in one clause is an

alternative to the idea expressed in the other clause, i.e. the second idea excludes the

previous one. Conjunctions are: otherwise, else, at least,etc.

3. In adversative coordination clauses contradict each other. Conjunctions are: but,

only, still, etc.

4. Causal – the only coordinating causal conjunction is 'for'. It explains the preceding

clause by giving the cause of motif for it. It occurs only in literary style. In colloquial

style the subordinate conjunctions 'as', 'because' and 'since' are preffered.

5. In resultative coordination one clause expresses what can be inferred or concluded

from the other ('according to').

6. In explanatory coordination the clause introduced by this adds a fuller explanation to

the previous clause. Conjunctions are: mainly, in other words, that is, etc.

25.12.2012.

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Parallel Structures

When coordinate conjunctions are used, the expectation is that each of the items joined will

have the same grammatical form. Faulty paralelism occurs when different grammatical

structures are used coordinately for the same grammatical function. Such faulty paralelism is

especially common in nominal or adjectival functions.

Nominal: I'm reading about the origin of the violin and how it developed (its

development) through the ages.

Adjectival: Mary is tall, with blond hair and who has blue eyes (blond and blue

eyed).

Ellipsis in Coordinated Clause

When two or more clauses are coordinated certain clause constituents are ellipted from all

but one of the clauses. It is an abbreviating device that reduces redundancy. A major use of

ellipsis, however, is devoidance of repetition and in this respect it is like substitution which

can often be used instead of ellipsis.

1. Ellipsis of subject

If the subjects of coordinated clauses are identical it is common for occurences

subsequent to the first to be ellipted:

Stephen ate fish and drank vine.

2. Ellipsis of the subject and auxiliaries

If an auxiliary is a part of a larger verb phrase it is called an operator. If both subject

and auxiliaries are identical it is normal for both to be ellipted:

Alice is washing and scrubbing her skin.

In subordinate clauses ellipsis of subject alone or of subject with auxiliaries is generally not

allowed.

3. Ellipsis of predication

1. Only the first part of the predication including the lexical verb is

ellipted:

I work in a factory and my brother on a farm.

2. Verb including auxiliary can be ellipted:

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1. John has written a poem and Bob a short story.

3. Verb as subject complement:

2. The administration seems obstinate in our school and the

teachers in your school.

4. Verb and object can be ellipted

3. I will cook dinner today and my wife tomorrow.

4. Auxiliaries in predication ellipsis

The ellipted form of the auxiliary sometimes varies from that in the first clause.

Martin hasn't met my brother yet, but he will.

The possible variation in forms of the auxiliary is the same whether the whole or only

part of the predication is ellipted, provided that the ellipsis does not take place in the

first clause.

Martin entered the competition, and Steve may.

5. Ellipsis of the whole predication

If the predication is ellipted completely there is a choice between having the realised

items in the first clause or in the last:

Martin will and Steve might take the course.

Martin will take the course and Steve might.

Predication Substitutes

Like ellipsis substitution is a device for abbreviating and for avoiding repetition. In this

second respect it is similar to the use of lexical equivalence that are not identical repetition.

Across sentences substitution seems to be optional and for stylistic reasons. Within sentences,

however, it is sometimes obligatory, for example, repetition of the full form of the subject is

not allowed in most subordinate clauses thus following sentence is unaceptable in English:

Steve told Alice that Steve loved her.

The normal dealing with repeated subjects in subordinate clauses is substitution by a pro-

form:

Steve told Alice that he loved her.

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The verb 'do' is a pro-form for tense and together with 'do' phrases such as 'do so' and 'do it'

is a pro-form for the whole or part of the predication:

I like cheese and my family does too.

The most common pro-form for predication is 'so' when used together with pro-form 'do' or

an auxiliary in subject auxiliary inversion:

Mary wants a cup of coffee and so does Jane.

! 'Not' can be a pro form for the predicate.

Mary want coffee but not Jane.

'To' can be regarded as a pro-form of an infinitival clause in predication:

I asked him to pay for the rent immidiately but he didn't want to.

The substituted items need not constitute and infinitival clause only.

I saw him riding his bicycle in the park and told him no to.

The only 'do' pro-form does not include another auxiliary within its substitution:

Some people might like a shower, perhaps a Peter does.

26.12.2012.

Apposition

Apposition resembles coordination in that tipically the two or more units are constituents of

the same level but for units to be in apposition they must normally be identical in reference or

else the reference of one must be included in the reference of the other. The relationship

expressed by apposition is the same as that expressed by a subject and its complement. A

distinction similar to that between restricted and non-restricted relative clauses can be

applied to apposition. The elements in non-restrictive apposition are separated by a comma

in writing or by separate tone units in speech as in the case of non-restrictive relative clause.

In non-restrictive apposition the two appositives have different information value with one of

the appositives having a subordinate role in the distribution of information. Its subordinate

role is reflected in the fact that it is marked as parenthetic by information or punctuation.

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Restrictive apposition is common especially when the first element defines the meaning of the

second element.

The famous actor Brad Pitt was here yesterday.

A number of adverbials are available for explicity indicating apposition. Some can be

inserted between the appositives or can follow the second appositive while the others can only

precede the second appositive. Some of these are: that is to say, namely, to it, in other words,

for instance (e.g.), notably, chiefly, mainly, etc.

Appositive Clauses are nominal clauses which have a relation to the head similar to that

between two NPs in apposition. They can be:

1. 'That' clauses

2. 'To' infinitive clauses

3. 'Wh' clauses

The relation of apposition can be seen if we relate the NP to a subject + be + complement

construction.

The news that she would let us all pass spread around quickly.

The news is that she...

The head of appositive clause must be factive abstract noun such as: fact, idea, answer,

reason, theory, etc. or nouns derived from verbs and adjectives: belief, request, statement, etc.

Other types of nominal clauses, strictly speaking, do not occur as appositive clauses but can

be put in an apposition relation with the head of the noun phrase by means of the preposition

'of'.

He made a mistake of attacking a neutral country.

His mistake was...

Subordinate Clauses

In subordination one clause which is called subordinate is included in the other which is

called the main and the sentence containing such clauses is called a complex sentence. A

subordinate clause can also have another subordinate clause inside it which means that it

behaves as a main clause with respect to the other subordinate clause.

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I know you can do it if you try.

A subordinate clause is not capable of standing alone as the main clause of a sentence. This is

because subordinate clauses are usually marked as such by some signal of subordination. The

signal may be:

1. That which can be ommited:

I hope that this class will end soon.

2. A subordinating conjunction:

I'll be surprised if most of you didn't faint after the class.

3. A 'wh' word

4. Inversion (in rather formal English)

Had I known I would've come.

5. Lack of finite verb

Simple subordinating conjunctions are: after, once, since, unless, while, etc. Compound

subordinating conjunctions can end with:

1. That: in that, so that, in order that, except that, etc.

2. That which may be ommited: but that, now that, granted that, providing that, etc.

3. As: as long as, in so far/much as, according as, as far as, etc.

4. Then: sooner then, rather then, etc.

5. Compound subordinating conjunctions: as if, as though, in case, etc.

Correlative subordinating conjuncts are: if...then, although...nevertheless, whether...all,etc.

Subordinate clauses can be classified according to different principles among which the most

important ones are:

1. According to the type

2. According to the structure

3. According to the function

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1. According to the type we distinguish: nominal, adjectival and adverbial clauses.

2. According to the structure subordinating clauses may be classified as finite, non-

finite and verbless.

3. According to the function subordinate clauses may function gramatically as subject,

object complement or adverbial in the main clause.

In addition, they may function within these elements as:

1. Postmodifier in an NP

I like teacher who doesn't bother us.

2. Prepositional Complement

3. Complement of an adjective

The students are ready to go on strike if she doesn't stop now.

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