EMPLOYEE’S MOTIVATION (USING TWO FACTOR THEORY OF HERZBERG)***********************************************

CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

EXECTIVE SUMMARY 4

WHAT IS MOTIVATION 5

Basic Characteristics of Motivation 5

MOTIVATION CONCEPT 6

NATURE OF MOTIVATION 6

TYPES OF NEEDS 7

MOTIVATION AND BEVAIOUR 8

FACTORS EFFECTING INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE 8

ROLE OF MOTIVATION 10

INTRINSIC AND EXTERNSIC MOTIVATION 12

SEVEN RULES OF MOTIVATION 13

METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION 15

SURVEY RESULT 15

MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES

MASLOW’S THEORY 18

MOTIVATIONAL SPEECH TECHINQUES 22

TWO FACTOR THEORY

(FEDERICK HERZBERG) 23

INTRODUCTION 25

HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY – DEVELOPMENT 27

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EVIDENCES BOTH STUDIES AND ACTUAL IMPLEMENTATION 31

Actual Implementation 34

WEAKNESSES AND POTENTIAL PITFALLS TO IMPLEMENTATION 38

ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY 44

THEORY X AND THEORY Y 44

GOAL-SETTING THEORY 46

EXPECTANCY THEORY 47

EQUITY THEORY 49

Company Profile 52INDUSTRY PROFILE 66

QUESTIONNAIRE 69

SUMMARY 88

CONCLUSIONS 89

RECOMMENDATIONS 90

BIBLIOGRAPHY 91

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INTRODUCTION

Every management tries to coordinate various factors of production in such a way that their

contribution is maximum in achieving organizational goals. The performance of non-human

factors like machines, Raw material, financial resource etc. will depend upon the level of technology

and the competence of those who use them. To improve the overall performance in a business it

becomes essential to increase the efficiency of human beings. The performance of persons

depends upon two factors. Those are

1. One is ability to do a work

2. Second one is motivations

Both these factors taken together will increase the efficiency of human beings.

The study of motivation and behavior involves a search for answer to a question about

human nature. The topic chosen Employee Motivation and Job Satisfaction (a study of NTPC,

RAMAGUNDAM) recognize the importance of human elements in RSTPS and develop

theoretical frame work that will help the supervisors and employees understand human

behavior and also to predict change and influence future behavior which is the key element to

take up the present study.

As Peter.F.Druker Rightly pointed out that “Better than half of the leaders he had met don’t need to learn what to do –they need to learn what to stop”.

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EXECTIVE SUMMARY

This report presents a summary of the Herzberg Two-Factor Theory of job satisfaction. The purpose of this study is to examine the theory as one which concentrates on increasing worker productivity through job enrichment.

The study is important because today's environment has placed increasing pressure on organizations Beth in government and industry to accomplish more with less. Meeting this challenge through higher productivity is possible if the individual workers can be properly motivated. Herzberg's two-factor theory is probably the most widely known and accepted approach relating directly to job satisfaction. Herzberg address,- the problem of job satisfaction in terms of those factors which cause satisfaction (motivators)and those which cause dissatisfaction (hygiene’s). This information then becomes the basis for evaluating an individual's job and making the changes necessary to increase worker motivation.

The Herzberg approach to job enrichment is only a theory and is not without its critics. The basic development of the theory is presented along with some of the evidences used to test the theory. Weaknesses levied against the theory by its critics are also considered. In conclusion, a properly implemented job enrichment program can produce far reaching benefits for an organization. Herzberg's approach canard has been successfully implemented, but it has also suffered some dismal failures. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory is generally felt to be overstated. As a result, it is recommended that other approaches to job enrichment be investigated along with Herzberg’s is approach before implementing any job enrichment program.

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WHAT IS MOTIVATION

Motivation is the set of reasons that determines one to engage in a particular behavior. The term is generally used for human motivation but, theoretically, it can be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well as human motivation. According to various theories, motivation may be rooted in the basic need to minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a desired object, hobby, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism, morality, or avoiding mortality.

In Other Words

The Willingness to exert high levels of effort toward Organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need”.

Basic Characteristics of Motivation

Effort. This refers to the strength of a person's work-related behavior. Persistence. This refers to the persistence that individual’s exhibit in applying effort to

their work tasks. Direction. This refers to the quality of a person's work related behavior. Goals. This refers to the ends towards which employees direct their effort. 2

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MOTIVATION CONCEPT

In order to understand the concept of motivation, we have to examine three terms : motive, motivating and motivation and their relationship.

1. MOTIVE : “ A motive is an inner state that energises, activates, or moves and directs behaviour towards goals.”

2. MOTIVATING: Motivating is a term which implies that one person includes another, to engage in action by ensuring that a channel to satisfy the motive becomes available and accessible to the individual.

3. MOTIVATION :

Dubin has defined motivation as:

“Motivation is the complex force starting and keeping a person at at work in an organisation. Motivation is something that moves the person to action, and continues him in the course of action already initiated”

According to McFarland ;

“ Motivation refers to the way in which urges, drives, aspirations, strivings, or needs direct, control, or explain the behaviour of human being.

NATURE OF MOTIVATION

1. Based on Motives : Motivation is based on individual’s motives which are internal to the individual . These motives are in the form of feelings that the individual lacks something. In order to overcome this feeling , he tries to behave in a manner which helps in overcoming this feeling.

2. Affected by Motivating : Motivation is affected by way the individual is motivated . It can also activate the latent needs in the individual , that is , the needs that are the less strong and somewhat dormant , and harness them in a manner that would be functional for the organisation.

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3. Goal–directed Behaviour : Motivation leads to goal-directed behaviour. A goal-directed behaviour is one which satisfies the cause for which behaviour takes place.

4. Related to Satisfaction : satisfaction refers to the contentment experiences of an individual which he derives out of need fulfilment. Thus satisfaction is a consequence of rewards and punishments associated with past experiences.

5. Complex Process : Motivation is a complex process ; complexity emerges because of the nature of needs and the type of behaviour that is attempted to satisfy those needs.

6. Person Motivated in Totality : A person is motivated in totality and not in part . Each individual in the organisation is a self-contained unit and his needs are interrelated. These affect his behaviour in different ways.

TYPES OF NEEDS

There are many needs which an individual may have and there are various ways in which these may be classified. The basic objective behind classification of needs into different categories is to find out similarity and dissimilarity in various needs so that incentives are grouped to satisfy the needs falling under one category or the other. Thus needs may be grouped into three categories :

1. Primary Needs : Primary needs are also known as psychological , biological , basic or unlearned needs . These needs are common to all human beings , though their intensity may differ . Some of the needs are food , sleep , air to breathe etc. These needs arise out of the basic physiology of life and are important for survival and preservation of species .These needs are conditioned by social practice .

2. Secondary Needs: As contrast to the primary needs, secondary needs are not natural but are learned by the individual through his experience and interaction .Therefore, these are also called learned or derived needs. Emergence of these needs depends on learning . There may be different types of secondary needs like need of power, achievement, status, affiliation, etc.

3. General Needs : There are a number of needs which lie in the grey area between the primary and secondary classifications. In fact, there are certain such needs for competence, curiosity, manipulation, affection etc.

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MOTIVATION AND BEHAVIOUR

Motivation causes goal-directed behaviour. Feeling of a need by an individual generates a feeling that he lacks something. This lack of something creates tension in the mind of individual. To overcome this state he engages himself in a behaviour to satisfy his needs. This is goal-directed behaviour.

Goal-directed behaviour leads to goal-fulfilment and the individual succeeds in fulfilling his needs and thereby overcoming his tension in the favourable environment. Behaviour ends the moment tension is released. However, satisfaction of one need leads to feeling of another need. Thus goal-directed behaviour is a continuous process.

FACTORS AFFECTING INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE

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NEED TENTIONGOAL- DIRECTED BEHAVIOUR

GOAL-FULFILMENT/

NEED SATISFACTION

FAVOURABLE ENVIRONMENT

MOTIVATION

SENSE OF COMPETENCE

ABILITY RESOURCES

REWARDPERFORMANCE

ROLE PERCEPTION

EXTRINSIC

INTRINSIC

1. Motivation: Level of motivation derives an individual for work. Motivation is based on motive which is a feeling that an individual lacks something . This feeling creates some sort of tension in his mind . In order to overcome this tension, he engages in goal-directed behaviour . Thus motivation becomes a prime mover for efforts and better work performance.

2. Sense of Competence: Sense of competence denotes the extent to which an individual consistently regards himself as capable of doing a job.Sense of competence of an individual depends to a very great extent on his locus of control. Locus of control means whether people believe that they are in control of events or events control them.

3. Ability: Ability is expressed in the form of the following equation:

Ability = knowledge x skill

Knowledge refers to the possession of information and ideas in a particular field which may be helpful in developing relationships among different variables related to that field . Skill refers to expertness, practical ability or facility in action or doing something .

4. Role Perception : A role is the pattern of actions expected of a person in activities involving others . Role reflects a person’s position in the social system with its accompanying rights and obligations . Role perception is how he thinks he is supposed to act in his own role and how others act in their role. There are two types of problems which emerge in role specification : role ambiguity and role conflict . Role ambiguity denotes the state in which the individual is not clear what is expected from him in the job situation. Role conflicts is the situation in which the individual engages in two or more roles simultaneously and these roles are mutually incompatible .

5. Organisational Resource: Organisational Resources denote various types of facilities – physical and psychological – which are available at the work place Physical facilities include la – physical and psychological – which are available at the work place. Physical facilities include layout of the work place and physical environment. Psychological facilities include training and development facilities, reward system, motivating leadership styles and so on

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ROLE OF MOTIVATION

Motivation is one among the various factors affecting individual performance. All organisational facilities will go waste in the lack of motivated people to utilise the facilities effectively. The importance of motivation in an organization may be summed up as follows :

1. High Performance Level : Motivated employees put higher performance as compared to other employees. In a study it was found that motivated people employees worked close to 80-90 percent of their capability. High performance is a must for an organisation being successful and this performance comes by motivation.

2. Low Employee Turnover : Motivated employees stay in the organisation and their absenteeism is quite low. High turnover and absenteeism creates many problems in the organisation.

3. Acceptance of Organisational Changes : Organisations are created in the society. Because of changes in society, organisations have to incorporate those changes to cope up with the recruitment of the time. When these changes are introduced in the organisation, there is a tendency to resist these changes by the employees. However if they are properly motivated, they accept, introduce, and implement these changes keeping the organisation on the right track of progress.

The Incentive Theory of Motivation

A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e. behavior) with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again. This is done by associating positive meaning to the behavior. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect would be greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become habit. Motivation comes from two things: you, and other people. There is extrinsic motivation, which comes from others, and intrinsic motivation, which comes from within you.

Rewards can also be organized as extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards are external to the person; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic rewards are internal to the person; for example, satisfaction or a feeling of accomplishment.

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Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic motivation: one based on enjoyment, the other on obligation. In this context, obligation refers to motivation based on what an individual thinks ought to be done. For instance, a feeling of responsibility for a mission may lead to helping others beyond what is easily observable, rewarded, or fun.

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INTRINSIC AND EXTERNSIC MOTIVATION

Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation: Stems from the direct relationship between the worker and the task and it is usually self-applied.

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people engage in an activity, such as a hobby, without obvious external incentives.

In knowledge-sharing communities and organizations, people often cite altruistic reasons for their participation, including contributing to a common good, a moral obligation to the group, mentorship or 'giving back'. In work environments, money may provide a more powerful extrinsic factor than the intrinsic motivation provided by an enjoyable workplace.

In terms of sports, intrinsic motivation is the motivation that comes from inside the performer. That is, the athlete competes for the love of the sport.

Extrinsic MotivationExtrinsic Motivation: Stems from the work environment external to the task and it is usually applied by someone other than the person being motivated.

Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the performer. Money is the most obvious example, but coercion and threat of punishment are also common extrinsic motivations.

In sports, the crowd may cheer the performer on, and this motivates him or her to do well. Trophies are also extrinsic incentives. Competition is often extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity.

Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to over justification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation.

Self-control

The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a subset of emotional intelligence; a person may be highly intelligent according to a more conservative definition (as measured by many intelligence tests), yet unmotivated to dedicate this intelligence to certain tasks. Yale School of Management Professor Victor Vroom's "expectancy theory" provides an account of when people will decide whether to exert self control to pursue a particular goal.

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SEVEN RULES OF MOTIVATION

Rule #1 Set a major goal, but follows a path. The path has mini goals that go in many directions. When you learn to succeed at mini goals, you will be motivated to challenge grand goals.

Rule #2 Finish what you start. A half finished project is of no use to anyone. Quitting is a habit. Develop the habit of finishing self-motivated projects.

Rule # 3 Socialize with others of similar interest. Mutual support is motivating. We will develop the attitudes of our five best friends. If they are losers, we will be a loser. If they are winners, we will be a winner. To be a cowboy we must associate with cowboys

Rule #4 learns how to learn. Dependency on others for knowledge supports the habit of procrastination. Man has the ability to learn without instructors. In fact, when we learn the art of self-education we will find, if not create, opportunity to find success beyond our wildest dreams.

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Rule #5 Harmonize natural talent with interest that motivates. Natural talent creates motivation, motivation creates persistence and persistence gets the job done.

Rule #6 Increase knowledge of subjects that inspires. The more we know about a subject, the more we want to learn about it. A self-propelled upward spiral develops.

Rule #7 Take risk. Failure and bouncing back are elements of motivation. Failure is a learning tool. No one has ever succeeded at anything worthwhile without a string of failures.

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METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

We collect Primary data by questionnaires by observing human behavior interest. We collect Secondary data from Internet, Newspaper, and Books.

SURVEY RESULT

We conduct a survey to get or find the Motivation position in an oranisation and employee conflicts against employer, or management.

We extracted from possessive survey is that the majority of people demotivated because of lack of reward system and other opportunities.

We tried to find out the de motivation factor, what is the reason.

We find that employee want reward system, they want to completely full fill their needs,Our survey result shows that we can easily solve this problem due to follow of some special technique to managing human behavior.

Employee Motivation Survey Design

An employee motivation survey is your first step towards employee retention. Infosurv begins the process by designing a customized employee motivation survey for your organization,.

Employee Motivation, including:

Overall satisfaction Corporate culture Supervisor relations Training Pay and benefits Work environment Communications

Our standard employee motivation surveys are comprehensively designed to identify and isolate key independent and dependent variables.

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Independent Variables Dependent Variables

Supervisor relations Overall satisfaction

Pay & benefits Likelihood to recommend

Work environment Likelihood to stay

Corporate communications Employee loyalty

Our research shows that employee attitudes are a better predictor of future employee behavior than past behavior. Our employee motivation surveys are specifically designed to accurately measure attitudes that affect real business metrics, like employee retention rates and turnover.

Employee Satisfaction Surveys Are Essential For Retention

Research shows that employee turnover costs companies big money every year - as much as 25 - 200% of an employee's annual compensation. By understanding the concerns of your employees through tools such as employee satisfaction surveys, companies are better able to implement policies and procedures that can improve retention. Long-term, employee surveys:

Increase the sense of commitment and loyalty of your employees

Save company money due to fewer turnovers

Increase employee morale

Gain employee trust

In addition to the above, research has shown that employee satisfaction has a direct relationship to business revenue and customer loyalty. Satisfied employees perform better at their jobs. Employees with poor attitudes can have a negative effect on their co-workers and theircostumers.

Employee satisfaction surveys are inexpensive, yet will generate results that are worth many times your small investment. If you choose to do your employee satisfaction survey online, you'll receive real-time results in as little a few minutes upon implementation. Employee satisfaction surveys can assess just about anything that relates to the work environment, including:

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Overall satisfaction Management/employee relations Corporate culture Career development Compensation Benefits Recognition and rewards Working conditions Training Staffing levels Safety concerns Policies and procedures

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MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES

MASLOW’S THEORY:

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Need Theories

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation,[2] which he subsequently extended to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity.

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Maslow’s Theory

PHSIOLOGICALPHSIOLOGICALPHSIOLOGICALPHSIOLOGICALSAFETYSAFETYSAFETYSAFETYSOCIAL SOCIAL

SECURITYSECURITY

SOCIAL SOCIAL SECURITYSECURITY

SELF ESTEEMSELF ESTEEM SELF ESTEEMSELF ESTEEM

SELFSELF

ACTUALIZATIONACTUALIZATION

SELFSELF

ACTUALIZATIONACTUALIZATION

Physiological needs

For the most part, physiological needs are obvious - they are the literal requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met (with the exception of sex), the human body simply cannot continue to function.

Physiological needs include:

Breathing Homeostasis

Water

Sleep

Food

Excretion

Sex

Safety needs

With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take over and dominate their behavior. These needs have to do with people's yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar rare. In the world of work, these safety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, and the like.

For the most part, physiological and safety needs are reasonably well satisfied in the "First World." The obvious exceptions, of course, are people outside the mainstream — the poor and the disadvantaged. If frustration has not led to apathy and weakness, such people still struggle to satisfy the basic physiological and safety needs. They are primarily concerned with survival: obtaining adequate food, clothing, shelter, and seeking justice from the dominant societal groups.

Safety and Security needs include:

Personal security Financial security

Health and well-being

Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts

Social needs

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After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow's hierarchy involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as:

Friendship Intimacy

Having a supportive and communicative family

Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs ("Safety in numbers"), or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and Clinical depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, ignores the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of control and belonging.

Esteem

All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-respect, and to respect. Also known as the belonging need, esteem presents the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. It may be noted, however, that many people with low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.

Aesthetic needs

The motivation to realize one's own maximum potential and possibilities is considered to be the master motive or the only real motive, all other motives being its various forms. In Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the need for self-actualization is the final need that manifests when lower level needs have been satisfied.

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Self-Transcendence

Near the end of his life Maslow revealed that there was a level on the hierarchy that was above self-actualization: self-transcendence"[Transcenders] may be said to be much more often aware of the realm of Being (B-realm and B-cognition), to be living at the level of Being… to have unitive consciousness and “plateau experience” (serene and contemplative B-cognitions rather than climactic ones) … and to have or to have had peak experience (mystic, sacral, ecstatic) with illuminations or insights. Analysis of reality or cognitions which changed their view of the world and of themselves, perhaps occasionally, perhaps as a usual thing."

MOTIVATIONAL SPEECH TECHINQUES

Five simple strategies to motivate your listeners.

One of the most important elements of leadership is the ability to motivate people. Without motivation, even the most skilled team of seasoned professionals is unlikely to achieve great things. A highly motivated group of talented people, on the other hand, can move mountains.

While it’s true that motivating people involves more than just changing the way you speak,

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there are some simple guidelines you can follow to help build team motivation with only your words and your voice:

Be enthusiastic. Enthusiasm is contagious! Before you present your ideas, think about the aspects of the subject that you find most interesting, and don’t be afraid to let that interest come through in your voice.

Use quotes, stories and anecdotes. Along with their obvious entertainment value, quotes and stories can lend authority to your topic and provide concrete examples that people can relate to.

Speak with confidence. Deliver your message loud and clear. Maintain eye contact with your listeners. Don’t mumble or slouch. 

Say you and we, not I and me. Instead of telling people what you want them to do, present ways for them to work together to achieve their goals. Involve listeners in the success of the group.

Keep it simple. People aren’t motivated by what you say; they’re motivated by what they understand. The best way to ensure audience understanding is to break down complex ideas into simple components.

TWO FACTOR THEORY(FEDERICK HERZBERG)

Frederick Herzberg has tried to modify Maslow’s need Hierarchy theory. His theory is also known as two-factor theory or Hygiene theory.

He devised his theory on the question: “What do people want from their jobs?” He asked people to describe in detail, such situations when they felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad. From the responses that he received, he concluded that opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction.

He states that presence of certain factors in the organization is natural and the presence of the same does not lead to motivation. However, their non-presence leads to De-motivation. In similar manner there are certain factors, the absence of which causes no dissatisfaction, but their presence has motivational impact.

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HYGIENE FACTORS

Conditions Pay

Status

Security

Company policies

MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS

Achievement Recognition

Growth/Advancement

Interest in the job

Two Factor Theory

(Also known as Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory) was developed by Frederick Herzberg, a psychologist who found that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction acted independently of each other. Two Factor Theory states that there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction

Two Factor Theory Fundamentals

Anna Lustig attitudes and their connection with industrial mental health are related to Maslow's theory of motivation. His findings have had a considerable theoretical, as well as a practical, influence on attitudes toward administration]. According to Herzberg, individuals are not content with the satisfaction of lower-order needs at work, for example, those associated with minimum salary levels or safe and pleasant working conditions. Rather, individuals look for the gratification of higher-level psychological needs having to do with

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achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the nature of the work itself. So far, this appears to parallel Maslow's theory of a need hierarchy. However, Herzberg added a new dimension to this theory by proposing a two-factor model of motivation, based on the notion that the presence of one set of job characteristics or incentives lead to worker satisfaction at work, while another and separate set of job characteristics lead to dissatisfaction at work. Thus, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not on a continuum with one increasing as the other diminishes, but are independent phenomena. This theory suggests that to improve job attitudes and productivity, administrators must recognize and attend to both sets of characteristics and not assume that an increase in satisfaction leads to an decrease in unpleasurable dissatisfaction.

The two-factor, or motivation-hygiene theory, developed from data collected by Herzberg from interviews with a large number of engineers and accountants in the Pittsburgh area. From analyzing these interviews, he found that job characteristics related to what an individual does — that is, to the nature of the work she performs — apparently have the capacity to gratify such needs as achievement, competency, status, personal worth, and self-realization, thus making her happy and satisfied. However, the absence of such gratifying job characteristics does not appear to lead to unhappiness and dissatisfaction. Instead, dissatisfaction results from unfavorable assessments of such job-related factors as company policies, supervision, technical problems, salary, interpersonal relations on the job, and working conditions. Thus, if management wishes to increase satisfaction on the job, it should be concerned with the nature of the work itself — the opportunities it presents for gaining status, assuming responsibility, and for achieving self-realization. If, on the other hand, management wishes to reduce dissatisfaction, then it must focus on the job environment— policies, procedures, supervision, and working conditions If management is equally concerned with both (as is usually the case), then managers must give attention to both sets of job factors.

The theory was based around interviews with 203 American accountants & engineers in Pittsburgh, chosen because of their professions' growing importance in the business world. The subjects were asked to relate times when they felt exceptionally good or bad about their present job or any previous job, and to provide reasons, and a description of the sequence of events giving rise to that positive or negative feeling.

INTRODUCTION

Today's economic environment has placed increasing pressure on government and industry alike to accomplish more within existing or even reduced resources. The Department of Defence has found this to be particularly true in recent years as annual budgets continue to be pared, even in the face of double-digit inflation. The pressure to accomplish more with essentially the same or even less represents a significant challenge to management - one which must be faced head- n. It is recognized that there are a number of methods or strategies available to management which could be employed to meet this challenge. The purpose of this report is to consider a strategy which has gained. Considerable attention in recent years - one that concentrates on increasing order productivity through job enrichment. Behavioural scientists have grappled with the issue of job enrichment for years. A significant amount of study and research has been corrected in this area and numerous books and articles have been

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written extolling the virtues of job enrichment. In ne of his articles on the subject, Dr. Frederick Herzberg makes the following statement:

The term "job enrichment" is firmly lodged in the vocabulary of managers, behavioural cientists, and journalists. Managers are beginning to accept the basic theory behind job enrichment, but only at a cocktail-party level of understanding of human behaviour. Behavioural scientists, ever ready to jump on a bandwagon; often have an equally shallow under- standing, up a better vocabulary. And journalists have a new movement to misinterpret.

The result has been that job enrichment now represents many approaches intended to increase human satisfaction and performance at work, and the differences between all the approaches are no longer clear. The confusion, misuse, and subsequent bandwagon effect of job enrichment have led some companies, managers, and workers to conclude that they are merely caught up in a new word game. But job enrichment is a reality, and it is necessary because it will improve jobs and organizations. (6, 70).

Herzberg then goes on to note that today we have several strategies which are aimed at improving the design of work in our organizations. Each of these strategies has emerged from a different theoretical or philosophical base and, as a result, leads to different actions with different goals. And, unfortunately, all are subject to distortion and misuse. Herzberg has been called the “father of job enrichment." (5:44). Of the several strategies relating directly to job satisfaction, Herzberg’s "orthodox job enrichment" and the two-factor theory of job satisfaction upon which it is based have received the greatest amount of attention in recent years and have generated the greatest amount of controversy. (11:303). Perhaps part of the reason for the controversy lies in the fact that the two-factor theory is still only a theory yet to be proven. Hertzberg’s well as numerous other behavioural scientists have conducted exertive investigations of the two-factor theory in attempts to either prove or disprove it. While there has been notable acceptance of the

…………………………………………………………………………………………………This notation will be used throughout the report for sources of quotations and major

references. The first number is the source listed in the bibliography. The second number is hb .ne in the reference.theory, there are those who take exception to it and disagree on just what the results of the various investigations really mean.

Since job enrichment in Central has taken on new emphasis in recent years and one of the more widely accepted approaches, albeit controversial, is Herzberg's two-factor theory of job satisfaction, this report is directed to a limited investigation of that theory. The investigation is a review of some of the literature contributed by individuals who themselves have conducted research on Herzberg's theory. The number of articles and books written to date on various aspects of the Herzberg two-factor theory was found to be much too great to really conduct a comprehensive review and assessment within the time available. What is felt to be a representative sample of the literature was reviewed and the results of that review are presented in this report'. The review was limited almost exclusively to Herzberg's theory and no attempt was made to contrast it with any of the several other theories of job satisfaction. The goals or objectives of the report will be addressed and organized as follows:

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A. Section II will provide the reader with a basic knowledge of the Herzberg two-factor theory. It will include what the theory is, along with generally how the theory was developed. A basic familiarity with the theory is felt to be necessary in order for the subsequent discussion to be totally meaningful.

B. Section III will consider the results of instances where Herzberg's theory has actually been implemented in an organization. In addition results of some of the research which has been accomplished in this field since the original Herzberg study will be considered.

C. Section IV will be addressing some of the negative aspects of the two-factor theory. As with almost anything else, claims and realities are frequently quite diverse. Herzberg's theory of job enrichment is no exceptions. One would be rather naive to consider the Herzberg approach a panacea - it is not. There are some weaknesses and potential pitfalls that one should be cognizant of, especially if planning to implement the theory in an organization.

D. Section V will consist of conclusions and recommendations relative to the Herzberg two-factor theory of job satisfaction.

HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY – DEVELOPMENT

Herzberg's two-factor theory of job-satisfaction is not new, as a matter of fact; it dates back to 1959 and is the outgrowth of a research study project on job attitudes conducted by Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman. Before considering the actual research conducted by Herzberg and his colleagues some of the basis for the "two" in the two-factor theory will be discussed. In his book, work and the Nature of Man, Herzberg expounds the concept that man has two sets of needs: his need as an animal to avoid pain, and his need as a human to gro' psychologically (7:64.91). The biblical personages of Adam and Abraham are used to illustrate and develop the duality of man's nature. Briefly, as Adam, man is pictured as an animal whose overriding goal is to avoid the pain navigable in relating to his environment. On the other hand, looking atman in his totality, in addition to his avoidance nature there

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exists a human being who is impelled to determine, to discover, to achieve, to actualize, to progress and to add to his existence. These needs summarize Abraham concept of man. (7:187). A basic understanding of the concept that man exists as a duality and has two sets of needs present at the same time is germane to the further development of the two-factor theory. Another interesting and important aspect of man's dual nature follows in that the two sets of needs of man are essentially independent of one another. That is, each of the two concepts of man consists of a system of needs that operate in opposing directions. Furthermore, meeting the needs of one facet of man (Adam) has little or no effect upon the reeds of the other facet in man (Abraham). It should be noted that since both sets of needs exist in man at the same time both must be served and one will not substitute for the other. To illustrate, one cannot find happiness simply by avoiding physical pain, nor can one avoid pain by finding happiness. From this illustration it becomes apparent that happiness and pain are not polar opposites of the same feeling origina1ng at the same source, that is, happiness and pain are not on the same continuum. This is the principal upon which the Herzberg two-factor theory is based.

The research study project conducted by Herzberg and his colleagues in 1959 was designed specifically to test the concept that man has the two sets of needs just discussed (7:91). The study began with the investigators individually interviewing 200 accountants and engineers from nine different companies in the Pittsburgh area. The respondents were first requested to recall a time when they had felt exceptionally good about their jobs. The investigators sought by further questioning to determine the reasons for their feelings of satisfaction, and whether their feelings of satisfaction had affected their performance, their personal relationships and their well-being. Finally, a special sequence of events was used hat served to return the worker's attitudes to "normal." A second set of interviews was then conducted in which the same respondents were asked to recall and describe incidents in which their feelings about their jobs were exceptionally negative - cases in which their negative feelings were related to some event on the job.

Analyses of the responses led Herzberg and his colleagues to conclude that job satisfaction consisted of two separate independent dimensions:. The first dimension was related to job satisfaction and the second dimension to job dissatisfaction. As separate independent dimensions, job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are two dimensions that are not on opposite ends of the same continuum. Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction represent two separate and distinct continua just as observed earlier with respect to happiness and pain. Further analyses of the results of the research indicated that the opposite of satisfaction on the jobs not dissatisfaction, as one might be inclined to conclude, but rather "no satisfaction." Conversely, the opposite of dissatisfaction is "no" dissatisfaction rather than satisfaction. The concept of two separate independent dimensions is illustrated below:

Satisfaction no satisfaction

Dissatisfaction no dissatisfaction

The illustration shows the independence of the two continua and bears out the fact that simply because something doesn't cause dissatisfaction doesn't mean that it causes satisfaction. (I4:20). The fact that job satisfaction is made up of two unipolar traits is not unique, but it does represent a difficult concept to grasp.

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Herzberg offers another analogy as follows to help explain this way of thinking about job attitudes:

Let us characterize job satisfaction as vision A and job dissatisfaction as hearing. It is readily seen that we are talking about two separate dimensions, since the stimulus for vision is light, and increasing and decreasing light will have no effect on man's hearing. The stimulus for audition is sound, and, In a similar fashion, increasing or decreasing loudness will have no effect on vision. (7:96).

Pursuing the subject of job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction brings up the related subject of just what kind of factors were found from the study to bring about job satisfaction or j(.b dissatisfaction. Factors which bring about job satisfaction are commonly called satisfiers or motivators and were found from the study to be related to the nature of the work itself and the rewards that result from the performance of that work. The most significant of these involve characteristics that promote an individual's needs for self-actualization and self-realization in his work, (Recall the Abraham concept of man). These factors are essentially linked to job content, which means they are intrinsic to the job itself. Herzberg analyzed and classified the job content factors or satisfying experiences as follows

Satisfiers-Achievement-Recognition-Work itself-Responsibility-Advancement-Growth

According to Herzberg, these factors stand out as strong determiners of job satisfaction with three of them, a sense of performing interesting and important work (work itself), job responsibility and advancement being the most important relative to a lasting attitude charge. Achievement| more so than recognition, was frequently associated with such long-range factors as responsibility and the nature of the work itself. Recognition which produces good feelings about the job does not necessarily have to come from superiors; it may come from subordinates, peers, or customers. It is interesting to note that recognition based on achievement provides a more intense satisfaction than does recognition used solely as a human relations tool divorced from any accomplishment, the latter does not serve as a satisfier. (:92-93; 9:370).

Compared with the satisfiers or motivators are the factors which cause low jab attitude situations or job dissatisfaction. Such factors were found from the analysis of the study results to be Associated primarily with an individual's relationship to the context or environment in which he does his work, these factors are extrinsic to the work itself and are referred to as dissatisfies or hygiene (or maintenance) factors. Herzberg categorized the context or environmental factors causing dissatisfaction to include:

Dissatisfiers - Company policy and administration – Supervision - working conditions - Interpersonal relations (with peers, subordinates and superiors) –Status - Job security

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-S alary - Personal Life

Details on the methods used by Herzberg and his colleagues’ to reduce and analyses their research data will not be discussed in this paper. The satisfiers and dissatisfiers that have been listed are referred to as first level factors. (7:115). There are 16 total first-level factors of which six are motivators and ten are hygiene or maintenance factors (Interpersonal relations with peers, subordinates and superiors count as three in Herzberg's analysis). It should be pointed out that during the analysis of the respondents’ answers that all did not fall neatly into the two categories of "satisfiers" or “dissatisfiers." There was some overlap where a "satisfier" would actually extend into the "dissatisfier" category in some instances. This entire means is that a factor which caused satisfaction in the majority of the cases was the source of dissatisfaction for some. The preponderance of data, however, does statistically differentiate between the two factors "satisfier" and "dissatisfier."

The discussion to this point has basically dealt with the development t of the two-factor theory frequently referred to as the motivation-hygiene theory. There a-9 a couple of underlying questions which may have come up during the foregoing discussion that have not been specifically addressed. Why, for instance, do hygiene factors serve as dissatisfiers? Why, on the other hand, do motivators affect motivation in the positive direction? Consider the answers to these questions in terms of the distinction between the two sets of human needs (Adam vs. Abraham). One stems from man's animal nature and his need to avoid pain. This set consists of the needs for which the hygiene factors are relevant. The word "hygiene" is a medical term meaning preventative and environmental. This is an appropriate term in view of the fact that the hygiene actors represent the environment to which man as animal is constantly trying to adjust. The dissatisfiers or hygiene factors previously listed are the major environment aspects of work. Because these factors serve only to reduce pain, they cannot contribute to positive satisfaction but only to the avoidance of dissatisfaction. Herzberg found, for example, that good working conditions (Physical, environment, congenial co-workers, good supervision) were rarely named as factors contributing to job satisfaction; however, poor working conditions were frequently cited as sources of dissatisfaction. (14:23).

The second set of human needs relates to the human drive toward self realization. To help illustrate the affect of motivators on motivation Herzberg offers an analogy drawn from a familiar example of psychological growth in children.

When a child earns to ride a bicycle, he is becoming more competent, increasing the repertory of his behaviour, expanding his skills – psychologically growing. In the process of the child's learning to master a bicycle, the parents can love him with all the zeal and compassion of the most devoted mother and father. They can safeguard the child from injury by providing the safest and most hygienic area in which to practice; they can offer all kinds of incentives and rewards, and they can provide the most expert instructions. But the child will never, never learn to ride the bicycle - unless he is given a bicycle. The hygiene factors are not a valid contributor to psychological growth. The substance of a task is required to achieve growth goals. Similarly, you cannot love an engineer into creativity, although by this approach you can avoid his dissatisfactions with the way you treat him. Creativity will require a potentially creative task to do (7:95).

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The above analogy serves to illustrate an important aspect of the motivator hygiene theory. Self-realization can be achieved only through the fulfilment of factors which are intrinsic to the work itself, that is, the motivator factors. Such factors cannot satisfy the avoidance needs, just as the hygiene factors cannot fulfil the need for self-fulfilment. In this section the development of Dr. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory of job satisfaction has been discussed. The basis of his theory can be summarized in his observation that the opposite of job satisfaction in not job dissatisfaction but rather "no" job satisfaction, are similarly, the opposite of job dissatisfaction in not job satisfaction by "no" job dissatisfaction. Further, he concludes that the conditions which lead to Job dissatisfaction involve the environment in which the job is accomplished. He calls these dissatisfiers "hygiene" factors. The conditions leading to job satisfaction involve the job itself. He calls these satisfiers "motivators." The motivators are achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement and growth. The hygiene factors include company policy and administration, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, status, job security, salary and personal life.

HERZBERG TWO-FACTOR THEORY – EVIDENCES BOTH STUDIES AND ACTUAL IMPLEMENTATION

Studies

Since the original study on job attitudes conducted by Herzberg and his colleagues was published in 1959 (8), the study as well as the associated motivation - hygiene theory has

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received wide acceptance on one hand, but some justified criticism on the other. Herzberg acknowledges the criticism and considers one of the most pertinent of the criticisms to be the overgeneralization of the theory due to the fact the evidence was based on a rather limited sample of accountants and engineers. Another related and valid criticism has been levied against the very nature of psychological investigations in general. The unreliability of many of the findings of psychological research causes it to be more suspect than research in the hard sciences. This unreliability is due to a large extent to the number of variables involved and also to the possible intrusion of biases on the part of the investigator (7:112). The upstart of these criticisms has been further on-the-job research conducted to gather additional data to test the theory. Herzberg's theory presents a rather simple hypothesis to test; therefore, it is not surprising that it has stimulated a considerable amount of research. Herzberg himself presents some rather convincing data on further research on the verification of the motivation - hygiene theory (7:112-186). One might well expect that the data Herzberg presents in his own book would pretty much substantiate his theory, and it does. A summary of the results of some of the additional research which Herzberg refers to is presented here and win serve as a basis for the further discussion. Herzberg gives a rather thorough account of 10 tests which were run to validate the motivation - hygiene theory. Of the 10 tests conducted only two were conducted by Herzberg itself and the remaining eight by other individuals. The 10 tests consisted of 17 different populations involving 1, 220 people. These studies included agricultural administrators, professional women, hospital maintenance personnel, nurses, manufacturing supervisors, food handlers, scientists, engineers, technicians and managers about to retire, The results of the studies indicate that out of the 51 significant differences reported for the six motivator factors, everyone was in the predicted direction. For the 57 significant hygiene factors, 54 were in the predicted direction. This basically says that the predictions from the theory were wrong in less than 3 per cent of the cases (7:143-144). These results were reported back in 1966. Needless to say, the controversy over the motivation - hygiene theory did not end with Herzberg's assessment of that relatively small amount of additional data.

Since Herzberg's original study there have been numerous studies conducted specifically to test his theory. While many of the studies firmly support Herzberg's observations, there appears to be a growing number conducted by other psychologists which counter indicates the satisfier – dissatisfier theory about job factors. One analysis of evidence leading to conclusions different from Herzberg is presented by House and Wigdor (1967). They make the following conclusions:

Our secondary analysis of the data presented by Herzberg,(1966) in his most recent book, yields conclusions contradictory to the proposition of the Two-Factor theory that satisfiers and dissatisfiers are uni-dimensional and independent. Although many of the intrinsic aspects of jobs are shown to be tore frequently identified by respondents as satisfiers, achievement and recognition are also shown to be very frequently identified as dissatisfiers. In fact, achievement and recognition are more frequently identified as dissatisfiers than working conditions and relations with the superior.

Since the data do not support the satisfier- dissatisfier dichotomy, the second proposition of the Two-Factor theory, that sati Herzberg,(1966) in his most recent book, yields conclusions contradictory to the proposition of the Two-Factor theory that satisfiers

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and dissatisfiers are unidimensional and independent. Although many of the intrinsic aspects of jobs are shown to be tore frequently identified by respondents as satisfiers, achievement and recognition are also shown to be very frequently identified as dissatisfiers. In fact, achievement and recognition are more frequently identified as dissatisfiers than working conditions and relations with the superior. Since the data do not support the satisfier- dissatisfier dichotomy, the second proposition of the Two-Factor theory, that satisfiers have more motivational force than dissatisfiers, appears highly suspect, This is true for two reasons. First, any attempt to separate the two requires an arbitrary definition of the classifications satisfier and dissatisfier. Second, unless such an arbitrary separation is employed, the proposition is untestable (9:385-386).

These conclusions are very interesting in that they were made following an analysis of the results of the same 1O tests Herzberg used in support of his theory.

Included in the article by House and Wigdor is the description and summary of the results of 30 empirical studies based on various research methods which have been reported in the literature. All of the investigations were directly concerned with Herzberg's two-factor theory and involved over 14,000 persons. An analysis of the results of these studies led House and Wigdor to the following four conclusions:

1. A given factor can cause job satisfaction for one person and job dissatisfaction for another person, and vice versa.

2. A given factor can cause job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction in the same sample. 3. Intrinsic job factors are more important to both satisfying and dissatisfying job

events

4. That the Two-Factor theory is an oversimplification of the relationships between motivation and satisfaction, and the sources of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. (9386-387).

Campbell, Dunnette, Lawler and Weick, in their book. Point out that in addition to House and Wigdor, who reviewed available studies concerned with Herzberg's theory, there were a number of others who did likewise. They note, though, that the same conclusions are not drawn from reading the same literature. They attribute whether or not the data lends support to the theory to a large extent on the type of methodology used by the investigator. There have also been questions raised as to whether or not some investigators actually based their research on legitimate predictions from the theory. Campbell, Dunnette, Lawler and Weick conclude that if the empirical studies are examined in total, the negative evidence would appear to be more predominating primarily because it has been generated from a wider variety of approaches. (1:380-381).

Whitsett and Winslow (1967), on the other hand, take exception to the negative evidence and point out what they consider to be fundamental flaws. Their major reason for disregarding most of the negative evidence can be summed up in three basic errors they feel are prevalent:

1. Misinterpretation of the motivation - hygiene theory.

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2. Methodological weaknesses.

3. Misinterpretation of results. (15:395).

Whitsett and in slow conclude from their analysis that due to the errors mentioned above there is little empirical evidence for doubting the validity of the theory. They suggest that the theory clearly retains its utility and viability. (15:411).

From the evidence presented in this section so far, one would be safe in saying that the controversy surrounding Herzberg's two-factor theory is still far from resolved. The fact that different conclusions are drawn from the same evidence in some cases appears to give credence to the possibility that the conclusions are based to some extent on the preconceived notions of the investigator. That is, the conclusions drawn by an investigator are felt to be a function of whether he basically agrees or disagrees with the Herzberg two-factor theory before he begins his investigation and analysis. Whitsett and Winslow obviously are in basic agreement with the theory and set about to discount any criticism of it, whereas, House and Wigdor clearly disagree with the basic tenets of Herzberg's theory. These are only two of many examples which could be cited.

Actual Implementation

The thrust of the discussion to this point has been centred primarily around the results and conclusions of some of the studies which have been conducted to test the Herzberg two-factor theory of job satisfaction. Studies are just that - generally a group of people are selected for the study, information on job attitudes are obtained either by personal interview or a questionnaire and then the results are analysed. The studies themselves don't really address

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implementation of the two-factor theory as a job enrichment strategy in an organization. As a result, most of the literature on the two-factor theory is limited to discussions of the various studies. Very little has actually been written on the results obtained from companies or organizations where a Herzberg - type job enrichment program has been implemented.

Some of the literatures reviewed for this paper contain statements which, although general in nature, do indicate that job enrichment programs are enjoying successes. One such statement is made by Grote (1972), who begins an article with the following statement:

Job enrichment is a strategy for increasing motivation - its effectiveness being demonstrated by a growing number of successful projects which have produced significant increases in job satisfaction and productivity. For the organization or manager facing a motivation problem, the strategy of enriching jobs is proving to be an effective solution. (4.16).

It is recognized that a job enrichment program cars be based on any one of a number of approaches, however, the above article does refer-to the Herzberg approach.

As implied earlier, there does not appear to be an abundance of literature devoted to the subject of the actual results of job enrichment programs. Frank and Hackman (1975) provide a little more insight to the subject of job enrichment by stating the reports of success are multiplying. Along with the indication of Job enrichment program successes they acknowledge there are reports of failures too, although they are very seldom published. (3 :414). The statements may be general in nature, but there does seem to be ample evidence to conclude that the Herzberg job enrichment (i.e. orthodox job enrichment) program is being successfully implemented in many places.

One document which was made available for review for this study and is of particular relevance to the present subject is the Ogden Air Logistics Centre Orthodox Job Enrichment Program Report. (1975) (12). This report does provide specific details on the implementation of job enrichment program which sets it apart from the other literature which was reviewed. The report is of added interest in that it deals with a program implemented within an organization of one of the military services. Since there is increasing pressure on the services to accomplish more with less, the Ogden Air Logistics Centre (ALC) approach of implementing the Herzberg Orthodox Job Enrichment (OJE) program may well be a lead to implementing OJE in other service organizations. The experience and results obtained at Ogden should prove helpful to others in assessing$ whether or not such a management approach would be suitable in their organizations.

Ogden ALC decided in May 1973 to develop a motivational program in order to produce more with less. That decision led to the later decision to implement the OJE approach to motivation based upon Herzberg's motivation hygiene theory. Once organized, the Ogden ORE program moved into a trial phase with representation from all major Ogden ALC organizations. An extensive formal training program (120 hours) began on 28 January J974 for an initial cadre of 16 OJE key men under a training contract with Herzberg and Associates, The training included the dynamics of how the motivational factors and the hygiene factors interrelate and specific skills in organizing OJE projects and working with management. The initial training was not a stand alone in that Herzberg and Associates continued to coach the key men on a part-time basis for an additional eight months.

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In February 1974 the 16 key men selected eleven pilot projects which involved over 359 direct labour workers to include mechanics, warehousemen, service people aid a variety of desk jobs. Selection of a diversity of test projects was felt necessary in order to allow an evaluation of command wide application. It would also provide insight as to whether OJE would solve production problems in a cost effective manner.

A typical project consisted of 30 direct workers and was established with three management groups. The management groups included an implementing group of four to eight first and second level supervisors who could assist in the implementation, a coordinating group of six to 12 middle managers to resolve problems from the implementing group and, in some cases, an executive group of one to four senior executives. The key men were responsible for educating all supervisors, managers and staff personnel who had project related responsibilities.

The management groups developed proposed changes by first reviewing the current job structure with respect to work flow processes, procedures, regulation, directives, etc. The creative process used by the groups began with brainstorming ideas for job redesign in order to install motivators and ingredients of a good job into each position. This process is called "green lighting." A second process called "red lighting" uses an eight factor decision tree for categorizing, evaluating, and determining the sequence of implementation for job changes. The changes made included motivation and hygiene related items along with technical improvements.

The Ogden report contains a brief description of each of the It pilot projects. The organizations selected for an OJE program project are identified by title and mission and a short background is provided, Changes made to the jobs as well as the costs and benefits or each project are also reported. All of the projects recorded improvement in the quality of work life.

Below is a list of how often the motivators (job satisfiers) were either reinforced or initiated in the 11 pilot projects. There were 27 instances involving change in hygiene factors. These were predominately classified as facilitating hygiene which simply means hygiene factors that facilitate the doing of tasks. This is contrasted with consummator hygiene which refer to what people get in return for doing tasks (salary, status, security.

Motivator Times implementedSatisfier or reinforced

Achievement 32Recognition 17

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Work itself 22Responsibility 58Advancement 03Growth 23

The report points out that the above summary represents the results experienced in the 11 pilot projects at Ogden and is not necessarily indicative of what would be experienced in another group of It at Ogden or anywhere else. Each job which is enriched stands by itself as an area for specific application of Orthodox Job Enrichment. (12:9).Results from the Ogden OJE program included soft data (opinions, attitudes and feelings) which were encouraging in terms of reduced turnover, reduced sick leave and improved attitude. Also included were hard data (measurable with high confidence) which showed more units produced with a fewer number of man-hours required. This in itself is fairly significant since one of the original objectives was to implement a motivational program to produce more for less.

At the time of Ogden's OJE report (April 1975)i.their program was ALC wide with 29 projects in process. This involved 26 key men, ,007 direct workers, and 269 managers. In the first year of operation, the OJE program yielded significant results. Although the first year carried heavy start up and training costs, the benefits realized on an annualized basis exceeded the costs by nearly $200.000. They predict savings from new projects to rise sharply in future years with savings made in the past to continue into the future in most cases.

In addition to the benefits just mentioned, there are a number of lessons learned which were considered key to the continuing success of the program. Below are some of those items 'most frequently mentioned and considered most important by the key men:

- Cannot apply a cookbook solution to motivation.

- First level supervisor must accept project ownership.

- Success depends upon management support "top down."

- OJE is possible within current regulations and organizations.

- The time management spends on the project is never lost or wasted. New ideas, understanding, and channels of communication are achieved regardless of the success of the project.

- Part-time key men are not as effective as full-time key men.

- Measurements are necessary not only to show, the status of projects but to inform management of the system changes.

- Management should be determined prior to making OJE changes.

- Management support of the project is usually best at the top and bottom of the organization structure. Middle management is often lukewarm in support.

- High turnover of key men in an organization causes severe disruption of on-going projects. Stability and consistency are necessary.

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- Quantifiable results are not always obtainable in near term. First results may not be available for nine to 12 months. (12:15).

The Ogden ALC Orthodox Job Enrichment Program Report concludes that when properly applied, the motivation - hygiene theory leads to an improved management strategy which results in increased productivity and savings. By restructuring jobs so that they lead to more worker satisfaction ar |motivation, the managers are able to produce higher quality products more efficiently. (12:27). It seems apparent from the Ogden ALC experience with Herzberg's JE that they have had notable success in achieving their objectives to develop motivational program. One should bear in mind that their report is only one experience with 0JE and cannot be used to accurately predict probable results in another organization. One can, however, safely conclude from the Ogden report that OJE successes are possible, but only with full management support and extensive planning and training.

In this section some of the evidence available concerning the validity of Herzberg's two-factor theory has been presented. In the cases of study evidence, some were clearly in support of the theory while others were just as clearly critical of it. It can be added, the arguments on neither side were totally convincing. Evidence from actual implementation of Herzberg's two-factor theory of job satisfaction was found to be rather. Limited in terms of specifics, but in general terms the literature claims multiplying successes. (3:414; 4:16). The Ogden ALC Report does provide considerable detail on the setup and results of the job enrichment program implemented there. At the time they reported their result, their program was enjoying success. (12). Not all such programs succeed and although job enrichment failures are almost never published they are beginning to circulate among operating managers and organizational development professionals (3:414).

HERZBERG TWO-FACTOR THEORY – WEAKNESSES AND POTENTIAL PITFALLS TO IMPLEMENTATION

Weaknesses

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In Section II the development of the Herzberg two-factor theory of job satisfaction was discussed. In Section III some of the evidence concerning Herzberg's theory was examined. Section IV will provide a more critical look at the two-factor theory. Some weaknesses in the theory itself along with some potential pitfalls in implementation will be presented.

It was noted in Section III that sub sequent to Herzberg's original study there have been numerous studies conducted specifically to test the validity of the two-factor theory. Right from the start the theory sparked controversy among behaviourists and the subsequent studies have not brought supporters and critics any closer together.

King, (1970) in his paper, claims that the major portion of the controversy between supporters and critics of the theory stems from the lack of an explicit statement of the theory. (10:19). This could well explain why Whitsett and Winslow in their defence of the theory claim that critics have frequently misinterpreted the motivation- hygiene theory. (15:410). It follows that if the theory has not been explicitly stated it prompts different interpretations. King lists five distinct versions of the two factor theory as stated or impl3ed by various researchers. In order for the reader to gain a better understanding of the differences and also to note some of the subtleties between the versions they are quoted below:

Theory I - All motivators combined contribute more to job satisfaction than to job dissatisfaction and all hygiene combined contribute more to dissatisfaction than to satisfaction.

Theory II -All motivators combined contribute more to satisfaction than do all hygiene’s combined, and all hygiene’s combined contribute more to dissatisfaction than do all motivators combined.

Theory III - Each motivator contributes more to satisfaction than to dissatisfaction, and each hygiene contributes more to dissatisfaction than to satisfaction.

Theory IV - Theory III olds, and in addition, each principal motivator contributes more to satisfaction than does any hygiene, and each principal hygiene contributes more to dissatisfaction than does any motivator.

Theory V - Only motivators determine satisfaction, and only hygiene’s determine dissatisfaction. (10:19).

The purpose of Kings Paper is to explicate and to evaluate these five versions of the theory. Since practically all relevant empirical investigations have been conducted using the critical incidents technique, King uses critical incident data as the basis for his discussions. (10:19). The term "critical incidents" can be explained through application of the term to the original Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman study which was covered in Section II. In that study accountants and engineers were interviewed and asked to describe specific instances (incidents) when they felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad about their jobs. When these "critical incidents" were analysed it was found that good critical incidents were dominated by reference to the intrinsic aspects of the job (satisfiers or motivators) and the bad critical incidents were dominated by reference to the extrinsic factors (dissatisfier or hygiene).

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King's treatment of the five versions of the theory is rigorous and fairly comprehensive. His review of available studies indicated there was no relevant empirical data to support either Theory IV or Theory V. The majority of his article is given to the evaluation of Theories I, i!, and III. The studies reviewed by King were one of three types. The first type were replications of the original Herzberg study, either interview or questionnaire. The second type was studies in which subjects coded the perceived determinants of their critical incidents. The third type was co-relational studies. These types are mentioned because it appears that the method of study conducted definitely influences the results. King makes the following observation with respect to the study method used:

In both the Herzberg - type studies and the subject-coded studies, the determinants of satisfaction and dissatisfaction were measured by direct self-report. While the very nature of satisfaction and dissatisfaction may require that these constructs be measured by a self-report technique, it is neither necessary nor desirable that the determinants of satisfaction and dissatisfaction be measured by direct self-report. The use of these measures permits an explanation of the results solely in term of defensive biases inherent in such measures.

In correlational studies, the extent to which Job factors contribute toward satisfaction and dissatisfaction is not determined by self-report but is inferred from the correlations between job factors and measures of satisfaction with individual job factors and measurers of overall satisfaction and dissatisfaction, (10:28).

King considered the different studies available, taking into account the basic study method used, and then compared the studies against Theories I, II, and III for relevance. His conclusions are quoted in part below:

1. Theory III, being supported by the Herzberg-type studies but not the subject-coded studies, merely reflects experimenter coding biases.

2. Theory I, although being supported by both the Herzberg-type studies and the subject-coded studies, has not been adequately tested in studies where the determinants of satisfaction were measured by techniques other than direct self-report. It is possible that Theory I merely reflects defensive biases inherent in such self-report measures,

3. Theory II has not been adequately tested in studies other than the Herzberg-type critical incidents studies. It is thus possible that Theory T. merely reflects experimenter coding biases or defensive biases inherent in self-report measures.

The relationship between these conclusions and the principle of multiple operationalisms should be noted. According to the principle of multiple operationalisms, a hypothesis is validated only if it is supported by two or more different methods of testing, where each method contains specific idiosyncratic weaknesses, but where the entire collection of methods permits the elimination of all alternative hypotheses. The application of this principle to Theories I, II, and III indicates that none of these theories have been validated. (10:29). One can conclude from King's paper that Herzberg's two-factor theory does indeed have some inherent weaknesses, not the least of which is the lack of an explicit statement of the basic theory by Herzberg. The subject of possible biases in the investigator

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and/or the respondent has also been raised as a potential weakness in the study method used to derive the Herzberg theory.

Ondrack (1974), in his article, addresses the facet of the controversy concerning the recall methodology used by Herzberg and its possible susceptibility to bias from defensive processes within the respondent. (13:79). He conducted a test using an instrument adapted from the Occupational Values Scale, This instrument was a semi-structured scale which elicited projective responses and as a result considerably reduced the possibility of aroused ego-defensiveness. The responses from the instrument were classifiable using the familiar Herzberg job-factor categories. The results from the test were interesting in that they did not conform to the Herzberg two-factor pattern. Herzberg's six motivators in rank order are: Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement and growth. Results on the Ondrack study indicate that the six most important motivating factors are: work itself, salary, relations with peers, achievement, independence and responsibility. Two of this last list of factors are hygiene’s (salary, relations with peers), in the Herzberg model, and one (independence) is a new factor developed by the study. In terms of sources of dissatisfaction in the Her-berg model, the most prominent source is company policy and administration and this factor was barely mentioned by the respondents.(13:84-85).

There were some other lesser differences noted between Herzberg's model and Ondrack's study results, but the differences already cited seem to provide ample evidence to suspect that Herzberg's conclusions are somewhat weakened due to biases on the poart of the respondent.

Potential Pitfalls of Implementation

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Acknowledgement of weaknesses in Herzberg's theory does not preclude one from going ahead and implementing the Herzberg job enrichment program in an organization. A basic awareness of the weaknesses might even prove to be an asset in that one could possibly compensate for them in an implemented program. Whether or not one considers weaknesses in the basic theory significant, there are still some possible pitfalls one should be aware of before implementing a job enrichment program.

The following discussion is an attempt to extract thought and ideas from the various literature reviewed to stimulate one's thinking before implementing a job enrichment program such as Herzberg's Orthodox Job Enrichment Program. The thoughts and ideas presented are necessarily somewhat subjective, but it is hoped they will help to avoid what appears to be potential pitfalls in any job enrichment program venture. The following thoughts and ideas are presented with no importance attached to the order:

- Job enrichment is a strategy for increasing motivation. The strategy of job enrichment involves changing the job. The specific process required to enrich a particular job involves more than me acceptance of the theory. One must have a plan. (4:17).

- Your best source for job-design ideas is probably already on your payroll; he knows how things were done before behavioural science took over. (6:70).

- Although changes described within each project of the Ogden OJE program resulted in successful motivation, hygiene, and technical improvements with related gains in productivity, quality, and employee attitudes, OJE cannot be implemented using a "cook book" approach. One cannot apply changes made in one organization directly into another organization and assume improved productivity and motivation. Each organization - each job - must be evaluated to determine the most appropriate job changes. (12:7, 8)

- Publicity regarding enrichment of jobs should be avoided at worker level. Fanfare and publicity at the worker level only create expectations of future improvement that may not be possible to achieve.(12:8)

- Some points from Oplen's lessons learned. (12:15).

- Success depends upon management support "top down."

- Part-time keymen are not as effective as full-time key men.

- High turnover of keymen in an organization caw3es severe disruption of on-going projects. Stability and consistency are necessary,

-. Job enrichment is a continuing process. Growth potential must always be available. Revaluation must be done per- iodically.

- Quantifiable results are not always obtainable in near term. First results may not be available for nine to 12 months.

- Training of key personnel must be of the highest quality in content or the program will tend to dilute and become ineffective. (12:27).

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- Work value changes significantly as one moves up within the organizational structure. (2:37).

- Management can create motivational job satisfaction at all levels of an organization if it wants to and is willing to apply contemporary management methods. (2:37)

- Expect resistance or barriers at the worker-level, middle-management level and top level management. (5:44, 45).

- Anticipate setbacks and be prepared for continuous evaluation and revision of action-plans throughout project. (3:434).

The preceding ideas have been presented as representative of areas where an awareness and proper attention may help to avoid potential problems in implementing a job enrichment program. One can conclude from the list that an effective job enrichment program cannot be expected overnight, singlehandedly at no cost.

In the last two sections evidences testing the Herzberg theory plus some weaknesses and potential pitfalls have been presented. In reviewing these aspects, it is interesting to note that Dr. Herzberg has not really come forward to answer the critics. The arguments raised seem to be legitirate and warrant more than mere hand-waving,. In the opinion of this author, it is in order for Herzberg to objectively revaluate his conclusions and explicitly state the theory. No evidence of this type of activity on the part of Herzberg was found in any of the literature reviewed. As a matter of fact, in one of Herzberg’s fairly recent articles he admits there is a %ad contrast between the promise of job enrichment and the reality, but he blames the disparity on social and organizational reasons and doesn't even hint at possible weaknesses in the theory. (5:44, 45).

Although not specifically addressed in any of the literature reviewed, it does appear that the publicity given to Herzberg and his theory may well r be the reason for his seeming lack of responsiveness. Since the theory has been fairly widely accepted, Herzberg undoubtedly has profited financially from writing and consulting. If this indeed is true, it is apparent that there is really very little impetus for Herzberg to answer his critics or to revise or clarify his theory in any way. In conclusion, Herzberg's failure to respond to the critics tends to weaken his own position and strengthen that of the critics.

Two Factor Theory distinguishes between:

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Motivators (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give positive satisfaction, arising from intrinsic conditions of the job itself, such as recognition, achievement, or personal growth.

Hygiene factors (e.g. status, job security, salary and fringe benefits) which do not give positive satisfaction, although dissatisfaction results from their absence. These are extrinsic to the work itself, and include aspects such as company policies, supervisory practices, or wages/salary.

Essentially, hygiene factors are needed to ensure an employee is not dissatisfied. Motivation factors are needed in order to motivate an employee to higher performance, Herzberg also further classified our actions and how and why we do them, for example, if you perform a work related action because you have to then that is classed as movement, but if you perform a work related action because you want to then that is classed as motivation.

Unlike Maslow, who offered little data to support his ideas, Herzberg and others have presented considerable empirical evidence to confirm the motivation-hygiene theory. Their work, however, has been criticized on methodological grounds. Nevertheless, Herzberg and his associates have rendered a valuable service to science and to management through their efforts to apply scientific methods to understanding complex motivational problems at work and have stimulated others to continue the search.

ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

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Clayton Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the ERG theory (existence, relatedness and growth). Physiological and safety, the lower order needs, are placed in the existence category, while love and self esteem needs are placed in the relatedness category. The growth category contains our self-actualization and self-esteem needs.

THEORY X AND THEORY Y

Theory X and Theory Y are theories of human motivation created and developed by Douglas McGregor at the MIT Sloan School of Management in the 1960s that have been used in human resource management, organizational behavior, organizational communication and organizational development. They describe two very different attitudes toward workforce motivation. McGregor felt that companies followed either one or the other approach. He also thought that the key to connecting self-actualization with work is determined by the managerial trust of subordinates.

Theory X

Under the assumptions of theory X:Employees inherently do not like work and whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it.

Because employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or threatened with punishment to achieve goals.

Employees avoid responsibilities and do not work fill formal directions are issued.

Most workers place a greater importance on security over all other factors and display little ambition.

In this theory, which many managers practice, management assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can. They inherently dislike work. Because of this, workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of controls developed. A hierarchical structure is needed with narrow span of control at each and every level. According to this theory, employees will show little ambition without an enticing incentive program and will avoid responsibility whenever they can. According to Michael J. Papa, if

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the organizational goals are to be met, theory X managers rely heavily on threat and coercion to gain their employee's compliance. Beliefs of this theory lead to mistrust, highly restrictive supervision, and a punitive atmosphere. The Theory X manager tends to believe that everything must end in blaming someone. He or she thinks all prospective employees are only out for themselves. Usually these managers feel the sole purpose of the employee's interest in the job is money. They will blame the person first in most situations, without questioning whether it may be the system, policy, or lack of training that deserves the blame. A Theory X manager believes that his or her employees do not really want to work, that they would rather avoid responsibility and that it is the manager's job to structure the work and energize the employee. One major flaw of this management style is it is much more likely to cause Diseconomies of Scale in large businesses.

Theory Y

In contrast under the Assumptions of Theory Y: Physical and mental effort at work is as natural as rest or play. People do exercise self-control and self-direction and if they are committed to those

goals. Average human beings are willing to take responsibility and exercise imagination,

ingenuity and creativity in solving the problems of the organization. That the way the things are organized, the average human being’s brainpower is only

partly used.

In this theory, management assumes employees may be ambitious, self-motivated, and exercise self-control. It is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work duties. According to Papa, to them work is as natural as play. They possess the ability for creative problem solving, but their talents are underused in most organizations. Given the proper conditions, theory Y managers believe that employees will learn to seek out and accept responsibility and to exercise self-control and self-direction in accomplishing objectives to which they are committed. A Theory Y manager believes that, given the right conditions, most people will want to do well at work. They believe that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong motivation. Many people interpret Theory Y as a positive set of beliefs about workers. A close reading of The Human Side of Enterprise reveals that McGregor simply argues for managers to be open to a more positive view of workers and the possibilities that this creates. He thinks that Theory Y managers are more likely than Theory X managers to develop the climate of trust with an employee that is required for human resource development. It's here through human resource development that is a crucial aspect of any organization. This would include managers communicating openly with subordinates, minimizing the difference between superior-subordinate relationships, creating a comfortable environment in which subordinates can develop and use their abilities. This climate would include the sharing of decision making so that subordinates have say in decisions that influence them.

GOAL-SETTING THEORY

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Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself. A goal's efficiency is affected by three features: proximity, difficulty and specificity. An ideal goal should present a situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the end state is close. This explains why some children are more motivated to learn how to ride a bike than mastering algebra. A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In both cases, most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people want to feel that there is a substantial probability that they will succeed. Specificity concerns the description of the goal in their class. The goal should be objectively defined and intelligible for the individual. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is to get the highest possible grade. Most children have no idea how much effort they need to reach that goal.

Douglas Vermeeren, has done extensive research into why many people fail to get to their goals. The failure is directly attributed to motivating factors. Vermeeren states that unless an individual can clearly identify their motivating factor or their significant and meaningful reasons why they wish to attain the goal, they will never have the power to attain it.

EXPECTANCY THEORY

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Expectancy theory is about choice. It explains the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices. In organizational behavior study, expectancy theory is a motivation theory first proposed by Victor Vroom of the Yale School of Management.

Expectancy theory predicts that employees in an organization will be motivated when they believe that:

putting in more effort will yield better job performance better job performance will lead to organizational rewards, such as an increase in

salary or benefits

These predicted organizational rewards are valued by the employee in question.

"This theory emphasizes the need for organizations to relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are those rewards deserved and wanted by the recipients."

- Emphasizes self interest in the alignment of rewards with employee's wants. - Emphasizes the connections among expected behaviors, rewards and organizational goals

Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Together with Edward Lawler and Lyman Porter, Vroom suggested that the relationship between people's behavior at work and their goals was not as simple as was first imagined by other scientists. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities.

Victor H. Vroom introduces three variables within the expectancy theory which are valence (V), expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I). The three elements are important behind choosing one element over another because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy), performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy).

E>P expectancy: Our assessment of the probability our efforts will lead to the required performance level.

P>O expectancy: Our assessment of the probability our successful performance will lead to certain outcomes.

Vroom’s model is based on three concepts:

1. Valence - Strength of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome. For the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it.

2. Instrumentality – Means of the first level outcome in obtaining the desired second level outcome; the degree to which a first level outcome will lead to the second level outcome.

3. Expectancy - Probability or strength of belief that a particular action will lead to a particular first level outcome.

Vroom says the product of these variables is the motivation.

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In order to enhance the performance-outcome tie, managers should use systems that tie rewards very closely to performance. Managers also need to ensure that the rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients. In order to improve the effort-performance tie, managers should engage in training to improve their capabilities and improve their belief that added effort will in fact lead to better performance.

EQUITY THEORY

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Equity Theory attempts to explain relational satisfaction in terms of perceptions of fair/unfair distributions of resources within interpersonal relationships. Equity theory is considered as one of the justice theories, It was first developed in 1962 by John Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioral psychologist, who asserted that employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others (Adams, 1965). The belief is that people value fair treatment in which causes them to be motivated to keep the fairness maintained within the relationships of their co-workers and the organization. The structure of equity in the workplace is based on the ratio of inputs to outcomes. Inputs are the contributions made by the employee for the organization; this includes the work done by the employees and the behavior brought by the employee as well as their skills and other useful experiences the employee may contribute for the good of the company.

Definition of Equity

An individual will consider that he is treated fairly if he perceives the ratio of his inputs to his outcomes to be equivalent to those around him. Thus, all else being equal, it would be acceptable for a more senior colleague to receive higher compensation, since the value of his experience (an input) is higher. The way people base their experience with satisfaction for their job is the make comparisons with themselves to the people they work with. If an employee notices that another person is getting more recognition and rewards for their contributions, even when both have done the same amount and quality of work, it would persuade the employee to be dissatisfied. This dissatisfaction would result in the employee feeling underappreciated and perhaps worthless. This is in direct contrast with the idea of equity theory, the idea is to have the rewards (outcomes) be directly related with the quality and quantity of the employees contributions (inputs). If both employees were perhaps rewarded the same, it would help the workforce realize that the organization is fair, observant, and appreciative.

This can be illustrated by the following equation:

Inputs and outcomes

Inputs

Inputs are defined as each participant’s contributions to the relational exchange and are viewed as entitling him/her to rewards or costs. The inputs that a participant contributes to a relationship can be either assets – entitling him/her to rewards – or liabilities - entitling him/her to costs. The entitlement to rewards or costs ascribed to each input vary depending on the relational setting. In industrial settings, assets such as capital and manual labor are seen as "relevant inputs" – inputs that legitimately entitle the contributor to rewards. In social settings, assets such as physical beauty and kindness are generally seen as assets entitling the possessor to social rewards. Individual traits such as boorishness and cruelty are seen as liabilities entitling the possessor to costs (Walster, Traupmann & Walster, 1978). Inputs typically include any of the following:

Time Effort

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Loyalty

Hard Work

Commitment

Ability

Adaptability

Flexibility

Tolerance

Determination

Enthusiasm

Personal sacrifice

Trust in superiors

Support from co-workers and colleagues

Skill

Outcomes

Outputs are defined as the positive and negative consequences that an individual perceives a participant has incurred as a consequence of his/her relationship with another. When the ratio of inputs to outcomes is close, than the employee should have much satisfaction with their job. Outputs can be both tangible and intangible (Walster, Traupmann & Walster, 1978). Typical outcomes include any of the following:

Job Security

Esteem

Salary

Employee benefit

Expenses

Recognition

Reputation

Responsibility

Sense of achievement

Praise

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Thanks

Stimuli

Propositions

Equity Theory consists of four propositions:

Individuals seek to maximize their outcomes (where outcomes are defined as rewards minus costs)

Groups can maximize collective rewards by developing accepted systems for equitably apportioning rewards and costs among members. Systems of equity will evolve within groups, and members will attempt to induce other members to accept and adhere to these systems. The only way groups can induce members to equitably behave is by making it more profitable to behave equitably than inequitably. Thus, groups will generally reward members who treat others equitably and generally punish (increase the cost for) members who treat others inequitably.

When individuals find themselves participating in inequitable relationships, they become distressed. The more inequitable the relationship, the more distress individuals feel. According to equity theory, both the person who gets “too much” and the person who gets “too little” feel distressed. The person who gets too much may feel guilt or shame. The person who gets too little may feel angry or humiliated.

Individuals who perceive that they are in an inequitable relationship attempt to eliminate their distress by restoring equity. The greater the inequity, the more distress people feel and the more they try to restore equity. (Walster, Traupmann and Walster, 1978)

Equity Theory in Business

Equity Theory has been widely applied to business settings by Industrial Psychologists to describe the relationship between an employee's motivation and his or her perception of equitable or inequitable treatment. In a business setting, the relevant dyadic relationship is that between employee and employer. As in marriage and other contractual dyadic relationships, Equity Theory assumes that employees seek to maintain an equitable ratio between the inputs they bring to the relationship and the outcomes they receive from it (Adams, 1965). Equity Theory in business, however, introduces the concept of social comparison, whereby employees evaluate their own input/output ratios based on their comparison with the input/outcome ratios of other employees (Carrell and Dittrich, 1978). Inputs in this context include the employee’s time, expertise, qualifications, experience, intangible personal qualities such as drive and ambition, and interpersonal skills. Outcomes include monetary compensation, perquisites (“perks”), benefits, and flexible work arrangements. Employees who perceive inequity will seek to reduce it, either by distorting inputs and/or outcomes in their own minds ("cognitive distortion"), directly altering inputs and/or outcomes, or leaving the organization (Carrell and Dittrich, 1978). Thus, the theory has wide-reaching implications for employee morale, efficiency, productivity, and turnover.

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Company Profile

National Thermal Power Corporation Limited (NTPC) is the largest thermal power

generating company of India. The public sector company was incorporated in the year 1975

to accelerate power development in the country as a wholly owned company of the

Government of India. At present, Government of India holds 89.5% of the total equity shares

of the company and the balance 10.5% is held by FIIs, Domestic Banks, Public and others.

Within a span of 30 years, NTPC has emerged as a truly national power company,

with power generating facilities in all the major regions of the country. Based on 1998 data,

carried out by Data monitor UK, NTPC is the 6th largest in terms of thermal power

generation and the second most efficient in terms of capacity utilization amongst the thermal

utilities in the world.

Recognizing its excellent performance and vast potential, Government of the India has

identified NTPC as one of the jewels of Public Sector 'Maharatnas'- a potential global giant.

Inspired by its glorious past and vibrant present, NTPC is well on its way to realize its vision

of being "A world class integrated power major, powering India's growth, with increasing

global presence".

The Vision:

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The vision of the company states the fundamental purpose of their existence.“To be

one of the world’s largest and best power utilities, powering India’s growth”. The values of

the company provide the essential and enduring general guiding principles in the way it

conducts itself in realizing the vision through COMIT.

Customer Focus

Organizational Pride

Mutual Respect and Truth

Initiative and Speed

Total Quality

NTPC dreams of building a great company could be achieved through articulation of this core

ideology by involving people in sharing this vision and core values and taking steps for

actualization of the same.

The Operations

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NTPC's core business is engineering, construction and operation of power generating plants

and also providing consultancy to power utilities in India and abroad. The installed capacity

of NTPC is 23,749 MW through its 13 coal based (19,480 MW), 7 gas based (3,955 MW) and

3 Joint Venture Projects (314 MW). NTPC acquired 50% equity of the SAIL Power Supply

Corporation Ltd. (SPSCL). This JV company operates the captive power plants of Durgapur

(120 MW), Rourkela (120 MW) and Bhilai (74 MW). NTPC is also managing Badarpur

thermal power station (705 MW) of Government of India.

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Power Generation

Presently, NTPC generates power from Coal and Gas. With an installed capacity of 30,144

MW, NTPC is the largest power generating major in the country. It has also diversified

into hydro power, coal mining, power equipment manufacturing, oil & gas exploration, power

trading & distribution. With an increasing presence in the power value chain, NTPC is well

on its way to becoming an “Integrated Power Major.”

Installed Capacity

Be it the generating capacity or plant performance or operational efficiency, NTPC’s Installed

Capacity and performance depicts the company’s outstanding performance across a number

of parameters. 

NO. OF PLANTS CAPACITY (MW)

NTPC Owned

Coal 15 23,895

Gas/Liquid Fuel 7 3,955

Total 22 27,850

Owned By JVs

Coal & Gas 4 2,294

Total 26 30,144

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Regional Spread of Generating Facilities

REGION COAL GAS TOTAL

Northern 7,035 2,312 9,347

Western 6,360 1,293 7,653

Southern 3,600 350 3,950

Eastern 6,900 - 6,900

JVs 8,14 1,480 2,294

Total 24,709 5,435 30,144

Coal Based Power Stations

With 15 coal based power stations, NTPC is the largest thermal power generating company

in the country. The company has a coal based installed capacity of 23,895 MW.

COAL BASED(Owned by

NTPC)

STATECOMMISSIONEDCAPACITY(MW)

1. Singrauli Uttar Pradesh 2,000

2. Korba Chattisgarh 2,100

3. Ramagundam Andhra Pradesh 2,600

4. Farakka West Bengal 1,600

5. Vindhyachal Madhya Pradesh 3,260

6. Rihand Uttar Pradesh 2,000

7. Kahalgaon Bihar 1,840

8. Dadri Uttar Pradesh 840

9. Talcher Kaniha Orissa 3,000

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10. Unchahar Uttar Pradesh 1,050

11. Talcher Thermal Orissa 460

12. Simhadri Andhra Pradesh 1,000

13. Tanda Uttar Pradesh 440

14. Badarpur Delhi 705

15. Sipat-II Chattisgarh 1,000

Total 23,895

Coal Based Joint Ventures:

COAL BASED (Owned by JVs)

STATE COMMISSIONED

CAPACITY

1. Durgapur West Bengal 120

2. Rourkela Orissa 120

3. Bhilai Chhattisgarh 574

Total 814

Hydro Based Power Projects (Under Implementation)

NTPC has increased thrust on hydro development for a balanced portfolio for long term

sustainability. The first step in this direction was taken by initiating investment in Koldam

Hydro Electric Power Project located on Satluj River in Bilaspur district of Himachal

Pradesh. Two other hydro projects under construction are Tapovan Vishnu gad and Loharinag

Pala. On all these projects construction activities are in full swing.

 

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HYDRO BASED STATEAPPROVED

CAPACITY(MW)

1. Koldam (HEPP) Himachal Pradesh 800

2. Loharinag Pala (HEPP) Uttarakhand 600

3. Tapovan Vishnugad (HEPP) Uttarakhand 520

Total 1,920

Gas/Liquid Fuel Based Power Stations

With a combined gas based commissioned capacity of 3955 MW, NTPC caters to the peeking

demand for power.

GAS BASED

(Owned by NTPC)

STATE COMMISSIONEDCAPACITY(MW)

1. Anta Rajasthan 413

2. Auraiya Uttar Pradesh 652

3. Kawas Gujarat 645

4. Dadri Uttar Pradesh 817

5. Jhanor-Gandhar Gujarat 648

6. Rajiv Gandhi CCPP Kayamkulam Kerala 350

7. Faridabad Haryana 430

Total 3,955

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Gas Based Joint Ventures:

COAL BASED (Owned by JVs)

STATE COMMISSIONED

CAPACITY

1. RGPPL Maharashtra 1480

Total 1480

NTPC Environment Policy

NTPC has actively gone for adoption of the best international practices on environment,

occupational health and safety areas. The organization has pursued the Environmental

Management System (EMS) ISO 14001 and the Occupational Health and Safety Assessment

System OHSAS 18001 at its different establishments. As a result of pursuing these practices,

all NTPC power stations have been certified for ISO 14001 & OHSAS 18001 by reputed

national and international certifying agencies.

NTPC Values & Culture

Business Ethics

Customer Focus

Organizational & Professional Pride

Mutual Respect & Trust

Innovation & Speed

Corporate vision

“A world class integrated power major powering India’s growth with increasing global

presence”

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Organization mission

Develop and provide reliable power, Related products and services at competitive prices,

integrating multiple energy sources with innovative and eco friendly technologies and

contribute to society

Corporate objectives

The main objectives of the company are as follows:

1. To add generating capacity within prescribed time and cost

2. To operate and maintain PowerStation at high availability ensuring minimum cost of

generation

3. To develop appropriate commercial policy, heading to remunerative tariffs tend and

minimum receivables

4. To introduce assimilate and attain self sufficiency in technology acquires expertise in

utility management practice and to disseminate, knowledge essentially, as

contribution to other constitutes of the power sector in the company.

Recognitions & Awards

1. The Prime Minister Sharma Bhutan awards – 1987, 89,94,95,96.

2. CEA gold medal

3. Karmika ratna award of AP govt 1993-97

4. Rajbhushan award 1999-2000

5. IOC award for oil conservation1993

6. Golden peacock award for excellence in corporate governance

7. Best HR practices award

8. Platt’s Top 250 Global Energy Company, Platt’s

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9. Business Standard Award - Star Company (Public Sector Undertaking) of the year

10. Business Super brand Title

11. Golden Peacock Environment Management Award - 2008’ Institute of Directors

12. ICAI Award for Excellence in Financial Reporting,

13. International project management award 2008

14. CII-Exim excellence award 2008

15. Golden Peacock Award for Occupational Health & Safety -2008’

Ramagundam legend

According to the mythological legend lord Rama visited ramagundam during exile period.

His feet are enshrined in a monument which has been preserved over centuries

RSTPS MISSION

1. Make available reliable quality power in increasing large quantities at appropriate tariffs

and ensure timely realization of revenue.

2. Speedily plan and implement power projects with contemporary technologies

3.Implement strategies diversification in the areas of R&M, Hydro,LMG and non

conventional eco friendly fuels and explore new areas like transmission , information

technology etc.

4. Promote consultancy and prudent acquisitions

5. Continuously develop competent human recourses to match world standards

6. Be a responsible corporate citizen with trust on environment protection realization and ash

utilization

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RSTPS VISION

“A world class integrated power major powering India growth with increasing global

presence “

The Onset of RSTPS

NTPC was the third in the series of super thermal power station set up by the

corporation. Late honble prime minister of India laid the foundation stone for this station on

14-11-1878. The station is situated on the banks of river Godavari in karimnagar of Andhra

Pradesh across the coal pinhead of singareni collieries’ co.ltd. The station has installed

capacity of 2600 MV in the back bone of southern grid. Within a decade the station constructs

and commissioned three units being only station in the country and commissioned all the

seven units ahead of schedule of feet that will remain a record for a long time. The station has

excelled in all the facts operations namely generations, plant load factor environment

management human resources development.

Station high lights

Commercial operation for 2004-05 the turnover is 2024 cores and the profit is 108

cores profit record haulage of coal in single day of 78720 on 29 the June 98 . Asian recur d

station on recorded highest loading factor of 99.4% per the year 1999-2000 continuous run of

unit -6 500MW for 406 days third best in the world

RSTPS ACHIVEMENT AS A GREAT WORLD

Several industries have advocated the need for environmental protection

accomplishing these costs very successfully is RSTPS. Using eco friendly measures for

economic growth. Right from the beginning RSTPS has made conscious efforts to preserve

and upgrade the environment

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A separate environment management group has been set up at RSTPS. A rare feet being the

successful plantation of caesarian trees and eucalyptus trees in and around the ash dykes to

prevent ash from being air borne at RSTPS

The accent is not only preserving the environment but also creating a whole new one. This

eco friendly approach has made the once farm less and barren ramagundam into sanctuary

beaming with plant life

Jyothi Nagar an ideal place

A well laid out town ship has been constructed an 800 acres of land between

RAMAGUNDAM and GODAVARIKHANI which houses over twenty thousand people

inhabitants with in amenities including schools junior colleges, recreation center, hospital,

post office, bank and places of worship well designed parks added to the ascetic value . It is

our pride that the wards of employee secure to professional college including some

prestigious institution and many other are placed.

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RSTPS INSTALLED CAPACITY

RSTPS (Ramagundam super thermal power station) is one of the fifteenth coal based project

owned by NTPC with installed capacity of 2600MW.

RSTPS AT A GLANCE

Approved capacity 2600MW

Installed capacity Stage I :3x200MW

stageII:3x500MW

stage III:1x500MW

Location Karimnagar, Andhra Pradesh

Coal source (i) South Godavari coal fields of

singareni collieries for stage one

and two

(ii) Korba coal fields of SECL for

stage III

Water source Sri ram sagar dam on Godavari river , d-83

canal from pochampadu reservoir

Beneficiary states Pondicherry, goa, Kerala, Karnataka,

tamilnadu,AP.

Approved investment Rs.2059.22 cr stage I & II

Rs.1818.46 cr stage III

International assistance IDA,IBRD,OPEC,KFW

EXIM BANK JAPAN,SFD

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RAMAGUNDAM STATION HIGHLIGHTS:

Record haulage of coal in single day of 78,720 MT on 29 June, 1998 Asian record.

Station recorded Highest Loading Factor of 99.4% for the year 1999-2000.

Continuous run of VI unit 500 MW for 406 days, third best in the World.

Ramagundam 500 MW Unit-7 (Stage-III) has successfully completed one year of

commercial operation on 25-03-2006 without any tube leakage. The unit generated

3802.492 MUs @ a PLF of 86.81%. Considering the loss of generation of 297 MUs

due to backing down, the deemed, PLF is 93.59%. The unit also has achieved a

continuous run of 97 days without tripping in the first year of operation itself.

Ramagundam Station achieved 47.94% (18.63 LMT) of Ash utilization during the

financial year against the target of 47% (18.20 LMT).

Ramagundam & Simhadri were recommended for Commendation certificate for

“Strong Commitment of Excel” by CII.

Ramagundam bagged “Innovative Safety Practices” award for the year 2005 from

Institution of Engineers.

Ramagundam Station bagged “Best Management” award from Govt. of A.P. for the

year 2004-2005.

N.T.P.C Ramagundam bagged Golden shield for the financial year 2000-2001; 2001-

2002; 2002-2003 and 2003-2004 for outstanding performance in power generation.

The power generated by N.T.P.C Ramagundam is being distributed to the following

beneficiaries’ States:

1. Pondicherry : 3%

2. Andhra Pradesh : 29%

3. Karnataka : 12% 24%

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4. Tamilnadu : 17%

5. Kerala : 15%

INDUSTRY PROFILE

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Energy is an important in the overall economic development activity of any country. it

has become synonymous with the progress in all fields of activities. Its standard of living in

the word of DAGLI is as follows, “it is said that the difference between a starving Indian

peasant and a prosperous American farmer is that behind his elbow the Indian farmer has

almost nothing while his American counterpart has thousands of horse power. Thus, it is

energy, which is the dividing line between any subsistence economy and a highly developed

economy. India is poor and America is rich because America consumes nearly 50 times as

much energy as is consumed by India. Energy us at the heart of the modern industrial society.

It could also be an effective weapon in the battle against objective poverty”

There is a close correlation between energy consumption and level of economic

development. Energy means “capacity of doing work” there are various sources of energy but

in India, the important source are coal, hydroelectricity, oil and natural gas, nuclear fuels,

firewood and animal wastes. Despite the development of various sources in the energy sector,

the fact remains that low cast energy sources like fir wood, cattle during and vegetable wastes

account for as much as 45 percent of energy consumption in the country.

Power development in India began in 1897 when a 200KW hydro station was first

commissioned at DARJEELING. In 1899, a first steam station was setup in Calcutta with a

total capacity of 100KW. There after a series of hydro and steam power station were

commissioned. However, the power development was not in a systematic and a planned

manner in the country. Therefore, in order to achieve the objective or promoting the co-

ordination development and rationalization of generation, transmission, and distribution of

electricity on a regional basis throughout the country in the most efficient and economic way,

the State Electricity Board (SEBs) was constituted in the various states of the country.

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Under the Provisions of the Electricity Act 1848. These SEBs were to enjoy the monopoly in respect of

generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity in the country. After constitution of SEBs, there

was phenomenal improvement in the development of installed capacity and power generation. The

efficiency pf working of power plant and their maintenance have been unsatisfactory, because of which

the power generating capacity created could not have been fully utilized.

Power is the single factor, which changed the w3ay of living. The NTPC Limited, established on

November 7 1975, has become the most important infrastructure input for improving the standard of

living to meet the growing demand and to fulfill the needs of the country. Just in 30 years, this company

has grown to be the largest producer of power in the country.

Keeping the significance of power supply in sight, NTPC had chosen for the purpose of the study as

it has many units under its control. Ramagundam Super Thermal Power Station (RSTPS) has selected for

the study.

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QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Will you agree the work environment and the motivation concepts in the organization are good?

a) Strongly agree b) agree c) disagree d) strongly disagree

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

41% of the employees are agreeing that the motivation levels in the organization are high.

38% of the employees are strongly agreed that the motivation levels in the organization are high.

18% of the employees are Disagree that the motivation levels in the organization are high.

03% of the employees are Strongly Disagreed that the motivation levels in the organization are high.

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2) Will you agree the promotion policy in the organization makes feel?

a) Strongly agree b) agree c) disagree d) strongly disagree

RAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

39% of the employees are strongly agreed that the environment for working is highly qualitative.

34% of the employees are agreeing that the environment for working is highly qualitative.

19% of the employees are Disagree that the environment for working is highly qualitative.

08% of the employees are strongly disagreed that the environment for working is highly qualitative.

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3) Will you agree the training and development programs provided by the company is Satisfactory?

a) Strongly agree b) agree c) disagree d) strongly disagree

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

45% of the employees are Agree with working condition of Diesel loco shed. 38% of the employees are strongly agreed with working condition of Diesel loco shed. 14% of the employees are Disagree with working condition of Diesel loco shed. 03% of the employees are Strongly Disagreed with working condition of Diesel loco

shed.

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4) Will you agree that there are enough number of mechanisms to reward incentives for the any work performed and contribution made by employees?

a) Strongly agree b) agree c) disagree d) strongly disagree

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

44% of the employees are Agree that the quality improvement programmes conducted in regular intervals through training

28% of the employees are Strongly agree that the quality improvement programmes conducted in regular intervals through training

20% of the employees are Disagree that the quality improvement programmes conducted in regular intervals through training

08% of the employees are Strongly Disagree that the quality improvement programmes conducted in regular intervals through training.

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5) Will you agree that the fringe benefits provided to employees makes feel happy?

a) Strongly agree b) agree c) disagree d) strongly disagree

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

47% of the employees are Strongly Agreed that superior always Co-operates and encourages them for better work.

41% of the employees are Agree that superior always co-operates and encourages them for better work.

08% of the employees are Disagree that superior always co-operates and encourages them for better work.

04% of the employees are Strongly Disagreed that superior always co-operates and encourages them for better work.

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6) Will you agree the extent of decision making power given to employees makes feel happy?

a) Strongly agree b) agree c) disagree d) strongly disagree

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

46% of the employees are Agree that superiors educate them if there are any changes in the working

38% of the employees are Strongly Agree that superiors educate them if there are any changes in the working

13% of the employees are Disagree that superiors educate them if there are any changes in the working

03% of the employees are Strongly Disagreed that superiors educate them if there are any changes in the working.

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7. Will you agree that the organization is motivating you to do the job in a better way?

a) Strongly agree b) agree c) disagree d) strongly disagree

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

52% of the employees are Strongly Agreed that subordinates always co-operates them to reach the laid target.

37% of the employees are Agree that subordinates always co-operates them to reach the laid target.

07% of the employees are Disagree that subordinates always co-operates them to reach the laid target.

04% of the employees are Strongly Disagreed that subordinates always co-operates them to reach the laid target.

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8. Will you agree that the Employees are satisfied with incentives / benefits provided by the NTPC?

a) Strongly agree b) agree c) disagree d) strongly disagree

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

67% of the employees are Strongly Agreed that the work done is because of Team Spirit

27% of the employees are Agreed that the work done is because of Team Spirit 02% of the employees are Disagreed that the work done is because of Team Spirit 04% of the employees are Strongly Disagreed that the work done is because of Team

Spirit.

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9. What is your opinion on performance appraisal system in NTPC?

a) As a formal activity b) motivating c) only for promotions

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

41% of the employees are Agree that the superiors always encourages them to take initiative

36% of the employees are Strongly agree that the superiors always encourages them to take initiative

17% of the employees are Disagree that the superiors always encourages them to take initiative

06% of the employees are Strongly Disagreed that the superiors always encourages them to take initiative

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10. How is your superior responding on conflict situations at your work place?

a) excellent b) good c) fair d) poor

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

37% of the employees are Agree that Diesel loco shed rewards them with perks. 19% of the employees are strongly agreed that Diesel loco shed rewards them with

perks. 35% of the employees are Disagree that Diesel loco shed rewards them with perks. 09% of the employees are Strongly Disagreed that Diesel loco shed rewards them with

perks.

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11. Do you think motivation is required for the employees in the organization?

a) Yes b) no c) neutral

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

42% of the employees are Agree that the organization encourages them to become leader

26% of the employees are Strongly agreed that the organization encourages them to become leader

26% of the employees are Disagree that the organization encourages them to become leader

42% of the employees are Strongly Disagreed that the organization encourages them to become leader

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12. Can you specify the satisfaction level of existing motivational system in NTPC?

a) 0% b) 50% c) 75% d) 100%

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

41% of the employees are Agree that the organization always councils them for better performance

29% of the employees are Strongly Agreed that the organization always councils them for better performance

27% of the employees are Disagree that the organization always councils them for better performance

03% of the employees are Strongly Disagreed that the organization always councils them for better performance

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13. Can you specify the satisfaction level of your existing job?

a) 0% b) 50% c) 75% d) 100%

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

30% of the employees are agreed that the health service provided by the organization is satisfactory

27% of the employees are Strongly agreed that the health service provided by the organization is satisfactory

25% of the employees are Disagreed that the health service provided by the organization is satisfactory

18% of the employees are Strongly Disagreed that the health service provided by the organization is satisfactory

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14. Do you feel that there is significant improvement in your performance through motivation?

a) Yes b) no c) some extent

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

42% of the employees are agreed that the welfare measures provided by the organization is satisfactory

25% of the employees are Strongly agreed that the welfare measures provided by the organization is satisfactory

23% of the employees are Disagreed that the welfare measures provided by the organization is satisfactory

10% of the employees are Strongly Disagreed that the welfare measures provided by the organization is satisfactory

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15. Will you accept the negative form of motivation that is punishment in violation of rules inclines you to be more accountable to the work?

a) yes I accept b) I don't accept c) I partially accept

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

40% of the employees are agreed that the fringe benefits provided to the employees make feel happy

30% of the employees are Strongly agreed that the fringe benefits provided to the employees make feel happy

22% of the employees are Disagreed that the fringe benefits provided to the employees make feel happy

08% of the employees are Strongly Disagreed that the fringe benefits provided to the employees make feel happy

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16. How extent the communication channel will help you to share opinions (or) feelings (or) emotions in the organization?

a) 100% b) 75% C) 50% d)10%

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

39% of the employees are agreed that the Training & development programmes provided by the organization are satisfactory.

33% of the employees are strongly agreed that the Training & development programmes provided by the organization are satisfactory.

20% of the employees are disagreed that the Training & development programmes provided by the organization are satisfactory.

08% of the employees are Strongly Disagreed that the Training & development programmes provided by the organization are satisfactory.

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17. Which type of motivation gives you more satisfaction?

a) financial b) non financial c) both d) none

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

49% of the employees are agreed that the superior responding on conflict situation at work place is satisfactory.

25% of the employees are strongly agreed that the superior responding on conflict situation at work place is satisfactory.

18% of the employees are disagreed that the superior responding on conflict situation at work place is satisfactory.

08% of the employees are Strongly Disagreed that the superior responding on conflict situation at work place is satisfactory.

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18. What is your opinion on motivation in your organization?

a) Excellent b) good c) average d) poor

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION

47% of the employees are strongly agreed that the job security is high. 42% of the employees are agreed that the job security is high 07% of the employees are Disagreed that the job security is high

04% of the employees are Strongly Disagreed that the job security is high

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SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

The Herzberg Two-Factor Theory of job satisfaction has been traced through its development and some of the subsequent controversy it has created. The two-factor theory is also called the dual-factor theory an, the motivation - hygiene theory. Motivators have to do with factors intrinsic to the job and which lead to job satisfaction (achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement and growth). Hygiene factors, on the other hand, are those factors extrinsic to the job and which lead to job dissatisfaction (company policies and administration, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations with peers, subordinates and superiors, status, Job security, salary and personal life). The basis of Dr. Herzberg's Theory is his observation that the opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction but rather no job satisfaction, and similarly, the opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction but no job dissatisfaction. The theory derives its name from the concept that job satisfactory and job dissatisfaction are distinct and separate continua. Factors affecting one continuum will have little or no affect on the other and vice versa.

The method and results of Herzberg’s original study has been this centre of considerable controversy among behaviourists. Many have conducted independent studies and evaluations of Herzberg’s theory to test its validity. A review of the literature reveals that there are those who agree with Herzberg's conclusions and those who do not. Results from actual implementation of Herzberg's two-factor theory in the form of the Orthodox Job Enrichment Program are not widely published. However, the information which has been published in this area indicates noteworthy successes.

Critics of the two-factor theory claim it contains weaknesses. The basic weaknesses claimed stem from the lack of a clear statement of what the theory really is as well as biases which appear to have been introduced into the original study. In spite of the fact that some of the criticisms levied against the theory are credible and well defended, Herzberg's theory has been used as the basis for reportedly successful job enrichment programs. A successful job enrichment program requires careful and thorough planning with a full awareness of potential pitfalls and weaknesses.

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Conclusions

The increasing pressure to accomplish more within existing or even shrinking resources -has created a new challenge for management. One means of meeting this challenge is to somehow increase worker productivity. It is concluded from the literature that this can and has been accomplished through job enrichment programs which increase worker motivation. One widely publicized and accepted approach to job enrichment is Herzberg's Orthodox Job Enrichment based upon his two-factor theory of job satisfaction.

The literature clearly indicates that Herzberg's two-factor theory of job satisfaction has been used as the basis of successful job enrichment programs, such as experienced at Ogden ALC. (12). The theory, as proposed, is not restrictive to any particular occupation or working level. Over the years it has received fairly wide publicity and as a result is the most widely accepted job enrichment approach today. While the Herzberg approach is attractive in many ways and has been implemented in a number of different organizations with success, there are also reports of its failure. Herzberg approaches such failures rather academically and attempts to explain them away. He never really comes to gripe with any of the major criticisms levied against the basic two-factor theory. It is the opinion of this author from the overall review, that the Herzberg two-factor theory is generally overstated in its claim.

Due to the overall popularity of the Herzberg job enrichment approach; there exists more data and information on it than any of the other approaches. It is finally concluded that with the amount of information available on the two-factor theory a workable job enrichment program could be implemented by appropriately tailoring Herzberg's approach.

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Recommendations

Increasing worker productivity through motivation represents a method which can have far reaching benefits for an organization. More attention should be given by management in both government and industry to the use of job enrichment as a means of increasing motivation. Actual implementation of an enrichment program should be done with top level management support and on a large organizational scale as opposed to an office or two. Job enrichment approaches are a fairly volatile subject among organizational behavioralists today and as such should 1e undertaken with caution and as objectively as possible. In selecting an approach for possible implementation, management should enrichment approach which is generally recognized as the most widely accepted approach. Herzberg's approach may be the most popular, but that does not automatically make it best. Following the review of literature on the “subject, it is the opinion of this author that the two-factor theory approach has been overstated. With this in mind, it is recommended that the Herzberg theory not be accepted blindly. Other approaches have been advanced which should be given serious consideration before making any final determination on implementing a job enrichment program.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. Ashwattapa, Human Resource Management. Tata MC GrawHill Publishing Co Ltd

2. Personnel Human Resource Management David.A.Betenzo, Stephen. Robbins

3. Subba Rao, P, 1996.Human Resource Management. New Delhi: Himalaya

Publishing House.

WEBSITES:

www.google.com

www.ntpc.co.in

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ADDITIONAL QUESTIONAIRE

QUESTIONNAIRE ON EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION

1. To what extent would you have different demands that may conflict?2. To what extent would your job require commitment outside working hours?3. To what extent would there be little scope for developing new ideas?4. To what extent would you work in a competitive market?5. To what extent would high safety standards be followed?6. To what extent would you determine how your work is done?7. To what extent would your performance be recognised?8. To what extent would competition between people be encouraged?9. To what extent would you have very few tasks to deal with at the same time?10. To what extent would you be required to express your views?11. To what extent would you have clearly defined job objectives?12. How much chance would you have to earn a lot?13. To what extent would you work in a close-knit team?14. To what extent would you have to follow standard procedures that change little?15. To what extent would payment be related to personal achievement rather than being fixed?16. To what extent would you be paid well?17. To what extent would you be free from conflicting demands from others in the organisation?18. To what extent would you be required to meet high standards of performance?19. To what extent would you promote values that you believe in?20. To what extent would you have little influence on the wider organisation outside your job?21. How much opportunity would you have to decide when you do things?22. How much opportunity would you have to balance work commitments and non-work

commitments?23. To what extent would you have frequent opportunities to interact with other people at work?24. To what extent would you have challenging goals to achieve?25. To what extent would people get on well with each other?26. To what extent would you be clear about what is expected of you?27. To what extent would you be exposed to competition with other organisations?28. To what extent would you have a comfortable workplace?29. To what extent would you have goals that can be accomplished without much effort?30. To what extent would you have to focus on financial outcomes for the organisation?31. To what extent would you have friendly people to work with?32. To what extent would your goals be easy to achieve?33. To what extent would you work in an organisation that faces strong competition?34. To what extent would you have the chance to develop your knowledge?35. How much influence would you have on what goes on in the organisation, beyond your own

job?36. To what extent would low standards be acceptable?37. To what extent would you have a job which you are very unlikely to lose?38. To what extent would you take part in decision-making about organisational procedures?

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39. To what extent would you have routine tasks that are predictable?40. How much chance would you have to get together with people you would not otherwise

meet?41. To what extent would high work standards be disregarded?42. How much emphasis would be placed on safety?43. To what extent would you have a high level of job security?44. To what extent would your job objectives be unclear?45. To what extent would you work in an atmosphere of competition between people?46. To what extent would you have a lot of work to do?47. To what extent would you have little scope for deciding how you approach your work?48. To what extent would you have adequate materials or technical resources for your job?49. To what extent would you have tasks that may clash?50. To what extent would you have to work hard to compete with other organisations?51. To what extent would your work always be restricted to normal working hours?52. To what extent would you work in a team that works closely together?53. To what extent would your job offer career advancement?54. To what extent would you be told how well you are meeting your line manager’s

expectations?55. To what extent would respecting the environment be a primary concern?56. To what extent would you be required to use a lot of expertise (mental or manual)?57. To what extent would you work against strong competition from other organisations?58. To extent would safety rules be strictly followed?59. To what extent would your job lack definite job security?60. To what extent would your work not exceed normal working hours?61. How much opportunity would you have to train in new skills?62. To what extent would your organisation treat customers and suppliers fairly?63. To what extent would you have a supervisor or manager who does not care about what you

do?64. To what extent would you have fixed procedures for your work activities?65. To what extent would you have variety in the kinds of work you can expect in your career?66. To what extent would you interact with very few people at work?67. To what extent would your job role not be clearly defined?68. To what extent would your work be strongly consistent with your values?69. To what extent would your tasks require you to compete against others?70. To what extent would your supervisor or manager treat people well?71. To what extent would you manage other people?72. To what extent would you have to work beyond normal working hours?73. To what extent would equal opportunities be strongly promoted?74. To what extent would you have to compete against other people for your success?75. To what extent would you make a positive difference to people?76. To what extent would you have a variety of different tasks?77. To what extent would you have a well-designed workspace?78. To what extent would you have a variety of different tasks?79. To what extent would you compete with others inside the organisation?

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80. To what extent would job security be low?81. To what extent would there be a clear link between your performance and your income?82. How much of your work would contribute to the welfare of others?83. How much of your work would contribute to the welfare of others?84. To what extent would you be certain that you can keep your job?85. How much opportunity would you have for different roles in your career?86. To what extent would you be regarded as important by others?87. To what extent would you have a pleasant physical working environment?88. To what extent would you have job goals that do not conflict with each other?89. To what extent would you have job goals that do not conflict with each other? 90. To what extent would you have many tasks to deal with at the same time?91. To what extent would you work in a highly competitive market?92. To what extent would your supervisor or manager be indifferent to your work?93. To what extent would you be treated fairly without discrimination?94. To what extent would you have a high-status position?95. To what extent would you have a very low workload?96. To what extent would your organisation treat people fairly regardless of their background?97. To what extent would you be appraised for the financial effects of what you do?98. To what extent would you have goals that are very demanding?99. To what extent would you have to be creative?100.How much impact on the wider organisation, not merely on your own job, would you have?101.To what extent would you work by yourself most of the time?102.To what extent would your work fit with your personal values?103.To what extent would high standards be of little priority?104.To what extent would you be able to help others?105.To what extent would you have demands that do not conflict?106.To what extent would you have a predetermined structure for how you do your tasks?107.To what extent would you be paid on commission rather than a fixed salary?108.To what extent would you have to work towards high standards?109.To what extent would you have a predictable set of tasks that do not change often?110.To what extent would you have high social standing?111.How much opportunity would you have for high pay?112.To what extent would you have supportive colleagues?113.To what extent would you have targets that can be accomplished easily?114.To what extent would you have the chance to organise your own work activities?115.To what extent would you have vaguely defined job objectives?116.To what extent would you have work where excellence is the top priority?117.To what extent would there be little opportunity to interact with others?118.To what extent would you have a set number of tasks that are similar?119.How much responsibility would you have for a team or larger unit?120.To what extent would you have to meet objectives by competing against others?121.To what extent would you have conflicting demands from others?122.To what extent would you work in pleasant surroundings?123.To what extent would you be encouraged to express what you think?

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124.To what extent would you work with the latest technology?125.How much feedback would you get on what you do well and less well?

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