PROFESSIONAL ENGLISH INTERMEDIATE ENGINEERING HANDBOOKTeacher Alejandra Cabrera CasillasGrammar:

Students will be able to identify the parts of speech. Students will have mastered correct usage of parts of speech and basic punctuation

marks. Students will be introduced to the following aspects of sentence structure: subjects and

predicates, simple clauses, complex and compound sentences. Students will be introduced to the following punctuation marks: comma, apostrophe,

semi-colon, colon, quotation marks, end marks and capitalization. Students will have a full working knowledge of sentence structure, including compound

and complex sentences and clauses. Students will have mastered knowledge regarding clause and phrase structures. Students will understand and practice the following aspects of grammar: pronoun case,

tenses and verbal phrases.

1. Parts of speech and their functions within sentences 

Nouns and nominals (infinitives, gerunds, etc.) Articles Verbs Pronouns Adjectives Adverbs Prepositions Conjunctions Interjections

2. THE MAIN ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE

Subject Verbs and verb phrases Direct and indirect object(s) Complements with verbs that express feeling, appearing, being and seeming Modifiers (Adjectives and Adverbs) Clauses Phrases Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases

2 A. Types of sentences and their syntax 

Sentence structure Simple Compound Complex Basic & variations on basic sentence patterns

3. Verb Usage 

Agreement Tense Sequence and consistency of tenses

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 1 de 83

Regular Verbs Irregular Verbs Mood Active or passive voice Modals Phrasal verbs

REVIEW I.The Eight Parts of Speech

Noun: A word which is a person, place, thing or idea. Examples: Mount Everest, book, horse, Peter, strength, car, Empire State Building,

China, house, child Pronoun: A word that is used to take the place of a noun. Examples: I, they, their, ourselves, itself, your, my, nobody, who, which, her, we Adjective :A word that is used to describe a noun or pronoun. Examples: proud, purple, French, few, this, huge, sad, second, none Verb: A word that indicates an action, being or state or being. Examples: play, run, think, study, smell, wait, be, drive, renounce, fill Adverb: A word that is used to describe a verb which tells how, where, or when

something is done. Examples: carefully, often, very, intelligently, quite, too, rarely, never Conjunction: A word that is used to join words or groups of words. Examples: and, or, but, neither, because, while, since, although Preposition: A word used indicating the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another

word. Examples: in, until, of, from, after, under, beyond, across, toward Interjection: A single word used to express strong emotion. Examples: Wow! Ah! Oh! No!

Sentences

The basic element of English grammar is the sentence. A sentence, simply put, contains a subject and a predicate, and expresses a complete thought.Sentences can be quite complex, but in a simple sentence, someone or something performs an action. The subject of the sentence is the person or thing that performs the action. The predicate of the sentence is the action that is performed.

Consider the following examples:He runs.Subject: HePredicate: runsJoe ate dinner.Subject: JoePredicate: ate dinner

I am hungry.Subject: IPredicate: am hungryTuktoyaktuk is in the Arctic.Subject: TuktoyaktukPredicate: is in the Arctic

Sometimes the subject can be left out, if the sentence is giving a command. In the following examples, the subject is "you," and it is implied:Stop.Go away.Help me!

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 2 de 83

SENTENCE STRUCTURES REVIEW

AFFIRMATIVESUBJECT VERB COMPLEMENT

WHAT WHERE WHEN

I bought a book in the library yesterday.He is tired.

Susan became an engineer.They got a fabulous painting.

Will and Susan jog in the park.

NEGATIVESUBJECT AUXILIARY

+NOT+VERBOBJECT COMPLEMENT

WHAT WHERE WHENHe didn’t leave the door open.We shouldn’t have elected him president of the U.S.A.They named her Jane.

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES PATTERNS

There are 2 kinds of questions in English: “Yes/No Answer” questions and “Complete Answers” questions.

Yes/No Questions.

AUXILIARY VERB

SUBJECT MAIN VERB

COMPLEMENT ANSWER

Do you have money? Yes, I do. No, I don’t.

Has he got a cell phone? Yes, he has. No, he hasn’t.

QUESTION EXPRESSION-WORD

AUXILIARY VERB SUBJECT MAIN VERB COMPLEMENT?

Where can I find a café?

ANSWER: There is one on Montejo Avenue.

What kind of music do you like?

ANSWER: I like rock and classical music.

NOTE: The “Who” can have a special pattern:

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 3 de 83

WHO AUXILIARY MAIN VERB COMPLEMENT?

Who can answer the phone?

Who XXXXXXXXXXX wants a banana?

COMPOUND SENTENCE

A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The coordinators are as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (Helpful hint: The first letter of each of the coordinators spells FANBOYS.) Except for very short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma. In the following compound sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the coordinators and the commas that precede them are in red. 

A.  I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.  B.  Alejandro played football, so Maria went shopping.  C.  Alejandro played football, for Maria went shopping.

The above three sentences are compound sentences.  Each sentence contains two independent clauses, and they are joined by a coordinator with a comma preceding it.  Note how the conscious use of coordinators can change the relationship between the clauses.  Sentences B and C, for example, are identical except for the coordinators.  In sentence B, which action occurred first?  Obviously, "Alejandro played football" first, and as a consequence, "Maria went shopping.  In sentence C, "Maria went shopping" first.  In sentence C, "Alejandro played football" because, possibly, he didn't have anything else to do, for or because "Maria went shopping."  How can the use of other coordinators change the relationship between the two clauses?  What implications would the use of "yet" or "but" have on the meaning of the sentence?

COMPLEX SENTENCE

A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which. In the following complex sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the subordinators and their commas (when required) are in red.

 A. When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.  B. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error. C. The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow.D. After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies. E. Juan and Maria went to the movies after they finished studying.

When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator such as sentences A and D, a comma is required at the end of the dependent clause. When the independent clause begins the sentence with subordinators in the middle as in sentences B, C, and E, no comma is required. If a comma is placed before the subordinators in sentences B, C, and E, it is wrong.

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 4 de 83

Note that sentences D and E are the same except sentence D begins with the dependent clause which is followed by a comma, and sentence E begins with the independent clause which contains no comma.  The comma after the dependent clause in sentence D is required, and experienced listeners of English will often hear a slight pause there.  In sentence E, however, there will be no pause when the independent clause begins the sentence. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES / ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Finally, sentences containing adjective clauses (or dependent clauses) are also complex because they contain an independent clause and a dependent clause.  The subjects, verbs, and subordinators are marked the same as in the previous sentences, and in these sentences, the independent clauses are also underlined. 

 A. The woman who(m) my mom talked to sells cosmetics .B. The book that Jonathan read is on the shelf .C. The house which Abraham Lincoln was born in is still standing .D. The town where I grew up is in the United States .

Adjective Clauses are studied in this site separately, but for now it is important to know that sentences containing adjective clauses are complex.

Tenses in English

In English, there are three basic tenses: present, past, and future. Each has a perfect form, indicating completed action; each has a progressive form, indicating ongoing action; and each has a perfect progressive form, indicating ongoing action that will be completed at some definite time. Here is a list of examples of these tenses and their definitions:

Simple Forms Progressive Forms Perfect FormsPerfect Progressive

Forms

Present take/s am/is/are taking have/has taken have/has been taking

Past took was/were taking had taken had been taking

Future will/shall take will be taking will have taken will have been taking

Simple Forms

Present Tense

Present tense expresses an unchanging, repeated, or reoccurring action or situation that exists only now. It can also represent a widespread truth.

Example Meaning

The mountains are tall and white. Unchanging action

Every year, the school council elects new members. Recurring action

Pb is the chemical symbol for lead. Widespread truth

Past TenseE.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 5 de 83

Past tense expresses an action or situation that was started and finished in the past. Most past tense verbs end in -ed. The irregular verbs have special past tense forms which must be memorized.

Example Form

W.W.II ended in 1945. Regular -ed past

Ernest Hemmingway wrote "The Old Man and the Sea." Irregular form

Future Tense

Future tense expresses an action or situation that will occur in the future. This tense is formed by using will/shall with the simple form of the verb.

The speaker of the House will finish her term in May of 1998.

The future tense can also be expressed by using am, is, or are with going to.

The surgeon is going to perform the first bypass in Minnesota.

We can also use the present tense form with an adverb or adverbial phrase to show future time.

The president speaks tomorrow. (Tomorrow is a future time adverb.)

Progressive Forms

Present Progressive Tense

Present progressive tense describes an ongoing action that is happening at the same time the statement is written. This tense is formed by using am/is/are with the verb form ending in -ing.

The sociologist is examining the effects that racial discrimination has on society.

Past Progressive Tense

Past progressive tense describes a past action which was happening when another action occurred. This tense is formed by using was/were with the verb form ending in -ing.

The explorer was explaining the lastest discovery in Egypt when protests began on the streets.

Future Progressive Tense

Future progressive tense describes an ongoing or continuous action that will take place in the future. This tense is formed by using will be or shall be with the verb form ending in -ing.

Dr. Jones will be presenting ongoing research on sexist language next week.

Perfect Forms

Present Perfect Tense

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 6 de 83

Present perfect tense describes an action that happened at an indefinite time in the past or that began in the past and continues in the present.This tense is formed by using has/have with the past participle of the verb. Most past participles end in -ed. Irregular verbs have special past participles that must be memorized.

Example Meaning

The researchers have traveled to many countries in order to collect more significant data.

At an indefinite time

Women have voted in presidential elections since 1921.

Continues in the present

Past Perfect Tense

Past perfect tense describes an action that took place in the past before another past action. This tense is formed by using had with the past participle of the verb.

By the time the troops arrived, the war had ended.

Future Perfect Tense

Future perfect tense describes an action that will occur in the future before some other action. This tense is formed by using will have with the past participle of the verb.

By the time the troops arrive, the combat group will have spent several weeks waiting.

Perfect Progressive Forms

Present Perfect Progressive

Present perfect progressive tense describes an action that began in the past, continues in the present, and may continue into the future. This tense is formed by using has/have been and the present participle of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).

The CEO has been considering a transfer to the state of Texas where profits would be larger.

Past Perfect Progressive

Past perfect progressive tense describes a past, ongoing action that was completed before some other past action. This tense is formed by using had been and the present perfect of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).

Before the budget cuts, the students had been participating in many extracurricular activities.

Future Perfect Progressive

Future perfect progressive tense describes a future, ongoing action that will occur before some specified future time. This tense is formed by using will have been and the present participle of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).

By the year 2020, linguists will have been studying and defining the Indo-European language family for more than 200 years.

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 7 de 83

What are transitive verbs?

Transitive verbs take objects. That is, these verbs carry the action of a subject and apply it to an object. They tells us what the subject (agent) does to something else (object). Examples: He bought a shirt. (agent) (did something) (object- answers the question "what?")

She brushes her hair every hour. Marina will lose the race.Note that the transitive verb can take any tense

What are intransitive verbs?

Intransitive verbs do not take an object; they express actions that do not require the agent's doing something to something else. Examples: Tom danced.

The intransitive verb "danced" is a complete action by itself and does not require a direct object to receive the action.

They ran down the road.

They ran, but they do not run "something" in this sentence. The sentence contains no object.

Jack fell on the rocks in the alley.

Tip: Some verbs can function as both transitive and intransitive verbs. Example: intransitive: She dances. transitive: She dances the rhumba.

Linking Verbs

Linking verbs link the relationship between the agent and the rest of the sentence. They explain the connection between the subject and its complement or that which completes the subject's description.

The most common linking verb is "to be." Some other linking verbs are:

appear feel remain sound become grow seem stay continue look smell taste

Examples: Opera seems overly dramatic to the music novice.

"overly dramatic" describes the agent or subject "opera" but it does not express an action that "opera" performs.

He appeared jubilant at the news of the inheritance.

I am pathetically inept in such situations.

He is a doctor of bioethics.

Note: while "a doctor" answers the question "what?" the verb is not an action verb, but rather a "state of being" verb. Therefore, is is not a transitive verb; it links the subject

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 8 de 83

(he) with his state of being (doctor).

Remember, however, if what follows the verb can provide an answer to the question "what," then the verb is not a linking verb.

Compare: He tastes the soup as he cooks it.

"tastes" is transitive: he tastes "what?"

The fruit tastes rotten.

"rotten" describes or complements the state of the fruit, and therefore tastes links the agent (fruit) and its condition (rotten).Problem:

The two pair of verbs lay/lie and raise/rise are often misused. In each set there is a transitive verb and an intransitive verb, but they are often confused because of their similar sounds.

LIE is intransitive and means to recline or be situated.LAY is transitive and means to place or put something.

RISE is intransitive and means to get up.RAISE is transitive and means to lift something up. (Intr.) (Tr.) (Intr.) (Tr.)Infinitive lie lay rise raisePast Tense lay laid rose raisedPast Participle lain laid risen raisedPresent Participle lying laying rising raisingS-form lies lays rises raises

Examples:

Intr: She lay on the couch watching television. Tr: He laid the child gently on the bed. Intr: The alligator rose out of the water. Tr: She raised the child above the crowd, so he could see.

Identify whether the highlighted verb or compound verb is used transitively or intransitively:

1. The old woman struggled up the hill, pulling a grocery cart that had lost one wheel behind her.

2. Hermione is editing her uncle's memoirs of his lifetime as a green grocer.

3. Much to the amusement of the onlookers, Paul danced a minuet to the polka music that drifted out of the beer tent.

4. At the beginning of the play, the entire cast dances manically across the stage.

5. Stella is reading quietly in the upstairs bedroom instead of doing her chores.

6. This term I am reading all of the works of Sylvia Townsend Warner.

7. At the feast, we will eat heartily.

8. Charles opened up his lunch, examined the contents carefully, and ate his dessert first.

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 9 de 83

9. The Stephens sisters are both very talented; Virginia writes and Vanessa paints.

10. When I was three years old, my father left a can of paint open in my bedroom, and early one morning, I painted my baby brother's face green.

ClausesA clause is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. An independent clause can form a sentence all by itself. Every sentence contains at least one independent clause. A sentence can also contain one or more subordinate clauses. Two independent clauses can even be linked together in one sentence.

Independent ClausesAn independent clause can stand on its own as a complete sentence. Here are some simple examples:It is warm outside.I am done my work.I am going for a walk.

Independent clauses can be linked together with a semicolon or with coordinating conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions are words like "and," "but," and "yet."It is warm outside, and I am done my work.It is even possible to link more than two independent clauses in one sentence:It is warm outside, I am done my work, and I am going for a walk.

Dependent ClausesA dependent clause cannot stand on its own as a complete sentence. Usually, the dependent clause begins with a linking word that makes it dependent. If the first word was removed, the dependent clause could stand on its own as an independent clause. Here are some examples of dependent clauses:Although it is earlyBecause of the summer sunWhile the sun is up

Here are some examples of a dependent clause linked to an independent clause:Although it is early, I am done my work.It is warm outside because of the summer sun.I am going for a walk while the sun is up.

Active Voice

In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts.

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 10 de 83

 

In each example above, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb.

You can see examples of all the verb tenses in active voice at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tenses2.html.

Passive Voice

In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. The agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase or may be omitted.

(agent performing action has been omitted.)

 

Sometimes the use of passive voice can create awkward sentences, as in the last example above. Also, overuse of passive voice throughout an essay can cause your prose to seem flat and uninteresting. In scientific writing, however, passive voice is more readily accepted since using it allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers as the subjects of sentences (see the third example above). This practice helps to create the appearance of an objective, fact-based discourse because writers can present research and conclusions without attributing them to particular agents. Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal interests.

You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb phrase will always include a form of be, such as am, is, was, were, are, or been. The presence of a be-verb, however, does not necessarily mean that the sentence is in passive voice. Another way to recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may include a "by the..." phrase after the verb; the agent performing the action, if named, is the object of the preposition in this phrase.

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 11 de 83

You can see examples of all the verb tenses in passive voice at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tenses2.html.

Choosing Active Voice

In most nonscientific writing situations, active voice is preferable to passive for the majority of your sentences. Even in scientific writing, overuse of passive voice or use of passive voice in long and complicated sentences can cause readers to lose interest or to become confused. Sentences in active voice are generally--though not always-- clearer and more direct than those in passive voice.

passive (indirect) active (direct):

Sentences in active voice are also more concise than those in passive voice because fewer words are required to express action in active voice than in passive.

passive (more wordy) active (more concise)

Changing passive to active

If you want to change a passive-voice sentence to active voice, find the agent in a "by the..." phrase, or consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed in the verb. Make that agent the subject of the sentence, and change the verb accordingly. Sometimes you will need to infer the agent from the surrounding sentences which provide context. E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 12 de 83

Passive Voice Agent Changed to Active Voice

most of the class

agent not specified; most likely agents such as "the researchers"

the CIA director and his close advisors

agent not specified; most likely agents such as "we"

Choosing Passive Voice

While active voice helps to create clear and direct sentences, sometimes writers find that using an indirect expression is rhetorically effective in a given situation, so they choose passive voice. Also, as mentioned above, writers in the sciences conventionally use passive voice more often than writers in other discourses. Passive voice makes sense when the agent performing the action is obvious, unimportant, or unknown or when a writer wishes to postpone mentioning the agent until the last part of the sentence or to avoid mentioning the agent at all. The passive voice is effective in such circumstances because it highlights the action and what is acted upon rather than the agent performing the action.

active passive

The dispatcher is notifying police that three prisoners have escaped.

Police are being notified that three prisoners have escaped.

Surgeons successfully performed a new experimental liver-transplant operation yesterday.

A new experimental liver-transplant operation was performed successfully yesterday.

"Authorities make rules to be broken," he said defiantly.

"Rules are made to be broken," he said defiantly.

In each of these examples, the passive voice makes sense because the agent is relatively unimportant compared to the action itself and what is acted upon.

Changing active to passive

If you want to change an active-voice sentence to passive voice, consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed in the verb, and then make that agent the object of a "by the..." phrase. Make what is acted upon the subject of the sentence, and change the verb to a form of be + past participle. Including an explicit "by the..." phrase is optional.E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 13 de 83

Active Voice Agent Changed to Passive Voice

The presiding officer

The leaders

The scientists

In each of these examples, the passive voice is useful for highlighting the action and what is acted upon instead of the agent.

What are Modal Verbs?

Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal verbs. Here are some important differences:

1. Modal verbs do not take "-s" in the third person.

Examples:

He can  speak Chinese.

She should  be here by 9:00.

2. You use "not" to make modal verbs negative, even in Simple Present and Simple Past.

Examples:

He should not be late.

They might not come to the party.

3. Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses.

Examples:

He will can go with us. Not Correct

She must study very hard. Not Correct

Common Modal Verbs Can Could May Might Must

Ought to Shall Should Will Would

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 14 de 83

For the purposes of this tutorial, we have included some expressions which are not modal verbs including had better, have to, and have got to. These expressions are closely related to modals in meaning and are often interchanged with them.

ModalTraditional definitions

Present/Future Past

can ability I can juggle. I could juggle when I was young.

can request Can I look at your costumes?

 

can permissionYou can look at my costumes.

 

can possibilityYou can pet the lion if you want.

 

can past ability  I could juggle when I was young.

could requestCould you hold this for me?

 

could possibilityI could be up there right now.

I could have been juggling now.

may request(formal) May I pet the lion?  

may permission(formal)Yes, you may pet the lion.

 

may probabilityThe trapeze artist may be tired after the show.

The acrobats may have performed already.

might slight probabilityThe clown might be tired, too.

The elephants might have performed, too.

shall polite questionShall we go say hello to the crown?

 

shall formal futureLadies and gentlemen, the circus shall begin shortly.

 

should adviceJugglers should practice everyday.

I should have tried juggling.

should expectationThe circus should begin in a minute.

They should have started by now.

must necessityChildren must be careful around lions.

The children had to leave before the clowns began.

must logical deduction

The lion does not hurt his trainer. They must have known each other for a long time.

They must be friends. They must have known each other for a long time.

will intention or promiseWe will see the seals today.

 

will future time certaintyWe will see them by 9:30.

 

would past time habit  When I was young, we would go to the circus.

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 15 de 83

would conditional3I were you, I would be careful around the lions.

 

would polite questionWould you mind if I borrow your make up today?

 

would preferenceI would rather juggle than do trapeze stunts.

I would rather have juggled than done trapeze stunts.

Sentences in English can be simple, brief, and clear, or they can be elaborate and marvelously complex. Make sure that each sentence expresses a complete thought, and enjoy the wonderful range of choices that English offers.

THERE IS AN EXERCISE WHICH WILL HELP YOU READ AND UNDERSTAND ENGLISH

SENTENCES MUCH BETTER; THIS IS DIAGRAMMING.

As you surely can remember; a sentence (to be a sentence) at the very least must have a Subject (noun or pronoun) and a Predicate (verb). The remaining words in a sentence serve to describe, clarify or give us more information about the subject or the verb. A diagram arranges the parts of a sentence like a picture in order to show the relationship of words and groups of words within the sentence. Let us take a look at how this is done. We will begin learning how to diagram sentences and use this tool to become better readers and writers.

Step #1

Look for the VERB in the sentence. A verb is a word that shows action (dance, sing, walk, run, etc.) or state of being (am, is, are, was, were, etc.)

Ask the question, "What action is taking place, or what happened in the sentence?" The answer you get will let you know which word (or group of words) serves as the verb in the sentence. The VERB is placed on the right hand side of the base line.

Examples:

Aunt Polly punished Tom for ditching school.

Tom started a fight with the new boy in town.

   

Try these:

Tom’s friends were painting the fence for him.

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 16 de 83

Huck Finn was a homeless boy.

Step #2

Find the SUBJECT of the verb (the person or thing that performs the action).

Ask the question, "Who? or What?" before the verb. The answer you get will let you know which word (or group of words) serves as the subject of the verb. The SUBJECT is placed on the left hand side of the base line.

Examples:

Aunt Polly punished Tom for ditching school.

Tom started a fight with the new boy in town.

   

Try these:

Tom’s friends were painting the fence for him.

Huck Finn was a homeless boy.

Step #3

Find the DIRECT OBJECT. (If there is one in the sentence, it is the person or thing that receives the action of the verb.)

Ask the question, "Whom? or What?" after the verb. The answer you get will let you know which word serves as the direct object of the verb. The DIRECT OBJECT is placed on the base line to the right of the verb separated by a line that goes upward from the base line.

Examples:

Aunt Polly punished Tom for ditching school.

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 17 de 83

Tom started a fight with the new boy in town.

 

Now try these:

We will buy a farm.The evil beauty killed a man.

Step #4

Look for ARTICLES (a, an, the) or POSSESSIVES (my, your, his, hers, its, their, Joe’s, Maria’s, etc.) Ask the question, "Whose?"  ARTICLES and POSSESSIVES are attached to the base line beneath the word they describe.

Examples:

Tom’s friends were painting the fence for him.

 Now try these:

A child has painted the toy.

June’s son is my friend.

Step #5

Look for ADJECTIVES (words that describe or limit a noun or pronoun). Ask the questions, " Which one? How many? What kind? What size? What color? " ADJECTIVES are connected beneath the words they modify.

Examples:

Becky Thatcher wore two long braids

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 18 de 83

 

Tom’s little brother discovered the black thread.

 

Huck Finn was a homeless boy.

Cathy has become a great dancer.Her strict father wanted to whip the naughty boy.

Step #6

Look for ADVERBS (words that modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs). Ask the questions, "How? When? Where? How much? Why?" ADVERBS are connected beneath the words they modify.

Examples:

Injun Joe ran away.

     

  Huck bravely saved the Widow Douglas

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 19 de 83

Now, try these:

Now Cathy started early every morning.Nobody could clearly notice her true plans.

Step #7

Look for PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. (These are groups of words that begin with a preposition and end with a noun or pronoun which is the object of the preposition. Together they serve the same function as an adjective or an adverb.) PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES are connected beneath the line of the words they modify.

Examples:

Huck overheard a conversation between two men.

 

Tom was exploring the cave with Becky.

 

The two of them were lost in the cave.

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 20 de 83

Now, try these:

Cathy had learned about her true story.The Big Bad Wolf had run through the forest.

Now let's put what you have learned into practice.  Try these sentences:

We read a book about Tom Sawyer in English class.

 

 

Each student made a report on a chapter from the story.

These are more examples.

Simple subject and predicate

Samson slept.

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 21 de 83

Understood subject (for commands, directives)

Sit!

Questions

Where are you going?

What were you reading this morning?

Whose bike were you using?

May I postpone this assignment?

Compound predicate

The cat howled and scratched ferociously.

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 22 de 83

Compound subject and predicate

Juanita and Celso worked hard and then rested.

Three subjects

Juanita, Federica, and Celso are working.

Direct object

Tashonda sent e-mail.

Compound direct objects

Tashonda sent cards and letters.

Three direct objects

Tashonda sent e-mail, cards, and letters.

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 23 de 83

Compound predicate with direct objects

Joselyn cooked breakfast and ate it.

Compound predicate with one direct object

Samantha proofreads and edits her essays.

Compound adverbs

Dr. Turveydrop waited patiently and quietly at the door.

Prepositional phrase

Charles is working in the garden.

Prepositional phrase modifying another prepositional phrase

Charles is working in the garden by the river. E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 24 de 83

Preposition with compound objects

The thought of getting up and working is alarming.

Prepositional phrase modifying an adverb

Carlita does her best work early during the semester.

Prepositional Phrase as Subjective Complement

She felt under the weather..

Participle

The crumbling bridge must be repaired.

Participle/Participial Phrase

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 25 de 83

The screaming crowd watched the bridge falling into the river.

Gerund phrase as subject

Working hard can be profitable.

Gerund phrase as sentence object

Terminita hates eating broccoli.

NOMINALS

Nominals consist of any grammatical structure that can fill the same function as a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence.

Present Participles (the -ing form of the verb) when used to substitute for a noun phrase are called gerunds. Examples:

Drinking makes me sick.Telling the truth was her doom.The man couldn`t believe her constant lying.

Other kind of nominals are infinitives (to run, to buy) Examples:

To wait for a chance was her only option.Harry Potter knew that to learn spells was necessary.

Clauses: Clauses used in this way are called nominal clauses. Nominal clauses are introducedby two methods: the expletive that and interrogative words, such as what or how. However, there is one form of a nominal that is not a substitute for a noun phrase. Instead it simply duplicates the noun phrase and occurs in the same slot. These structures are called appositives.

An appositive is imply a noun phrase placed next to another noun phrase, as in this sentence:

Sophie, my German shepherd, died last year.

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 26 de 83

The underlined phrase is the appositive. It simply provides extra information about who Sophie is. Because the appositive in this sentence provides extra information—that is its only purpose—it is set off from the rest of the sentence by commas. Sometimes, the appositive provides information necessary to the meaning of the sentence. In this sentence, for example, I am describing a situation in which I have two dogs:

My dog Sophie can catch a Frisbee in her teeth. Grice, on the other hand, was never able tomaster this trick.

In this case, the appositive “Sophie” is not set off with commas because it provides information that is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. The appositive is being used to identify which dog I am talking about. Notice that this is the same principle that you use to determine when to put commas around a relative clause. It is as if there is such a thing as a restrictive appositive and a nonrestrictive appositive. Only the latter uses commas.

RESTATING:

Gerund is the name given to a present participle when it substitutes for a noun phrase. Not all -ing verbs are gerunds. A gerund can fill any one of the NP (noun phrases) slots as described in the opposite column:

Subject: Running through the kitchen has become Bonnie’s favoriteactivity. Direct object: Bonnie really likes running.Subject complement: One of her favorite activities is running.Object of preposition: Bonnie can burn up extra energy in the evening by running around the backyard.

The “it” test: The easiest way to detect a gerund is to see if you can substitute the word “it” or “something” for the phrase that you think is a gerund. For example, for the sentence above, we would come up with these sentences:

EXAMPLE:It has become Bonnie’s favorite activity. What is it? RUNNING.

Bonnie really likes it. What does Bonnie really like? RUNNING.

One of her favorite activities is something. What is that something? RUNNING.

Bonnie can burn up extra energy in the evening by something. What is that something? RUNNING!

Notice that the -ing constructions in the following sentences fails the “it” test:

Running around the house, Bonnie slipped on the corner in the kitchen.Bonnie was running past the bed when Charlie jumped on her.

They fail this test because there are no gerunds in these sentences. It is important to recognize that a gerund has a pattern of its own that is based on the sentence that it comes from. In the sentence above, the gerund comes from a Type VI sentence like “Bonnie runs.” But in the sentence below, the underlying pattern is morecomplex:Bonnie’s favorite activity is chasing the cat.

ADJECTIVES: An adjective’s job is to modify a noun or pronoun. They are always near the noun or pronoun they are describing. Be careful how you use adjectives such as interesting, beautiful, great, wonderful, or exciting. Many adjectives like these are overused and add little definition to a sentence.

Adjectives are often used to describe the degree of modification.

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 27 de 83

The adjective forms are positive, comparative, and superlative.

This tree is tall. (positive)

That tree is taller. (comparative)

The last tree in the row is the tallest. (superlative)

A handful of adjectives have irregular forms of positive, comparative, and superlative usage.

These include:

good/better/best,

bad/worse/worst,

little/less/least,

much-many-some/more/most,

far/further/furthest.

My lunch was good, hers was better, and yours was the best.

Proper adjectives are derived from proper nouns. They commonly describe something in terms

of nationality, religious affiliation, or culture. Like proper nouns, proper adjectives have their first

letter capitalized. Some examples of proper adjectives include:

American

French

Japanese

Latino

Asian

Australian

Catholic

Lutheran

Jewish

E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 28 de 83

Descriptive AdjectivesDescriptive adjectives can be divided into different categories such as colors, sizes, sound, taste, touch, shapes, qualities, time, personality and ages. The following lists provide a few examples of descriptive adjectives in each of their categories:

Colors are adjectives - list: black, blue, white, green, red Sizes - list: big, small, large, thin, thick

Shapes- list: triangular, round, square, circular

Qualities- list: good, bad, mediocre

Personality - list: happy, sad, angry, depressed

Time - list: Yearly , monthly, annually

Ages - list: new, young, old, brand-new, second-hand

Sound related Adjectives - list: loud, noisy, quiet, silent

Touch related Adjectives - list: slippery, sticky

Taste related Adjectives - list: juicy, sweet

The following lists are just a sampling of adjectives in the English language. They are

categorized by the type of attribute they describe. Use your dictionary or thesaurus to add to

each list.

NEGATIVE FEELINGSADJECTIVE

afraidangryannoyed anxious arrogant ashamed awful badbewilderedbored condemnedconfused creepycruel dangerous defeated

defiantdepresseddisgusteddisturbeddoubtful eerie embarrassedenviousevilfiercefoolish frantic frightenedgrievingguilty helpless

hungryhurt illjealous lonelymad naughty nervous obnoxiousoutrageouspanicky repulsivesafescaredshy

sleepysorestrangetense terrible tiredtroubledunusual upsetuptightweary wicked

ADJECTIVE POSITIVE FEELINGS

agreeablealert amused brave bright charming cheerful

comfortablecooperativecourageousdelightfuldetermined eager elated

enchantingencouraging energeticenthusiasticexcited exuberantfaithful

fantasticfriendlyfrowningfunny gentle glorious good

happy healthy helpfulhilariousinnocent jollykind

lively lovely lucky obedientperfect proud relaxed

relievedsilly smiling splendid successful thoughtfulvictorious

vivaciouswell wittywonderful

Appearance

Adjectives

Color Adjectives Condition

Adjectives

Feelings (Bad)

Adjectives

adorable

beautiful

clean

drab

elegant

fancy

glamorous

handsome

long

magnificent

old-

fashioned

plain

quaint

sparkling

ugliest

unsightly

wide-eyed

red

orange

yellow

green

blue

purple

gray

black

white

alive

better

careful

clever

dead

easy

famous

gifted

helpful

important

inexpensive

mushy

odd

powerful

rich

shy

tender

uninterested

vast

wrong.

angry

bewildered

clumsy

defeated

embarrassed

fierce

grumpy

helpless

itchy

jealous

lazy

mysterious

nervous

obnoxious

panicky

repulsive

scary

thoughtless

uptight

worried

Feelings

(Good)

Adjectives

Shape Adjectives Size Adjectives Sound Adjectives

agreeable

brave

calm

broad

chubby

crooked

colossal

fat

gigantic

cooing

deafening

faint

delightful

eager

faithful

gentle

happy

jolly

kind

lively

nice

obedient

proud

relieved

silly

thankful

victorious

witty

zealous

curved

deep

flat

high

hollow

low

narrow

round

shallow

skinny

square

steep

straight

wide.

great

huge

immense

large

little

mammoth

massive

miniature

petite

puny

scrawny

short

small

tall

teeny

teeny-tiny

hissing

loud

melodic

noisy

purring

quiet

raspy

screeching

thundering

voiceless

whispering

Time Adjectives Taste/Touch

Adjectives

Touch Adjectives Quantity Adjectives

ancient

brief

early

fast

late

long

modern

old

old-fashioned

quick

rapid

short

slow

swift

young

bitter

delicious

fresh

greasy

juicy

hot

icy

loose

melted

nutritious

prickly

rainy

rotten

salty

sticky

strong

sweet

tart

tasteless

uneven

boiling

breeze

broken

bumpy

chilly

cold

cool

creepy

crooked

cuddly

curly

damaged

damp

dirty

dry

dusty

filthy

flaky

fluffy

freezing

abundant

empty

few

full

heavy

light

many

numerous

sparse

substantial

weak

wet

wooden

yummy

hot

warm

wet

Forming regular comparatives and superlatives

How these forms are created depends on how many syllables there are in the adjective. Syllables are like "sound beats". For instance, "sing" contains one syllable, but "singing" contains two -- sing and ing. Here are the rules:

Adjective form Comparative Superlative

Only one syllable, ending in E. Examples:wide, fine, cute

Add -R:wider, finer, cuter

Add -ST:widest, finest, cutest

Only one syllable, with one vowel and one consonant at the end. Examples:hot, big, fat

Double the consonant, and add -ER:hotter, bigger, fatter

Double the consonant, and add -EST:hottest, biggest, fattest

Only one syllable, with more than one vowel or more than one consonant at the end. Examples:light, neat, fast

Add -ER:lighter, neater, faster

Add -EST:lightest, neatest, fastest

Two syllables, ending in Y. Examples:happy, silly, lonely

Change Y to I, then add -ER:happier, sillier, lonelier

Change Y to I, then add -EST:happiest, silliest, loneliest

Two syllables or more, not ending in Y. Examples:modern, interesting, beautiful

Use MORE before the adjective:more modern, more interesting, more beautiful

Use MOST before the adjective:most modern, most interesting, most beautiful

How to use comparatives and superlatives

Comparatives are used to compare two things. You can use sentences with THAN, or you can use a conjunction like BUT. Examples:

Jiro is taller than Yukio. Yukio is tall, but Jiro is taller. Yuriko is more handsome than Julio.

Sonia is more intelligent.

Superlatives are used to compare more than two things. Superlative sentences usually use THE, because there is only one superlative. Examples:

Masami is the tallest in the class. Yukio is tall, and Jiro is taller, but Masami is the tallest. Sue is the most attractive girl in the class.

June is the most gorgeous.

Adjective Placement

When using more than one adjective to describe a noun place the adjectives in the following order before the noun.

NOTE: We usually use no more than three adjectives preceding a noun.

1. Opinion Example: an interesting book, a boring lecture

2. Dimension Example: a big apple, a thin wallet

3. Age Example: a new car, a modern building, an ancient ruin

4. Shape Example: a square box, an oval mask, a round ball

5. Color Example: a pink hat, a blue book, a black coat

6. Origin Example: some Italian shoes, a Canadian town, an American car

7. Material Example: a wooden box, a woolen sweater, a plastic toy

Here are some examples of nouns modified with three adjectives in the correct order based on the list above. Notice that the adjectives are not separated by commas.

A wonderful old Italian clock. (opinion - age - origin) A big square blue box. (dimension - shape - color) A disgusting pink plastic ornament. (opinion - color - material) Some slim new French trousers. (dimension - age - origin)

Some examples of adjective order

Opinion Size Age Shape Colour Origin Material Purpose

a silly young English man

a huge round metal bowl

a small red sleeping bag

Which is the correct order?1. a Canadian small thin lady2. a carving steel new knife3. a sailing beautiful blue boat4. a square wooden old table

5. an exciting French new band6. a red big plastic hat7. a Japanese small serving bowl8. a dirty cotton old tie

Regular Verbs List

There are thousands of regular verbs in English. This is a list of 600 of the more common regular verbs. Note that there are some spelling variations in American English (for example, "practise" becomes "practice" in American English).

accept add admire admit advise afford agree

alert

allow amuse analyse announce annoy answer apologise

appear

applaud appreciate approve argue arrange arrest arrive ask

attach attack attempt attend attract

avoid

back bake balance ban bang bare bat bathe battle

beam

beg behave belong bleach bless blind blink blot blush

boast

boil bolt bomb book bore borrow bounce bow box

brake

brake branch breathe bruise brush bubble bump burn bury buzz

calculate call camp care carry carve cause challenge change charge chase cheat check cheer

chew

choke chop claim clap clean clear clip close coach coil collect colour comb command

communicate

compare compete complain complete concentrate concern confess confuse connect consider consist contain continue copy correct

cough count cover crack crash crawl cross crush cry cure curl curve

cycle

dam damage dance dare decay deceive decide decorate delay

delight

deliver depend describe desert deserve destroy detect develop disagree

disappear

disapprove disarm discover dislike divide double doubt drag drain dream

dress drip drop drown drum dry

dust

earn end excite explain

educate embarrass employ empty

encourage

enjoy enter entertain escape

examine

excuse exercise exist expand expect

explode

extend

face fade fail fancy fasten fax fear

fence

fetch file fill film fire fit fix

flap

flash float flood flow flower fold follow fool

force form found frame frighten

fry

gather gaze glow

glue

grab grate grease

greet

grin grip groan guarantee

guard guess

guide

hammer hand handle hang happen

harass

harm hate haunt head heal

heap

heat help hook hop hope hover

hug hum hunt

hurry

identify ignore imagine impress improve

include

increase influence inform inject injure

instruct

intend interest interfere interrupt introduce invent

invite irritate

itch

jail

jam

jog

join

joke judge

juggle

jump

kick

kill

kiss

kneel

knit knock

knot

label land last laugh

launch

learn level license lick

lie

lighten like list listen live

load lock long look

love

man matter milk move

manage march mark marry match

mate

measure meddle melt memorise mend

mess up

mine miss mix moan moor mourn

muddle mug multiply

murder

nail

name

need

nest

nod note

notice

number

obey object

observe

obtain occur

offend

offer open order

overflow owe

own

pack paddle paint park part pass paste pat pause peck pedal peel peep

perform

permit phone pick pinch pine place plan plant play please plug point poke

polish

pop possess post pour practise pray preach precede prefer prepare present preserve press pretend

prevent prick print produce program promise protect provide pull pump punch puncture punish

push

question queue

race radiate rain raise reach realise receive recognise record reduce

reflect

refuse regret reign reject rejoice relax release rely remain remember

remind

remove repair repeat replace reply report reproduce request rescue retire return

rhyme rinse risk rob rock roll rot rub ruin rule

rush

sack sail satisfy save saw scare scatter scold scorch

shiver shock shop shrug sigh sign signal sin sip

soothe sound spare spark sparkle spell spill spoil spot

stop store strap strengthen stretch strip stroke stuff subtract

scrape scratch scream screw scribble scrub seal search separate serve settle shade share shave

shelter

ski skip slap slip slow smash smell smile smoke snatch sneeze sniff snore snow

soak

spray sprout squash squeak squeal squeeze stain stamp stare start stay steer step stir stitch

succeed suck suffer suggest suit supply support suppose surprise surround suspect suspend

switch

talk tame tap taste tease telephone tempt terrify test

thank

thaw tick tickle tie time tip tire touch tour

tow

trace trade train transport trap travel treat tremble trick trip

trot trouble trust try tug tumble turn twist

type

undress

unfasten

unite

unlock

unpack untidy

use

vanish visit

wail wait walk wander want warm warn

wash

waste watch water wave weigh welcome whine

whip

whirl whisper whistle wink wipe wish wobble

wonder

work worry wrap wreck wrestle

wriggle

x-ray yawn yell zip zoom

IRREGULAR VERBS

Infinitive Simple Past Past Participle Spanish

arise arose arisen surgir

be was / were been ser

beat beat beaten golpear

become became become convertirse

begin

began begun

comenzar

bet bet/betted bet/betted apostar

bite bit bitten morder

bleed bled bled sangrar

blow blew blown soplar

break broke broken romper

bring brought brought traer

build built built construir

buy bought bought comprar

catch caught caught atrapar

choose chose chosen elegir

come came come venir

cost cost cost costar

creep crept crept arrastrarse

cut

cut cut

cortar

deal dealt dealt dar, repartir

do did done hacer

draw drew drawn dibujar

dream dreamt/dreamed dreamt/dreamed soñar

drink drank drunk beber

drive drove driven conducir

eat ate eaten comer

fall fell fallen caer

feed fed fed alimentar

feel felt felt sentir

fight fought fought pelear

find found found encontrar

flee fled fled huir

fly flew flown volar

forget forgot forgotten olvidar

forgive forgave forgiven perdonar

forsake forsook forsaken abandonar

freeze froze frozen congelar

get got got tener, obtener

give gave given dar

go went gone ir

grind ground ground moler

grow grew grown crecer

hang hung hung colgar

have had had tener

hear heard heard oír

hide hid hidden esconderse

hit hit hit golpear

hold held held tener, mantener

hurt hurt hurt herir, doler

keep kept kept guardar

kneel knelt knelt arrodillarse

know knew known saber

lead led led encabezar

learn learnt/learned learnt/learned aprender

leave left left dejar

lend lent lent prestar

let let let dejar

lie lay lain yacer

lose lost lost perder

make made made hacer

mean meant meant significar

meet met met conocer, encontrar

pay paid paid pagar

put put put poner

quit quit/quitted quit/quitted abandonar

read read read leer

ride rode ridden montar, ir

ring rang rung llamar por teléfono

rise rose risen elevar

run ran run correr

say said said decir

see saw seen ver

sell sold sold vender

send sent sent enviar

set set set fijar

sew sewed sewn/sewed coser

shake shook shaken sacudir

shine shone shone brillar

shoot shot shot disparar

show showed shown/showed mostrar

shrink shrank/shrunk shrunk encoger

shut shut shut cerrar

sing sang sung cantar

sink sank sunk hundir

sit sat sat sentarse

sleep slept slept dormir

slide slid slid deslizar

sow sowed sown/sowed sembrar

speak spoke spoken hablar

spell spelt/spelled spelt/spelled deletrear

spend spent spent gastar

spill spilt/spilled spilt/spilled derramar

split split split partir

spoil spoilt/spoiled spoilt/spoiled estropear

spread spread spread extenderse

stand stood stood estar de pie

steal stole stolen robar

sting stung stung picar

stink stank/stunk stunk apestar

strike struck struck golpear

swear swore sworn jurar

sweep swept swept barrer

swim swam swum nadar

take took taken tomar

teach taught taught enseñar

tear tore torn romper

tell told told decir

think thought thought pensar

throw threw thrown lanzar

tread trode trodden/trod pisar

wake woke woken despertarse

wear wore worn llevar puesto

weave wove woven tejer

weep wept wept llorar

win won won ganar

wring wrung wrung retorcer

write wrote written escribir

List of Common Adverbs

A

abnormally

absentmindedly

accidentally

acidly

actually

adventurously

afterwards

almost

always

angrily

annually

anxiously

arrogantly

awkwardly

B

badly

bashfully

beautifully

bitterly

bleakly

blindly

blissfully

boastfully

boldly

bravely

briefly

brightly

briskly

broadly

busily

C

calmly

carefully

carelessly

cautiously

certainly

cheerfully

clearly

cleverly

closely

coaxingly

colorfully

commonly

continually

coolly

correctly

courageously

crossly

cruelly

curiously

D

daily

daintily

dearly

deceivingly

delightfully

deeply

defiantly

deliberately

delightfully

diligently

dimly

doubtfully

dreamily 

E

easily

elegantly

energetically

enormously

enthusiastically

equally

especially

even

evenly

eventually

exactly

excitedly

extremely

F

fairly

faithfully

famously

far

fast

fatally

ferociously

fervently

fiercely

fondly

foolishly

fortunately

frankly

frantically

freely

frenetically

frightfully

fully

furiously

G

generally

generously

gently

gladly

gleefully

gracefully

gratefully

greatly

greedily

H

happily

hastily

healthily

heavily

helpfully

helplessly

highly

honestly

hopelessly

hourly

hungrily

I

immediately

innocently

inquisitively

instantly

intensely

intently

interestingly

inwardly

irritably

J

jaggedly

jealously

joshingly

joyfully

joyously

jovially

jubilantly

judgementally

justly

K

keenly

kiddingly

kindheartedly

kindly

kissingly

knavishly

knottily

knowingly

knowledgeably

kookily

L

lazily

less

lightly

likely

limply

lively

loftily

longingly

loosely

lovingly

loudly

loyally

M

madly

majestically

meaningfully

mechanically

merrily

miserably

mockingly

monthly

more

mortally

mostly

mysteriously

N

naturally

nearly

neatly

needily

nervously

never

nicely

noisily

not

O

obediently

obnoxiously

oddly

offensively

officially

often

only

openly

optimistically

overconfidently

owlishly

P

painfully

partially

patiently

perfectly

physically

playfully

politely

poorly

positively

potentially

powerfully

promptly

properly

punctually

Q

quaintly

quarrelsomely

queasily

queerly

questionably

questioningly

quicker

quickly

quietly

quirkily

quizzically

R

rapidly

rarely

readily

really

reassuringly

recklessly

regularly

reluctantly

repeatedly

reproachfully

restfully

righteously

rightfully

rigidly

roughly

rudely

S

sadly

safely

scarcely

scarily

searchingly

sedately

seemingly

seldom

selfishly

separately

seriously

shakily

sharply

sheepishly

shrilly

shyly

silently

sleepily

slowly

smoothly

softly

solemnly

solidly

sometimes

soon

speedily

stealthily

sternly

strictly

successfully

suddenly

surprisingly

suspiciously

sweetly

swiftly

sympathetically

T

tenderly

tensely

terribly

thankfully

thoroughly

thoughtfully

tightly

tomorrow

too

tremendously

triumphantly

truly

truthfully

U

ultimately

unabashedly

unaccountably

unbearably

unethically

unexpectedly

unfortunately

unimpressively

unnaturally

unnecessarily

utterly

upbeat

upliftingly

upright

upside-down

upward

upwardly

urgently

usefully

uselessly

usually

utterly

V

vacantly

vaguely

vainly

valiantly

vastly

verbally

very

viciously

victoriously

violently

vivaciously

voluntarily

W

warmly

weakly

wearily

well

wetly

wholly

wildly

willfully

wisely

woefully

wonderfully

worriedly

wrongly

Using Adverb Clauses

What is an Adverb Clause?

"He saw Mary when he was in New York" and "They studied hard because they had a test" are adverb clauses. Adverb clauses express when, why, opposition and conditions and are dependent clauses. This means that an adverb clause can not stand by itself - in other words, "When he went to New York." is not a complete sentence. It needs to be completed by an independent clause. Example: He went to the Guggenheim museum when he was in New York.

Punctuation

When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses. Example: As soon as he arrives, we will have some lunch.. When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma. Example: He gave me a call when he arrived in town.

List of Words (subordinating conjunctions) Introducing Adverb Clauses

TIME CAUSE AND EFFECT OPPOSITION CONDITION

after, before, when, while, as, by the time (that), as soon as, since, until, whenever, the first time (that), the next time (that), the last time (that), every time (that) -

because, since, as, as long as, so long as, due to the fact that -

although, even though, though, whereas, while -

if, only if, unless, whether (or not), even if, providing (that), in case (that), provided (that), in the event (that) -

Adverb Clauses Showing Cause and Effect (because, as, since, etc.)

Adverb Clauses Expressing Conditions (if, unless, only if, even if, etc.)

Adverb Clauses with Time Expressions (when, as soon as, before, etc.)

Adverb Clauses Expressing Opposition (though, even though, whereas, etc.)

Collocations

have do makehave a bathhave a drink

have a good timehave a haircuthave a holidayhave a problem

have a relationshiphave a resthave lunch

have sympathy

do businessdo nothing

do someone a favourdo the cooking

do the houseworkdo the shopping

do the washing updo your bestdo your hair

do your homework

make a differencemake a mess

make a mistakemake a noisemake an effortmake furnituremake money

make progressmake room

make trouble

take break catchtake a break break a habit catch a ball

take a chancetake a looktake a resttake a seattake a taxi

take an examtake notes

take someone's placetake someone's temperature

break a legbreak a promisebreak a recordbreak a window

break someone's heartbreak the icebreak the law

break the news to someonebreak the rules

catch a buscatch a chillcatch a coldcatch a thief

catch firecatch sight of

catch someone's attentioncatch someone's eye

catch the flu

pay save keeppay a fine

pay attentionpay by credit card

pay cashpay interest

pay someone a complimentpay someone a visit

pay the billpay the price

pay your respects

save electricitysave energysave money

save one's strengthsave someone a seatsave someone's life

save something to a disksave spacesave time

save yourself the trouble

keep a diarykeep a promisekeep a secret

keep an appointmentkeep calm

keep controlkeep in touch

keep quietkeep someone's place

keep the change

come go getcome close

come complete withcome directcome earlycome first

come into viewcome lastcome late

come on timecome preparedcome right back

come secondcome to a compromise

come to a decisioncome to an agreement

come to an endcome to a standstillcome to terms withcome to a total of

come under attack

go abroadgo astraygo badgo bald

go bankruptgo blindgo crazygo darkgo deaf

go fishinggo mad

go missinggo on footgo online

go out of businessgo overseas

go quietgo sailinggo to wargo yellow

get a jobget a shockget angry

get divorcedget drunk

get frightenedget homeget lost

get marriedget nowhere

get permissionget pregnant

get readyget started

get the impressionget the message

get the sackget upsetget wet

get worried

Miscellaneous Idioms

Time Business English Classifiersbang on timedead on time

early 12th centuryfree time

from dawn till duskgreat deal of timelate 20th century

make time fornext few days

past few weeksright on time

run out of time

annual turnoverbear in mind

break off negotiationscease trading

chair a meetingclose a deal

close a meetingcome to the pointdismiss an offer

draw a conclusiondraw your attention tolaunch a new product

a ball of stringa bar of chocolatea bottle of water

a bunch of carrotsa cube of sugara pack of cardsa pad of paper

save timespare time

spend some timetake your time

tell someone the timetime goes bytime passeswaste time

lay off staffgo bankrupt

go into partnershipmake a lossmake a profitmarket forcessales figurestake on staff

PHRASAL VERBS

Phrasal verbs

(to) eat away: roer, carcomer, corroer, desgastar.

(to) eat into: corroer, comerse.

(to) eat out: comer fuera, cenar fuera.

(to) eat up: comerse, consumir, tragar, devorar.

(to) egg on: animar, incitar.

(to) end in: acabar en, terminar con.

(to) end off: acabar, terminar, ir a parar.

(to) face up to: afrontar, enfrentar, enfrentarse a.

(to) fall about: troncharse, partirse (de risa).

(to) fall apart: romperse, deshacerse, caerse a pedazos.

(to) fall away: disminuir/desaparecer/desprenderse.

(to) fall back: retroceder, retirarse.

(to) fall back on to: recurrir a, echar mano de, apoyarse en.

(to) fall behind: retrasarse, quedarse atrás, rezagarse.

(to) fall behind with: retrasarse.

(to) fall down: caer, caerse/ hundirse, derrumbarse, venirse abajo/fallar/ dejarse engañar por, picar.

(to) fall in love: enamorarse de.

(to) fall in: desplomarse, venirse abajo/ alinearse, formar filas, ponerse en filas.

(to) fall in with: encontrarse con, juntarse con/convenir en, aprobar, aceptar

(to) fall into: dividirse en, clasificarse en/ adquirir.

(to) fall off: bajar, disminuir/ empeorar/ desprenderse, caerse.

(to) fall on: incidir en, recaer en, tocar a/atacar, caer sobre.

(to) fall out: reñir/ pelearse /romper filas/ caerse.

(to) fall over: caer, tropezar con/ caerse

(to) fall through: fracasar, quedar en nada.

(to) fall to: empezar a, ponerse a/ corresponder a, incumbir a, tocar a.

(to) fall under: clasificarse en, estar incluido,-a en.

(to) feel for: compadecer a, compadecerse de.

(to) feel up to: sentirse con ánimos para, sentirse con fuerzas para.

(to) figure on: contar con, esperar.

(to) figure out: comprender, explicarse/ resolver, calcular.

(to) fill in: rellenar/poner al corriente.

(to) fill in for: sustituir a.

(to) fill out: engordar/rellenar.

(to) fill up: llenar/ llenarse.

(to) find out: preguntar, averiguar/ enterarse de/ calar, pillar, descubrir el juego/ informarse/ enterarse

(to) get about: moverse, desplazarse, salir/ viajar/ difundirse.

(to) get across: cruzar/ atravesar/ hacer comprender, hacer entender/ hacerse entender.

(to) get ahead: adelantar, progresar.

(to) get along: arreglárselas, apañárselas/ marcharse, irse.

(to) get along with: llevarse (bien) con/ marchar, ir con.

(to) get around: moverse, desplazarse/ viajar/ difundirse/ evitar, sortear.

(to) get around to: encontrar tiempo para.

(to) get at: alcanzar, llegar a/ insinuar/ criticar/ meterse con.

(to) get away: escaparse, irse/ alejar, quitar, sacar.

(to) get away with: salir impune de.

(to) get back: volver, regresar/ moverse hacia atrás, retroceder/ recuperar.

(to) get behind: atrasarse.

(to) get by: arreglárselas/ pasar.

(to) get down: deprimir, desanimar/bajar/ apuntar, anotar/tragar/bajarse.

(to) get down to: ponerse a.

(to) get in: llegar/entrar/subir/ser elegido,-a/ meter/recoger, cosechar/ recoger/comprar/llamar.

(to) get into: llegar a, entrar en/ subir a.

(to) get off: quitarse/ bajarse de/ bajarse/ salir/ comenzar/ escaparse.

(to) get off with: ligar.

(to) get on: subir a, subirse a, montar a/progresar, avanzar, ir/tener éxito/ llevarse bien, avenirse, entenderse/ seguir, continuar/ hacerse mayor, envejecerse.

(to) get on for: ser casi.

(to) get on to: ponerse en contacto con, localizar/ empezar a hablar de, pasar a.

(to) get out: sacar/quitar/salir/bajar de, bajarse de/escapar(se)/llegar a saberse, hacerse público,-a.

(to) get out of: librarse de/ dejar, perder la costumbre.

(to) get over: recuperarse de/ sobreponerse a/ salvar/ vencer/ comunicar, hacer comprender.

(to) get over with: acabar con.

(to) get round: salvar/ evitar, soslayar/ convencer, persuader/ difundirse, hacerse público,-a, llegar a saber.

(to) get round to: encontrar tiempo para.

(to) get through: llegar/ conseguir hablar ((to, con))/ hacerse comprender ((to, a))/ acabar, terminar/ consumir/gastar/ beber/aprobar.

(to) get together: reunirse, juntarse/juntar, reunir/ montar/ recoger, reunir.

(to) get up: levantarse/ subir/ levantarse/despertar/ disfrazarse.

(to) get up to: hacer/ llegar a

(to) give away: distribuir, repartir/regular/entregar/delatar, traicionar/revelar, descubrir.

(to) give back: devolver.

(to) give in: darse por vencido,-a, rendirse/ceder/entregar.

(to) give in to: ceder ante.

(to) give off: despedir, desprender, emitir.

(to) give onto: dar a.

(to) give out: distribuir, repartir/ anunciar/ acabarse, agotarse/ averiarse, sufrir una avería.

(to) give over: entregar/ dedicar, asignar/ dejar de.

(to) give up: dejar/ abandonar, renunciar a /ceder, renunciar/entregarse/ darse por vencido,-a, rendirse.

(to) give up on: abandonar, desistir.

(to) go about: emprender, hacer/ continuar.

(to) go after: perseguir, andar tras.

(to) go against: ir en contra de/ser desfavorable a.

(to) go ahead: proceder.

(to) go ahead with: proceder.

(to) go along: pasar por/ progresar, ir/ ir.

(to) go along with: estar de acuerdo con.

(to) go around: bastar, ser suficiente, haber/ correr, circular/ ir, andar/ salir ((with, con))/ andar ((with, con))/ girar, dar vueltas/ recorrer.

(to) go away: marcharse.

(to) go back: volver, regresar/datar de/ remontarse a.

(to) go back on: romper, no cumplir.

(to) go by: pasar/ atenerse a, seguir/ dejarse llevar por/ juzgar por.

(to) go down: bajar/ deshincharse/ ponerse/ hundirse/ ser acogido,-a.

(to) go down with: coger, pillar.

(to) go for: atacar/ ir a buscar/ gustar/ valer para.

(to) go in: entrar.

(to) go in for: participar en, tomar parte en/ presentarse a/ dedicarse a/ ser partidario,-a de.

(to) go into: entrar en/ investigar/ chocar contra.

(to) go off: marcharse/ estallar/ sonar/ dispararse/ estropearse, pasarse/ cortarse/ apagarse/ perder el gusto por, perder el interés por.

(to) go off with: escaparse con.

(to) go on: seguir, continuar/ pasar, ocurrir/ quejarse/ hablar sin parar/ encenderse/ estar a punto de cumplir.

(to) go out: salir/ apagarse.

(to) go over: revisar, repasar.

(to) go over to: pasarse a/ cambiar a, pasar a.

(to) go round: dar vueltas, girar/ pasar por casa de, visitar.

(to) go through: pasar por, sufrir, padecer/ examiner/ registrar/ gastar/ explicar/ ser aprobado,-a.

(to) go through with: llevar a cabo.

(to) go towards: destinar a, reservar para.

(to) go under: hundirse/ fracasar.

(to) go up: subir/ acercarse/ levantarse/ estallar/ to go up in flames, incendiarse.

(to) go with: acompañar/ ir con, estar incluido,-a/ hacer juego con.

(to) go without: pasar sin, prescindir de.

(to) grow apart: distanciarse.

(to) grow away from: distanciarse de.

(to) grow into: convertirse en, hacerse.

(to) grow on: llegar a gustar.

(to) grow out of: perder, quitarse/ quedarle pequeño,-a a.

(to) grow up: hacerse mayor/ criarse, crecer/ surgir, nacer, desarrollarse.

(to) hand around: repartir, ofrecer, pasar.

(to) hand back: devolver.

(to) hand down: transmitir/ pasar/ dejar en herencia.

(to) hand in: entregar/ presentar, notificar.

(to) hand on: transmitir, heredar: (give) pasar, dar.

(to) hand out: repartir, distribuir/ dar/ aplicar.

(to) hand over: entregar/ ceder.

(to) hang about / hang around: esperar/ perder el tiempo/ frecuentar.

(to) hang back: quedarse atrás/ vacilar.

(to) hang down: colgar, caer.

(to) hang on: agarrarse/ esperar.

(to) hang out: tender/ soler estar.

(to) hang up: colgar/ colgar.

(to) have on: llevar puesto,-a/ tomar el pelo a.

(to) have out: sacarse/ operarse de.

(to) hold back: retener/ ocultar/ contener/ reprimir/ guarder/ vacilar, no atreverse/ abstenerse.

(to) hold down: dominar/ desempeñar.

(to) hold forth: hablar largo y tendido ((on/about, sobre)).

(to) hold off: mantener alejado,-a/ refrenarse.

(to) hold on: agarrarse fuerte, agarrarse bien/ esperar/ no colgar.

(to) hold on to: cogerse a, agarrarse a/ guardar.

(to) hold out: tender, ofrecer/ durar/ resistir.

(to) hold over: aplazar.

(to) hold up: atracar, as altar/ retrasar/ levanter/ aguantar, sostener/ aguantar, resistir.

(to) hold with: estar de acuerdo con.

(to) iron out: planchar/ resolver, solucionar.

(to) jack in: dejar, colgar.

(to) jack off: meneársela/ masturbar.

(to) jack up: levantar con gato/ subir.

(to) jump at: aceptar sin pensarlo.

(to) keep at: perseverar en algo/ no dejar en paz, machacar.

(to) keep away: mantener a distancia ((from, de)), no dejar a uno acercarse ((from, a))/ mantenerse a distancia, evitar contacto con.

(to) keep back: retener, guardar/ ocultar, no revelar/ contener/ tener a raya/ estorbar, impedir/ mantener atrás, contener/ mantenerse atrás, alejarse.

(to) keep down: oprimir, sujetar/ mantener bajo/ limitar, controlar/ mantener en el estómago/ agacharse, no levantar la cabeza.

(to) keep from: abstenerse de, guardarse de.

(to) keep in: no dejar salir/ hacer quedar/ contener/ costear, pagar.

(to) keep in with: mantener buenas relaciones con.

(to) keep off: mantenerse a distancia/ no llover/ no dejar entrar, no dejar acercarse/ no tocar, no hablar de.

(to) keep on: seguir, continuar/ no quitarse.

(to) keep on about: insistir en, no parar de hablar de.

(to) keep out: no dejar entrar, no dejar pasar/ no entrar.

(to) keep out of: no entrar en/ no meterse en.

(to) keep to: atenerse a, cumplir/ no dejar, no salir de.

(to) keep together: mantenerse juntos,-as, no separarse.

(to) keep under: tener subyugado.

(to) keep up: mantener, seguir/ mantener despierto,-a, tener en vela/ aguantar el ritmo/ mantenerse al día.

(to) keep up with: seguir/ mantenerse al corriente de/ mantener el contacto con.

(to) kick against something: protestar contra, reaccionar contra.

(to) kick around: andar por ahí/ dar vueltas a.

(to) kick in: romper a patadas.

(to) kick off: sacar, hacer el saque inicial/ empezar, comenzar/ empezar, comenzar, iniciar/ quitarse.

(to) kick out: echar a uno.

(to) knock about: rodar, recorrer/ andar con/ pegar, maltratar: (to) knock around: to knock about.

(to) knock back: beberse de un trago, rápidamente o en grandes cantidades/ soplar, costar.

(to) knock down: derribar/ atropellar/ derribar/ rebajar/ adjudicar ((to, a)).

(to) knock off: tirar, hacer caer/ birlar, mangar, chorizar, afanar/ cargarse, liquidar/ descontar/ quitar/ acabar, salir del trabajo.

(to) knock out: dejar sin conocimiento/ dejar dormido,-a/ poner fuera de combate, dejar K.O./ eliminar/ hacer rápidamente, producir rápidamente/ dejar pasmado,-a, dejar boquiabierto,-a: (to) knock over: volcar, tirar/ atropellar.

(to) knock together: hacer de prisa, hacer rápidamente/ entrechocarse.

(to) knock up: despertar, llamar/ hacer de prisa, preparar/ dejar embarazada/ pelotear.

(to) lay about: agredir.

(to) lay aside: dejar a un lado/ dejar de lado.

(to) lay before: presentar.

(to) lay by: guarder/ ahorrar.

(to) lay down: dejar, soltar/ entregar/ imponer, fijar/ sentar/ guardar.

(to) lay in: proveerse de.

(to) lay into: atacar.

(to) lay off: despedir/ dejar en paz, dejar de molestar/ parar.

(to) lay on: facilitar, suministrar/ cargar.

(to) lay out: tender, extender/ disponer, colocar/ presentar, exponer/ hacer el trazado de/ diseñar/ dejar fuera de combate/ desembolsar.

(to) lay over: hacer una parada ((at/in, en)): (plane) hacer escala ((at/in, en)).

(to) lay up: almacenar.

(to) leave off: dejar de/ acabar, terminar.

(to) leave out: omitir, excluir/ excluir.

(to) let down: bajar/ alargar/ desinflar/ fallar, defraudar.

(to) let in: dejar entrar.

(to) let into: dejar entrar / incrustar en/ revelar.

(to) let off: dejar/ hacer explotar/ hacer estallar/ perdonar/ dejar marcharse/ dejar en libertad.

(to) let on: decir, descubrir/ hacer ver.

(to) let out: dejar salir/ soltar ((from, de))/ soltar: he let out a shriek of pain, soltó un grito de dolor/ ensanchar/ divulgar, hacer público,-a/ alquilar.

(to) let through: dejar pasar.

(to) let up: parar.

(to) let up on: dejar en paz.

(to) look after: ocuparse de, atender a/ cuidar (de).

(to) look ahead: mirar hacia adelante.

(to) look at: mirar, considerer/ mirar.

(to) look back: mirar atrás.

(to) look down on: despreciar.

(to) look for: buscar.

(to) look forward to: esperar (con ansia).

(to) look in on: pasar (un momento) por.

(to) look into: investigar.

(to) look on: considerer/observar.

(to) look like: parecerse a.

(to) look onto: dar a.

(to) look out: ir con cuidado, buscarse.

(to) look out for: esperar, estar al tanto.

(to) look over: mirar por encima.

(to) look round: volver la cabeza/ mirar/ mirar/ visitar.

(to) look through: revisar/ ojear.

(to) look to: contar con/ centrarse en.

(to) look up: mejorar/ consultar, buscar/ ir a ver.

(to) look up to: respetar.

(to) make after: seguir a, perseguir a.

(to) make for: dirigirse hacia/ abalanzarse sobre/ contribuir a, crear, conducir a.

(to) make into: convertir en, transformar en.

(to) make of: pensar, opinar, parecer/ entender/ dar importancia a.

(to) make off: escaparse, largarse, huir.

(to) make off with / make away with: llevarse, escaparse con.

(to) make out: hacer/ extender, hacer/ redactor/ distinguir, divisar/ descifrar/ entender, comprender/ pretender, hacerse pasar por/ arreglárselas, apañárselas/ darse el lote, pegarse el lote.

(to) make over: ceder, transferir, traspasar/convertir, transformar.

(to) make up: inventar/hacer/ montar/ preparer/ componer/ confeccionar, hacer/ completer/ componer, formar, integrar/ representar/ maquillar/ compensar/ cubrir/ suplir/ recuperar/ maquillarse, pintarse/ hacer las paces, reconciliarse.

(to) make up for: compensar.

(to) make up to: halagar a/ congraciarse con/ recompensar, pagar.

(to) make with: dar, traer.

(to) mark down: rebajar el precio de/ bajar la nota de/ apuntar.

(to) mark off: separar, dividir, distinguir/ delimiter/ tachar.

(to) mark out: marcar, delimiter/ marcar, trazar/ señalar, seleccionar.

(to) mark up: subir (el precio de), aumentar (el precio de)/ subir la nota de.

(to) mix up: mezclar bien/ preparar/ confundir/ desordenar, revolver, mezclar.

(to) nod off: dormirse, dar cabezadas.

(to) pan out: salir, resultar.

(to) pass away: pasar a mejor vida.

(to) pass by: pasar/ pasar de largo.

(to) pass down: pasar/ transmitir.

(to) pass for: pasar por.

(to) pass off: pasar, transcurrir/ parar/ pasarse/ hacer pasar ((as, por)).

(to) pass on: pasar, dar/ contagiar/ pasar a mejor vida/ pasar ((to, a)).

(to) pass out: desmayarse, perder el conocimiento/ graduarse/ repartir.

(to) pass over: pasar por alto, dejar de lado, olvidar/ atravesar, cruzar.

(to) pass through: estar de paso/ pasar por, atravesar.

(to) pass up: dejar pasar, dejar escapar, desperdiciar/ rechazar.

(to) pick at: tocar/ comer sin ganas.

(to) pick off: matar uno a uno.

(to) pick on: meterse con/ elegir, escoger.

(to) pick out: elegir, escoger/ distinguir/ reconocer/ tocar de oído.

(to) pick up: levantar/ recoger/ coger/ coger/ descolgar/ aprender/ adquirir, coger/ descubrir, enterarse de/ pescar, pillar/ conseguir, encontrar/ recoger, pasar a buscar/ coger/ recoger/ ligar con, ligarse/ detener/ captar, recibir/ reanudar/ reprender ((for, por))/ corregir/ darse cuenta de/ mejorar/ subir/ seguir, continuar.

(to) pick up on: hacer reseña de/ volver a/ señalar.

(to) pitch forward: caer de bruces, caer de cabeza.

(to) pitch in: empezar/empezar a comer/ cooperar/ contribuir.

(to) pitch into: emprender enérgicamente algo/ atacar, arremeter contra, poner como un trapo.

(to) pitch off: quitar de encima, sacudir/ caer.

(to) pitch out: tirar/ echar, expulsar, poner de patitas en la calle.

(to) pitch over: tirar/ volcarse.

(to) pitch (up) on: elegir, escoger/ encontrar, dar con.

(to) pull about: manosear, estropear.

(to) pull along: arrastrar/arrastrarse.

(to) pull apart: romper, partir en dos/ desmontar/ criticar duramente/ separar, despegar, desunir.

(to) pull away: arrancar/ quitar arrancando/ adelantarse/ seguir remando, tirar enérgicamente de los remos/ apartarse bruscamente de uno.

(to) pull back: retirar/ retener, tirar hacia atrás/ tirar hacia sí, descorrer/ remontar un gol/retirar/ contenerse/ rajarse.

(to) pull down: bajar, tirar hacia abajo, rebajar, hacer caer, tumbar/ derribar, demoler, derribar/ debilitar/ ganar.

(to) pull in: tirar hacia sí/ recoger/ cobrar/ detener/ enfrenar/ ganar/ atraer/ parar/ llegar a la estación/ apretarse el cinturón.

(to) pull off: arrancar, separar/ quitar de un tirón/quitarse de prisa/ llevar a cabo/ cerrar/ concluir con éxito algo/ ganar/ lograrlo/ llevarlo a cabo/ vencer./ salir.

(to) pull on: ponerse (de prisa)/ tirar de.

(to) pull out: sacar, extraer/ tirar hacia fuera/ tirar a uno de un hoyo a estirones/ sacar a uno de un río/ estirar, extender/ retirar/ irse, marcharse/ retirarse/ salirse/ salir (de la estación)/ sale fácilmente.

(to) pull over: acercar tirando/ derribar, volcar/ hacerse a un lado, desviarse hacia un lado.

(to) pull round: ayudar a uno a reponerse/ reponerse.

(to) pull through: sacar a uno de un apuro o de una enfermedad/ salir de un apuro/ reponerse, recobrar la salud.

(to) pull together: reorganizar un escrito, recuperar/ trabajar con un espíritu común, trabajar con espíritu de equipo/ sobreponerse, serenarse, recuperar la calma, animarse.

(to) pull up: alzar, levantar, tirar hacia arriba/ alzar/ acercar/ arrancar, dessarraigar/ fortalecer/ parar, refrenar/ reprender/ pararse, detenerse/ pararse/ contenerse/ interrumpirse/ mejorar/ mejorar su posición.

(to) put about, (to put around: diseminar, hacer correr/ dar a entender que..., hacer creer que..., hacer correr el rumor de que.../ hacer virar/ virar, cambiar de bordada,.

(to) put across: comunicar/ hacer entender/ hacer aceptar/ presentar/ cerrar/ engañar a uno, embaucar a uno/ dar una paliza a uno/ impresionar con su personalidad/ presentarse de manera eficaz/ comunicar eficazmente lo que uno quiere decir.

(to) put apart: separar a alguien de otras personas.

(to) put aside: rechazar, desechar, dejar, poner a un lado/ dejar de lado, poner a parte/ guardar, poner aparte, ahorrar/ devolver a su lugar/ poner en el garaje/ envainar/ guardar/ desechar/ descartar, repudiar/ encarcelar, recluir en un manicomio/ alojar/ zamparse.

(to) put back: devolver a su lugar/ restituir, volver a poner/ guardar/ volver/ restituir/ dejar/ retrasar/ aplazar/ beberse/ volver a puerto.

(to) put by: ahorrar, tener dinero ahorrado= (to) put away.

(to) put down: poner en tierra/ poner en el suelo/ depositar/ bajar/ soltar/ dejar/ dejar apearse/ déjalo/ suéltalo/ poner en tierra/ cerrar/ pagar como desembolso inicial/ poner en cava/ suprimir/ sofocar/ dominar/ hacer callar/ dejar sin réplica posible, humillar/ apuntar, poner por escrito/ degradar, pasar a una división inferior/ atribuir/ considerar/ sacrificar.

(to) put forth: alargar/ tender/ extender/ echar/ emplear, desplegar.

(to) put forward: nombrar, presentar, proponer/ hacer/ presentar, proponer, exponer/adelantar/ ofrecerse con poca modestia, ponerse en evidencia, llamar la atención sobre sí.

(to) put in: meter, introducir/ insertar/ interponer/ presentar, aducir/ votar a, elegir/ dedicar, instalar, conectar/ plantar, sembrar/ entrar a puerto, hacer escala en un puerto/ presentarse a un puesto, solicitar un puesto.

(to) put off: aplazar, postponer, dejar para después/ disuadir/ desconcertar/ desanimar/ dejar/ quitarse/ apagar/ hacerse a la mar/ salir.

(to) put on: ponerse/ aplicar/ acelerar, cobrar velocidad/ asumir/ poner/ representar, poner en escena/ poner/ encender/ aplicar/ echar/ poner a calentar/ adelantar/ dar el nombre, sugerir un nombre, tomar el pelo a .

(to) put out: sacar, poner fuera, mandar a pasearse, echar, expulsar, poner en la calle/ desahuciar/ tender la ropa, poner la ropa a secar/ echar al mar/ alargar, tender/ sacar, extender/ asomar, sacar/ echar/ ordenar, disponer, desplegar/ apagar, sofocar/ desconcertar/ enojar, irritar/ incomodar/ dislocarse/ publicar/ sacar a la luz/ hacer/ diseminar/ hacer correr/ , poner el dinero a interés/ hacerse a la mar/ salir de/ tomarse la molestia, molestarse.

(to) put over= (to) put across.

(to) put one over on sb.= ganar por la mano a uno, engañar a uno, dar a uno gato por liebre.

(to) put through: cerrar/ despachar/ hacer aprobar/ poner una llamada/ someter a uno a una prueba.

(to) put together: poner juntos, juntar, reunir/ sumar/ añadir/ montar, armar/ juntar, reunir, formar/ confeccionar/ jugar realmente bien.

(to) put up: alzar, levantar, poner en alto, levantar, abrir, alzar/ montar, poner/ izar/ colgar/ pegar, fijar, poner/ envainar/ construir/ aumentar, subir/ ofrecer/ presentar/ hacer/ oponer/ nombrar, proponer/ poner una cosa en venta/ dar, poner/ preparar, hacer/ hospedar, alojar/ incitar/ levantar/ presentar/ ofrecerse.

(to) put up with: aguantar, resignarse a, conformarse con.

(to) put upon: molestar a uno, incomodar a uno, pedirle mucho a uno, abusar de la amabilidad de uno.

(to) ride about, (to) ride around: pasearse a caballo, en coche, en bicicleta.

(to) ride away: alejarse, irse, partir.

(to) ride back: volver a caballo, en bicicleta, etc.

(to) ride on: depender de.

(to) ride out: aguantar hasta el final de.

(to) rip off: arrancar/ timar.

(to) rip up: romper, hacer pedazos.

(to) round down: redondear (a la baja).

(to) round off: completar, acabar.

(to) round on: volverse contra.

(to) round up: redondear (al alza)/ acorralar/ reunir, juntar.

(to) run across: cruzar corriendo/ encontrar, tropezar con.

(to) run after: perseguir.

(to) run along: irse.

(to) run away: irse corriendo, escaparse.

(to) run away with: escaparse con/ no te vayas a creer que/ te dejas llevar por.

(to) run down: atropellar/ criticar/ agotar/ bajar corriendo/ agotarse/ pararse.

(to) run in: rodar/ detener/ entrar corriendo.

(to) run into: entrar corriendo en/ chocar con/ tropezar con.

(to) run off: imprimir/ irse corriendo.

(to) run off with: escaparse con, llevarse.

(to) run out: salir corriendo/ acabarse/ agotarse/ caducar.

(to) run over: atropellar/ rebosar/ derramar.

(to) run through: ensayar/ repasar/ echar un vistazo a.

(to) run up: subir corriendo/ acumular/ izar/ subir corriendo.

(to) set about: empezar a, ponerse a/ atacar, agredir.

(to) set against: enemistar con, poner en contra de/ contraponer, sopesar, comparar con/ desgravar.

(to) set apart: distinguir ((from, de)), hacer diferente ((from, de)).

(to) set aside: guardar, ahorrar/ dejar/ reservar/ dejar de lado/ anular.

(to) set back: apartar, retirar/ retrasar, atrasar/ costar.

(to) set down: poner por escrito, escribir/ dejar/ establecer, fijar.

(to) set forth: emprender marcha, partir.

(to) set in: empezar, comenzar/ surgir/ declararse.

(to) set off: salir, ponerse en camino/ hacer estallar, hacer explotar/ hacer sonar/ lanzar, tirar/ hacer empezar, provocar, desencadenar/ hacer resaltar, realzar.

(to) set on: echar/ atacar, agredir.

(to) set out: partir, salir ((for, para))/ proponerse ((to, -)), tener la intención de, querer/ disponer, exponer/ exponer.

(to) set to: ponerse a, empezar a.

(to) set up: levantar, erigir/ colocar/ montar/ montar, armar/ poner, server/ montar, poner/ fundar/ abrir/ crear/ proveer de/ ayudar a reponerse/ tender una trampa a/ establecerse ((as, como))/ pretender ser/ establecerse ((as, como)).

(to) slip away: pasar, irse/ irse.

(to) slip by: pasar, transcurrir.

(to) slip into: ponerse.

(to) slip off: quitarse.

(to) slip on: ponerse.

(to) slip out: escaparse.

(to) slip out of: quitarse.

(to) slip up: equivocarse, cometer un error/ cometer un desliz, meter la pata.

(to) stand aside: apartarse, quitarse de en medio/ no tomar parte, mantenerse al margen.

(to) stand back: apartarse, echarse hacia atrás, alejarse/ distanciarse ((from, de)).

(to) stand by: cruzarse de brazos, quedarse sin hacer nada/ estar preparado,-a, estar listo,-a/ estar en estado de alerta/ no abandonar, respaldar, apoyar, defender/ atenerse a/ cumplir.

(to) stand down: retirarse/ dimitir/ retirarse, abandonar el estrado.

(to) stand for: significar, querer decir/ representar/ defender, apoyar, ser partidario,-a de/ tolerar, permitir, consentir.

(to) stand in for: sustituir, suplir.

(to) stand out: destacar, sobresalir/ destacarse, sobresalir/ oponerse ((against, a)).

(to) stand over: vigilar a, velar a.

(to) stand to: estar en estado de alerta/ poner en estado de alerta.

(to) stand up: ponerse de pie, levantarse/ estar de pie/ ponte derecho/ resistir ((to, -)), soportar ((to, -))/ poner en posición vertical/ dejar plantado,-a a, dar un plantón a.

(to) stand up for: defender: (support) apoyar.

(to) stand up to: hacer frente a, resistir a.

(to) show off: fardar, fanfarronear, presumir, lucirse/ hacerse el/la gracioso,-a/ hacer resaltar, realzar/ hacer alarde de, presumir de, fardar con, lucirse con.

(to) show up: hacer resaltar, hacer destacar/ revelar, sacar a la luz, poner de manifiesto/ dejar en ridículo, poner en evidencia/ notarse, verse/ acudir, presentarse, aparecer.

(to) stand aside: apartarse, quitarse de en medio/ no tomar parte, mantenerse al margen.

(to) stand back: apartarse, echarse hacia atrás, alejarse/ distanciarse ((from, de)).

(to) stand by: cruzarse de brazos, quedarse sin hacer nada/ estar preparado,-a, estar listo,-a/ estar en estado de alerta/ no abandonar, respaldar, apoyar, defender/ atenerse a/ cumplir.

(to) stand down: retirarse/ dimitir/ retirarse, abandonar el estrado.

(to) stand for: significar, querer decir/ representar/ defender, apoyar, ser partidario,-a de/ tolerar, permitir, consentir.

(to) stand in for: sustituir, suplir.

(to) stand out: destacar, sobresalir/ destacarse, sobresalir/ oponerse ((against, a)).

(to) stand over: vigilar a, velar a.

(to) stand to: estar en estado de alerta/ poner en estado de alerta.

(to) stand up: ponerse de pie, levantarse/ estar de pie/ resistir ((to, -)), soportar ((to, -))/ poner en posición vertical/ dejar plantado,-a a, dar un plantón a.

(to) stand up for: defender/ apoyar.

(to) stand up to: hacer frente a, resistir a.

(to) take after: parecerse a.

(to) take apart: desmontar, deshacer/ echar por tierra.

(to) take aside: llevar a un lado.

(to) take away: llevarse, quitar/ restar/ llevar.

(to) take back: recibir otra vez, aceptar algo devuelto/ readmitir/ devolver/ retirar, retractar/ hacer recordar.

(to) take down: quitar, bajar/ desmontar/ apuntar/ humillar.

(to) take for: tomar por.

(to) take in: dar cobijo a, alojar, recoger/ engañar/ asimilar, entender, captar/ incluir, abarcar/ meterle a, estrechar.

(to) take off: quitarse/ quitar, sacar/ llevar/ tomarse/ imitar/ descontar, rebajar/ despegar/ irse, marcharse/ hacerse popular, tener éxito, ponerse de moda.

(to) take on: hacerse cargo de, encargarse de, aceptar/ asumir/ contratar, coger/ desafiar, enfrentarse con/ asumir, tomar, adquirir/ agitarse, ponerse nervioso,-a.

(to) take out: sacar, quitar/ invitar a salir/ llevar de paseo/ hacerse, sacar/ obtener/ llevar comida a casa/ eliminar.

(to) take out on: tomarla con, desquitarse con, descargarse.

(to) take over: tomar (posesión de), apoderarse de/ ocupar/ absorber, adquirir/ hacerse cargo de/ asumir/

tomar el poder, hacerse con el poder/ entrar en funciones, relevar/ repasar/ enseñar, mostrar.

(to) take over from: relevar, sustituir.

(to) take to: tomar cariño a/ darse a/ empezar a, aficionarse a.

(to) take up: ocupar/ llevar, subir/ quitar, levantar/ ocupar/ ocupar, llevar/ continuar, reanudar/ aceptar/ dedicarse a/ volver a/ acortar.

(to) take upon: encargarse de.

(to) take up on: hacer puntualizaciones sobre/ aceptar (una oferta).

(to) take up with: empezar a salir con, entrar en relaciones con/ hablar de.

(to) tell against: obrar en contra de.

(to) tell apart: distinguir.

(to) tell off: regañar, reñir/ destacar.

(to) tell on: chivarse de.

(to) tick away: transcurrir.

(to) tick off: marcar, señalar/ regañar, reñir/ fastidiar, dar rabia.

(to) tick over: marchar al ralentí, estar en marcha/ ir tirando. (to) throw about: derrochar.

(to) throw away: tirar/ desaprovechar, perder/ malgastar, derrochar/ lanzar al aire.

(to) throw back: devolver/ echar atrás.

(to) throw back on: obligar a recurrir a.

(to) throw in: incluir gratis/ sacar de banda.

(to) throw off: deshacerse de, librarse de/ despistar/quitarse.

(to) throw on: ponerse.

(to) throw out: echar, expulsar/ rechazar/ tirar, tirar a la basura/ juntar de prisa/ improvisar/ juntar.

(to) throw up: vomitar, devolver/ abandonar, renunciar a/ arrojar, dar, aportar/ revelar, poner en evidencia/ vomitar, devolver.

(to) try for: tratar de obtener.

(to) try on: probarse.

(to) try out: probar, ensayar.

(to) turn against: poner en contra/ ponerse en contra de.

(to) turn around / turn round: volverse, darse la vuelta/ volver, darle la vuelta a.

(to) turn away: no dejar entrar/ volver la cabeza, volver la espalda.

(to) turn back: hacer retroceder, hacer volver/ retrasar/ volverse atrás.

(to) turn down: rechazar, no aceptar/ denegar/ bajar/ doblar.

(to) turn in: entregar a la policía/ acostarse.

(to) turn off: desconectar/ apagar/ cerrar/ repugnar, dar asco a/ salir de/ apagarse/ salir.

(to) turn on: conectar/ encender/ abrir/ poner en marcha, encender/ atacar, arremeter contra/ apuntar, dirigir/ excitar, entusiasmar/ depender de, girar en torno a/ encenderse.

(to) turn out: apagar/ producir, fabricar/ vaciar/ desmoldar/ expulsar, echar/ salir, resultar/ salir/ asistir, acudir/ salir a la calle.

(to) turn over: dar la vuelta a, volver, poner al revés/ dar vueltas a/ entregar/ volver/ facturar, hacer/ darse la vuelta/ volcar/ marchar en vacío, funcionar.

(to) turn to: acudir a, recorrer a, recurrir a/ buscar, pasar a/ pasar a/ dedicarse a, recurrir a, darse a, empezar.

(to) turn up: llegar, presentarse/ aparecer/ doblar hacia arriba, levantar/ acortar/ subir, poner más fuerte/ descubrir, encontrar.

(to) wait about, (to) wait around: esperar, perder el tiempo.

(to) wait behind: quedarse, quedarse para esperar a uno.

(to) wait in: estar en casa esperando a uno.

(to) wait on, (to) wait upon: servir a uno, desvivirse por mimar a uno.

(to) wait out: quedarse hasta el final de, esperar más que uno.

(to) wait up: velar, no acostarse, seguir sin acostarse.

(to) wait upon: cumplimentar a uno, presentar sus respetos a uno.

(to) walk about: pasearse, ir y venir.

(to) walk across: cruzar.

(to) walk around: dar una vuelta, pasearse.

(to) walk away: irse, alejarse, negarse a, evadirse de.

(to) walk away with: llevarse, copar, largarse con, robar.

(to) walk back: volver a pie, regresar andando.

(to) walk down: bajar a pie.

(to) walk in: entrar, entrar sin llamar/ interrumpir a alguien.

(to) walk into: entrar/ caer en una trampa/ ser embaucado/ chocar con/ dar con o contra/ topar/ tropezar con o contra/ devorar, zampar/ atacar a uno, arremeter a uno/ conseguir fácilmente un puesto.

(to) walk off: quitarse un dolor de encima dando un paseo/ dar una vuelta para quitarse un dolor/ bajar la comida dando un paseo.

(to) walk on: seguir andando o caminando/ salir de figurante.

(to) walk out: salir, retirarse/ declararse en huelga/ marcharse/ abandonar a uno/ dejar plantado a alguien/

plantar a alguien.

(to) walk over: atropellar a uno, tratar a uno a coces/ dar una paliza a alguien en algún deporte/ ganar/ ganar la carrera por ser el único caballo que participa.

(to) walk through: ensayar por primera vez.

(to) walk up: subir a pie

http://www.usingenglish.com/reference/phrasal-verbs/g.html (Here you can find more phrasal verbs)

PREPOSITIONS AND PREPOSITIONALS PHRASES

AT BY FOR FROM UNDER

at firstat leastat mostat times

at any rateat last

at the latestat once

at short noticeat an advantage

at a disadvantageat risk

at a profit / loss

by accidentby far

by all meansby heart

by chanceby and byby the wayby the time

by no means

by nameby sightby nowby then

for nowfor instancefor example

for salefor a while

for the momentfor ages

for a changefor better or

worse

from now onfrom then on

from bad to worsefrom my point of view

from what I understandfrom personal

experience

under ageunder control

under the impressionunder guarantee

under the influence of

under obligationunder no obligation

under suspicionunder his thumbunder discussionunder consider

Adjective Preposition Combinations ABOUT Use the following adjectives followed by 'about'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.

angry / annoyed / furious about something Example: I'm really angry about our losses on the stock market!

excited about something Example: He's excited about his birthday party next week.

worried / upset about something Example: He's worried about his upcoming examinations.

sorry about something Example: I'm very sorry about Losing your book.

AT Use the following adjectives followed by 'at'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.

good / excellent / brillant at something OR at doing something Example: They are excellent at planning fun parties.

bad / hopeless at something OR at doing something Example: Unfortunately, I'm hopeless at being on time.

AT / BY Use the following adjectives followed by 'at' or 'by'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.

amazed / astonished / shocked / surprised at OR by something Example: I was amazed at his stamina.

FOR

Use the following adjectives followed by 'for'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.

angry with someone for something Example: I'm really angry with John for his total lack of responsibility.

famous for something Example: She's famous for her watercolor paintings.

responsible for something Example: You'll have to speak to John, he's responsible for customer complaints.

sorry for doing something Example: He says he's sorry for shouting at you.

(to feel or be) sorry for someone Example: I really feel sorry for Pam.

FROM Use the following adjectives followed by 'from'.

different from someone / something Example: His photographs are very different from his paintings.

'of / on / to / with'

OF Use the following adjectives followed by 'of'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.

nice / kind / good / generous of someone (to do something) Example: It was very nice of him to buy me a present.

mean of someone (to do something) Example: It was very mean of Susan to say that to Tom.

stupid / silly of someone (to do something) Example: I'm afraid it was stupid of me to come.

intelligent / clever / sensible of someone (to do something) Example: That was quite sensible of Tom.

polite of someone (to do something) Example: It was very polite of Peter to invite my sister to the party.

impolite / rude of someone (to do something) Example: I can't believe how rude it was of Jack to shout at his daughter in front of all those people.

unreasonable of someone (to do something) Example: Don't be so hard on yourself! It's unreasonable of you to expect to understand everything immediately.

proud of something or someone Example: I'm very proud of my daughter's wonderful progress in school.

ashamed of someone or something Example: She's ashamed of her bad grades.

jealous / envious of someone or something Example: She's really envious of her sister's wealth.

aware / conscious of something Example: Teens are often overly conscious of skin blemishes.

capable / incapable of something Example: Peter is quite capable of conducting the meeting on his own.

fond of someone or something Example: She is so fond of her niece.

short of something Example: I'm afraid I'm short of cash tonight.

tired of something Example: I'm tired of your complaining!

ON Use the following adjective followed by 'on'. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.

to be keen on something Example: She is very keen on horses.

TO

Use the following adjectives followed by 'to'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.

married / engaged to someone Example: Jack is engaged to Jill.

nice / kind / good / generous to someone Example: She was very generous to me when I was staying with her.

mean / impolite / rude / unpleasant / unfriendly / cruel to someone Example: How can you be so unfriendly to your neighbors?

similar to something Example: His painting is similar to Van Gough.

WITH Use the following adjectives followed by 'with'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.

angry / annoyed / furious with someone for something Example: I'm furious with my brother for having lied to me!

delighted / pleased / satisfied with something Example: He is quite satisfied with his results.

disappointed with something Example: She's really disappointed with her new car.

bored / fed up with something Example: Let's go. I'm fed up with this party.

crowded with (people, tourists, etc.) Example: Disneyland is crowded with tourists in July.

Prepositions of Place and Direction Look at this plan of the ground floor of a skyscraper: Here are a number of preposition combinations that can be used to describe the floor plan:

Prepositions of Position at the back ofat the bottom ofat the top ofbehindbetweenin the corner ofin the middle ofnext toto the left ofon the other side ofto the right ofon the side ofon top ofopposite Example Sentences There is a large garden in the middle of the skyscraper. The smallest room is located to the left of the internal garden. The entrance to room number three is opposite the entrance to room number two.

Prepositions of Direction Here are a number of prepositions that can be used to show direction and movement around the floor plan: acrossbetweenintoout ofpastroundthroughtowardsExample Sentences

Walk through the exit of room two and enter into building number three. Walk across the indoor garden to reach room number five. Walk past the side entrance to reach the main entrance.

CONJUNCTIONS

The Case of Then and Than

Than is used to make comparisons. In the sentence "Piggy would rather be rescued then stay on the island," we have employed the wrong word because a comparison is being made between Piggy's two choices; we need than instead. In the sentence, "Other than Pincher Martin, Golding did not write another popular novel," the adverbial construction "other than" helps us make an implied comparison; this usage is perfectly acceptable in the United States but careful writers in the UK try to avoid it (Burchfield).

Generally, the only question about than arises when we have to decide whether the word is being used as a conjunction or as a preposition. If it's a preposition (and Merriam-Webster's dictionary provides for this usage), then the word that follows it should be in the object form.

He's taller and somewhat more handsome than me. Just because you look like him doesn't mean you can play better than him.

Most careful writers, however, will insist that than be used as a conjunction; it's as if part of the clause introduced by than has been left out:

He's taller and somewhat more handsome than I [am handsome]. You can play better than he [can play].

In formal, academic text, you should probably use than as a conjunction and follow it with the subject form of a pronoun (where a pronoun is appropriate).

Then is a conjunction used to connect two independent clauses; usually, it will be accompanied (preceded) by a comma.

Omitting That

The word that is used as a conjunction to connect a subordinate clause to a preceding verb. In this construction that is sometimes called the "expletive that." Indeed, the word is often omitted to good effect, but it must be translated into Spanish like “que”.

Isabel knew [that] she was about to be fired. She definitely felt [that] her fellow employees hadn't supported her.

I hope [that] she doesn't blame me.

Sometimes omitting the that can be adequately bridged with the use of a comma:

The problem is, that production in her department has dropped. Remember, that we didn't have these problems before she started working here. The boss said yesterday that production in this department was down fifty percent.(Notice

the position of "yesterday.") Our annual report revealed that some losses sustained by this department in the third quarter

of last year were worse than previously thought.

The CEO said that Isabel's department was slacking off and that production dropped precipitously in the fourth quarter. (Did the CEO say that production dropped or was the drop a result of what he said about Isabel's department? The second that makes the sentence clear.)

Authority for this section: Dos, Don'ts & Maybes of English Usage by Theodore Bernstein. Gramercy Books: New York. 1999. p. 217.

Subordinating Conjunctions

A Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word or subordinator) comes at the beginning of a Subordinate (or Dependent) Clause and establishes the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning.

He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life. Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies. Unless we act now, all is lost.

Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions in the table below — after, before, since — are also prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to introduce a clause and to subordinate the following clause to the independent element in the sentence.

Common Subordinating Conjunctions

afteralthoughasas ifas long asas thoughbecausebeforeeven ifeven though

ifif onlyin order thatnow thatoncerather thansinceso thatthanthat

thoughtillunlessuntilwhenwheneverwherewhereaswhereverwhile

 The Case of Like and As

Strictly speaking, the word like is a preposition, not a conjunction. It can, therefore, be used to introduce a prepositional phrase ("My brother is tall like my father"), but it should not be used to introduce a clause ("My brother can't play the piano like as he did before the accident" or "It looks like as if basketball is quickly overtaking baseball as America's national sport."). To introduce a clause, it's a good idea to use as, as though, or as if, instead.

Like As I told you earlier, the lecture has been postponed. It looks like as if it's going to snow this afternoon. Johnson kept looking out the window like as though he had someone waiting for him.

In formal, academic text, it's a good idea to reserve the use of like for situations in which similarities are being pointed out:

This community college is like a two-year liberal arts college.

However, when you are listing things that have similarities, such as is probably more suitable:

The college has several highly regarded neighbors, like such as the Mark Twain House, St. Francis Hospital, the Connecticut Historical Society, and the UConn Law School.

Beginning a Sentence with Because

 Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our communications industry. Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our communications industry, the postal

service would very much like to see it taxed in some manner.

 

Correlative Conjunctions

Some conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative conjunctions. They always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be treated as grammatically equal.

She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm. Polonius said, "Neither a borrower nor a lender be." Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your best.

Correlative conjunctions sometimes create problems in parallel form. Click HERE for help with those

problems. Here is a brief list of common correlative conjunctions.

both . . . andnot only . . . but also

not . . . buteither . . . or

neither . . . norwhether . . . or

as . . . as

Conjunctive Adverbs

The conjunctive adverbs such as however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a result are used to create complex relationships between ideas. Refer to the section on Coherence: Transitions Between Ideas for an extensive list of conjunctive adverbs categorized according to their various uses and for some advice on their application within sentences (including punctuation issues).

Tenses in English

In English, there are three basic tenses: present, past, and future. Each has a perfect form, indicating completed action; each has a progressive form, indicating ongoing action; and each has a perfect progressive form, indicating ongoing action that will be completed at some definite time. Here is a list of examples of these tenses and their definitions:

Simple Forms Progressive Forms Perfect FormsPerfect Progressive

Forms

Present take/s am/is/are taking have/has taken have/has been taking

Past took was/were taking had taken had been taking

Future will/shall take will be taking will have taken will have been taking

Simple Forms

Present Tense

Present tense expresses an unchanging, repeated, or reoccurring action or situation that exists only now. It can also represent a widespread truth.

Example Meaning

The mountains are tall and white. Unchanging action

Every year, the school council elects new members. Recurring action

Pb is the chemical symbol for lead. Widespread truth

Past Tense

Past tense expresses an action or situation that was started and finished in the past. Most past tense verbs end in -ed. The irregular verbs have special past tense forms which must be memorized.

Example Form

W.W.II ended in 1945. Regular -ed past

Ernest Hemmingway wrote "The Old Man and the Sea." Irregular form

Future Tense

Future tense expresses an action or situation that will occur in the future. This tense is formed by using will/shall with the simple form of the verb.

The speaker of the House will finish her term in May of 1998.

The future tense can also be expressed by using am, is, or are with going to.

The surgeon is going to perform the first bypass in Minnesota.

We can also use the present tense form with an adverb or adverbial phrase to show future time.

The president speaks tomorrow. (Tomorrow is a future time adverb.)

Progressive Forms

Present Progressive Tense

Present progressive tense describes an ongoing action that is happening at the same time the statement is written. This tense is formed by using am/is/are with the verb form ending in -ing.

The sociologist is examining the effects that racial discrimination has on society.

Past Progressive Tense

Past progressive tense describes a past action which was happening when another action occurred. This tense is formed by using was/were with the verb form ending in -ing.

The explorer was explaining the lastest discovery in Egypt when protests began on the streets.

Future Progressive Tense

Future progressive tense describes an ongoing or continuous action that will take place in the future. This tense is formed by using will be or shall be with the verb form ending in -ing.

Dr. Jones will be presenting ongoing research on sexist language next week.

Perfect Forms

Present Perfect Tense

Present perfect tense describes an action that happened at an indefinite time in the past or that began in the past and continues in the present.This tense is formed by using has/have with the past participle of the verb. Most past participles end in -ed. Irregular verbs have special past participles that must be memorized.

Example Meaning

The researchers have traveled to many countries in order to collect more significant data.

At an indefinite time

Women have voted in presidential elections since 1921.

Continues in the present

Past Perfect Tense

Past perfect tense describes an action that took place in the past before another past action. This tense is formed by using had with the past participle of the verb.

By the time the troops arrived, the war had ended.

Future Perfect Tense

Future perfect tense describes an action that will occur in the future before some other action. This tense is formed by using will have with the past participle of the verb.

By the time the troops arrive, the combat group will have spent several weeks waiting.

Perfect Progressive Forms

Present Perfect Progressive

Present perfect progressive tense describes an action that began in the past, continues in the present, and may continue into the future. This tense is formed by using has/have been and the present participle of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).

The CEO has been considering a transfer to the state of Texas where profits would be larger.

Past Perfect Progressive

Past perfect progressive tense describes a past, ongoing action that was completed before some other past action. This tense is formed by using had been and the present perfect of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).

Before the budget cuts, the students had been participating in many extracurricular activities.

Future Perfect Progressive

Future perfect progressive tense describes a future, ongoing action that will occur before some specified future time. This tense is formed by using will have been and the present participle of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).

By the year 2020, linguists will have been studying and defining the Indo-European language family for more than 200 years.

What are transitive verbs?

Transitive verbs take objects. That is, these verbs carry the action of a subject and apply it to an object. They tells us what the subject (agent) does to something else (object). Examples: He bought a shirt. (agent) (did something) (object- answers the question "what?")

She brushes her hair every hour. Marina will lose the race.Note that the transitive verb can take any tense

What are intransitive verbs?

Intransitive verbs do not take an object; they express actions that do not require the agent's doing something to something else. Examples: Tom danced.

The intransitive verb "danced" is a complete action by itself and does not require a direct object to receive the action.

They ran down the road.

They ran, but they do not run "something" in this sentence. The sentence contains no object.

Jack fell on the rocks in the alley.

Tip: Some verbs can function as both transitive and intransitive verbs. Example: intransitive: She dances. transitive: She dances the rhumba.

Linking Verbs

Linking verbs link the relationship between the agent and the rest of the sentence. They explain the connection between the subject and its complement or that which completes the subject's description.

The most common linking verb is "to be." Some other linking verbs are:

appear feel remain sound become grow seem stay continue look smell taste

Examples: Opera seems overly dramatic to the music novice.

"overly dramatic" describes the agent or subject "opera" but it does not express an action that "opera" performs.

He appeared jubilant at the news of the inheritance.

I am pathetically inept in such situations.

He is a doctor of bioethics.

Note: while "a doctor" answers the question "what?" the verb is not an action verb, but rather a "state of being" verb. Therefore, is is not a transitive verb; it links the subject (he) with his state of being (doctor).

Remember, however, if what follows the verb can provide an answer to the question "what," then the verb is not a linking verb.

Compare: He tastes the soup as he cooks it.

"tastes" is transitive: he tastes "what?"

The fruit tastes rotten.

"rotten" describes or complements the state of the fruit, and therefore tastes links the agent (fruit) and its condition (rotten).Problem:

The two pair of verbs lay/lie and raise/rise are often misused. In each set there is a transitive verb and an intransitive verb, but they are often confused because of their similar sounds.

LIE is intransitive and means to recline or be situated.LAY is transitive and means to place or put something.

RISE is intransitive and means to get up.RAISE is transitive and means to lift something up. (Intr.) (Tr.) (Intr.) (Tr.)Infinitive lie lay rise raisePast Tense lay laid rose raisedPast Participle lain laid risen raisedPresent Participle lying laying rising raisingS-form lies lays rises raises

Examples:

Intr: She lay on the couch watching television. Tr: He laid the child gently on the bed. Intr: The alligator rose out of the water. Tr: She raised the child above the crowd, so he could see.

Identify whether the highlighted verb or compound verb is used transitively or intransitively:

11. The old woman struggled up the hill, pulling a grocery cart that had lost one wheel behind her.12. Hermione is editing her uncle's memoirs of his lifetime as a green grocer.

13. Much to the amusement of the onlookers, Paul danced a minuet to the polka music that drifted out of the beer tent.

14. At the beginning of the play, the entire cast dances manically across the stage.

15. Stella is reading quietly in the upstairs bedroom instead of doing her chores.

16. This term I am reading all of the works of Sylvia Townsend Warner.

17. At the feast, we will eat heartily.

18. Charles opened up his lunch, examined the contents carefully, and ate his dessert first.

19. The Stephens sisters are both very talented; Virginia writes and Vanessa paints.

20. When I was three years old, my father left a can of paint open in my bedroom, and early one morning, I painted my baby brother's face green.

Active Voice

In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts.

 

In each example above, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb.

You can see examples of all the verb tenses in active voice at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tenses2.html.

Passive Voice

In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. The agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase or may be omitted.

(agent performing action has been omitted.)

 

Sometimes the use of passive voice can create awkward sentences, as in the last example above. Also, overuse of passive voice throughout an essay can cause your prose to seem flat and uninteresting. In scientific writing, however, passive voice is more readily accepted since using it allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers as the subjects of sentences (see the third example above). This practice helps to create the appearance of an objective, fact-based discourse because writers can present research and conclusions without attributing them to particular agents. Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal interests.

You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb phrase will always include a form of be, such as am, is, was, were, are, or been. The presence of a be-verb, however, does not necessarily mean that the sentence is in passive voice. Another way to recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may include a "by the..." phrase after the verb; the agent performing the action, if named, is the object of the preposition in this phrase.

You can see examples of all the verb tenses in passive voice at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tenses2.html.

Choosing Active Voice

In most nonscientific writing situations, active voice is preferable to passive for the majority of your sentences. Even in scientific writing, overuse of passive voice or use of passive voice in long and complicated sentences can cause readers to lose interest or to become confused. Sentences in active voice are generally--though not always-- clearer and more direct than those in passive voice.

passive (indirect) active (direct):

Sentences in active voice are also more concise than those in passive voice because fewer words are required to express action in active voice than in passive.

passive (more wordy) active (more concise)

Changing passive to active

If you want to change a passive-voice sentence to active voice, find the agent in a "by the..." phrase, or consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed in the verb. Make that agent the subject of the sentence, and change the verb accordingly. Sometimes you will need to infer the agent from the surrounding sentences which provide context.

Passive Voice Agent Changed to Active Voice

most of the class

agent not specified; most likely agents such as "the researchers"

the CIA director and his close advisors

agent not specified; most likely agents such as "we"

 

Choosing Passive Voice

While active voice helps to create clear and direct sentences, sometimes writers find that using an indirect expression is rhetorically effective in a given situation, so they choose passive voice. Also, as mentioned above, writers in the sciences conventionally use passive voice more often than writers in other discourses. Passive voice makes sense when the agent performing the action is obvious, unimportant, or unknown or when a writer wishes to postpone mentioning the agent until the last part of the sentence or to avoid mentioning the agent at all. The passive voice is effective in such circumstances because it highlights the action and what is acted upon rather than the agent performing the action.

active passive

The dispatcher is notifying police that three prisoners have escaped.

Police are being notified that three prisoners have escaped.

Surgeons successfully performed a new experimental liver-transplant operation yesterday.

A new experimental liver-transplant operation was performed successfully yesterday.

"Authorities make rules to be broken," he said defiantly.

"Rules are made to be broken," he said defiantly.

In each of these examples, the passive voice makes sense because the agent is relatively unimportant compared to the action itself and what is acted upon.

Changing active to passive

If you want to change an active-voice sentence to passive voice, consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed in the verb, and then make that agent the object of a "by the..." phrase. Make what is acted upon the subject of the sentence, and change the verb to a form of be + past participle. Including an explicit "by the..." phrase is optional.

Active Voice Agent Changed to Passive Voice

The presiding officer

The leaders

The scientists

In each of these examples, the passive voice is useful for highlighting the action and what is acted upon instead of the agent.

What are Modal Verbs?

Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal verbs. Here are some important differences:

1. Modal verbs do not take "-s" in the third person.

Examples:

He can  speak Chinese.

She should  be here by 9:00.

2. You use "not" to make modal verbs negative, even in Simple Present and Simple Past.

Examples:

He should not be late.

They might not come to the party.

3. Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses.

Examples:

He will can go with us. Not Correct

She musted study very hard. Not Correct

Complete the sentences using the words listed in the box below, then click the "Check" button to check your answers. Don't forget to capitalize when necessary. Some gaps may have more than one correct

answer.can     could     have to     must     might     should

1. Ted's flight from Amsterdam took more than 11 hours. He be exhausted after such a long

flight. He prefer to stay in tonight and get some rest.

2. If you want to get a better feeling for how the city is laid out, you walk downtown and explore the waterfront.

3. Hiking the trail to the peak be dangerous if you are not well prepared for dramatic weather

changes. You research the route a little more before you attempt the ascent.

4. When you have a small child in the house, you leave small objects lying around. Such

objects be swallowed, causing serious injury or even death.

5. Dave: you hold your breath for more than a minute?Nathan: No, I can't.

6. Jenny's engagement ring is enormous! It have cost a fortune.

7. Please make sure to water my plants while I am gone. If they don't get enough water, they die.

8. I speak Arabic fluently when I was a child and we lived in Egypt. But after we moved back to Canada, I had very little exposure to the language and forgot almost everything I knew as a child. Now, I

just say a few things in the language.

9. The book is optional. My professor said we read it if we needed extra credit. But we

read it if we don't want to.

10. Leo: Where is the spatula? It be in this drawer but it's not here.

Nancy: I just did a load of dishes last night and they're still in the dish washer. It be in there.

That's the only other place it be.

11. You take your umbrella along with you today. The weatherman on the news said there's a

storm north of here and it rain later on this afternoon.

12. we pull over at the next rest stop? I really use the bathroom and I don't know if I

hold it until we get to Chicago.

13. Oh no! Frank's wallet is lying on the coffee table. He have left it here last night.

14. Ned: I borrow your lighter for a minute?

Stephen: Sure, no problem. Actually, you keep it if you want to. I've given up smoking.

15. I believe she said that to Megan! She insult her cooking in front of everyone

at the party last night. She have just said she was full or had some salad if she didn't like the meal.

16. Do you chew with your mouth open like that? Geez, it's making me sick watching you eat that piece of pizza.

17. Mrs. Scarlett's body was found in the lounge just moments ago, and it's still warm! Nobody has left the

mansion this evening, so the killer be someone in this room. It be any one of us!!!

18. Ted: I don't know why Denise starting crying when I mentioned the wedding.

Pamela: It have been what you said about her brother. Or, perhaps she is just nervous. After all, the big day is tomorrow.

19. you always say the first thing that pops into your head?

Modal Traditional definitions Present/Future Past

can ability I can juggle. I could juggle when I was young.

can request Can I look at your costumes?  

can permission You can look at my costumes.  

can possibility You can pet the lion if you want.  

can past ability  I could juggle when I was young.

could request Could you hold this for me?  

could possibility I could be up there right now.I could have been juggling now.

may request(formal) May I pet the lion?  

may permission(formal) Yes, you may pet the lion.  

may probabilityThe trapeze artist may be tired after the show.

The acrobats may have performed already.

might slight probability The clown might be tired, too.The elephants might have performed, too.

shall polite question Shall we go say hello to the crown?  

shall formal futureLadies and gentlemen, the circus shall begin shortly.

 

should advice Jugglers should practice everyday. I should have tried juggling.

should expectation The circus should begin in a minute.They should have started by now.

must necessity Children must be careful around lions.The children had to leave before the clowns began.

must logical deductionThe lion does not hurt his trainer. They must have known each other for a long time.

They must be friends. They must have known each other for a long time.

will intention or promise We will see the seals today.  

will future time certainty We will see them by 9:30.  

would past time habit  When I was young, we would go to the circus.

would conditional3I were you, I would be careful around the lions.

 

would polite questionWould you mind if I borrow your make up today?

 

would preferenceI would rather juggle than do trapeze stunts.

I would rather have juggled than done trapeze stunts.

ACTIVITIES

If you continually use short sentences in your writing, your paragraphs will sound very choppy.  Read this paragraph and notice how it sounds.

    It was my birthday.  I ask for a bike.  My parents bought me a red bike.  It had white strips on the fenders. I like to ride my bike everywhere.  I like to ride on smooth payment best.  I am not allowed to ride on the sidewalk.  People walk on the side walk. If I have time.  I ride on the bike trail in the park.

To make your writing more interesting, you can combine the short sentences to make longer sentences.  The longer sentences can be either compound or complex.  Read the revised paragraph below.  Notice how the paragraph flows much better with longer sentences.

        It was my birthday, so I ask for a bike.  My parents bought me a red bike, and it had white strips on the fenders.  I like to ride my bike everywhere, but I like to ride on smooth payment best.  I am not allowed to ride on the sidewalk because people walk on the sidewalk.  Whenever I have time,  I ride on the bike trail in the park.

Did you notice the kind of changes that were made in the second paragraph?  Conjunctions and commas were used to connect the sentences.

What are conjunctions? The most common conjunctions used in compound sentences are:

and, as, but, or, so

When you make a compound sentence you are joining two or more simple sentences together with a conjunction and a comma.  If you took the conjunction away, the sentences would be complete and they would still make sense.  Look at this example:

Sentence 1: I like to ride my bike everywhereSentence 2: I like to ride on smooth payment bestCompound sentence:  I like to ride my bike everywhere, but I like to ride on smooth payment best.

Complex sentences use conjunctions and sometimes commas also.  However, complex sentences don't just divide into neat, complete, simple sentences if you take out the conjunctions. In complex sentences the conjunction is used to join together clauses.

These conjunction are used most often in complex sentences:

after, although, because, before, until, since, when, whenever, while

What is a clause? A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. Sometimes clauses are complete short sentences, but in a complex sentence at least one of them will depend on the conjunction for its meaning.  This means if you take the conjunction away, the sentence won't divide into complete units that make sense by themselves. Look at these examples:

Clause 1:  I am not allowed to ride on the sidewalkClause 2: People walk on the sidewalkComplex sentence:  I am not allowed to ride on the sidewalk because people walk on the sidewalk.

 

Clause 1: If I have timeClause 2: I ride on the bike trail in the parkComplex sentence:  Whenever  I have time,  I ride on the bike trail in the park.

Revise these paragraphs using compound and complex sentences. (Source: http://www.unt.edu/writing_center/wssentencecombining.htm)

Paragraph 1:  It was a dark and stormy night.  The wind was high.  The trees waved and crashed against the barn.  I looked around me and saw that I wasn’t alone.  A man stood behind me.  He was tall.  He was mean.  He had a knife.  It was shining in the moonlight.  It was long and slender.  He reached back. He stabbed with it.  I jumped out of the way.  I ran away.

Paragraph 2:  Tom prefers baseball to basketball.  Baseball seems more interesting to Tom.  Tom feels baseball is a gentleman’s sport. Baseball is more structured than basketball.  Baseball requires athletes to use more skill than aggression when playing.  Tom respects baseball players the most because of this.

Here are more resources on combining sentences:

http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/combining_skills.htmhttp://www.bgsu.edu/departments/writing-lab/sentence_combining_b.htmlhttp://rhet.csustan.edu/3009/sentcomb.htmhttp://pigseye.kennesaw.edu/~slamos/

Passive Voice Exercises

Cited and adapted from Winkler, Anthony C., and Jo Ray McCuen. Writing Talk: Paragraphs and Short Essays with Readings. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000. 369-372.

Practicing IRead the paired sentences aloud. Write "A" in the blank beside the sentence in the active voice,"P" in the blank beside the sentence in the passive voice.

a. _______ Louise made the coffee.b. _______ The coffee was made by Louise.c. _______ The package was advertised by the travel agent.d. _______ The travel agent advertised the package.

Practicing IIRewrite these sentences to put them in the active voice.a. The sugar water was relished by the hummingbirds.____________________________________________________________________b. Jogging is done by many people for exercise.____________________________________________________________________c. A standing ovation was given to the guitar player.____________________________________________________________________d. The syllabus was handed out by the professor.____________________________________________________________________

Practicing IIIUsing either a computer or a piece of scratch paper, rewrite the following paragraph in the activevoice.Last summer our house was painted by me. The job took about two weeks. First, theexterior was washed using warm water and a mild detergent. Then all the chinks and pores in thewalls were sealed with putty. After the putty had had a chance to dry, the exterior could bepainted. A latex paint was used because it is easy to apply and cleans up with water. A wholeweek was needed to finish this part of the job. I was very careful to apply the paint evenlybecause I did not want to have to apply two coats. A color was used that was very close to theoriginal color. Our house is a two-story house, which meant that a tall ladder was needed to dothe second story. The paint can had to be balanced on the top rung of the ladder while I worked.When the job was finished, a great deal of satisfaction was felt by me. I had to pat myself on theback. Even my dad said that a good job was done.

READ THE FOLLOWING ARTICLES AND DO THE FOLLOWING EXERCISES.

17th September 2010Good news for Chilean minersWords in the News © British Broadcasting Corporation 2010

Workers trying to reach the 33 trapped miners in Chile say they hope to rescue them by early

November. Initially, the government said it could take until Christmas, but engineers say theirwork is going well. From Chile, Gideon Long reports.

The engineers are digging two escape tunnels for the men and plan to start on a third onesoon. Work on the second of the tunnels is going particularly well. René Aguilar, one of thechief engineers at the site, said he expected the drill to reach the area where the miners aresheltering this weekend.

Then, the engineers will haul the drill up to the surface and start digging again, to widen theshaft until it's big enough to serve as an escape route. Aguilar said the team expected torescue the men in early November.

The news has been welcomed by relatives of the men, who have been celebrating the birth ofone of the miners' daughters. Baby Esperanza was born on Tuesday. Her father Ariel Ticonais trapped below ground.

Video images of the birth were sent down a supply chute to the miners' refuge so that hecould watch them.

Vocabulary and definitionsescape tunnels passages to help the miners to safetydrill machine used for making holessheltering staying in a safe placehaul…up lift up something heavyshaft long narrow passageserve as be used asrescue bring to safetytrapped stuck, unable to escapesupply chute passage for sending essential itemsrefuge safe place

FIND AT LEAST ONE NOMINAL:

CHOOSE A COMPLEX-COMPOUND SENTENCE AND DIAGRAM IT.

FIND AT LEAST ONE PASSIVE AND ONE ACTIVE SENTENCE.