ENGLISH GRAMMAR HANDBOOK: A Comprehensive Guide on How to Learn English Language

Compiled and Edited by

Romeo B. La Valle

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES

Subjects and PredicatesFinding the SubjectCombining Sentences: Subjects and Predicates

ALL ABOUT SENTENCES

What is a Sentence?Sentence PatternsKinds of Sentences According to PurposeKinds of Sentences According to StructureSimple SentencesCompound SentencesComplex SentencesConditional SentencesEssential Elements of a SentenceCombining Sentences: AppositivesParagraphs

ALL ABOUT VERBS

Kinds Of VerbsVerb PhrasesRegular and Irregular VerbsVerb TenseActive and Passive VoiceTransitive and Intransitive VerbsDirect and Indirect ObjectsSubjunctive MoodsMisplaced and Dangling Modifiers

ALL ABOUT TENSES

Simple Present TensePresent Progressive TensePresent Perfect TensePresent Perfect Progressive TenseSimple Past Tense and Past Progressive TensePast Perfect Tense and Past Perfect Progressive TenseSimple Future Tense and Future Progressive TenseFuture Perfect Tense and Future Perfect Progressive Tense

SUBJECT – VERB AGREEMENT AND RULES

ALL ABOUT NOUNS

Abstract NounsNouns with Two IdentitiesCompound Nouns

Kinds of Nouns

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

AdjectivesAdverbsNegatives

PREPOSITIONS AND PRONOUNS

Prepositions and Prepositional PhrasesPlacing Phrases Correctly

OTHER PARTS OF GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE

Gerunds ‘ParticiplesInfinitivesContractionsPossessivesConjunctionsPrefixesSuffixes

WRITING

Capitalization and PunctuationAbbreviation and NumbersUses of CommasSemicolons and ColonsApostrophesHyphens, Dashes and ParenthesisVocabulary TestsSpelling RulesSpelling Improvement

ACCENT NEUTRALIZATION

What is Accent?What is Pronunciation?American Vowel SoundsAmerican Consonant SoundsAmerican T SoundsIntonationLiaisons

SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES

Subjects and Predicates

Every sentence has two basic parts, a subject and a predicate. The subject tells whom or what the sentence is about. The predicate tells what the subject is, has, does, or feels.

All the words that make up the subject are called the complete subject. All the words that make up the predicate are called the complex predicate.

Complete Subject Complete Predicate

Ralph jumped in the river.He plays the piano well.

That tall girl is the team captain. Some of the students sit in the bleachers.

Simple Subjects and Simple Predicates

The most important word (or words) in the complete subject is called the simple subject. The simple subject is usually a noun or a pronoun.

The women of the village weave colorful bags.Simon shows us slides of the women at work.

Sometimes the subject contains only one word. That word is both the complete subject and the simple subject of the sentence.

They use leaves from palm trees.

The key word in the complete predicate is called the simple predicate. The simple predicate is always a verb. The verb may be one word or several words. Sometimes another word in the sentence comes between the parts of the verb, but the word is not part of the simple predicate.

Juicy berries are made into dyes.The villagers do not use a frame or a loom.

If the predicate of a sentence contains only one word, that word is both the complete predicate and the simple predicate of the sentence.

The village children helped us.I ran to ask for help.

Finding the Subject

The sentences that you write are usually in natural English word order. The subject comes before the predicate. Sometimes, though, you write sentences in which the subject follows all or part of the predicate. This is called inverted order.

Sentences in Inverted Order

Types of Sentence

Inverted declarative sentence

At the corner of Dimasalang Street is the bus stop.

Declarative sentence beginning with here or there (The subject is never here or there.)

Here comes the last bus.

Interrogative sentence

Where is our train? Does Anne ride her bicycle to school?

It may be easier to find the subject of a sentence in inverted order if you rearrange the sentence so that it is in natural order.

At the corner of Dimasalang Street is the bus stop.The bus stop is at the corner of Dimasalang Street.

Here comes the last bus.The last bus comes here.

Does Anne ride her bicycle to school?Anne does ride her bicycle to school.

In addition to inverted order sentences, imperative sentences also have unusual subjects. The subject of an imperative sentence is always you. Because you does not appear in the sentence, the subject is said to be “understood.” Study the following examples:

(You) Meet me at the beginning of the path.(You) Please save a seat on the bus.

Combining Sentences: Subjects and Predicates

Read the two sentences below:

Law might be an interesting career.Medicine might be an interesting career.

The sentences have different subjects but contain the same predicate. If these sentences follow each other in a piece of writing, they would probably awkward and repetitious.

One way to avoid repeating the same word is to combine sentences. You can combine the sentences above to form one sentence with a compound subject.

Law or medicine might be an interesting career.

A compound subject contains two or more simple subjects. The simple subjects are usually joined by the conjunction or connecting word, and, or or.

Jane is a teacher.Jeffrey is a teacher.Jane, Jeffrey and Joan are teachers.Joan is a teacher.

You can also combine simple sentences that have the same subject but different predicates. Two or more predicates that are joined by a conjunction form a compound predicate. The

conjunction that joins the simple predicates in a compound predicate is usually and, or, or but.

My brother studies music. My brother studies music but My brother work in a bank. works in a bank.

Andy might grow corn. Andy might grow corn, raise chickens, Andy might raise chickens. or run a farm store,Andy might run a farm store.

ALL ABOUT SENTENCES

What is a Sentence?

When you write, you usually arrange your words into sentences. A sentence is a group of words that expresses complete thought. There are different kinds of thoughts and different kinds of sentences.

Sentence Patterns

There are six basic sentence patterns.

1. S-V (Subject, Verb)

S VThis young athlete practiced hard.

S VA raised stage stands at one end of the courtyard.

2. S-V-DO (Subject, Verb, Direct Object)

S V DOThe worker ants build nurseries for the young ants.

S V DOThey fill these rooms with food for the rainy season.

3. S-V-IO-DO (Subject, Verb, Indirect Object, Direct Object)

S V IO DOIrma sent Mark a book of photographs of spider webs.

S V IO DOEach type of spider gives its web a different shape.

4. S-V-DO-OC (Subject, Verb, Direct Object, Objective Complement)

S V DO OCOlive considers Esther her best friend.

S V DO OCThe people recognize him as president.

5. S-LV-PN (Subject, Linking Verb, Predicate Noun)

S LV PNPoetry is a special use of language.

S LV PNA book of mystery stories was their favorite entertainment.

6. S-LV-PA (Subject, Linking Verb, Predicate Adjective) S LV PAMs. Tolentino is talented.

S LV PAWilliam Shakespeare is gifted.

Kinds of Sentences According to Purpose

1. A declarative sentence is a sentence that states a fact. It is followed by a period.

God loves all men.The first day is always the hardest.I can identify the rest of the sentences now.

2. An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks questions. It ends with a question mark.

Will I find my way around the new school?Why do nurses go abroad?Is there balance in the local, national, and international news?

3. An imperative sentence gives a command or makes a request. It ends with a period.

Don’t panic.Please continue to page 3.Finish your work before 6 p.m.

4. An exclamatory sentence expresses a strong feeling or sudden emotion. It ends with an exclamation point.

What a maze of corridors this building has!Ouch! My head aches again.How beautiful that porcelain vase is!

Kinds of Sentences According to Structure

1. A simple sentence is a sentence containing one subject and one predicate either both or both of which may be a compound.

The sound of laughter is the most civilized music in the universe.People have always wanted to know the time.

2. A compound sentence is a sentence that contains two or more independent clauses.

A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate. An independent clause is a clause that expresses a complete thought.Independent or coordinate clauses are usually connected by the coordinate conjunctions and, or, not, yet.

When there is no connecting word between clauses, a semicolon is used.

Independent clause Independent clause[Meekness is a virtue] but [anger is a vice.]

Independent clause Independent clause[A champion among warriors fought for the Greeks]; [his name was Achilles.]

3. A complex sentence has one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

Subordinate clause Independent clause[Although all trees produce sap, ] [not all sap produces a syrup.]

Subordinate clause Independent clause[When a tree matures], [it bears fruit. ]

4. A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clauses.

Subordinate clause Independent clause[Although a lush forest once stood on this land,] [the area is now a desert,]

Independent clauseand [it has no living trees.]

Subordinate clause Independent clause[If you have a clear conscience,] [your life will be happy] and

Independent clause[peace will reign in your heart.]

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence is composed of a subject and a predicate, either or both of which may be a compound. It has only one independent clause.

A simple sentence may have a simple subject and a simple predicate.

The mango tree bears fruits. subject predicate

Airplanes fly high.Manufacturers produce quality products.

A simple sentence may have a compound subject and a simple predicate.

The molave tree and narra tree are tall and sturdy. subject subject predicate

A simple sentence may have a simple subject and a compound predicate.

Birds spread seeds and scatter them. subject predicate predicate

The editor wrote the article and edited the articles of his staff.Jill fetched water and washed the dishes.

A simple sentence may have a compound subject and a compound predicate.

subject subjectMaria and Marla wrote news reports and edited them. predicate predicate

Children and adults should eat a balanced diet and get enough exercise.

Mushrooms and ferns usually grow in moist places and do not bear fruits.

Compound Sentences

A compound sentence is composed of two or more independent clauses or simple sentences joined by coordinate conjunctions or connectors like and, but, or, so, for, therefore, and consequently. A coordinate conjunction or connector connects elements of equal work.

And, the most commonly used conjunction, is called an additive conjunction; it introduces an independent clause which adds something more to the first independent clause.

I understand the subject and I can discuss it.The sun rises and brightness fell on the land.

But is an adversative conjunction which implies a contrast of ideas. The second idea does not logically follow the first idea. The connector but sets forth this contrast.

It was snowing but I did not bring my jacket.Women wanted to help the men but the work was too physical.

Or shows alternation; it implies a choice set forth by the independent clauses which compose the compound sentence.

The visitors may have some pie or they may have some chocolate.You must study your lessons or you will fail the exams.

So is used to express effect.

The gardener has to finish trimming the grass so Father will pay him.Mary has to earn high grades so her parents will give her an increase in allowance.

For is used to express cause.The good actress won the prestigious award for her performance in the film was

excellent.

The athlete became an international champion for he spent enough time in his training.

Therefore and consequently imply that the second idea is a result of the first idea.

The student did well in almost all his subjects; consequently, he became the first honor.

Mimi got up late; therefore, she missed her flight.

Punctuating the Compound Sentence

1. Semicolon may be used instead of a connector or a coordinating conjunction to join two related independent clauses.

Nowadays, you don’t have to have a reason for going to college; it is an institution.

We quickly discussed the good guys of the film; they are a new breed of super heroes.

2. A semicolon is used after the first independent clause. Then, a comma after the coordinating conjunctions therefore and consequently.

The boy had memorized the declamation piece; therefore, he was ready to recite.The scholar studies very hard; consequently, she gets very high grades.

3. A comma may be used before a coordinating conjunction if the clauses forming the compound sentence are long. If the clauses are short, no comma is necessary.

I have two reports to submit by the end of this week, and I haven’t even begun to work on them.

They went to Boracay and they had fun.

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence consists of an independent clause and a dependent or subordinate clause joined by a subordinating conjunction. The subordinating conjunctions are also called connectors or subordinators. These subordinators introduce a dependent clause and connect it to an independent clause. An appropriate subordinating conjunction is used to express a specific relationship in time, manner, cause, purpose, comparison, and condition.

Below is a chart showing the subordinating conjunctions to be used in expressing a specific relationship.

Relationship Subordinating Conjunctions Used

Purpose that, so that, in order that, lest

Time when, whenever, while, before, after, until, till, since, as soon as, now, now that, once

Cause because, as, since, inasmuch as, seeing that, owing to the fact that

Condition if, so, unless, on condition that, provided that, supposing, in case that, but that, so that, so long as

Place where, wherever, whence, whither

Degree as, than, more than, rather than, as-as, so-as

Result that, so that, so-that, such-that

Manner as, as if, as though

Concession though, although, even if, no matter how, whereas

The student studies hard so that he can fulfill his dreams.Mother cooks lunch before twelve o’clock.The child is not able to respond because she is deaf.Sean won the competition although he is on wheelchair.She cried as if her heart would break.

A dependent clause may be used as a noun, an adjective, or as an adverb.

The Complex Sentence with a Noun Clause

The noun clause has several uses in a sentence.

1. As subject of a verb

That respect is earned is true.What matters most is how you have lived your life.

2. As direct object of a verb

Hector knew what Sherry was like as a girl.Human beings search what will make them peaceful.

3. As indirect object of a verb

The natives give what was created by their gods and goddesses special reverence.Inspectors search what is on the crime scene.

4. As object of a preposition

The slaves concerns himself with what pleases his master.Helen busies herself with what is academic-related.

5. As a complement to the verb

Honesty is what matters.Sportsmanship is what the game is all about.

6. As appositive

All human beings seek a rare possession – what is honorable.The prince searchers an elusive dream – what is essential is invisible to the eyes.

The Complex Sentence with an Adjectival Clause

An adjectival clause modifies a noun or a pronoun. The conjunctions that, which, and who are generally used to introduce adjective clauses.

1. An adjectival clause may modify a noun in subject position.

The man who spoke to the investigators is my father.Carl who placed first in the racing event is my cousin.

2. An adjectival clause may modify a noun in object position.

The visitors recognized the celebrity who walked up the stage.The judges spotted the athlete who ruled the marathon event.

3. An adjectival clause may modify a noun in a complement position.

George is the coach who trained the boxer.Lani is the saleslady who assisted Lisa.

4. An adjectival clause may modify a noun, the object of the prepositional phrase.

The father gave the invitation to the woman who made my gown.Lance gave the sword to the knight who defeated the monster.

The Complex Sentence with an Adverbial Clause

An adverbial clause modifies a verb. It may be introduced by the conjunctions after, although, because, before, while, unless if, even though, as if, so that.

Maria arrived after the flag ceremony.She laughed as if her mouth would tear.He laughed even though he was reprimanded.

Conditional Sentences

The different kinds of relationships are expressed by conditional sentences. These are factual conditional relationships, future conditional relationships, and imaginative conditional relationships.

Factual conditional relationships normally takes a simple present tense in both clauses.

When I study hard, I get praises from my parents.If one loves his job, he feels good and happy.

Future or predictive conditional relationships takes a simple present tense in the if-clause and a future tense in the result clause.

If a student studies hard, he will get passing marks.If a man works hard, he will get a promotion.

Imaginative conditional relationships may express a condition that is unlikely yet possible to happen, or a condition that is impossible to happen. The linking verb were and the past form of other verbs are used in the if-clause.

If I were a billionaire, I would provide jobs for the poor.If Jose Rizal were alive today, he would guide the youth to greatness.

Essential Elements of a Sentence

A group of words is not a grammatically complete sentence unless it has both a subject and a predicate.

The subject is the part of the sentence that names a person, a place, or a thing about which a statement is made. The predicate is the part of the sentence that tell something about the subject.

To find the subject and the predicate of a sentence, pick out first the predicate or verb. Then place the word who or what before the predicate and answer the question that formed. The answer to this question is the subject. The subject will be a noun or a pronoun.

SUBJECT PREDICATE

Tree blossomed. trees blossomedThe mango trees blossomed early. trees blossomedThe mango trees in our orchard blossomed in May. trees blossomedComplete subject refers to the noun or pronoun and its modifiers. Complete predicate contains a verb or a verb phrase and all the words that complete its meaning.

complete subject complete predicateSquash vines grow thick and strong.

complete subject complete predicateOur roses and weeds will thrive again.

complete subject complete predicateMany of the children swam in the pond for first time this summer.

Combining Sentences: Appositives

You have learned to combine short sentences that have closely related ideas by forming a compound sentence. You can also combine sentences by changing one of them into a appositive. An appositive is a word or a phrase that follows another word, usually a noun, to explain or identify it.

Alfred Nobel was born in 1833.Alfred Nobel was a Swedish chemist.Alfred Nobel, a Swedish scientist, was born in 1833.

An appositive directly follows the word it modifies.

Alfred worked for his father in a laboratory.His father’s name was Immanuel.Alfred worked for his father, Immanuel, in a laboratory.

Use commas to set off most appositives from the rest of the sentence. Commas show that the appositive could be left out without changing the meaning of the sentence. Sometimes, however, the appositive is necessary in order to identify the noun it follows. For these appositive that do not change the meaning of the sentence, do not use commas.

Not necessary: Alfred Nobel, the scientist, invented dynamite.Necessary: The scientist Alfred Nobel invented dynamite.

Kernel Sentences and Subordinate Ideas

Because of the information overload therein, long sentences often pose a problem to the readers. A good way of breaking down a long sentence is to identify the kernel sentence and its subordinate ideas. The kernel sentence expresses the main idea. The embedded structures or subordinate ideas are made up of the word, phrase, and clause modifiers.

All right, I’m a technophobe and I love typewriters more than computers, handwritten postcards more than e-mail notes, and I’m happier playing with my fingers on the keyboard rather pushing a CD into the player.

Kernel Sentence: I’m a technophobe.

Subordinate ideas:

I love typewriters more than computers.I love handwritten postcards more than e-mail notes.I am happier playing with my fingers on the keyboard.I am not happy pushing a CD into the player.

Paragraphs

A paragraph is a group of sentences that presents and develops one main idea. It has three sentences: a topic sentence that states the main idea; a supporting sentence/s that expands on the main idea with specific facts, examples, details, or reasons; and a concluding sentence which provides a strong ending.

ALL ABOUT VERBS

Kinds of Verbs

Every sentence has two parts, the subject and the predicate. The key word in the predicate is the verb. The verb tells what the subject is, has, does, or feels.

Burt works at the zoo. He loves his job.

Most verbs are action verbs. Some action verbs refer to the physical action that can be seen by other people. Others refer to mental action that can not be seen.

Physical Action: The zookeeper feeds the lions.Mental Action: She likes the wild animals best.

Still other verbs express a state of being. These verbs do not refer to action of any sort. They simply tell what the subject is.

Burt is the zookeeper’s assistant.He seems afraid of the dark.

The most common being verbs are forms of be itself. Other verbs can also express a state of being. Study the following common being verbs below:

Being Verbs

Forms of be: is, am, are, was, were, been, beingOther being verbs: appear, become, feel, grow, look, seem, remain, smell, sound,

stay, taste

Linking Verbs

A verb that expresses a state of being often functions as a linking verb. A linking verb links, or connects, the subject with a noun or an adjective in the predicate that names or describes the subject.

Peanuts is an elephant. Peanuts are enormous.

Some verbs can function as either linking verbs or action verbs.

Linking Verbs Action Verbs

The seal pond smells fishy. The bear smells its food.The zookeeper felt tired. She felt the bear’s thick fur.

To help yourself decide whether one of these verbs is a linking verb, try substituting is or are for the verb. If the sentence still makes sense, the verb is probably a linking verb.

The monkeys look comical. (The monkeys are comical.)The lion’s roar sounds fierce. (The lion’s roar is fierce.)

Verb Phrases

Often the verb in a sentence is made up of more than one word. A group of words that acts as a single verb is called a verb phrase. A verb phrase consist of one or more helping verbs, or auxiliary verbs, followed by a main verb. The main verb expresses the action or state of being.

Tiny water droplets have been gathering.They will form a cloud.

Common Helping Verbs

be am is are can couldwas were been shall shouldhas have had will woulddoes do did might may

Some verbs can be either main verbs or helping verbs.

Helping Verbs Main Verbs

It is snowing outside. The street is wet.I have bought new boots. They have wooly linings.

Sometimes other words come between the parts of a verb phrase. What words interrupt the verb phrases below?

The sun will soon have disappeared behind the clouds.Can you see any blue sky?I have not been outside lately.Don’t go out in this weather.

Notice in the last two examples that the word not and its contraction, n’t, are not part of the verb phrase.

Regular and Irregular Verbs

The basic forms of verbs are called principal parts. All verbs have four principal parts.

Present Past Past Participle Present Participle

walk walked walked walkingMost verbs are regular verbs. The past and the past participle are formed by adding –ed. The present participle is formed by adding –ing. This principal parts of irregular verbs do not follow this pattern. That is why they are called irregular.

The past participle and present participle of all verbs use a helping verb. The helping verb for the present participle is a form of the verb be. The helping verb for the past participle is a form of the verb have.

Past Participle: have, has, had had walked

Present Participle: am, is, are, was, were am walking

Patterns of Irregular Verbs

1. Some irregular verbs form the past in an unusual way and form the past participle by adding –n or –en to the present or past.

Present Past Past Participle Present Participleknow knew known knowingspeak spoke spoken speakingeat ate eaten eating

2. Some irregular verbs form the past in an unusual way and have the same form for the past participle.

bring brought brought bringingfind found found finding

3. Some irregular verbs have the same present, past, and past participle.

cost cost cost costingshut shut shut shutting

4. Some irregular verbs form both the past and the past participle in unusual ways.

drink drank drunk drinkingbegin began begun beginning

Verb Tense

Verbs are words that show action or a state of being. Every verb has four different forms. The forms of a verb are used to make the different verb tenses. Tense is the form of a verb that shows when the action takes place.

Verb Forms

Present Present Participle Past Past Participletalk/talks talking talked talkedeat/eats eating ate eaten

Simple Tense

There are three simple tenses: present, past, and future. Form the present tense by using the present form of the verb. Form the past tense by using the past form of the verb. Form the future tense by using the helping verb will and the present form of the verb.

Tense Form UsePresent talk/talks repeated action or habit; general truthPast talked action completed in the pastFuture will talk action not yet completedPresent: I talk to my children on the phone every week.Past: I talked to my daughter yesterday.Future: I will talk to my son next week.

Active and Passive Voice

Voice is the quality of a verb that shows whether the subject is the doer or the receiver of the action. In the active voice, the subject is the doer of the action; in the passive voice, the subject is the receiver of the action.

Active Voice Passive Voice

Sonny hit the ball. The ball was hit by Sonny.Plants need rain. Rain is needed by plants.Ethel opened the book. The book was opened by Ethel.

Using Active and Passive Voice

Because the active stresses the person or thing doing the action, sentences in the active voice are more direct than passive voice sentences. Active voice sentences also use fewer words than passive voice sentences. Use the active when possible.

Active Voice: The family sold the ancestral home.Passive Voice: The ancestral home was sold by the family.

The active voice sentences is clearer because it shows the action more directly. There are times, though, when you should use the passive voice.

1. Use the passive voice when you do not know, do not care, or do not want to name who did the action.

The painting was finished in 1991.A terrible mistake has been made.

2. Use the passive voice when you want to stress the action or the receiver of the action, not who did the action.

The carpenter was struck by a car.The special children were awarded medals by the association.

Changing Voice

To change a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice, switch the subject and the object. Change the form of the verb, too.

Active Voice to Passive Voice

The players wore new hats. New hats were worn by the players. subject verb subject verb

To change a sentence from the passive voice to the active voice, make the subject the object. Make the person or thing that acted the subject.Passive Voice to Active Voice

The soda was sold by them. They sold the soda. subject verb verb subject

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Often when a verb expresses action, something or someone in the predicate “receives” that action. Who or what receives the action in these sentences?

Paula hit the ball over the wall. The crowd cheered the batter.

A verb that sends its action to a noun or a pronoun in the predicate is called a transitive verb. The noun or the pronoun that receives the action of the verb is called the direct object.

Look at these sentences. Do the verbs have objects?

The crowd applauded. People cheered wildly.

A verb that does not send its action to a word in the predicate is called the intransitive verb.

Many verbs can be either intransitive or transitive.

Transitive: The crowd cheered the battler.Intransitive: People cheered wildly.

How can you tell whether a verb is transitive or intransitive? If you are not sure, ask yourself whom? or what? after the verb. (Cheered whom? Cheered what?) If the answer is a noun or pronoun, the verb is intransitive. (Cheered whom? the battler) If it is not, the verb is intransitive.

Linking verbs are always intransitive. They do not express action.

The Wildcats are the winners.They seem happy about their victory.

Direct and Indirect Objects

Direct Objects

Every predicate contains a verb. Some predicates, however, need more than just a verb to complete the sentence.

A dragonfly has. (Has what?)A dragonfly has four fragile wings.

The additional words needed to complete the meaning of a sentence is called complements. Different verbs require different kinds of complements.

A transitive requires a direct object to receive the action. The direct object is always a noun or a pronoun that answers the question whom? or what? after the verb.

Beady eyes cover a dragonfly’s. (Cover what? head)Dragonflies did not harm. (Harm whom? people)

Indirect Objects

Some transitive verbs have two kinds of objects. The direct object receives the action, and the indirect object tells who or what was affected by the action.

I showed Vince the fireflies.The fireflies gave us a good show.

Only sentences with direct objects can have indirect objects. To determine whether a sentence has an indirect object, first find the direct object. The indirect object always comes before the direct object.

Indirect object answers the questions to or for whom? and to or for what? Nouns or pronouns with to and for can replace indirect objects. If a word follows to or for, however, it is not an indirect object.

I showed the fireflies to Vince.The fireflies gave a show for us.

Like the direct objects, indirect objects can be compound:

Subjunctive Mood

The subjunctive mood of the verb is used to express a wish, a condition, or a supposition that is doubtful or is contrary to fact as in conditional sentences. Other uses of the subjunctive mood are as follows:

1. Use the subjunctive mood in a that-clause expressing a wish, a request, or a command.

I wish you were around when I received the award.Nela insists that I be allowed to enter the gate.

2. Use the subjunctive mood in the main clause to express a hope, a wish, or a prayer.

Heaven help little children.The peace of the Lord be with you.

3. Use the subjunctive mood in a if-clause expressing doubt, or impossibility. This is generally called a condition contrary to fact.

If John were here, thing would be done speedily.If you were here, you would be of great help to the staff.

Remember:

The subjunctive mood of the verb differs from the indicative mood in that the verb drops the –s form in the third person singular of the present tense.

I suggest that he consult a doctor.

Modifiers

These are three types of error in the use of modifiers: misplaced, squinting, and dangling which contribute to the ineffectiveness of the sentences.

A misplaced modifier is a modifier which is not placed close enough to the word or to the phrase it modifies. To avoid having misplaced modifiers, place the modifier as close as possible to the word it modifies.

Misplaced Modifier: John borrowed a computer from his friend with a faulty memory.(What or who has the faulty memory? Place the phrase “with a faulty memory” next to the word it modifies – computer.)

Revised. John borrowed a computer with a faulty memory from his friend.

Misplaced Modifier: The food has been horrible in the newly opened restaurant that I’ve eaten.

Revised: The food that I’ve eaten in the newly opened restaurant has been horrible.

A squinting modifier is a modifier between two words both of which it could modify. The modifier should be placed as close as possible to the word it modifies.

Squinting Modifier: The girl admitted to her mother with a sad face that she accidentally broke the vase.

Revised: With a sad face, the girl admitted to her mother that she accidentally broke the vase.

ALL ABOUT TENSES

Simple Present Tense

The simple present tense of verbs is used to describe the following:

1. To express a fact or condition

Miss Abigail teaches language and arts.Sigmund knows how to speak French.

2. To express actions or conditions that occur at regular intervals of time. Adverbs of frequency are usually used to help the verb in expressing the intervals of the action or condition.

The Koreans attend their English classes weekly.My grandparents visit us every Sunday.

3. To express customary actions

The townfolks celebrate the feast of their patron saint every May.The natives hold a ritual for the dead yearly.

4. To express an all-time truth

We all experience adolescence.All human being die.

Present Progressive Tense

The present progressive form of the verb is used in the following:

1. To express actions that are in actual progress at the time of speaking. The action started before and it is expected to end a short time after the time of speaking.

The patient is waiting for his turn to consult a doctor.Students are writing a short composition.

2. To express activities that started at some time in the past and will probably end for a longer Time after the time of speaking. The action, however, may not necessarily be going on at the time of speaking.

Marian is taking up Actuarial Science in a prestigious college.Gerald and Carl are setting up the stage.

3. To express future activities. Words indicating future time are used to modify the verb.

Harold is giving a stag party on Saturday night for William.The respectable professor is retiring from teaching this year.

Remember:

In some instances, the simple present form and the present progressive form may be used interchangeably without any differences in meaning.

Jun is residing in Paris.Jun resides in Paris.

Martha is staying with her grandparents.Martha stays with her grandparents.

Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense of verbs is used in the following:

1. To express activities completed at a relatively short time before the time of speaking. Time expressions such as recently, just, and lately, are used to indicate recent time.

The guest of honor has just arrived.The local athletes has won the gold medal in the SEA Games recently.

2. To indicate the activity or situation which occurred or existed in the past, but there is no definite time mentioned. Adverb modifiers indicating frequency such as never, several times,

ever, twice, and others are used to show that an activity took place in the past more than once or not at all.

The young senator has been elected twice.Tweety has never been to France.

3. To indicate an activity which has been completed, was something extraordinary or difficult.

Marie has passed the nursing examination.The hunters have finally found the gold.

4. To express an activity or situation which started in the past, has continued in the present, and will possibly continue for some time in the future. Time expressions such as since (to show the start of the activity or situation) and for (to indicate the length of time the situation or activity has been going on) are used to modify verb.

The employee has worked with the company since he was twenty-one years old.Rudy has known Mr. Lee for fifteen years now.

Present Perfect Progressive Tense

The present perfect progressive tense, just like the present perfect tense, is used to describe an action, event, or condition that has begun in the past and continues into the present. But unlike the present perfect tense, the present perfect progressive is used to stress the on-going nature of that action, condition, or event.

The traffic enforcer has been following his whistle for quite some time but the motorist has not paid attention.

My grandparents have been visiting us since we have transferred in Cebu.

We have been discussing the issue since this morning.

Simple Past Tense and the Past Progressive Tense

The simple past tense of verbs is used to express activities or conditions that occurred or existed at a definite time in the past. Usually, time expressions such as yesterday, last night, once, ago, and others are used to modify the verb.

The ambassador arrived last night from Switzerland.Cecile and Mary went to the book fair yesterday.

Remember:

When did or did not is used as an auxiliary with a verb, the verb must be in simple form.

The beauty queen did win the contest.The local team did not win a single game.

The past progressive tense of verbs is used in the following:

1. To express an activity that was going on when another activity occurred in the past.

It was drizzling when I arrived.We were watching the games when the power went off.

2. To express two activities that were going on at the same time in the past.

Mother was singing while she was baking a pie.The prisoners were exercising while the warden was watching them.

3. To indicate than an activity was in temporary progress in the past.

Ruth was encoding here last Tuesday.They were practicing here yesterday morning.

Past Perfect Tense and Past Perfect Progressive Tense

The past perfect tense of the verb is used for an action in the past that was completed before another action took place.

Dr. De Guzman had conducted the research before the year ended.The patient had died by the time the ambulance arrived.

The past perfect progressive tense is used to describe a past, ongoing action that was completed before some other past action.

Before the budget cuts, the students had been participating in many extracurricular activities.

I had been watching a TV show before the power goes off.

Simple Future Tense and the Future Progressive Tense

The future tense is used in the following:

1. To indicate activities or conditions expected to take place at some future time. Usually, words such as tomorrow, next week, later, in a little while, and others are used to indicate future time. Helping words such as will, shall, or be going are used to express futurity.

I shall return in a little while.The teacher will lecture tomorrow on health.

2. To make requests, ask permission or affirmation

Will you please pass the sugar?Shall we leave?

The future progressive tense is used to express activities that are expected to be in progress at a point of time in the future, or over a period of time in the future.

They will be reaching the South soon.The students will be taking their final examination this afternoon.

Future Perfect Tense and the Future Perfect Progressive Tense

The future perfect tense is used to express activity or situation expected to be completed on or before another activity or situation or some specific time in the future.

My uncle will have bought the house and lot when he arrives in May.

The class will have learned essay writing by the end of the week.

The future perfect progressive tense is used to emphasize the duration of an activity before its completion at a point of time in the future or before another activity takes place in the future.

The employees will have been wearing their new uniforms for months when they finish their project.

Koreans will have been speaking correct English for some time when they finish their tutorial lessons.

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

Subject – Verb Agreement

Basic Rule: A plural subject calls for a plural verb. A singular subject calls for a singular verb.

She is watching TV. They are watching TV.She likes Harry Potter. They like Harry Potter.

Rule 1: When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.

She and her friends are at the fair.

Rule 2: When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.

The book or the pen is in the drawer.

Rule 3: When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.

The boy or his friends run every day.His friends or the boy run every day.

Rule 4: Doesn’t is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject. Don’t is a contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural subject. The exception to this rule appears in the case of the first person and second person pronouns I and you. With these pronouns, the contraction don’t should be used.

He doesn’t like it. They don’t like it.I don’t like it. You don’t like it.

Rule 5: Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.

One of the boxes is open.

The people who listen to that music are few.The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.

Rule 6: The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody, somebody, someone, none, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.

Each of these hot dogs is juicy.Everybody knows Mr. Jones.Either is correct.

Rule 7: Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, titles, and news require singular verb.

The news is on six.Note: The word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it

requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.

Five dollars is a lot of money.Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.

Rule 8: Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two parts or pairs to these things.)

These scissors are dull.Those trousers are made of wool.

Note: Unless the subject is introduced with a pair of, a singular verb is needed for this.

A pair of scissors is what I need.

Rule 9: In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is not the subject, the verb agrees with that follows.

There is a question. There are many questions.

Rule 10: Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular and take a singular verb, such as group, team, committee, class, and family.

The team runs during practice.The committee decides how to proceed.The family has a long history.

In some cases in American English, a sentence may call for the use of a plural verb when using

a collective noun.

The crew are preparing to dock the ship.(This sentence is referring to the individual efforts of each crew member.)

Rule 11: Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well as do not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.

The President, accompanied by his wife, is travelling to India.

All of the books, including yours, are in that box.

Rule 12: Verbs that accompany pronouns such as all and some will be determined by whether the pronoun is referring to something that is countable or not.Some of the workers on the building have left for the day.Some of the salt was spilled on the floor.

ALL ABOUT NOUNS

Abstract Nouns

Abstract nouns are names of ideas or concepts, states of being, actions, emotions, and qualities. They can be recognized by suffixes attached to some parts of speech or to other nouns to form nouns.

The following are the common suffixes attached to abstract nouns:-age -dom -ism -ness-ance -ence -ition -ry-asm -hood -ity -ship-ation -ion -ment -tion

The following are some examples of abstract nouns:

courage freedom heroism richnessfragrance love tradition envysarcasm brotherhood unity friendshipgluttony honour greed poverty

Nouns with Two Identities

Some nouns have two identities. They may be unnoticeable, thus always singular in form. They may also be countable with singular and plural forms. When uncountable, these nouns have one meaning. When countable, these nouns have another meaning.

Uncountable (always singular without another meaning)

change (coins)

air (substance)

advice (counsel or recommendation)

company (visitors, guests)

iron (metal)

paper (material)

property (wealth, goods, real estate)

rain (condensed from water vapor in the atmosphere)

room (opportunity as in room for improvement)

Countable (has both singular and plural meanings)

a change – changes (alterations or modifications)

an air (a tune, tunes)airs (an artificial or affected manner)

advices (information or notice given)

a company – companies (business firms, factories, military units)

an iron – irons (instruments, utensils or appliance)

a paper – papers (newspapers)papers (documents)

a property - properties (qualtites or attributes)

rains (rainy season)

a room – rooms (areas set apart, by partition)

sand (fine loose granular material) sands (a tract, region, or deposit of sand; beach)

Compound Nouns

Compound nouns are names made up of two or more words but function as a single entity. Some of these nouns are spelled in two words.

There are three forms of compound nouns.

1. The closed form – the words are combined together

firefly redhead makeup notebookblackberry keyboard backyard foremancongressman blackhead football stockbrokerbutterfly blackboard hairsplit landscape

2. The hyphenated form – two or more words are hyphenated

mayor-elect court-martial mother-in-lawanti-Filipino grant-in-aid jack-in-the-boxpro-labor attorney-at-law sergeant-at-armspasser-by go-between master-at-arms

3. The open form – newer combinations of usually longer words

post office road runner attorney generalexecutive chef sewing machine editor in chiefroad map high school vice presidentchief of staff major general lieutenant colonel

Plural of Compound Nouns

Pluralize the most significant word – generally the noun. The significant word may be at the beginning, middle, or end of the term.half-moons fathers-in-law doctors of medicinemayors-elect attorneys-at-law courts-martialsergeants-at-arms passers-by editors in chiefsons-in-law masters-at-arms secretaries-of-statebills of fare notaries public go-betweenschiefs-of-staff higher-ups master mechanics

Remember:

As a general rule, the plural form of a hierarchical term belongs to the base element of the term, regardless of the base element’s placement.

colonel generals deputy librarians lieutenant colonels

Kinds of Nouns

Modals are auxiliary verbs used to express special meanings. They do not give complete meanings by themselves. But when used with another verb, they change the meanings of these verbs in one way or another.

Modals have distinctive and special uses.Can, Could

These two auxiliaries are generally used to imply possibility. There are two types of possibilities: first, that it can be done; secondly, that it will perhaps be done.

Can indicates physical ability to do something.

Janice can swim.Lester can cook.Jimmy can play a clarinet.

In modern English, can may mean permission or approval.

Sir, can I go now?You can wash your clothes now.

Could is the past form of can.

The professor didn’t know that Giana could sing well.Linda could act as Cinderella.

Could is sometimes considered more polite than can.

Could you please pass the rice?May, Might

May I go to the park? May I go shopping?

May denotes possibility.

There may be rains tonight.The parents may protest the hike in tuition fees.May denote a wish.

May God bless you and your family!Liana may reciprocate John’s feelings.

Might is the past tense of may.She might still be in love with him.They might just fight back to wrest the crown.

Will, Would

Will is used to denote desire or willingness.

She will do the laundry for you.Will you have some pizza pie?

Will may be used in exclamation or orders.

Keep silent, will you?Will you shut your mouth!

Would is the past tense of will, but it has special uses of its own.

Would indicates a past habit.

The old man would walk to the park every morning.Gerald would play in the gym every Friday.

Would indicates obstinacy.

The spoiled brat would play in the middle of the road although I told him not to.

Would indicates a wish.

Would that I have joined the fun!Would that I have recited the poem!

Should, Ought to, Must, Have to

Should is the past tense of shall, but it has independent uses of its own.

Should denotes obligation or duty.

The student should study more.The athlete should practice often.

Should denotes condition.Should you come early, you will be seated in the front row.Should you do the errand, you will be provided with free transportation.

Ought to, must, and have to denote obligation.

The workers ought to do it.The doctor must treat her patients.The police officers have to arrest the robbers.

Am to, Let

Am does not mean the same as must. It implies an agreement or an arrangement.

I am to meet my coach this morning.

Let has several uses.

Let denotes a wish.

Let it shine.Will you let me do it?

Let denotes suggestion.

Let us shop together for gifts.

Let means allow.

Our parents let us go to cultural shows.

Hope, Wish

Hope implies a greater possibility.

I hope you can come to the Christmas party.

Wish indicates the thing wished for is not very sure. It is used with the subjunctive mood because of the lack of probability, it is a statement contrary to the fact.

I wish you could come to my birthday party.

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Adjectives

You already know that descriptive words can add life to your sentences. Any word that you use to describe another word is called modifier. A word that modifies a noun or a pronoun is called an adjective.

Yellow and red prehistoric art covers the cave walls.An adjective tells which, what kind, or how many.

Which: the, this, these, either, her, myWhat kind: bright, red, gentle, scary, smart, falseHow many: two, several, many, few, every, seventh

Words like many, this, and her can be either pronouns or adjectives. Other kinds of words can be adjectives, too.

Noun: Who discovered the paintings in a cave in France?

Adjective: The cave walls were decorated with animal pictures.

Verb: Cave dwellers had painted mostly hunting scenes.

Adjective: The painted animals are shown in action.

To decide whether a word is used as an adjective, ask yourself if it tells which, what kind, or how many. If it does, the word is probably used as an adjective.

You can form some adjectives from proper nouns. These are called proper adjectives and are capitalized.

Paintings in French and Spanish caves are beautiful.

An adjective may be more than one word. When such an adjective comes before a noun, it is usually hyphenated.

Up-to-date tests indicate the age of the paintings.

The words a, an, and the are articles. Because articles tells which, they are adjectives. The is a definite article because it refers to one or more particular things. A and an are indefinite articles because they refer to any one of a group.

An animal is engraved in the rock. (any animal)The artist used a flint tool. (one particular artist)The wolves seem real. (several particular wolves)

Sometimes an adjective follows a linking verb and refers to the subject of the sentence. This is called a predicate adjective.

The drawings looked natural. Their colors were vivid.

More than one adjective can modify the same noun.

The decorated cave is deep and dark.

Comparing with Adjectives

You can use adjectives not only to describe things, but also to compare them. Adjectives that show comparison have special forms, called degrees.

Adjective in the positive degree simply describe something when no comparison is made. It is the basic form of the adjective. Use the comparative degree when you compare two things. To compare three or more things, use the superlative degree.

Positive: December is usually a cold month.Comparative: January is often colder than December.Superlative: February is sometimes the coldest month of all.

Positive: June can be a humid month.Comparative: July is usually more humid than June.Superlative: August can be the most humid month of the year.

Regular Adjectives

When adjective is regular, you can follow these rules to write its comparative and superlative forms.

1. For all one-syllable and a few two-syllable adjectives, add –er to form the comparative degree and –est to form the superlative degree.

tall taller tallest clear clearer clearest

2. If an adjective ends with a single vowel and a consonant, double the consonant before adding the ending.

big bigger biggest slim slimmer slimmest

3. If an adjective ends with a consonant and y, change the y to I before adding the ending.

noisy noisier noisiest silly sillier silliest

4. For most adjectives with two syllables and for all adjectives with three syllables or more, use more to form the comparative and most for the superlative.

intelligent more intelligent most intelligentbeautiful more beautiful most beautiful

You ear will often tell you which form to use with a two-syllable adjective (more formal, not formaler). If you are not sure of the form, use your dictionary.

5. Never use both –er and more or –est and most with a single adjective.

Incorrect: Spring flowers are more prettier than fall ones.Correct: Spring flowers are pettier than fall ones.

6. When you compare things that are less rather than more, use less for the comparative and least for the superlative.

handsome less handsome least handsome

Irregular Adjectives

Some adjectives are irregular. You will need to memorize their comparative and superlative forms.

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

good better bestwell (healthy) better worstbad worse worstlittle (quantity) less leastmuch, many more most

Be careful not to confuse less and least with fewer and fewest. Use fewer or fewest with nouns naming things that can be counted. Use less or least with nouns naming things that cannot be counted.

April has fewer days of rain than may.

Less rain fell in April than in March.

Adverbs

You already know that adjectives are one kind of modifier. Adverbs are another kind. Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

Verb: Stonehenge was built gradually over many centuries.

Adjective: This English monument is made of very large stones.

Adverb: Scholars have studied Stonehenge quite thoroughly.

An adverb can tell how, when, where, or to what extent about the word it modifies.

Kinds of Adverbs

When: yesterday, soon, often, once, immediately, sometimesAn earth wall once surrounded the monument.

Where: inside, here, there, down, up, everywhere, away, far, near

Circles of enormous stones lay inside.

How: well, cleverly, fast, wildly, carefully, badly, deliberately, calmly

The stones were deliberately placed in patterns.

To What Extent: very, too, really, terribly, extremely, quiet, not, rather

Sunrise was timed rather exactly from these patterns.

Adverbs that tell to what extent, such as very or really, modify adjectives and adverbs. They strengthen the meaning of the words they modify. Do not overuse these adverbs.

Be careful of where you place adverbs. Adverbs that modify adjectives and adverbs are placed next to the modified words.

Lunar and solar eclipse were quite accurately predicted.

Stonehenge had suffered from rather careless treatment.

On the other hand, you can place adverbs that modify verbs in many different parts of a sentence.

Now this monument is maintained by the British government.

Comparing with Adverbs

Like adjectives, adverbs have three degrees of comparison. An adverb in the positive degree describes an action without comparing it to any other. Use the comparative degree when you compare two actions. In addition, when you compare two qualities, use the comparative form of adverbs that modify adjectives. To compare three or more actions or qualities, use the superlative degree.

Positive: Sean worked hard on his project about the stars.Comparative: Suki worked harder on her project than Sean did.Superlative: Heather worked hardest of all.

Positive: The sun burns brightly in the sky.Comparative: Alpha Centauri burns more brightly than the sun.Superlative: Deneb burns most brightly of all the stars.

1. Add –er or –est to adverbs of one syllable and to a few adverbs of two syllables.

soon sooner soonest early earlier earliest

2. For most adverbs with two syllables and all adverbs with more than two syllables, use more or most.

rapidly more rapidly most rapidly

3. Never use –er with more or –est with most.

Incorrect: She reads more faster than her brother.Correct: She reads faster than her brother.

4. When you compare actions or qualities that are less rather than more, use the word less to form the comparative and least for the superlative.

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

well better bestbadly worse worstlittle less leastmuch more mostfar farther farthest

Negatives

You already know that many different kinds of words can be used as modifiers. Some negatives are also modifiers. Negatives are words that mean “no” or “not.”

Until recently I had never used a computer.The adverb not frequently becomes the contraction n’t when it is used with a verb. The contraction n’t is a negative adverb too.

I didn’t feel comfortable with the computer at first.

In addition to not, never, and nowhere, the words barely, hardly, and scarcely are also negative adverbs.

Now I hardly ever make a mistake at the keyboard.

Remember to use only one negative word to express one negative idea. A double negative is the incorrect use of two negatives for one idea. Avoid double negatives.

Double Negative: I don’t scarcely use a typewriter anymore.Correct: I scarcely use a typewriter anymore.Correct: I don’t use a typewriter anymore.

One way to correct a double negative is to substitute a positive word for a negative one. Here are some negative words with their matching positive forms.

neither – either nobody – anybody no – anynothing – anything no one – anyone none – anynowhere – anywhere hardly – almost never – ever

PREPOSITIONS AND PRONOUNS

Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases

Prepositions and Objects

A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun or a pronoun and another word in a sentence. Look at what happens to the relationship between words when the preposition is changed.

Your ring is on the sink.Your ring is under the sink.You ring is in the sink.Your ring is behind the sink.

A preposition is always followed by a noun or pronoun called the object of the preposition.

The necklace is a string of pearls.

Some words used as prepositions can also be used as adverbs. You can easily tell the difference because a preposition is always has an object, but an adverb never does.Adverb: The pearl formed inside.Preposition: The pearl is formed inside the oyster.

Examples of Prepositions

1. One point in time

On is used with days of week

I will see you on Monday.

The week begins on Sunday.

At is used with noon, midnight, night, morning, afternoon, and the time of day.

My plane leaves at noon.The movie starts at 6 pm.

In is used in other parts of the day, with months, years, and seasons.

He likes to read the newspaper in the afternoon.The days are long in August.The book was published in 2000.

2. Extended period of time

To express extended time, use the following prepositions: since, for, by, from – to, from – until, during, or within.

She has been gone since yesterday.I’m going to Paris for two weeks.The class starts within two hours.

3. Places

On is used to talk about the surface.

I left your key on the table.There is a ‘no smoking’ sign on the wall.A black cat is on the roof.

At is used to talk the point itself.

Jake is at the concert.He’s watching TV at the neighbor’s house.I live at 50 Guernica Street.

In is used to express something in a contained or enclosed space.Do you live in Japan?His house is in Bulacan.The wallet is in the closet.I live in Caloocan City.

At is used for someone who is at an event.

He’s at the concert when the bomb exploded.We will be at grandmother’s house tonight.

On is used with small islands, coast , or a river.

Easter Island is located on the south of Pacific ocean.

4. Higher than a point – over, above

He threw the ball over the fence.We can find the stars above the clouds.

5. Lower than a point – under, underneath, beneath, below

The rabbit borrowed under the ground.The child hid underneath the blanket.

6. Closer than a point – near, by, next to, between, among, oppositeShe lives near the school’s courtyard.Our house is next to the museum.I found a ring among a bunch of flowers.

7. Used at verbs

At glance, laugh, smile, look, rejoice, stare

He is smiling at me.I’m looking at the stars every night.Don’t laugh at him or he’ll get annoyed.

Of approve, consist, smell

His books consist mostly of science fictions.What is the smell of ‘durian’?The mayor approve of the bill.

About dream, think

He’s always thinking about you.For call, hope, look, wait, watch, wish

I’m calling for the police department.She will be waiting for you outside the pub.What channel are you watching for?

With going, do it, having

Your wife is having an affair with another man.What are you going to do with it?

To away to you, giving directions

You need to cross the street.I will be going to Mary’s house tomorrow.

Prepositional Phrase

A phrase is a group of words that is used as a single word in a sentence. A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition, ends with the object of the preposition, and includes any word that modify the object.

prep. adj. adj. obj.Jet is a gem of intense black colour.

A prepositional phrase can appear anywhere in a sentence.

In spite of their flaws, emeralds are extremely expensive.A mixture of fiery colours makes the opal a beautiful gem.Diamonds are known for their hardness and great beauty.

A sentence can have more than one prepositional phrase. Sometimes one prepositional phrase directly follows another.

Most diamonds are found in parts of Africa.

Placing Phrases Correctly

When you use a prepositional phrase in your writing, you must be sure to place them properly. Misplaced phrases can confuse your reader.

Misplaced: The newspaper is on the porch with the movie listings.Correct: The newspaper with the movie listings is on the porch.

To avoid confusion, place an adjective phrase right after the word it modifies.

Misplaced: The theater is showing a good movie near the Crystal Lake.Correct: The theater near the Crystal Lake is showing a good movie.

Place an adverb phrase either close to the word it modifies or at the beginning of the sentence.

Misplaced: There is a movie about cave people at the Hill Cinema.Correct: At the Hill Cinema, there is a movie about cave people.

OTHER PARTS OF GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE

Gerunds

A gerund is a verbal that ends in –ing and functions only as a noun. A gerund phrase is made up of a gerund and its object.

The following are the different kinds of gerund:1. As a subject

Dancing is both a pleasurable hobby and a form of exercise.Painting is a form of self-expression.

2. As a subject complement (following a linking verb)

An important hobby is reading.A form of exercise is dancing.

3. As a direct object (follows a transitive verb and answers the question of what)

John likes painting.Sybil loves surfing.

4. As a object of preposition (comes after the preposition)

Arnel won the competition by targeting bulls-eye.Nela was awarded the trophy for declaiming well.

5. As an appositive

The old man’s job, selling wares, is just one of the many occupations of the town.Andre’s hobby, collecting stamps, is fun.

Remember:

Because a gerund functions as a noun, it can be modified by adjectives.

Driving hard is the secret of success.Brisk walking is recommended for senior citizens.

Since a gerund is formed from a verb, it can have an object.

The executive relaxes by playing itself.She meditates by reading inspirational books.

Like a verb, a gerund can be modified by adverbs.We cherished walking by the seashore.They dreamed strolling in dreamland.

Participles

A participle is a verb form that functions as an adjective. Even as an adjective, a participle possesses some properties of a verb like it expresses condition or action, and it may be followed by a complement.

The roaring thunder scared the children.(Roaring is a participle modifying thunder.)

The billowing waves swayed gently.(Billowing is a participle modifying waves.)

There are two kinds of participles – present and past. A present participle is formed by adding the suffix –ing to the infinitive form of a verb.

glistening knifetowering buildings

The form of a past participle depends on whether the verb is regular or irregular. To form the past participle of a regular verb, add the suffixes –d or –ed to the infinitive form of a verb.

concerned citizenstroubled ruler

To form the past participle of an irregular verb, use a special form.

Verb Past Participlechoose chosensink sunk

A participial phrase is composed of a participle and its modifiers and complements. The participial phrase functions as an adjective to modify a noun or a pronoun.

Walking to school, Paolo met Gerald.Having sunk, the Titanic remains a memory.

A participial phrase is said to dangle if it modifies another headword instead of the correct one. It is corrected if it is placed near the word it modifies.

Peeping through the window, the heart-shaped leaves were seen.(Who was peeping through the window? It could not be the leaves!)Should be: Peeping through the window, the children saw the heart-shaped leaves.

Remember:

The participle should not be confused with the gerund. Bear in mind that the participle is used as adjective while a gerund is used as a noun. Even if both end in –ing, the participle has an adjective function. It can be distinguished from the gerund only by its use in a sentence.

Skating is fun. (gerund)We just finished our skating lesson. (participle)

Infinitives

An infinitive is a verbal which is composed of the word to and the basic form of the verb. It may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb in a sentence.

As a noun

To surf the Internet is informational. (subject)I like to surf the Internet. (verb)What the boy wants is to surf the Internet. (predicate nominative)

As an adjective

The grasses to trim are those in the garden.(Which grass? The grass to trim)

As an adverb

The student went to the computer shop to surf.An infinitive phrase is composed of an infinitive and its modifiers and complements. It functions in a sentence in the same way that a noun, an adjective, or an adverb does.

With Modifiers

To surf effectively, an individual must develop some computer skills. (The adverb effectively modifies to surf)

With Complements

The hostess wants us to feel comfortably. (Comfortable is a predicate adjective following the infinitive to feel.)

Remember:

Infinitive phrases should not dangle or split. An infinitive phrase is said to dangle if the implied action is left without a doer because the noun or pronoun denoting the doer of the action indicated by the infinitive is not stated in the sentence. To correct and avoid a dangling infinitive phrase, see to it that the word modified by the infinitive is always expressed and placed immediately next to the infinitive phrase.

Dangling Infinitive: To conquer the land, high-tech weapons and trained personnel are needed.

Improved Infinitive: To conquer the land, the foreign invaders needed high-tech weapons and trained personnel.

An infinitive is said to be split if an adverb is placed between to and the verb.

Split Infinitive: Hans wanted his team to really win over the opponent.Improved: Hans really wanted his team to win over the opponent.

Contractions

A contraction is a word formed by joining two or more words. An apostrophe (‘) shows where a letter or letters have been left out. Many people use contractions when they speak or write informal letters. Do not use contractions in a formal writing such as business letter or reports.

Common Contractions

Contraction Words It Replaces

I’m I amhe’s, she’s, it’s he is, she is, it is; he has, she has, it hasisn’t, aren’t, wasn’t, weren’t is not, are not, was not, were nothe’ll, she’ll, you’ll he will, she will, you willContraction Words It Replaces

won’t will notdoesn’t, wasn’t does not, was notI’d I would, I hadI’ve, we’ve, you’ve, they’ve I have, we have, you have, they havewho’s who is, who hasthere’s there is, there haslet’s let uscan’t can not

Contractions or Possessives?

Be careful not confuse contractions with possessive pronouns or possessive adjectives. Pronouns with apostrophes (‘) are parts of contractions. Possessive nouns and possessive adjectives do not use apostrophes.

Pronoun Contraction Possessive Pronoun/Adjectivehe he’s (he is) hisshe she’s (she is) hersit it’s (it is) itsyou you’re (you are) yours, yourthey they’re (they are) theirs, theirwe we’re (we are) ours, our

who who’s (who is) whose

Note: The possessive its and the contraction it’s are often confused.

Possessive: The airplane lost power in one of its engines.Contraction: It’s possible to make an emergency landing.

Possessives

The possessive form of a noun shows that something is owned, and it shows who or what the owner is.

1. Add an apostrophe (‘) and s to form the possessive of singular nouns and irregular plural nouns that don’t end with an s.

Troy drove his wife’s car to work yesterday.I saw him yesterday at Robert’s store.I have already put away the children’s toys.

2. Add only an apostrophe (‘) to form the possessive of plural nouns that ends with s.

Both of my sisters’ houses are on the west side.3. Use an apostrophe for possessive nouns only. Do not use an apostrophe with plural nouns that are not possessive.

My sisters and the Smiths live near each other.

If two or more people own a single thing; place the apostrophe after the last person’s name.

Carl and John’s basketball.

If each owns a thing separately, make each noun possessive.

Carl’s and John’s basketballs.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words used as joiners.

Different kinds of conjunctions join different kinds of grammatical structures.The following are the kinds of conjunctions:

A. Coordinating Conjunctions

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Coordinating Conjunctions join equals to one another.

words to words, phrases to phrases, clauses to clauses

Examples:

word to word Most children like cookies and milk.phrases to phrases The gold is hidden at the beach or by the lakeside.clauses to clauses What you say and what you do are two different things.

Coordinating conjunctions usually form looser connections than other conjunctions do.

Examples:

Marge was late for work, and she received a cut in pay. (vey loose)

Marge was late for work, so she received a cut in pay. (loose)

Because Marge was late for work, she received a cut in pay. (The subordinate conjunction because creates a tight link between the two ideas.)

Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the beginning or at the end.

Correct: I like coffee, but I don’t like tea.Incorrect: But I don’t like tea, I like coffee.

Punctuation with coordinating conjunctions:

When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses, no comma should be placed before the conjunction.

Examples:

words: cookies and milkphrases: at the beach or by the lakesidesubordinate clauses: what you say and what you do

A coordinating conjunction joining three or more words, phrases, or subordinate clauses creates a series and requires commas between the elements.

words: peanuts, cookies, and milkphrases: in the mountains, at the beach, or by the lakesidesubordinate clauses: what you think, what you say, and what you do

A coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses creates a compound sentence and requires a comma before the coordinating conjunction.

Examples:

Tom ate all the peanuts, so Philip ate the cookies.I don’t care for the beach, but I enjoy a good vacation in the mountains.B. Correlative Conjunctions

either…or both…andneither…nor not only…but also

These pairs of conjunctions require equal or parallel structures after each one.

Incorrect: Claire not only wants money but also fame.Correct: Claire wants not only money but also fame.Correct: Claire not only wants money but also wants fame.

C. Conjunctive Adverbs

These conjunctions join independent clauses together.

The following are frequently used conjunctive verbs:

after all in addition nextalso incidentally nonethelessas a result indeed on the contrarybesides in fact on the other handconsequently in other words otherwisefinally instead stillfor example likewise thenfurthermore meanwhile thereforehence moreover thuswhatever however nevertheless

Examples:

The tire was flat; therefore, we called a service station.It was a hot day; nevertheless, the roofers worked on the project all day.

Punctuation: Place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after theconjunctive adverb.

D. Subordinating Conjunctions

These words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions:

after in order (that) unlessalthough insofar as untilas in that whenas far as lest wheneveras soon as no matter how whereas if now that whereveras though once whetherbecause provided (that) whilebefore since whyeven if so that even thoughhow than supposing (that)if that inasmuch as

though in case (that) till

Examples:

It is raining.Both are independent clauses or sentences.

We have an umbrella.

Add because to it is raining.

Because it is raining } This is no longer an independent clause or sentence.

Put the two clauses together.

Because it is raining, we have an umbrella

Or,

We have an umbrella because it is raining.

A subordinating conjunction may appear at a sentence beginning or between two clauses in a sentence.

A subordinate conjunction usually provides a tighter connection between clauses than a coordinating conjunction does.

Loose: It is raining, so we have an umbrella.Tight: Because it is raining, we have an umbrella.

Prefixes

Some English words are formed by adding prefixes or suffixes or both to the base words. Base words are short words that lie at the heart of longer words. New words are created when prefixes or suffixes or both added to the base words.

A prefix is one or more syllables placed at the beginning of a base word to change the meaning of the base word. A prefix may reverse meaning, show relationship and judgment, refer to action, make abstract word, or to make adjective.

Prefixes that Reverse Meaning

Prefix Meaning Examples

dis- the opposite of disregard, disobey, discouragein- not invalid, incompetent, incorrectir- not irrelevant, irresponsible, irregularim- not impossible, impatient, impolitenon- not nonconformist, nonessential, nonobjective

un- the opposite of untidy, unconcerned, unfaithful

Prefixes that Show Relationship

Prefix Meaning Examples

ante- before anteroom, antedate, antechambercircum- around circumnavigate, circumlocutionextra- outside, beyond extraordinary, extraterrestrialpre- before prepaid, preschool, prematurepost- after postpaid, postgraduate, postnatalre- back, again repaint, recharge, reloadsub- beneath submarine, submerge, subcontinentsuper- over, beyond supernatural, supermarket, superstar

Suffixes

A suffix is one or more syllables added at the end of a base word to form a new word. Each suffix has its own meaning or function.

Noun-making Suffixes

Suffix Meaning Examples

-arian grammarian, librarian-eer volunteer, engineer, mountaineer-er seller-ist one who botanist, biologist, chemist-ian Christian-or creator, actor-dom domain, rank, wisdom, kingdom, earldom

general condition-hood state, character, class brotherhood, priesthood-ism action, state communism, baptism, idealism

doctrine Judaism-ment action, state acknowledgement, movement-ness quality, state kindness, holiness-ship quality, state friendship, sponsorship, censorship

position, skill battleship, relationship-ity quality, state generosity-ion action, state action, creation, depression

Adjective-making Suffixes

Suffix Meaning Examples

-able, ible capable of being manageable, capable, responsible-al relating to national, statistical-ish childish

-ic heroic, stoic, erotic-ical pertaining to economical, mechanical-ive festive, restive-ful useful, plentiful, resourceful-ose full of verbose, overdose-ous glorious, mysterious-less without useless, helpless, penniless-like like childlike, adultlike-ly saintly, cowardly

Verb-making Suffixes

Suffix Meaning Examples

-ate activate, motivate-en brighten, lighten, soften, tighten-fy become purify, electrify, mummify-ize memorize, legalize, vandalize

ALL ABOUT WRITING

Capitalization and Punctuation

Correct Sentences

As you know, a sentence must begin with a capital letter.

The Vikings were superb sailors and explorers.

Each sentence type ends with a certain punctuation mark.

Declarative: The Vikings raided towns throughout Europe.Interrogative: What qualities made the Vikings so powerful?Exclamatory: How beautiful their dragon-shaped ships were!Imperative: Write a report about the Viking customs.

Proper Nouns

Proper Nouns: People and Places

Proper Nouns name specific people, places, or things. Capitalize the first word of a proper noun and each additional important word.

Proper Nouns

1. Names, initials J. R. SmithJohn Blake

2. Titles, abbreviations Atty. Robert JohnsonDr. Richard Baron

Capitalize titles before names Mayor Philip George but not when they used alone. the mayor

Always capitalize the title President President Theodore Roosevelt When referring to presidents of any the President country.

3. Terms for relatives Capitalize words showing family Uncle Tony relationships only when they are used my uncle before a name or when they take the place of a name.

4. Cities, countries, states, provinces Manila, Orange County, Illinois5. Countries, continents, regions of Mexico, United States, any country South America, Australia

Capitalize regions of the country the Midwest, the South but not the directions. We drove south.

6. Planets Mercury, Jupiter

7. Bodies of water Pacific Ocean, Amazon River

8. Geographic features Sahara Desert, Rocky Mountains

9. Streets, highways Rizal Avenue, MacArthur Highway

10. Buildings, bridges, monuments National MuseumBrooklyn BridgeWashington Monument

More Proper Nouns and proper Adjectives

Proper nouns name other things besides people and places.

Proper Nouns

1. Days, months Monday, June

Do not capitalize the names of the seasons.

2. organizations, institutions Peace CorpsBraille Institute

Capitalize the word school, college, or Far Eastern university University only if it is a part of a proper noun. a college in Baguio

3. Languages, people Greek, Asian, African

4. Events, periods French Revolution,Stone Age

5. Documents Philippine Constitution

Proper adjectives are adjectives formed from proper nouns. Proper adjectives must also be capitalized.

Proper Nouns Proper AdjectivesAsian Asian countriesFrance French breadOlympus Olympic gamesIron Age Iron Age toolsApril April showers

Titles

You have learned how to capitalize proper nouns. Titles are capitalized in much the saw way.

Capitalize the first word and all other important words of a title. Do not capitalize short or unimportant words such as articles, coordinating conjunctions, and prepositions unless they came first in the title.

All Creatures Great and Small is a book by a veterinarian.Bill listened to a new recording of The Magic Flute.

In printed materials the tiles of most long or major works appear in italics, a type of print that slants to the right. When writing or typing these titles, you should underline them.

Italicized or Underlined Titles

Books David Copperfield Harry PotterMagazines National Geographic TimeNewspapers Manila Bulletin Philippine Daily InquirerPlays A Midsummer Night’s Dream Romeo and JulietMovies The Sound of Music Star WarsTelevision Series Deal or No Deal “Game Ka Na Ba?”Works of art The Thinker Mona LisaMusical composition The Nutcracker Suite Porgy and BessPlanes, trains, ships, Concorde Orient Expressspacecrafts Titanic Apollo 11

Dates, Addresses, and Letters

The rules will help you to capitalize and punctuate dates and addresses correctly.

1. Capitalize proper nouns in dates and addresses.

Mom has a meeting in Shangri-La, Makati on June 18.

2. In a date, use a comma between the day and the year.

Leah was born on September 29, 2001.

3. Do not use a comma if a date consists only of a month and a day or a month and a year.

The tennis tournament has been scheduled for June 18.

4. In an address, use a comma between a city and a state or a city and a country.

The flight went from NAIA, Pasay, Manila to Cebu Airport.

5. Use a comma between a street and a city when they appear in a sentence, but not between the state and the ZIP code.

Send the box to 44 2nd Street, Los Angeles 2032.

6. Use a comma to set off the second part of a date or an address when it is included in a sentence.

On July 14, 1879 citizens of Paris France revolted.

When you write a letter, be sure to capitalize and punctuate its parts correctly.

1. Capitalize the greeting of a letter. Use a comma after the greeting in a friendly letter and a colon in a business letter.

Dear George, Dear Sir or Madam:

2. Capitalize the first word in the closing a letter. Use a comma after the closing.

Yours truly, Respectfully yours,

3. Do not use a comma between a street address and a city when they appear in the heading of a letter.

50 Guernica Street2nd Avenue, Grace ParkCaloocan City 1400December 21, 2012

Abbreviations and Numbers

An abbreviation is the shortened form of a word. There are several ways of forming abbreviations. If you are unsure about one, look it up in your dictionary.

Many abbreviations begin with a capital letter and end with a period.

Days of the Week: Mon. Monday Tues. TuesdayWed. Wednesday Fri. Friday

Months: Jan. January Aug. AugustMar. March Oct. October

Titles: Dr. Reid Chang, DoctorMr. Roy Malone, Jr. Mister, Junior

Business Term: Inc. Incorporated Co. CompanyCorp. Corporation

Words in Addresses: St. Street Rd. RoadAve. Avenue Dr. DriveBlvd. Boulevard Mt. Mountain or MountApt. Apartment Ste. Suite

Some abbreviations are written in all capital letters with a letter standing for each important word. Each letter is followed by a period.

P.O. Post Office D.C. District of ColumbiaP.D. Police Department R.N. Registered Nurse

DOH Department of Health DOJ Department of Justice

Some abbreviations begin with a small letter and end with a period.

gal. gallon p. page min. minute

Some abbreviations have neither capital letters nor periods.

mph miles per hour hp horsepower ft feet

Note these additional facts about abbreviations.

1. To save space in addresses and names of businesses, you can use abbreviations for some words.

2. Periods do not usually appear after abbreviations for organizations, and the letters are capitals.

3. The United States Postal Service – USPS uses a capitalized two-letter abbreviation with no period for each state.

4. Do not abbreviate the months of May, June, and July.

5. Do not capitalize or use periods after abbreviations for units of measurement, only exception in the abbreviation for inch, which is followed by a period.

6. If you use abbreviations for a unit of measure, then you should use numeral with it.Numbers

1. When writing sentences, always spell out numbers under one hundred. Use numerals for numbers over one hundred except for even hundreds.

There are eighty-two students present.There are 182 students in my school.There were two hundred students last year.

2. Always spell out a number that begins a sentence.

One hundred fifty-one students attended the meeting.

3. Spell out expressions of time when you use the word o’clock. Use numerals, however, when the time is followed by A.M. or P.M. or is used alone as an exact time.

Let’s meet at seven o’clock.The taxi came at 6 P.M.

4. Use numerals to refer to large sections of writing or lines within sections.

Chapter 6 Unit 10 line 13

Uses of Commas

Commas in a Series

A comma stands for a pause. You can use commas to make the meaning of a sentence clearer by putting pauses between different parts of the sentence.

One way commas are used is to separate three or more items in a series. When writing a series, put a comma after each item except the last one.

Nurses, dentists, and surgeons are medical professionals.Physicians prevent, identify, and cure diseases.

The items in a series can consist of single words or group of words.

Doctors work in hospitals, clinics, and private offices.

Commas in Compound Sentences

You should also use commas to separate parts of a compound sentence. Place the comma before the conjunction that joins the two simple sentences.

Vaccines are inexpensive, and they prevent many illnesses.

Do not use commas to separate compound subjects or compound predicates.

The dentist and her assistant checked the patient’s teeth.Bacterias attach to the teeth and cause cavities.

More Comma Uses

When an introductory word comes at the beginning of a sentence, it is followed by a comma. An introductory word may be a noun of direct address, or it may be a word such as yes, no, or well.

Christine, do you know the story of Ronald Amendsen?Yes, this Norwegian explorer discovered the South Pole.

Commas are also used to set off interrupters. These include words and phrases that interrupt the flow of a sentence, such as however, for example, in my opinion, and as a matter of fact.

Interrupters also include appositives, words or groups of words that identify or explain the nouns they follow. A noun of direct address may also be considered as interrupter.

Robert Scott, an Englishman, was a month behind Amendsen.Scott, however, died during his return from the South Pole.Write a report, Christine, on the two expeditions.

Some interrupters may appear at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a sentence.

Of course, Amundsen’s sleds were pulled by dogs.Scott, on the other hand, mistakenly used ponies.Amendsen beat Scott to the Pole by only a month, however.

Semicolons and Colons

Semicolons

Another mark of punctuation is the semicolon (;). Use a semicolon to join the two independent clauses of a compound sentence when the clauses are not joined by a subordinating conjunction such as and, or, or but.

The airplane took off; we were on our way to Los Angeles.Colons

The colon (:) has very different uses from the semicolon. When writing the time of day in numeral form, use a colon between the hour and the minutes.

We arrived in Washington D.C. exactly 7:35 P.M.

Use a colon after the greeting in a business letter.

To Mr. Johnson:

You can also use a colon to set off a list of items from the rest of a sentence, especially after words such as the following or as follows:

We took the following: luggage, guidebooks, and passports.

Apostrophes

Possessive Nouns

Apostrophes (‘) are used to form possessive nouns.

1. To make the possessive form of a singular noun, add an apostrophe and s.

architect the architect’s planRichard Richard’s measuring tape

2. To make the possessive form of a plural noun that ends in s, simply add an apostrophe.

carpenters the carpenters’ associationbuilders the builders’ tools

3. To make the possessive form of a plural noun that does not end in s, add an apostrophe and s.

workmen workmen’s footprintpeople the people’s decision

Contractions

You have learned that a contraction is formed by combining two words. When the words are combined, one or more letters are left out An apostrophe takes the place of any missing letters.

You can form a contraction by combining a pronoun and a verb or a verb and the word not.

I’ve (I have) you’ll (you will) she’s (she is)

won’t (will not) didn’t (did not) isn’t (is not)

Hyphens, Dashes, and Parentheses

Hyphens, dashes, and parentheses are punctuation that help to make your writing clearer.

Use a hyphen to separate syllables of a word when you break the word at the end of a line. Check your dictionary to make sure that you correctly break the word into syllables.

Two group of animals with cold blood are reptiles and amphi-bians.

Use hyphens in all compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine.

The science museum exhibits twenty-four types of snakes.

Hyphens also connect the parts of some other compound words. Use a dictionary to find out whether or not a compound word contains a hyphen.

Ann’s great-aunt and sister-in-law study reptile behavior.

Use dashes to signal a sudden break of thought in a sentence.

The Komodo dragon – a good name for this lizard – is huge.

When you want to add an explanation that is not of major importance to a sentence, enclose it in parentheses.

The encyclopedia (Volume 12) has an entry about lizards.

Vocabulary Tests

Two kinds of items, or questions, appear frequently on standardized vocabulary tests. One kind asks you to recognize antonyms and a second kind asks you to recognize synonyms.

An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word.

affable : hostile terminate : begin

A synonym is a word that means the same meaning as another word.

affable : friendly terminate : finish

Spelling Rules

Spelling Patterns

Understanding certain common word patterns can help take the guesswork out of spelling many words.

Words with ie and ei

Put i before e : believe, field, friendexcept after c : ceiling, receipt, receiveror whensounded like a : neighbor, weigh

Although this rule applies in most cases, the following words are exceptions:

ancient efficient either leisureconscience species neither seizesufficient foreign height weird

The rules for spelling the ie/ei apply only when the ie or ei combination appears in the same syllable of a word. The rule do not apply in the following examples, where i and e appear in separate syllables.

be ing sci encere imburse soci ety

Words with –sede, -ceed, and –cede

Only one word in English is spelled with a –sede ending and only three words are spelled with a –ceed ending. All other words than end in the “seed” sound are spelled with a –cede ending.

-sede supersede-ceed exceed, proceed, succeed-cede concede, precede, recede, secede

Spelling Improvement

Strategies for Improving Your Spelling

1. List the word you find difficult.2. Use a dictionary to check the spelling of words you are unsure of. Guessing is unreliable.3. Sound each syllable to avoid dropping letters.4. Use memory tricks for words you frequently misspell.

ACCENT NEUTRALIZATION

Through Accent Neutralization training, you will learn to speak standard American English. Achieving this standard American English sound will enable our clients to understand us better, thus, enabling us to provide assistance and service that knows no boundaries.

What is Accent?

Accent is the combination of three main components: intonation (speech music), liaisons (word connections), and pronunciation (the spoken sounds of vowels, consonants, and combinations). Accent is free form, intuitive, and creative --- more the spirit of language.

Accent Neutralization Paragraph

Hello my name is ____________. I’m taking the Accent Neutralization training. There’s a lot to learn, but I hope to make it as enjoyable as possible. I should pick up on the American intonation pattern pretty easily, although the only ways to get it is to practice all the time. I use the up and down, or peaks and valleys intonation more than I used to. I’ve been paying attention to a lot of Americans lately and tell me that I’m easier to understand. Anyway, I could go on and on, the important thing is to listen well and sound goo. Well what do you think, do I?

What is Pronunciation?

Pronunciation is the spoken sounds of vowels, consonants, and sound combinations. Through pronunciation is an integral component of accent, it is the most variable. Note though that pronunciation of certain words, such as cities, varies in the East and West Coast.

Problematic Sounds for Most Filipinos

Consonant Sounds Vowel Sounds

CH as in child, much EE as in seat, seeJ as in jump, badge I as in it, withD as in India EH as in edge, setP as in pass, up AE as in at, ranF as in find, if A as in often, notR as in right, or OO as in bookS as in safe, miss U as in bootSH as in shoe, wash UH as in up, butTH as in think, with UR as in early, herTHH as in this, breathe OY as in oil, boyV as in very, driveZ as in zipper, isZH as in usual

American Vowel Sounds

Short A / ӕ

The ae is very distinctive to the ear and is very American

To pronounce it, drop your jaw as if you were going to say ä, then from that position, tray to say eh

The final sound is not two separate vowels but rather a smooth flowing combination of both

Think the word ‘Advil’

Examples.

back mad half applecat glad back travelsack ma’am last tanadd fast cab taxisad class avenue

Italian A / ä

Form your lips into a vertically elongated circle and make a sound If you are producing /a/, your lips are probably spread horizontally If you are producing /o/, then drop your jaw further

Examples:

father spark all boxpalm dark auto shopcalm garage call waterbalm mall taco

Long A / ei

Examples:

abe faith grape bakefade nature flavor safebase angel phase

Schwa / ầ

The most common sound in American English Difficulty to identify – it appears as any vowels The neutral sound uh Any actual sound, not like silent e at the end of the word

Examples:

oven cousin herabove confront siradjust pleasant sonstomach was up

Short E / ĕ

Examples:

penguin mess bestbed egg saidpen peg peckden nest

Long E / ē

Smile as if you’re going to say ĕ Do not hold the production of the sound longer than any other vowel,

even though you see two letters Make the sound more definite by exaggerating your smile

Examples:

meet breath reachsqueeze peace eastfrequent beach citylegal please previousmovie suite field

Short I / ĭ

Mouth slightly more open and the neck muscles are more relaxed than in the /e/ sound

This is a short sound

Examples:

kit city give billingsick issue liquor servicepit limo kick cinemainn six sit

Long I / ai

Examples:

rifle migrate livelyfiber bite lightfinally climate idlepie desire design

Short O / ŏ

Examples:

block shock slob bogbond crop mob bombbottle lollipop lodge shop

Long O / ō

Put your lips in a circle, protruding your lips slightly, make the circle smaller, as you continue to make a sound

Examples:

zero growth cocoa tollglobe cozy both grovesew holy code goldthroat smoke road no

Short U / ŭ

Slightly more open than the /ō/ sound Also produced farther back in the mouth

Examples:

full put good tookpull would foot cookpush look boot tool

Long U / ū

Form your lips into a smaller circle Protrude your lips slightly as you form the circle

Examples:

human tulip united doruby few refuse newstudent abuse argue shoeruin frugal movie school

American Consonant Sounds

Kinds of Consonants

Stops b, p – lips pushed out

Fricatives f, v – vibrations from the lipsNasals m, n, ng – nasal vibrations, mouth closedAffricates g, j, ch, sh – jaw movementsLaterals r, l – tongue goes sidewaysT different types of t

B Sound

Form the mouth like a /p/ at the start, then produce a voiced sound as you force air through to separate the lips

Examples:

ball bitter beneath numberboy black beyond barberbold bank bad betterbookstore best bring business

P Sound

Produce P by slightly pressing the upper lip to the lower lip, then force air through to separate them

Examples:

pride pink purple priorityplace prick plow projectpint prune plunder prankpimp personal praise portray

V Sound

Form the mouth as in the /f/ at the start, then produce an edible, semi – buzzing sound as you force air through

Examples:

victory voucher vacant vocalvain vine video valuevase vacation violet vaccinevelcro have velvet volunteer

F Sound

Produce /f/ with the upperteeth slightly touching your lower lip, then blow and feel the air escape between your lips and teeth

Examples:

father foster fossil flowerfavorite flavor fewer foot

flag fragrant festival first

Voiceless Th / Soft Th

Produce with the tongue touching upper teeth lightly Tongue maintains a relaxed stanced and should be protruding Maintain a steady and faintly audible flow of air

Examples:

thin thick mammoth anythingthink thief myth broththree thank health fifththought wreath withdraw south

Voiced Th / Hard Th

Produce with the tongue protruding slightly and it should be touching the upper teeth Start with the voiceless th then add a buzzing sound without changing the postion of

the tongue

Examples:

there writhe feather weatherbathe loathe zither thereforethey though lather rythmnbreathe that the although

American T Sounds

T is T

In the beginning of a word In stressed T and ST, TS, TR, CT and LT combinations (and sometimes NT) Words ending in D in the past tense of verbs ending with an unvoiced consonants

Examples:

transfer state hotel reachedtaxi street control checkedtraffic travel tours kicked

T is D

If T is in the middle of a word, intonation changes the sound to a soft D

Examples:

city category autobetter little computer

T is Silent

T and N are so close in the mouth that the /t/ can sometimes disappear If the T is at the end of the word, you almost don’t hear it at all

Examples:

Atlanta twenty creditcenter street thatmarket interview sentence

T is Held

If you have /n/ immediately after /t/, don’t pop the /t/ Release the air for the /n/, not the /t/

Examples:

certain important forgottenwritten mountain fountain

intonation

Intonation is the rise and fall of pitch in order to convey a range of meanings, emotions, or situations, within the confines of standard grammar and fixed word order.

Even if you pronounce each word correctly, if your intonation patterns are non-standard, your meaning will probably not be clear.

To stress or not to stress

In English, certain words are given stress or said clearly while others are quickly spoken. We need to understand which words we should generally stress and which we should not.

Stress words are considered content words:

Nouns – listings, business, city, names, titles (Most) principal verbs – help, search, spell, transfer Adjectives – several, two, first, sorry Adverbs - please, truly, further, really

Non-stress words, the ones we glide over, are considered function words:

Determiners – the, a, some, their Auxilliary verbs – can, don’t, was, am Prepositions – of, for, from, with Conjunctions – so, and, while, because Pronouns – we, I, you, they

Liaisons

Liaisons are word connections that allow us to speak in sound groups rather than individual words. Even though En glish is printed with a little space between words, this is not how it’s spoken. If you actually try to talk like that, you will sound mechanical, stilted, awkward, or affected.

Allow your words to flow smoothly into each other to have build, connected speech.

Words are connected in four main situations:

1. Consonant / Vowel 3. Vowel / Vowel2. Consonant / Consonant 4. T, D, S, or Z + Y

Situation 1: Consonant / Vowel

Words are connected when a word ends in consonant sound and the next word starts with a vowel sound, including the semi-vowels W, Y, and R. You also use liaisons in spelling and numbers.

Examples:

name of can Iread out number isanything else further assistancepost office Rite-aidIRS AAA (Triple A)

Situation 2: Consonant / Consonant

Words are connected when a word ends in a consonant saound and next word starts with a consonant that is produced with the mouth and tongue in a similar position.

1. At the lips: p, f (unvoiced); b, v, m, w (voiced)2. Behind the teeth: t, ch, s, sh (unvoiced); d, j, z, zh, l, n, y (voiced)3. In the throat: k, h (unvoiced); g, ng, r (voiced)

Examples:

city and state what typecheck cashing main numberdifferent name office supplysocial service foot locker

Situation 2: Vowel / Vowel

When a word beginning with a vowel sound follows a word ending in vowel sound, they are connected with a glide between the two vowels. Glides are characterized by a slight [y] sound or a slight [w] sound.

Go away [go-w-away]I also [I-y-also]

The appropriate sound to be used depends on the position of one’s lips at the end of the previous word. For instance, a word ending in [o] will make your lips turn into a forward position. A [w] sound will naturally lead into the next vowel sound.

no address I apologizethe incovinience you arelet me issue to assistcity and state D’ Angelo’sSituation 4: T, D, S, or Z + Y

When the letter or sound of T, D, S, or Z is followed by a word that starts with Y (or its sound), both sounds are connected.

T + Y = CH S + Y = SH

what’s your yes, you arecan’t you insuranceactually bless youdon’t you press yourwouldn’t youhaven’t you not yetlet you

D + Y = J Z + Y = ZH

did you how was yourcould you when was yoursend your

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