Empowering Women Through ICT-Based Business Initiatives ...

43

[email protected] Professor/Faculty

FellowCenter for European and

Mediterranean StudiesNew York University285 Mercer Street, 7th ºoorNew York, New York 10003USA(212) 998-3857

Associate ProfessorSchool of EconomicsGeorgia Institute of TechnologyUSA

E-COMMERCE/E-RETAILING PROJECTS MAIER, NAIR-REICHERT

Empowering Women ThroughICT-Based Business Initiatives:An Overview of Best Practices inE-Commerce/E-Retailing Projects

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have been increasinglypromoted as a key solution for comprehensive development, poverty eradica-tion and the empowerment of historically disadvantaged groups, such aswomen and minorities in the Global South. ICT-based business initiatives, ande-commerce projects in particular, have been hailed as “potential goldmines”for women’s empowerment. However, research and experience show that tobe successful, projects must balance the need to overcome structural barriersto women’s advancement with sensitivity to the limited space within whichmany women in the Global South navigate. In this paper, we review literatureon ICT and empowerment of women, drawing upon several e-commerce/e-retailing projects as case studies to identify a set of best practices that un-derlie a successful project: 1) government and institutional support, 2) societalinvolvement, 3) training and empowerment, 4) expansion of market access,and 5) managerial best practices. We anticipate that the insights generated bythis study will be useful both for purposes of effective program developmentand policy design.

This study is motivated by the potentially powerful role that informationand communication technologies (ICTs) can play in the empowerment ofwomen in the poor and underdeveloped societies in the world.1 In this es-say, we review the literature on ICTs and empowerment of women, draw-ing upon several e-commerce/e-retailing projects as case studies toidentify a set of “best practices” that underlie a successful project. We an-ticipate that the insights developed in this study would be useful both forpurposes of effective program development and policy design.

ICTs are increasingly promoted as a key solution for comprehensive de-velopment, poverty eradication and the empowerment of historically dis-advantaged groups, such as women and minorities in the Global South(Bhatnagar & Schware, 2000; Friedman, 2005; Hafkin & Huyer, 2006;Hafkin & Taggert, 2001; Heeks, 1999, Huyer & Mitter, 2003; UNCTAD,2002; International Telecommunication Union, 2005). An InternationalTelecommunication Union (ITU) study (2005) describes ICTs as potentially

1. For the purpose of this paper, we deªne ICTs as any communication device and application, such as computer andnetwork hardware and software, the Internet, telephones, cell phones, radio and television, and additional servicesthey enable, for example, long-distance learning.

© The MIT Press 2008. Published under Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial-NoDerivativeWorks Unported 3.0 license. All rightsnot granted thereunder to the public are reserved to the publisher and may not be exercised without its express written permission.

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powerful “development enablers” and the WorldBank currently supports more than 1,000 projectswith an IT component (The World Bank GenderGroup, 2006). Simultaneously, the Declaration ofAgreement in Support Of Girls and Women in Infor-mation and Communication Technology, introducedat the United Nations World Summit on the Infor-mation Society in Tunis, Tunisia on November 16,2005, stresses that “ICT allows women increasedparticipation in political, social, and economic arenasand supports empowerment for themselves, theirfamilies, and their communities.” However, it alsowarns that “[f]ailing to recognize and remedywomen’s severe under-representation in the devel-opment of ICTs and ICT policy, including both accessand leadership, limits our ability to advance ourglobal society.”

In recent years, therefore, development agencies,such as the World Bank, USAID and the CanadianInternational Development Research Centre (IDRC)have substantially increased funding for ICT projectsthat speciªcally aim to empower women, such ase-commerce, e-government, business development,and networking projects. Women have increasinglyproven to be active and enthusiastic participants in alarge variety of ICT-enabled projects, such as com-puter training and data entry facilities, call centers,billing, computer repair work, and e-enabled busi-nesses. (Hafkin & Huyer, 2006; Lafond & Sinha,2005; Sciadas, 2005). E-commerce projects (tradi-tional or otherwise) that tap the skills of women andexploit their potential have been particularly popularin global markets. The Georgetown-initiated Cot-tage Industry-Global Market CI-GM Project, TortasPeru, the India Shop, ElSouk, EthioShop, WomenEntrepreneurs and Handicraft Producers in Bhutan,the World Bank-funded Knitting Together Projectand the Rupununi Weavers Society are examples of(at least, initially) successful e-commerce projects.Projects like those by the Delhi-based DatamationFoundation, the Information Village Project inPondicherry, India and the Grameen Phone Project inBangladesh serve as models of the potential of ICT-based projects.

Experience has also shown, however, that the ef-fective application of any new technology must rec-ognize that technologies are not gender neutral,neither in design nor in implementation (Boserup,1970; Hafkin & Huyer, 2006, Rosser, 2005;Wajcman, 1991), and second, that ICT projects mustbe designed to function within the cultural and so-

cial structure without inadvertently reinforcing exist-ing gender divides or causing even furthermarginalization in a backlash, such as what hap-pened to the Rupununi Weavers Society (Hafkin &Huyer, 2006; Maneja, 2002; Sciadas, 2005; WorldBank, 2007a). Numerous other factors can impactthe success of an ICT-based project. While many pa-pers have addressed the theory related to this topic,and there are individual case studies examining theimpact of ICT on the empowerment of women, wehave, to the best of our knowledge, not seen anysystematic work on “best practices” in this area.Our paper, therefore, is motivated by the question:How do ICTs and the development of e-commerce/e-retailing projects facilitate the empowerment ofwomen, and what are some characteristics ofsuccessful e-commerce/e-retailing projects? For thepurpose of this paper, we deªne e-commerce/e-re-tailing as business-to-customer (B2C) and business-to-business (B2B) online sales and purchases ofgoods or services.

The methodology we developed for this study isto ªrst review the literature and identify factors thatfacilitated successful e-commerce/e-retailing projectsand factors that hindered such projects. We thenidentify a set of e-commerce case studies that weanalyze to understand the extent to which the theo-retical ªndings are validated by the ªeld experiences.Through this process we are able to identify a set ofbest practices that underlie a project that is success-ful in empowering women. We deªne best practicesas sets of actions, managerial practices, and policiesundertaken by women-owned e-commerce/e-retailing businesses that lead to the empowermentof women both working in those businesses andthose others who regarded it as a role model toemulate. Many of the case studies included in thepaper have been widely discussed in the literature.We are limited by the availability of data since ourspeciªc focus is on e-commerce/e-retailing, andwe include mainly case studies we found duringour literature search that speciªcally relate toe-commerce/e-retailing (rather than the general useof ICTs). Our experience mirrors the 2004 UNCTADE-commerce and Development Report’s spotlight onthe “scarcity of reliable data on the value ofe-commerce” (p. 13), which is mostly “based onanecdotal and case study evidence” because of anabsence of statistical data on e-business, especiallyin developing countries (p. 25).

44 Information Technologies and International Development

E-COMMERCE/E-RETAILING PROJECTS

ICTs are consistently hailed as one of the most effec-tive tools for economic development. An ITU study(2005) describes ICTs as potentially powerful “devel-opment enablers:” they are cost-effective withsigniªcant transformative power, allow developingcountries to leapfrog several stages of the develop-ment process and, in furnishing individuals directlywith tools for self-empowerment, avoid top-heavyand corrupt bureaucracies (Heeks, 1999; Karake-Shalhoub & Al Qasimi, 2006). Speciªcally, Eggleston,Jensen, and Zeckhauser (2002) argue that ICTs “canenhance the functioning of markets that are criticalfor the well-being of the poor” because ICTs canfoster greater market integration in many ways:

• They allow ªrms and individuals in developingcountries to participate more competitively andwith greater ease in the regional, national andglobal economies and reduce uncertainty indoing business;

• Information regarding prices enables producersto plan their product mix and input purchasesin an efªcient manner;

• Access to ICTs allows producers to sell theirproducts in the most proªtable markets anddetermine the optimum timing of sale;

• Availability of price information shrinks the in-formational asymmetry between the rural pro-ducers and middlemen;

• ICTs reduce the exploitation of rural producersby e-middlemen;

• Increased information facilitates technology dif-fusion, adoption and innovation at a muchfaster pace;

• Increased information about the availability ofjobs could result in better and faster matchingbetween landless laborers and available jobs,ultimately leading to increased productivity;

• ICTs provide greater access to weather-relatedinformation and credit opportunities.

In short, access to ICT and proper use of this accesscould place an economy on a higher income trajec-tory over time.2

The literature on the enormous opportunities ICTscan provide for women’s empowerment is vibrantand wide ranging. Kelkar and Nathan (2002, p. 433)have argued that ITs have the potential to “rede-ªn[e] traditional gender roles” and that “the spreadof IT-enabled services has been immensely beneªcialto both women and men, especially those whohave limited skills or lack of resources to invest inhigher education.” Drucker (2001) has calledICTs the “great equalizer” and pioneers in the ªeldof gender empowerment through ICTs, both inacademe and advocacy, such as Hafkin & Taggert(2001), Haflan (2002), Huyer (2002, 2005), Mitter(2003), Nath (2001), Sharma (2003), Sharma(2004), and Ng (2005) have convincingly shownthat access to and effective use of ICTs contributesto women’s empowerment and capacity buildingin numerous ways, frequently with synergeticeffects:

• Training in the use and design of computer ap-plications, such as e-mail, word-processing anddesign applications, builds marketable skills;

• Marketable skills create alternative possibilitiesfor income generation and the possibility ofupward mobility;

• An independent income is the basis for individ-ual autonomy, increased agency and controland, frequently, increased self-esteem and self-conªdence (Huyer, 2006, p. 30; Garrido & Ro-man, 2006, p. 170). The Economist quotes afemale volunteer who helps run an ICT-based“Knowledge Center” in Embalam nearPondicherry in India as attesting that the statusof women in Embalam has improved as a resultof using the computers. “Before, we were justsitting at home,” she says. “Now we feel em-powered and more in control”3;

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MAIER, NAIR-REICHERT

2. Other papers include Rice (2003) and Kenny (2002). Rice (2003) summarizes the beneªts of ICT, including the ICTsector’s direct contribution to output, improvements in public sector administration, education, better delivery of publicand private services such as health care, monitoring ecological situations and maintaining environmental stability, inte-grating distant regions and areas, providing better communications, promoting productivity gains, efªciency, andgrowth. Kenny (2002) describes ICTs as “powerful tools for empowerment and income generation in LDCs.”3. Charles Kenny “Behind the Digital Divide,” The Economist; 3/12/2005, Vol. 374 Issue 8417, Special Section pp. 22–25.

• Increased agency and self-conªdence allowwomen to travel more and develop a widernetwork of contacts. Such travel and network-ing expose them to the availability of moreeconomic opportunities (Eggleston, Jensen &Zeckhauser, 2002; Rice, 2003; Kenny, 2002;Bayes, von Braun, & Akhter, 1999);

• ICTs open new avenues for education, commu-nication and information sharing;

• ICTs can be a valuable tool for the organiza-tion and mobilization of women’s advocacyand interest groups (Friedman, 2005; Nath,2006);

• Education and information increase knowledgeabout the world and the political, economic,social and cultural factors that shape women’slives.

Finally, women’s empowerment and a country’slevel of economic development are inextricablylinked (Boserup, 1970; Elson, 1995; Marchand &Parpart, 1995; Nussbaum, 2001; Sen, 2000). For in-stance, UN Secretary-General Koª Annan (2005) hascalled the empowerment of women “the most ef-fective development tool.” Sharma (2003) arguesthat “societies that discriminate by gender pay ahigh price in terms of their ability to develop and toreduce poverty” (p. 1), an assertion that has beensupported by every annual United Nations HumanDevelopment Report since 2001 (UNDP, 2001–2006).

Despite these great promises and numerous suc-cess stories, one must not be seduced into believingthat ICT-enabled development projects for womenare panaceas, but be mindful of the very signiªcantchallenges faced by women in ICT-based businesses.Indeed, the IT sector remains one of the mostgendered sectors (Archibald, et al., 2005; Arun &Arun, 2001; Mitter & Rowbotham, 1997; Patel &Parmentier, 2005; Wajcman, 1991). Ubiquitously,women face barriers to the use of ICTs, mostly lackof training, lack of access, the high costs of equip-ment and connection as well as software and hard-ware applications and designs that do not reºectthe needs of women (Arun & Arun, 2002; Hafkin &Huyer, 2006; Hafkin & Taggert, 2001; Mies & Shiva,1993; Mitter, 2005; Mitter & Sen 2000; Momo,2000; Rathgeber, 2000; Sciadas, 2005). These barri-ers are often exacerbated by extreme poverty andhighly patriarchal social structures that relegate

women to a much inferior status. Hafkin (2000) hasalso shown that gender discrimination is often trans-ferred, presumably unintentionally, because ICTs aredesigned by “Western men who do not understandthe social, economic, or cultural contexts for use ofthese technologies” (p. 4).

There are several speciªc obstacles that preventwomen, especially women entrepreneurs, from en-joying the full beneªts of the ICT revolution:

Business ChallengesThe key two business problems faced by womenrunning micro (e-commerce/e-retailing) enterprisesare constraints in obtaining necessary loans for seedmoney and/or to ensure consistent funding for anexisting project (they therefore often develop sub-stantial dependency on government sources) and re-sistance to women’s empowerment by (male)government ofªcials and fellow villagers (Garrido &Roman, 2006; Poster & Salime, 2002). Additionally,women ªnd it difªcult to mobilize alternativeªnancial resources, as, unlike men, in many develop-ing countries they are unable to travel on their ownto various distant ofªces and agencies.

One of the most important problems women’senterprises face is undue delay in getting paid bygovernment departments and other agencies for thework they do. Unlike their male counterparts, theyare limited in their abilities to collect their dues be-cause of their limited freedom to travel alone. Cor-rupt government ofªcials may see women’sorganizations providing ICT-based services as athreat to them, especially where corruption exists inthe provision of services. Government ofªcers oftendo not appreciate seeing work they were previouslydoing now being handled by women who are lesseducated and less trained than they. This may leadto deliberate delays in processing applications,granting approvals, making payments, etc. Thisproblem is worsened by the fact that many of thesewomen-owned businesses are dependant to a largedegree on speciªc products/services and on govern-ment contracting. They realize the need for diversi-fying their business activities as key to their long-term survival and growth, but they face seriousªnancial and societal constraints.

Finally, villages are often illiterate and distrustªnancial transactions over the computer; hence ittakes considerable time and effort to build trust andconªdence in the business.



Societal ChallengesWomen are often discouraged, both at the familyand village levels, in their entrepreneurial efforts. Of-ten the fear that it may change or shift the powerstructure creates hurdles in their path. Many womenare also uncertain about their professional opportu-nities once they get married. In addition, jugglinghousehold responsibilities and work responsibilitiescan be very challenging and may result in womenopting out of the ICT-driven developmental efforts(Hafkin & Huyer, 2006).

These structural constraints are extremely difªcultto overcome because they reºect centuries of cultur-ally and religiously justiªed forms of gender discrimi-nation and have been ªrmly internalized by menand women alike, permeating all institutions of soci-ety. These gender inequalities are often enforced byolder women in so-called “escalator hierarchies,”(Papanek, 1990, p. 170, quoted in Maneja, 2002,p. 25) who depend for their hierarchical seniority onmen whose expectations they have served in theiryouth, such as through bearing sons, obedience toelders, or excellent housekeeping skills. Therefore,development projects cannot automatically dependon the support of all women, especially respectedelder women, for fear that these programs mightupset the “social applecart.”

This means that projects must transform themechanisms and internalized psychological con-straints that restrict women, but must do so slowlyand over time. This is of particular importance fore-commerce projects that enable women to earnconsiderable incomes of their own. This economicempowerment of women substantially changespower relations between women and men (who un-til then, had exclusive control over the means ofproduction) and is likely to cause conºict, as it hap-pened to the Rupununi Weavers Project in Guyana.Therefore, as Bourque and Warren (1990) haveshown, for these women to ever truly beneªtfrom the opportunities technologies can offer, arecognition of the ideological, cultural, and socialimpediments to the acceptance of technological ca-pabilities is just as crucial to eventually challengingdirectly or indirectly these impediments as theempowerment of women (through education,awareness-raising, etc.).

It must be noted, though, that while culture mayand does inhibit women’s ability to engage in eco-nomic opportunities, it is not static and does not

preclude women from all sorts of agency. Indeed, asManeja points out, culture can actually open pathsto power (2002, p. 32). For example, women canfocus on the “enabling” structures of culture, suchas an emphasis on child rearing, their cooking skillsor expertise in weaving or embroidery, to open op-portunities for social and economic empowerment.Indeed, e-commerce/e-retailing projects, such asTortas Peru, Women Weavers in Morocco, Elsouk,EthiopiaShop, and the CI-GM project are clear ex-amples of women’s successful capitalization on “tra-ditional female skills.” Therefore, instead ofassuming “culture” to be a static, oppressive forcethat needs to be broken down or oversensitivity toan idealization of culture, successful ICT4D projectswork within a culture, assume that women are re-sourceful, and if given the opportunity, will exercisetheir agency for change. Most importantly, develop-ment projects must aim to foster the “capacity toaspire.” (Maneja, 2002, p. 32, citing Rao & Walton,2002, p. 28). By “capacity to aspire,” Rao andWalton understand the “capacity of individuals andgroups to look to the future, assess risks, engagewith markets, the state and other groups in thestrategies that determine economic and social devel-opment paths” (p. 28).

In 2002, the annual UNCTAD report on E-Commerceand Development hailed e-commerce as a “potentialgoldmine” for women in the developing countriesbecause of its great potential for women’s empow-erment. Women-owned or women-operatedtelecenters in Senegal and Morocco, phone shops inGhana, Internet cafés in Thailand and Malaysia, andthe Grameen Phone Project in Bangladesh werecited as examples of how women in developingcountries can successfully exploit opportunities of-fered by new technologies (p. 64). Accordingly, theinterest of development agencies, scholars and activ-ists in e-commerce projects has increasedsigniªcantly over the past ªve or six years.

As a result, the literature on e-commerce is enor-mous, and the overwhelming majority of scholars,activists and policymakers agree on the great poten-tial of e-business/e-commerce/e-retailing forwomen’s empowerment, particularly in developingcountries (Morgan, Heeks & Arun, 2006; Duncombeet al., 2006; Hafkin & Taggert, 2001; Heeks, 2004;



Huyer & Mitter, 2003; Mitter & Rowbotham, 1997;UNCTAD, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006). At thesame time, the literature is characterized by a deªn-ite focus on e-commerce in OECD countries, busi-ness models, and, surprisingly, especially regardingsuccessful uses of ICTs by women-owned businesses,is based on anecdotal evidence and a few case stud-ies but not on any systematic statistical evidence(Hafkin & Haggart, 2001; ITU, 2002a, 2002b; Mitter,2005; UNCTAD, 2002, 2004).4 For example, only15% of developing countries, compared with 75%of OECD countries, have collected data on barriersto e-commerce (Partnership 2005, pp. 29–30), andonly 10% (!) or fewer of countries (and about thesame amount of their population) collected data onthe type and value of goods and services purchasedover the Internet (Partnership, 2005, p. 15). Datadisaggregated by gender are virtually non-existent.The reasons for this dearth of data are a lack ofawareness among policymakers of the importanceof statistics and limited resources and capabilities tocollect and compile these data (UNCTAD, 2004).

Nonetheless, existing research on e-commerce/e-retailing allows us to identify important patterns.Early studies on B2B e-commerce (Goldstein &O’Connor, 2000; OECD, 1997) have argued thate-commerce, especially e-retailing, will only be suc-cessful if it can approximately replicate the amountof trust and conªdence involved in familiar everydaybusiness transactions, such as payment security andquality control of the purchased product, and gov-ernments are able to establish the correspondingregulatory and legal framework to make consumersand producers feel secure when using the Internet(Joseph & Narayanan, 2005). Recent UNCTAD re-ports have conªrmed this assessment.

Several recent regional surveys in South Asia,Latin America and Africa have identiªed key require-ments for e-commerce projects to thrive in develop-ing countries (Orbeta, 2001, 2005; UNCTAD, 2004).While the studies have found a general positive atti-tude by entrepreneurs and consumers toward ICTsand a deªnite willingness by business owners to in-tegrate ICTs in their business plans, they also makeclear that the hurdles are signiªcant. Speciªc

“make-or-break” concerns were related to connec-tivity problems (high costs, sparse access, low speed,and inadequate coverage), low computer security(such as encryption technologies) as well as a lack oftrust in the respective country’s legal and regulatoryframework necessary for e-commerce resulting froma real or perceived lack of enforceable laws on on-line contracts, banking laws, and security concernsregarding credit card and foreign currency transac-tions (Orbeta, 2001, 2005; UNCTAD 2004, p. 54;see also OECD 1997).

Several case studies also provide important in-sights. Singh (2005) identiªes the “lessons learned”from an ongoing NGO-supported project whosegoal is to empower low-income rural artisans fromNorth and Central India. He argues that successfule-commerce/e-retailing projects of such type encour-age and maintain a cooperative environment amongcommunity members, provide “revolving funds” tomaintain the supply chain, provide assistance andtraining with regard to international shipping for-malities and other supply problems, and run work-shops to make artisans self-sufªcient, give designinput to ensure the marketability of the product andensure and enforce quality, standardization anddeadlines (p. 47). Joseph and Narayanan (2005)show that teaming up with an established NGO, inthis case the Foundation for Organizational Develop-ment (FOOD), may offer signiªcant beneªts for theproducers. In the project they analyzed, rural arti-sans and women’s cooperatives in India were able togenerate for themselves a regular, signiªcant sourceof income. FOOD designed an experimental Website for the sale of the products, hired and trainede-marketers (educated but unemployed youngsters)to publicize the products provided immediate cus-tomer service and helped with shipping and pay-ment logistics. The initial support was free and latersupported through a nominal fee paid by theproducers.

Mitter (2005) is generally more cautious regard-ing the enabling potential of ICTs. She outlines thesigniªcant obstacles faced by e-retailing/e-commerceentrepreneurs and argues that there are three mainlimiting factors for B2C e-commerce projects: (1) the



4. For speciªc information on the dearth of country data on ICT penetration and indicators, see the report by the Part-nership on Measuring ICT for Development. (2005). Measuring ICT: The global status of ICT indicators. New York: TheUnited Nations Information and Communication Technologies Task Force.

absence of secure payment modes and the highcosts associated with non-credit card payments areparticularly crucial for women’s e-commerce projectswhich, because of the nature of their products—clothing, food and decorative items—operate onvery tight proªt margins, (2) the absence of regula-tory frameworks in most developing countries and(3) most important, lack of consumer conªdence inthe quality of the goods sold over the Internet(pp. 5–6). Consequently, she considers e-B2B pro-jects (“insourcing”) as the more promising empow-erment venue in the long term (pp. 5–6). She alsoargues that e-commerce projects that require only asmall amount of capital, a low level of education ortraining and that can be done while doing house-hold chores promise to be more successful (p. 7).5 Inaddition, Mitter identiªes seven speciªc barriers thatwomen entrepreneurs need to contend with in or-der to kick off and sustain e-commerce/e-retailingbusinesses (p. 8): (1) the mastery of Internet tech-nologies (such as programming and design languageand applications), (2) learning the “language of theInternet”, i.e., English, (p. 8), (3) gaining access tocapital that, at least initially, requires no collateral,such as through micro-ªnance and micro-credit pro-grams, (4) the acquisition of technical and businessmanagement skills to deal with supply and deliverylogistics, such as packaging and shipping the prod-uct, (5) the acquisition of “information on trade andcustoms regulations” (p. 8), (6) the ability to dealwith technical and regulatory problems for paymentover the Internet, and (7) the ability to address con-sumer conªdence about the quality of the product.

Any successful e-commerce/e-retailing project,therefore, needs to overcome these very signiªcantsocio-cultural and structural barriers, and numerousprojects have been very successful indeed. This liter-ature review provides us with a framework for sys-tematically developing a set of “best practices,”based on our analysis of successful ICT-based pro-jects for the empowerment of women. In the nextsection, we are able to effectively address the ques-tions begged by this analysis. What are the charac-teristics of these successful e-commerce/e-retailingbusinesses? What can we learn from them?

We classify our best practices into training and em-powerment of women, expanding market accessand generating proªt-making opportunities, govern-ment and institutional support, societal involvement,and appropriate managerial practices, based on theinsights from our literature review. Under trainingand empowerment of women, we identify ICT andbusiness-related training, externalities generated bysuccessful projects and the virtuous cycle of eco-nomic independence and empowerment as key driv-ers. ICTs and e-commerce/e-retailing also facilitategreater and wider market access, better information,and elimination of the middleman, positively impact-ing the cost structure. Our study indicates thate-commerce/e-retailing projects which focus onquality, ªrm reputation and product diversiªcationare also more successful. It is important to note thatgiven the inherent biases against women-run enter-prises in many societies, these qualities becomeespecially important for such women-owned busi-nesses. Governments and supporting institutionshave an important role to play in providing the initialmomentum and ongoing support for successful pro-jects as they often provide both the necessary infra-structure and also are a large part of the women-owned business’ customer base. Family support isvery crucial, especially for women with small chil-dren, as it is very challenging to handle both homeand business responsibilities without family support.6

Finally, sound managerial practices such as a partici-patory management style, a strong commitment toremaining in the business, good business reputationand good public relations are all key success factorsfor women-owned e-commerce/e-retailing busi-nesses.

Despite the challenges faced by women ine-commerce/e-retailing and other ICT-based busi-nesses, we have come across several projects run bywomen that have successfully navigated the impedi-ments to establishing and developing e-commerce/e-retailing projects. We now analyze these projectswith a view to developing a set of best practicesthat have served to overcome the adverse factors.



5. See also UNCTAD (2002) E-Commerce and development report, pp. 63–65.6. Lack of family support is an important determinant of the drop-out rate in these projects.

We classify our best practices into training and em-powerment of women, expanding market accessand generating proªt-making opportunities, govern-ment and institutional support, societal involvement,and appropriate managerial practices. Brief descrip-tions of the cases we have analyzed are included inAppendix A.

Several case studies such as the Village Pay Phones(VPPs) in Bangladesh; Computer Facility at Kasargod,Kerala, India; Divine Computers of Vadakara, India;e-Seva Centres in Andhra Pradesh, India; and IndiaShop and Cottage Industry–Global Marketplace, In-dia, all point to the crucial role that training plays inthe success of ICT-based projects undertaken bywomen. Some of the key insights are as follows:

1. Successful projects have externalities (i.e.,they create beneªts that spill over to otherentities outside the business itself). For ex-ample, the computer center in Kasargodbeneªted from the excellent reputation ofother women-owned ICT-based businessesthat were afªliated with their sponsoragency, Kudumbashree. Women own themeans of production, thus reforming owner-ship norms and helping other women withtheir businesses. Women themselves are incharge of the production and are involved indistribution and sales logistics. Greater deci-sion-making authority leads to greaterknowledge, income and empowerment. Inthe Kasargod facility, there are 10 corewomen members who handle the ªnances,assembly and installation, marketing andservice of the computers.7

2. All the case studies emphasize the impor-tance of training. Women are given ICTtraining as well as training in managementand business practices, marketing, purchas-ing, how to analyze the data and makegood business decisions, personnel manage-ment, negotiation techniques, etc. These areskills many women traditionally do not pos-

sess, and hence the training equips them tobetter manage and develop their businesses.

Another important determinant of success as evi-denced in case studies such as Tortas Peru, WomenWeavers in Morocco, CI-GM, Computer Facility atKasargod, Kerala, India and Divine Computers ofVadakara, India was expanding market access toproªtable business opportunities.

1. ICTs enable women to reach markets farfrom home and sell their goods, providinggreater access to regional, national andglobal markets. An article in The Guardiandescribes how Elsouk, an e-commercewebsite set up with World Bank assistance,helps women artisans from Morocco, Egypt,Jordan, Tunisia and Lebanon sell their prod-ucts abroad and even develop B2B direct re-lations.8 The Tortas Peru confectionarywebsite set up by housewives in Peru en-ables women with children to work fromhome and earn an income.

2. Products are sold directly online thus cuttingout the middleman and maximizing proªts;likewise inputs are purchased directly, onceagain reducing costs. The Guardian articlealso describes the story of a woman weaverfrom Kancheepuram in India who wovebeautiful sarees that she was forced to sellat a very low price to a middleman as shehad no access to other markets for her prod-ucts.9 IndiaShop posted photos of her sareeson their website and was able to procure or-ders for her at a very good price, thus pre-venting her being exploited by amiddleman.10

3. Many successful projects encouraged theuse of local resources and/or are focused ontraditional crafts (combining them withmodern technology), thus making the pro-jects more easily accepted by the local com-munity. It is useful to note that while our



7. They also have three male employees who handle work at distant locations that the women are uncomfortable trav-eling to.8. The Guardian, “World-Wide Wealth,” Dec. 12, 2002.9. The middlemen then resold them at a much higher price in the big towns. Women in developing countries are oftennot allowed to/cannot travel far from their homes to sell their goods in distant markets unlike their male counterparts.10. The Guardian, “World-Wide Wealth,” Dec. 12, 2002.

focus is on best practices in women-ownedbusinesses that are successful in empower-ing women, an important issue is to managethe community’s fear and opposition to suchprojects. Hence, while starting an ICT-based/e-commerce project in an area that has notseen such projects before, it may be usefulto start with projects that are more readilyaccepted and supported by the community.This could pave the way for a broader spec-trum of projects in the future as the commu-nity sees ªrst-hand the beneªts of suchwomen-owned businesses.

4. Firm reputation and quality of the productsare also important determinants of success.This is especially important in the case ofwomen-owned enterprises in societies thatare biased against women and unsure oftheir ability to perform well in ICT-based op-erations that are essentially perceived as amale domain.

5. Gaining the trust of the customers is an-other important factor; again in societieswith a bias against women and wherewomen have less access to resources and fa-cilities, this is particularly difªcult. The SevaCenters case study points out that while itwas initially difªcult for the women there togain the villagers’ trust, they were able to doso because they transacted business in aspeedy manner for those who sold theirproducts through e-Seva.

6. The case studies also showed that reputationby way of providing an expanded range ofgoods and services over time created morestable and proªtable businesses. The reasonthis is especially important as a best practicefor women-owned e-commerce businesses isprecisely because it is so much harder forwomen to develop new products and mar-kets given that they face substantially moreconstraints than their male counterparts,and yet this strategy yields rich dividends.For example, the women at TechnoworldComputer Center in Mallapuram in Indiawork mainly on data entry and DTP for gov-

ernment agencies. They recognize the needto diversify their operations and client base,but they have to contend with ªnancial andtechnical hurdles as well as the challenge ofidentifying the best direction in which to di-versify.11

Case studies such as the Computer Facility atKasargod, Kerala, India, and e-Seva Centres inAndhra Pradesh, India, also highlight the import roleof institutions and government in providing the ini-tial impetus and the ongoing momentum for theseICT-based projects.

1. The mediating institutions provide the mo-mentum for the project by organizing thewomen in small groups, identifying suitableprojects, providing the training and initialnetworks needed to start the project andeven providing some government contracts.A prime example is the development of ICT/e-commerce projects under the umbrella ofKudumbashree, a Kerala State governmentorganization. It facilitated the formation ofthe women’s micro-enterprise project groupfor the Kasargod computer facility, providedadditional training on business-related topicsand helped the women form suitable con-tacts to procure business deals.

2. The government also plays an import role inproviding infrastructure such as telephonesand internet access in remote areas. Someprojects require ªnancial, logistical, or tech-nical support from local or international de-velopment organizations. Projects may alsoneed consistent, long-term funding and as-sistance until they are self-sufªcient.

3. The support of senior government ofªcialsalso lends momentum to projects. The SevaCentres case study also noted the impor-tance of the strong support from the DistrictCollector, a very strong ªgure in the govern-ment.12

4. Proper monitoring, evaluation and correctiveaction are all key to the success of e-



11. It is important to note that male-owned businesses also face similar constraints and beneªt from similar best prac-tices. But in many societies where women have played traditional roles, it is far more challenging for women to over-come these hurdles or implement these best practices.12. In most of the cases in India, this is most likely to be a male.

commerce projects. The technology andbusiness methods are unfamiliar territory tomost of the women and feedback and cor-rective action are critical, especially duringthe initial stages of the business. For exam-ple, the e-Seva project case study indictedthat regular monitoring and evaluation ofSeva centers in terms of the number oftransactions and income generated, andthen implementation of corrective actionwhere necessary, were both important deter-minants of the center’s success.

The important role that the support of the local so-ciety plays is emphasized in case studies such as theComputer Facility at Kasargod, Kerala, India; e-SevaCentres in Andhra Pradesh, India; Women Weaversof Morocco; and Rupununi Weavers Project, Guy-ana.

1. Involvement of community elders andofªcials in projects was very important totheir success. In general, those projects thatdid not directly challenge gender roles, socialorder and power distribution were more suc-cessful. Again, it is important to note thatwhile these are the ªndings from the casestudies, the authors are cognizant of thefact that it is not possible to empowerwomen without redeªning traditional gen-der roles. It is important to challenge, di-rectly and indirectly, impediments to theempowerment of women, not only throughthe projects themselves but also by creatinginstitutional and policy changes. But it is alsoimportant to avoid a power struggle and itsdestructive consequences as in the case ofthe Rupununi Weavers Project in Guyana.The phenomenal success of the women in-volved with this project and the respect theyreceived threatened the position of the tradi-tionally minded regional leaders who tookover the project in a “coup.” This does notmean that women should not challengegender roles. The point we want to empha-size is the need to develop smart strategiesto act as catalysts for change from within

the system, instead of direct attacks that of-ten result in confrontation and undesirableoutcomes.

2. Involvement and support from immediatefamily were also valuable, especially wherethe women had children and other house-hold responsibilities.13

3. Many women also felt that utilizing proªtsfor family care, education, medical needs,the purchase of a house, etc., highlightedthe value of women’s entrepreneurship andprovided more support for them both athome and in the society.

All of the case studies highlight the importance ofsound managerial practices as important determi-nants of successful e-commerce ventures. The keymanagerial best practices are discussed below.

1. A participatory and open management styleis an important factor in the success ofwomen-owned e-commerce projects. Peergroup support and advice, from bothwomen and men, are valuable in overcom-ing challenges and achieving success. Mem-bers at the Kasargod facility stated that theirunity was a key factor in their success. At Di-vine Computers in Vadakara, the women re-iterated this view, emphasizing collectivedecision making and a strong sense of to-getherness in tough times as key to theirsuccess.

2. Investment in initial and supplemental train-ing is key to providing high quality productsand service and helping the staff cover tasksduring each other’s absences. This is particu-larly true in cases of women-owned e-com-merce businesses where the technology andbusiness practices are new to most of theparticipants.

3. Good public relations in the local commu-nity, with the government agencies and withcustomers helped garner new business andfacilitated growth. This was especiallysigniªcant for women-owned businessesand helped the women deal successfully



13. The Malappuram case indicates that one member left the group because she got married and moved away and theother was on maternity leave. It was uncertain if they would return.

with many of the prejudices they faced frommore traditionally minded groups who feltthreatened.

4. All the successful projects exhibited a strongcommitment on the part of the women tostay the course and succeed despite severalsocial, economic and other obstacles.

The main goal of this paper was to develop a set ofbest practices in the areas of ICTs and the empower-ment of women through e-commerce/e-retailing.We began with a review of the existing theoreticalliterature regarding the main factors inºuencing thesuccess of ICT-based e-commerce/e-retailing projectsfor women. In light of the theoretical framework,we then examined speciªc case studies to under-stand how well theory correlates with the practicalrealities of women-owned e-commerce/e-retailingprojects, and to develop a set of best practices.

Among the best practices that empowered womenare strong initial and continued training, access tonecessary resources, help in expanding the market,government and societal support, good networks inthe community and an open and participatory man-agement style. Among the challenges that womenin ICT-based e-commerce businesses still have yet toovercome are dependence on government con-tracts, societal conºicts that arise as existing powerstructures are threatened by the increasing eco-nomic independence of women involved in theseprojects and issues related to work-life balance inmore traditional societies.

The best practices we have identiªed and dis-cussed will serve as a useful framework for furtherdevelopment of ICT-based projects and also providevaluable guidance to policymakers and prospectiveentrepreneurs. Eliminating the need for “trial anderror” signiªcantly reduces the start-up costs, whichis particularly important for women. The best prac-tices are easily replicable and their systematic follow-



Figure 1. Challenges to and Best Practices of E-Commerce/E-Retailing.

through will considerably facilitate the long-term vi-ability and success of women-owned e-commerce/e-retailing projects.

1. Village Pay Phones (VPPs) In Bangladesh

Bayes, von Braun, and Akhter (1999) study the caseof Village Pay Phones (VPPs) in Bangladesh. TheGrameen Bank of Bangladesh leased cellular mobilephones to women members. Their purpose wastwo-fold and implemented with two aims: thewomen themselves would make a living by sellingservices, and the villagers would beneªt by buyingthe services. Their research indicates several ways inwhich this has proved useful to villagers from a de-velopmental perspective. Approximately half of thephone calls made were for economic purposes suchas obtaining market prices of commodities, employ-ment opportunities, land-related and other business-related transactions, and remittances. The poor andnonpoor groups accounted for more or less thesame proportion of economic/ªnance-related calls(46% and 47%, respectively).

One of the important effects of VPPs is that theyreduce the volatility in demand, supply, and theprices of commodities and inputs through dissemi-nation of useful information in a timely manner toremote villages. The researchers found that the aver-age prices of agricultural commodities (especiallyrice and eggs) were higher in villages with phonesthan in control groups without phones. The supplyof agricultural inputs such as diesel and fertilizerwas also smoother and more stable in villages withphones than in control villages without phones. Ac-cess to accurate pricing and market information in-creased the sellers’ bargaining power, enabled thesellers to identify the most proªtable markets, cur-tailed the power of e-middlemen, and thus reducedthe exorbitant marketing margins the e-middlemenonce pocketed.

VPPs also facilitated development in other ways.Two main uses for the proªts from this venture weresavings and expenditure on children’s education,clothing, and health care. They also facilitated betteraccess to emergency medical care, dealing withother emergency situations such as natural disasters,

livestock emergencies, and even secured better ratesfor foreign exchange transactions.

The following three (numbers 2–4) case studiesregarding the impact of ICT in India are from the“Women’s ICT-Based Enterprise for Development”project at the University of Manchester’s Institute forDevelopment Policy and Management. They offeruseful insights into the ways in which the introduc-tion of ICT has impacted the lives of women in Indiaas well as the difªculties and challenges that arisebecause of the gender biases and culture.

2. Computer Facility at Kasargod, Kerala, India

The computer microenterprise at Kasargod was facil-itated by Kudumbashree—Kerala State’s povertyeradication agency. It initiated the efforts to form agroup suitable for the microenterprise by linkingwith local women below the poverty line who werea part of a desktop publishing (DTP) course. The fa-cility has 10 women employees including the groupleader and the secretary, all in their twenties, andthree male employees. The main activities of theunit are PC assembly and installation, service andsales, computer training, and data entry operations.The unit uses one landline telephone, two mobiles,one PC and printer, an Internet connection, andsoftware, including Windows98, Windows XP, Linux,Ofªce XP, Script Easy (Malayalam software),PageMaker, Photoshop, and Corel Draw and has un-interrupted power supply.

This facility has helped the women employedhere in several ways. Their knowledge of IT has in-creased substantially given the training they haveundergone and their on-the-job experiences. Theirparticipation in various district- and state-levelevents exposed them to business opportunities,helped them make connections, and led to businessdeals. All this has increased their self-conªdence andcommunication skills, as well as their professionalnetworks and travel opportunities, thus expandingthe spectrum of opportunities available to them.They are able to support their families ªnancially,help with the education of siblings and home loans,and facilitate banking and other ªnancial transac-tions. This enterprise was facilitated byKudumbashree—Kerala State’s poverty eradicationagency and beneªted from the reputation ofwomen’s IT enterprises run under its supervision.The unit’s success was also facilitated by the avail-ability of a steady stream of customers including lo-



cal governments in ªve Northern districts of KeralaState, the nearby municipal government, schools,banks, shops, DTP centers, and individuals (PlanetKerala, Research Consultants).14

3. Women Providing Online Services: e-Seva Centresin Andhra Pradesh, India

The e-Seva Centres are staffed and run by women.They provide a wide range of services including billpayments, issuance of land/birth certiªcates, Internetbrowsing, telemedicine and tele-agriculture, accessto online auctions, the ªling of complaints andgrievances, and matrimonial services. The actualnumber of computers at each e-Seva Centre variesfrom place to place based on local needs. In a smallvillage an e-Seva Centre will operate with one com-puter, a scanner, Xerox machine, digital camera, andprinter. In a town there would be more computersand provision of Web cams, for example. Each cen-ter has an Internet connection—in villages they usedial-up; in towns they use a leased line connection.

The women who are a part of this project havebeneªted in many ways. They are able to ªnd localemployment and increase their income signiªcantly.On average, each woman is earning US$45 permonth. In addition, they also receive substantialtraining and development opportunities, and theyare able to provide valuable services that beneªttheir rural communities. All this has increased theirown self-respect and the regard and respect forthem in their communities.15

4. Delivering IT @ School: Divine Computers ofVadakara, India

The IT @ School Programme, launched by the gov-ernment in Kerala State, India, to deliver computereducation to school students at subsidized rates,was the motivation behind Divine Computers atAzhiyur Secondary School in Vadakara. Divine Com-puters is run by a team of six women (all previouslybelow the poverty line) who provide computer train-ing to school students as well as short courses tothe students and local citizens in the summer. Thebeneªts for the women are numerous: they feel val-ued, respected, and satisªed in their roles as teach-ers; their average monthly payment of US$22 eachhas enabled them to better support their families

and develop a sense of personal self-reliance; andthey have enjoyed greater personal freedom, travel,and networking opportunities in addition to greaterself-conªdence and self-esteem. This is also anotherKudumbashree success story, as the effort was alsofacilitated through this agency.16

5. India Shop

India Shop is a successful online shop that sells in-digenous products such as sarees, leather goods,sculptures, and other handicrafts made by rural arti-sans and women cooperatives in Tamil Nadu. Pro-moted by FOOD (the Foundation of OccupationalDevelopment), a 20-year-old nonproªt organizationbased in Chennai that seeks to encourage economicempowerment of the rural and urban poor, IndiaShop enables rural artisan women to directly markettheir products to local, regional, and global custom-ers, thus cutting out the middleman and ensuringhigher proªts. According to the ªnal report byFOOD, the project, in the past 6 months, drew anaverage of 8,000 visitors per month to its Web site,and the women cooperatives earned a proªt ofabout 75,000Rp.

This project was so successful that the Councilfor Advancement of People’s Action and Rural Tech-nology (CAPART), a division of the Government ofIndia, supported it for an additional 3 years. Addi-tionally, India Shop also provides other job opportu-nities. For instance, it is currently hiring through itsWeb site 1,000 telecommuters to sell India Shopproducts online from home, full- or part-time.17

6. Women Weavers in Morocco

Set up by anthropologist, United Nations and WorldBank consultant, and former Peace Corps memberSusan Schaefer Davis, this project enables womenweavers from rural Moroccan villages to sell hand-made rugs without the middleman, thus maximizingtheir proªts. About 50, mostly Berber, women of allages participate in the project and determine theirown prices for the rugs, pillows, and wall hangingsin traditional local designs. Prices range fromUS$100 to $750 for new and US$500 to $5,000 forvintage rugs, not including shipping and handlingand a small contribution to a village association proj-ect in N’kob. More than 100 orders have come in,



14. See http://www.womenictenterprise.org/kasargod.htm15. See http://www.womenictenterprise.org/eseva.htm16. See http://www.womenictenterprise.org/vadakara.htm17. See http://www.xlweb.com/indiashop/ and http://foodindia.org.in/projects.html

and sales pay for medical expenses, school fees,books, clothes, and visits to relatives. The Web site,which is run pro bono by Schaefer Davis, featurespictures of the rugs and short biographical sketchesof the women.18 (See also the article on this projectby Susan Schaefer Davis in this special issue).

7. Tortas Peru

Tortas Peru is an innovative women-owned enter-prise that enables women to earn an income whileworking from the home by baking cakes. Founded,run, and designed by Lima homemaker Maria delCarmen Vucetich, Tortas Peru gives the more than2 million Peruvian expatriates the opportunity to or-der cakes (which cost an average US$20) online,which are then baked by one of the women in thegroup of “homebakers” and delivered to their lovedones anywhere within Peru. This project enableswomen who might be reluctant or prohibited towork outside the home while raising children toearn their own income and get comfortable with anew technology. It is a doubly attractive job oppor-tunity for women, especially those with few market-able job skills, because by just baking two or threecakes a day, a woman can already earn twice theminimum wage in Peru of US$125 a month. The en-terprise is expanding and the Web site actively en-courages women to become “houseentrepreneurs.”19

8. Cottage Industry—Global Marketplace (CIGM)

This project was begun in 2000 by the Communica-tion, Culture and Technology (CCT) program atGeorgetown University, with US$90,000 fundingfrom the World Bank, and involved about ªve dozenwomen in the district of Kangra in Northern India.The project goal was the economic empowermentof local women who used their artistic skills to pro-duce hand-woven shawls and sell them online forabout US$50 to $60, mostly to American and Euro-pean customers. In India, they would receive aboutUS$2 per scarf. This project has empowered thewomen of Kangra in numerous signiªcant ways:they developed more self-esteem and self-respectand acquired valuable and marketable skills becausethey had learned how to use computers. Despite

some obstacles, the women weavers enthusiasticallyparticipate in the project. The main problems re-ported were picky American customers who weredisappointed with the natural irregularities in thefabrics and dyes. Additionally, several hours of dailyhousehold and child-rearing chores still rest almostexclusively on the shoulders of the women ofKangar (Bhatt, 2001).

9. Rupununi Weaver’s Society in Guyana

The Rupununi Weavers Society, numbering 300members at its peak, was founded in 1991 by twoindigenous women from the Wapishana andMacushi tribes in Southern Guyana. The womenjoined forces to make a living for themselves andfamilies from the ancient art of hammock weavingfrom locally grown cotton. With the ªnancial and lo-gistical support of the Guyana Telephone and Com-munications Society—which supplied thetechnology, hardware, and training—the womenhired a Web designer to take their wares global, andin 1999, they sold 17 hammocks for as much asUS$1,000 per item. However, their phenomenal suc-cess and the respect they received threatened theposition of the traditional-minded regional leaderswho took over the Society in a “coup.” TheWeaver’s Society has struggled to stay aºoat since.20

10. TechnoWorld Computer Centre, Malappuram,India

TechnoWorld was started with 10 members (now re-duced to seven) drawn from various women’s neigh-borhood self-help groups (NHGs) in Malappuramunder an enterprise scheme of Kudumbashree:Kerala State’s agency for poverty alleviation.21 Sincenone of the 10 members had any background incomputers, they received substantial training. Withbank loans and some personal contributions, theypurchased ªve computers. Most of their work in-volves data entry and DTP for various governmentdepartments, and these contracts are mainly pro-vided through Kudumbashree.

The enterprise uses one landline phone, onemobile, 10 PCs that were paid for from the proªtsof the enterprise, and one Internet connection.Software includes SQL Server, Windows 2000,



18. See http://d2ssd.com/www-source/weaversoverview.html19. See http://www.tortasperu.com.pe/tortasperu/ingles/indexi.php20. See www.gol.net.gy/rweavers21. The three who left did so due to illness, moving away, and being unable to meet the loan repayments. One otheris on leave after her marriage and has moved houses, and another is on maternity leave. It is uncertain if they will re-turn.

VisualBasic, Crystal Report, MS Ofªce, andPageMaker. In 2004, the total sales volume ofUS$9,500 was mainly generated through data entrycontracts with four government departments andminor data entry jobs for the public. It appears thatthe group had more work than in previous yearsand this suggests a higher income.

The main factors for their success were the unityof the group members, a supportive work environ-ment, their inner drive to grow and succeed, sup-port they received from Kudumbashree in terms ofgetting work orders and receiving training, and sup-port from their families. The main beneªts for thewomen included tremendous growth in theirconªdence and a decrease in their anxiety, a widersocial network, greater income, and the consequentability to help family members, support their hus-bands’ earnings, start their own savings, and man-age their personal life with their own money. Themain challenges the women face include undue de-lays in getting paid by government departments fortheir work, the need to diversify their business,ªnancial constraints to diversifying, and the lack oftoilet facilities in the complex where their ofªce islocated.22 ■

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